CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Intellectual property - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"6bcb9651-2d71-4652-bf98-89f2fc8d912a","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Intellectual_property","wgTitle":"Intellectual property","wgCurRevisionId":1275558356,"wgRevisionId":1275558356,"wgArticleId":14724,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Webarchive template wayback links","CS1 errors: periodical ignored","CS1: unfit URL","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Wikipedia pending changes protected pages","Use dmy dates from November 2024","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from February 2025","All accuracy disputes","Articles with disputed statements from July 2009","Articles with unsourced statements from July 2015", "Articles to be split from June 2021","All articles to be split","Articles containing Spanish-language text","Commons category link is on Wikidata","Intellectual property law","Social information processing","Economics of the arts and literature","Intangible assets","Intellectual capital"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Intellectual_property","wgRelevantArticleId":14724,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgStableRevisionId":1275558356,"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true}, "wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":100000,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q131257","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.flaggedRevs.basic":"ready","mediawiki.codex.messagebox.styles":"ready", "ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.flaggedRevs.advanced","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.flaggedRevs.basic%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cmediawiki.codex.messagebox.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.16"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Intellectual_property_Noun_project.svg/1200px-Intellectual_property_Noun_project.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Intellectual_property_Noun_project.svg/800px-Intellectual_property_Noun_project.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="800"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Intellectual_property_Noun_project.svg/640px-Intellectual_property_Noun_project.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="640"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Intellectual property - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_property"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_property"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Intellectual_property rootpage-Intellectual_property skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" title="Main menu" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="n-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages"><span>Special pages</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Intellectual+property" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Intellectual+property" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Intellectual+property" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Intellectual+property" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Rights</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Rights-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Rights subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Patents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Patents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Patents</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Patents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Copyright" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Copyright"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Copyright</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Copyright-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Industrial_design_rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Industrial_design_rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Industrial design rights</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Industrial_design_rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plant_varieties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plant_varieties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Plant varieties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plant_varieties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trademarks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trademarks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Trademarks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trademarks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trade_dress" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trade_dress"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Trade dress</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trade_dress-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trade_secrets" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trade_secrets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Trade secrets</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trade_secrets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Motivation_and_justification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Motivation_and_justification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Motivation and justification</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Motivation_and_justification-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Motivation and justification subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Motivation_and_justification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Financial_incentive" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Financial_incentive"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Financial incentive</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Financial_incentive-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_growth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_growth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Economic growth</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_growth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Morality</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Morality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Infringement,_misappropriation,_and_enforcement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Infringement,_misappropriation,_and_enforcement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Infringement, misappropriation, and enforcement</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Infringement,_misappropriation,_and_enforcement-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Infringement, misappropriation, and enforcement subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Infringement,_misappropriation,_and_enforcement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Patent_infringement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Patent_infringement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Patent infringement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Patent_infringement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Copyright_infringement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Copyright_infringement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Copyright infringement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Copyright_infringement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trademark_infringement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trademark_infringement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Trademark infringement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trademark_infringement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trade_secret_misappropriation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trade_secret_misappropriation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Trade secret misappropriation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trade_secret_misappropriation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_framework" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_framework"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>International framework</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_framework-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Criticisms</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Criticisms-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Criticisms subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Criticisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_term_"intellectual_property"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_term_"intellectual_property""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>The term "intellectual property"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_term_"intellectual_property"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Alternative_terms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alternative_terms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.1</span> <span>Alternative terms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alternative_terms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Objections_to_overly_broad_intellectual_property_laws" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Objections_to_overly_broad_intellectual_property_laws"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Objections to overly broad intellectual property laws</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Objections_to_overly_broad_intellectual_property_laws-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Objections_to_the_expansion_in_nature_and_scope_of_intellectual_property_laws" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Objections_to_the_expansion_in_nature_and_scope_of_intellectual_property_laws"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Objections to the expansion in nature and scope of intellectual property laws</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Objections_to_the_expansion_in_nature_and_scope_of_intellectual_property_laws-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Use_in_corporate_tax_avoidance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Use_in_corporate_tax_avoidance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Use in corporate tax avoidance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Use_in_corporate_tax_avoidance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gender_gap_in_intellectual_property" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gender_gap_in_intellectual_property"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Gender gap in intellectual property</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gender_gap_in_intellectual_property-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Global_IP_ratchet_and_developing_countries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Global_IP_ratchet_and_developing_countries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6</span> <span>Global IP ratchet and developing countries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Global_IP_ratchet_and_developing_countries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Intellectual property</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 73 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-73" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">73 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D9%81%D9%83%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="ملكية فكرية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ملكية فكرية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propied%C3%A1_intelectual" title="Propiedá intelectual – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Propiedá intelectual" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C6%8Fqli_m%C3%BClkiyy%C9%99t" title="Əqli mülkiyyət – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Əqli mülkiyyət" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%BE_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A6" title="মেধা সম্পদ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মেধা সম্পদ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%AC-sek_ch%C3%A2i-s%C3%A1n-ko%C3%A2n" title="Tì-sek châi-sán-koân – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Tì-sek châi-sán-koân" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%8D%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%9E%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8C%D1%86%D1%8C" title="Інтэлектуальная ўласнасьць – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Інтэлектуальная ўласнасьць" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagrogaring_na_intelektwal" title="Pagrogaring na intelektwal – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Pagrogaring na intelektwal" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82" title="Интелектуална собственост – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Интелектуална собственост" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geischtigs_Eigentum" title="Geischtigs Eigentum – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Geischtigs Eigentum" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelektualno_vlasni%C5%A1tvo" title="Intelektualno vlasništvo – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Intelektualno vlasništvo" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propietat_intel%C2%B7lectual" title="Propietat intel·lectual – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Propietat intel·lectual" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Du%C5%A1evn%C3%AD_vlastnictv%C3%AD" title="Duševní vlastnictví – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Duševní vlastnictví" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immaterialret" title="Immaterialret – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Immaterialret" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geistiges_Eigentum" title="Geistiges Eigentum – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geistiges Eigentum" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellektuaalne_omand" title="Intellektuaalne omand – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Intellektuaalne omand" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%B7%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B9%CE%B4%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%83%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Διανοητική ιδιοκτησία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Διανοητική ιδιοκτησία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propiedad_intelectual" title="Propiedad intelectual – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Propiedad intelectual" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelekta_propra%C4%B5o" title="Intelekta propraĵo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Intelekta propraĵo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jabetza_intelektual" title="Jabetza intelektual – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Jabetza intelektual" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%DA%A9%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D9%81%DA%A9%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="مالکیت فکری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مالکیت فکری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propri%C3%A9t%C3%A9_intellectuelle" title="Propriété intellectuelle – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Propriété intellectuelle" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propiedade_intelectual" title="Propiedade intelectual – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Propiedade intelectual" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A7%80%EC%8B%9D_%EC%9E%AC%EC%82%B0%EA%B6%8C" title="지식 재산권 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="지식 재산권" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%B8%D6%80_%D5%BD%D5%A5%D6%83%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Մտավոր սեփականություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մտավոր սեփականություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE" title="बौद्धिक सम्पदा – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="बौद्धिक सम्पदा" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelektualno_vlasni%C5%A1tvo" title="Intelektualno vlasništvo – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Intelektualno vlasništvo" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kekayaan_intelektual" title="Kekayaan intelektual – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kekayaan intelektual" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugverk" title="Hugverk – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Hugverk" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propriet%C3%A0_intellettuale" title="Proprietà intellettuale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Proprietà intellettuale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9F_%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%97%D7%A0%D7%99" title="קניין רוחני – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קניין רוחני" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A3%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%99%E1%83%A3%E1%83%97%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="ინტელექტუალური საკუთრება – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ინტელექტუალური საკუთრება" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%88%D1%96%D0%BA" title="Зияткерлік меншік – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Зияткерлік меншік" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominium_intellectuale" title="Dominium intellectuale – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Dominium intellectuale" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelektu%C4%81lais_%C4%ABpa%C5%A1ums" title="Intelektuālais īpašums – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Intelektuālais īpašums" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelektin%C4%97_nuosavyb%C4%97" title="Intelektinė nuosavybė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Intelektinė nuosavybė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szellemi_alkot%C3%A1s" title="Szellemi alkotás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Szellemi alkotás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82" title="Интелектуална сопственост – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Интелектуална сопственост" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%97%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A7%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%82" title="ബൗദ്ധികസ്വത്തവകാശം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ബൗദ്ധികസ്വത്തവകാശം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harta_intelek" title="Harta intelek – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Harta intelek" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%8E%D1%83%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D3%A9%D0%BC%D1%87" title="Оюуны өмч – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Оюуны өмч" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectueel_eigendom" title="Intellectueel eigendom – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Intellectueel eigendom" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="बौद्धिक सम्पत्ति – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="बौद्धिक सम्पत्ति" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9F%A5%E7%9A%84%E8%B2%A1%E7%94%A3%E6%A8%A9" title="知的財産権 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="知的財産権" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immaterialrett" title="Immaterialrett – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Immaterialrett" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%85ndsrett" title="Åndsrett – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Åndsrett" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellektual_mulk" title="Intellektual mulk – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Intellektual mulk" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AC%E0%A9%8C%E0%A8%A7%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%95_%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%A4%E0%A9%80" title="ਬੌਧਿਕ ਸੰਪਤੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਬੌਧਿਕ ਸੰਪਤੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propiedad_intelectual" title="Propiedad intelectual – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Propiedad intelectual" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Papiamentu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DA%A9%D8%B1%D9%8A_%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%DA%A9%DB%8C%D8%AA" title="فکري مالکیت – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="فکري مالکیت" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%98%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%98%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%91%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%92%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%89%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%89%E1%9E%B6" title="កម្មសិទ្ធិបញ្ញា – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="កម្មសិទ្ធិបញ្ញា" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C5%82asno%C5%9B%C4%87_intelektualna" title="Własność intelektualna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Własność intelektualna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propriedade_intelectual" title="Propriedade intelectual – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Propriedade intelectual" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprietate_intelectual%C4%83" title="Proprietate intelectuală – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Proprietate intelectuală" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Интеллектуальная собственность – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Интеллектуальная собственность" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Intellectual property" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Intellectual property" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Du%C5%A1evn%C3%A9_vlastn%C3%ADctvo" title="Duševné vlastníctvo – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Duševné vlastníctvo" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelektualna_lastnina" title="Intelektualna lastnina – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Intelektualna lastnina" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%88%DB%95%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8E%D8%AA%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D9%81%DA%A9%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="خاوەندارێتیی فکری – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="خاوەندارێتیی فکری" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelektualna_svojina" title="Intelektualna svojina – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Intelektualna svojina" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelektualno_vlasni%C5%A1tvo" title="Intelektualno vlasništvo – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Intelektualno vlasništvo" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immateriaalioikeus" title="Immateriaalioikeus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Immateriaalioikeus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immaterialr%C3%A4tt" title="Immaterialrätt – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Immaterialrätt" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81" title="அறிவுசார் சொத்து – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அறிவுசார் சொத்து" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A2%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%8D%E0%B8%8D%E0%B8%B2" title="ทรัพย์สินทางปัญญา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ทรัพย์สินทางปัญญา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B8_%D0%B7%D0%B5%D2%B3%D0%BD%D3%A3" title="Моликияти зеҳнӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Моликияти зеҳнӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fikr%C3%AE_m%C3%BClkiyet_hukuku" title="Fikrî mülkiyet hukuku – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Fikrî mülkiyet hukuku" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Інтелектуальна власність – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Інтелектуальна власність" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DA%A9%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D9%85%D9%84%DA%A9%DB%8C%D8%AA" title="فکری ملکیت – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="فکری ملکیت" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%E1%BB%9F_h%E1%BB%AFu_tr%C3%AD_tu%E1%BB%87" title="Sở hữu trí tuệ – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Sở hữu trí tuệ" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9F%A5%E8%AF%86%E4%BA%A7%E6%9D%83" title="知识产权 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="知识产权" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9F%A5%E8%AD%98%E7%94%A2%E6%AC%8A" title="知識產權 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="知識產權" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9F%A5%E8%AF%86%E4%BA%A7%E6%9D%83" title="知识产权 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="知识产权" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q131257#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Intellectual_property" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Intellectual_property" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Intellectual_property" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&oldid=1275558356" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Intellectual_property&id=1275558356&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FIntellectual_property"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FIntellectual_property"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Intellectual_property&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiquote mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Intellectual_property" hreflang="en"><span>Wikiquote</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q131257" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-indicator-fr-review-status" class="mw-indicator"><indicator name="fr-review-status" class="mw-fr-review-status-indicator" id="mw-fr-revision-toggle"><span class="cdx-fr-css-icon-review--status--stable"></span><b>Checked</b></indicator></div> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-autoreview" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#pending" title="All edits by unregistered and new users are subject to review prior to becoming visible to unregistered users"><img alt="Page protected with pending changes" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b7/Pending-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Pending-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b7/Pending-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Pending-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b7/Pending-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Pending-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><div id="mw-fr-revision-messages"><div id="mw-fr-revision-details" class="mw-fr-revision-details-dialog" style="display:none;"><div tabindex="0"></div><div class="cdx-dialog cdx-dialog--horizontal-actions"><header class="cdx-dialog__header cdx-dialog__header--default"><div class="cdx-dialog__header__title-group"><h2 class="cdx-dialog__header__title">Page version status</h2><p class="cdx-dialog__header__subtitle">This is an accepted version of this page</p></div><button class="cdx-button cdx-button--action-default cdx-button--weight-quiet
							cdx-button--size-medium cdx-button--icon-only cdx-dialog__header__close-button" aria-label="Close" onclick="document.getElementById("mw-fr-revision-details").style.display = "none";" type="submit"><span class="cdx-icon cdx-icon--medium
							cdx-fr-css-icon--close"></span></button></header><div class="cdx-dialog__body">This is the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Pending_changes" title="Wikipedia:Pending changes">latest accepted revision</a>, <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Log&type=review&page=Intellectual_property">reviewed</a> on <i>13 February 2025</i>.</div></div><div tabindex="0"></div></div></div></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ownership of creative expressions and processes</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Intellectual Property" redirects here. For the film, see <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_Property_(film)" title="Intellectual Property (film)"><i>Intellectual Property</i> (film)</a>. For the Waterparks album, see <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_Property_(album)" title="Intellectual Property (album)"><i>Intellectual Property</i> (album)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Intellectual property</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Intellectual_property_Noun_project.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Intellectual_property_Noun_project.svg/150px-Intellectual_property_Noun_project.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Intellectual_property_Noun_project.svg/225px-Intellectual_property_Noun_project.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Intellectual_property_Noun_project.svg/300px-Intellectual_property_Noun_project.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authors%27_rights" title="Authors' rights">Authors' rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyleft" title="Copyleft">Copyleft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright" title="Copyright">Copyright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Database_right" title="Database right">Database right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farmers%27_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Farmers' rights">Farmers' rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographical_indication" title="Geographical indication">Geographical indication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_intellectual_property" title="Indigenous intellectual property">Indigenous intellectual property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_design_right" title="Industrial design right">Industrial design right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit_layout_design_protection" title="Integrated circuit layout design protection">Integrated circuit layout design protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_rights" title="Moral rights">Moral rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">Patent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Declaration_on_the_Rights_of_Peasants" title="United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Peasants">Peasants' rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_breeders%27_rights" title="Plant breeders' rights">Plant breeders' rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_genetic_resources" title="Plant genetic resources">Plant genetic resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Related_rights" title="Related rights">Related rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supplementary_protection_certificate" title="Supplementary protection certificate">Supplementary protection certificate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_dress" title="Trade dress">Trade dress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_secret" title="Trade secret">Trade secret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trademark" title="Trademark">Trademark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utility_model" title="Utility model">Utility model</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Related topics</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abandonware" title="Abandonware">Abandonware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence_and_copyright" title="Artificial intelligence and copyright">Artificial intelligence and copyright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brand_protection" title="Brand protection">Brand protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_abolition" title="Copyright abolition">Copyright abolition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_troll" title="Copyright troll">Copyright troll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_copyright" title="Criticism of copyright">Criticism of copyright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioprospecting" title="Bioprospecting">Bioprospecting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biopiracy" title="Biopiracy">Biopiracy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idea%E2%80%93expression_distinction" title="Idea–expression distinction">Idea–expression distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limitations_and_exceptions_to_copyright" title="Limitations and exceptions to copyright">Limitations and exceptions to copyright</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fair_dealing" title="Fair dealing">Fair dealing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fair_use" title="Fair use">Fair use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paraphrasing_of_copyrighted_material" title="Paraphrasing of copyrighted material">Paraphrasing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_quote" title="Right to quote">Right to quote</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orphan_work" title="Orphan work">Orphan work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patent_troll" title="Patent troll">Patent troll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pirate_Party" title="Pirate Party">Pirate Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">Public domain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_intellectual_property" title="Outline of intellectual property">Outline of intellectual property</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_patents" title="Outline of patents">Outline of patents</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <i>Higher categories:</i><br /><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a> and <a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">Property law</a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Intellectual_property" title="Template:Intellectual property"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Intellectual_property" title="Template talk:Intellectual property"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Intellectual_property" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Intellectual property"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nike,_McDonald%E2%80%99s_copyright_infringing_sandals_in_China.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Nike%2C_McDonald%E2%80%99s_copyright_infringing_sandals_in_China.jpg/230px-Nike%2C_McDonald%E2%80%99s_copyright_infringing_sandals_in_China.jpg" decoding="async" width="230" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Nike%2C_McDonald%E2%80%99s_copyright_infringing_sandals_in_China.jpg/345px-Nike%2C_McDonald%E2%80%99s_copyright_infringing_sandals_in_China.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Nike%2C_McDonald%E2%80%99s_copyright_infringing_sandals_in_China.jpg/460px-Nike%2C_McDonald%E2%80%99s_copyright_infringing_sandals_in_China.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1765" data-file-height="2190" /></a><figcaption>Intellectual property laws such as trademark laws forbid the sale of infringing goods like these "<a href="/wiki/McDonald%27s" title="McDonald's">McDnoald's</a>" [<i><a href="/wiki/Sic" title="Sic">sic</a></i>] and "<a href="/wiki/Nike,_Inc." title="Nike, Inc.">NKIE</a>"  [<i><a href="/wiki/Sic" title="Sic">sic</a></i>] <a href="/wiki/Sandal" title="Sandal">sandals</a> from <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Intellectual property</b> (<b>IP</b>) is a category of <a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">property</a> that includes intangible creations of the human intellect.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are many types of intellectual property, and some countries recognize more than others.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The best-known types are <a href="/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">patents</a>, <a href="/wiki/Copyright" title="Copyright">copyrights</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trademark" title="Trademark">trademarks</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Trade_secret" title="Trade secret">trade secrets</a>. The modern concept of intellectual property developed in <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a> in the 17th and 18th centuries. The term "intellectual property" began to be used in the 19th century, though it was not until the late 20th century that intellectual property became commonplace in most of the world's <a href="/wiki/List_of_national_legal_systems" title="List of national legal systems">legal systems</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lemley_2005_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lemley_2005-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Supporters of intellectual property laws often describe their main purpose as encouraging the creation of a wide variety of intellectual goods.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinReese200817_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinReese200817-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To achieve this, the law gives people and businesses property rights to certain information and intellectual goods they create, usually for a limited period of time. Supporters argue that because IP laws allow people to protect their original ideas and prevent unauthorized copying, creators derive greater individual economic benefit from the information and intellectual goods they create, and thus have more economic incentives to create them in the first place.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinReese200817_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinReese200817-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Advocates of IP believe that these economic incentives and legal protections stimulate <a href="/wiki/Innovation" title="Innovation">innovation</a> and contribute to technological progress of certain kinds.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Intangible_property" title="Intangible property">intangible</a> nature of intellectual property presents difficulties when compared with traditional property like land or goods. Unlike traditional property, intellectual property is "indivisible", since an unlimited number of people can in theory "consume" an intellectual good without its being depleted.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, investments in intellectual goods suffer from appropriation problems: Landowners can surround their land with a robust fence and hire armed guards to protect it, but producers of information or literature can usually do little to stop their first buyer from replicating it and selling it at a lower price. Balancing rights so that they are strong enough to encourage the creation of intellectual goods but not so strong that they prevent the goods' wide use is the primary focus of modern intellectual property law.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinReese200818–19_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinReese200818–19-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_copyright_law" class="mw-redirect" title="History of copyright law">History of copyright law</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_patent_law" title="History of patent law">History of patent law</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Statute_of_anne.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Statute_of_anne.jpg/220px-Statute_of_anne.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="407" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Statute_of_anne.jpg/330px-Statute_of_anne.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Statute_of_anne.jpg/440px-Statute_of_anne.jpg 2x" data-file-width="461" data-file-height="852" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Statute_of_Anne" title="Statute of Anne">Statute of Anne</a> came into force in 1710.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Venetian_Patent_Statute" title="Venetian Patent Statute">Venetian Patent Statute</a> of 19 March 1474, established by the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Republic of Venice</a>, is usually considered to be the earliest codified patent system in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It states that patents might be granted for "any <a href="/wiki/Novelty_(patent)" title="Novelty (patent)">new</a> and ingenious device, not previously made", provided it was useful. By and large, these principles still remain the basic principles of current patent laws. The <a href="/wiki/Statute_of_Monopolies" title="Statute of Monopolies">Statute of Monopolies</a> (1624) and the British <a href="/wiki/Statute_of_Anne" title="Statute of Anne">Statute of Anne</a> (1710) are seen as the origins of the current <a href="/wiki/Patent_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Patent law">patent law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Copyright" title="Copyright">copyright</a> respectively,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> firmly establishing the concept of intellectual property. </p><p>"Literary property" was the term predominantly used in the British legal debates of the 1760s and 1770s over the extent to which authors and publishers of works also had rights deriving from the common law of property (<i><a href="/wiki/Millar_v_Taylor" title="Millar v Taylor">Millar v Taylor</a></i> (1769), <i><a href="/wiki/Hinton_v_Donaldson" title="Hinton v Donaldson">Hinton v Donaldson</a></i> (1773), <i><a href="/wiki/Donaldson_v_Becket" title="Donaldson v Becket">Donaldson v Becket</a></i> (1774)). The first known use of the term <i>intellectual property</i> dates to this time, when a piece published in the <i><a href="/wiki/The_Monthly_Review_(London)" title="The Monthly Review (London)">Monthly Review</a></i> in 1769 used the phrase.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first clear example of modern usage goes back as early as 1808, when it was used as a heading title in a collection of essays.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The German equivalent was used with the founding of the <a href="/wiki/North_German_Confederation" title="North German Confederation">North German Confederation</a> whose <a href="/wiki/Constitution" title="Constitution">constitution</a> granted legislative power over the protection of intellectual property (<i>Schutz des geistigen Eigentums</i>) to the confederation.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the administrative secretariats established by the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Industrial_Property" title="Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property">Paris Convention</a> (1883) and the <a href="/wiki/Berne_Convention" title="Berne Convention">Berne Convention</a> (1886) merged in 1893, they located in Berne, and also adopted the term intellectual property in their new combined title, the <a href="/wiki/United_International_Bureaux_for_the_Protection_of_Intellectual_Property" title="United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property">United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property</a>. </p><p>The organization subsequently relocated to Geneva in 1960 and was succeeded in 1967 with the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/World_Intellectual_Property_Organization" title="World Intellectual Property Organization">World Intellectual Property Organization</a> (WIPO) by <a href="/wiki/WIPO_Convention" title="WIPO Convention">treaty</a> as an agency of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>. According to legal scholar <a href="/wiki/Mark_Lemley" title="Mark Lemley">Mark Lemley</a>, it was only at this point that the term really began to be used in the United States (which had not been a party to the Berne Convention),<sup id="cite_ref-Lemley_2005_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lemley_2005-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and it did not enter popular usage there until passage of the <a href="/wiki/Bayh%E2%80%93Dole_Act" title="Bayh–Dole Act">Bayh–Dole Act</a> in 1980.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>The history of patents does not begin with inventions, but rather with royal grants by <a href="/wiki/Queen_Elizabeth_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Queen Elizabeth I">Queen Elizabeth I</a> (1558–1603) for monopoly privileges. Approximately 200 years after the end of Elizabeth's reign, however, a patent represents a legal <a href="/wiki/Right" class="mw-redirect" title="Right">right</a> obtained by an inventor providing for exclusive control over the production and sale of his mechanical or scientific invention. demonstrating the evolution of patents from royal prerogative to common-law doctrine.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The term can be found used in an October 1845 Massachusetts Circuit Court ruling in the patent case <i>Davoll et al. v. Brown</i>, in which Justice Charles L. Woodbury wrote that "only in this way can we protect intellectual property, the labors of the mind, productions and interests are as much a man's own ... as the wheat he cultivates, or the flocks he rears."<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The statement that "discoveries are ... property" goes back earlier. Section 1 of the French law of 1791 stated, "All new discoveries are the property of the author; to assure the inventor the property and temporary enjoyment of his discovery, there shall be delivered to him a patent for five, ten or fifteen years."<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Europe, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">French</a> author A. Nion mentioned <i>propriété intellectuelle</i> in his <i>Droits civils des auteurs, artistes et inventeurs</i>, published in 1846. </p><p>Until the 2000s, the purpose of intellectual property law was to give as little protection as possible in order to encourage <a href="/wiki/Innovation" title="Innovation">innovation</a>. Historically, legal protection was therefore granted only when necessary to encourage invention, and it was limited in time and scope.<sup id="cite_ref-Mark_A._Lemley_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mark_A._Lemley-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is mainly as a result of knowledge being traditionally viewed as a public good, in order to allow its extensive dissemination and improvement.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The concept's origin can potentially be traced back further. <a href="/wiki/Jewish_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish law">Jewish law</a> includes several considerations whose effects are similar to those of modern intellectual property laws, though the notion of intellectual creations as property does not seem to exist—notably the principle of Hasagat Ge'vul (unfair encroachment) was used to justify limited-term publisher (but not author) copyright in the 16th century.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 500 BCE, the government of the Greek state of <a href="/wiki/Sybaris" title="Sybaris">Sybaris</a> offered one year's patent "to all who should discover any new refinement in luxury".<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Jean-Frédéric Morin, "the global intellectual property regime is currently in the midst of a paradigm shift".<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Up until the early 2000s, the global IP regime used to be dominated by high standards of protection characteristic of IP laws from Europe or the United States, with a vision that uniform application of these standards over every country and to several fields with little consideration over social, cultural or environmental values or of the national level of economic development. Morin argues that "the emerging discourse of the global IP regime advocates for greater policy flexibility and greater access to knowledge, especially for developing countries". With the Development Agenda adopted by WIPO in 2007, a set of 45 recommendations to adjust WIPO's activities to the specific needs of developing countries and aim to reduce distortions especially on issues such as patients' access to medicines, Internet users' access to information, farmers' access to seeds, programmers' access to source codes or students' access to scientific articles.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, this paradigm shift has not yet manifested itself in concrete legal reforms at the international level.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Similarly, it is based on these background that the Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) agreement requires members of the WTO to set minimum standards of legal protection, but its objective to have a "one-fits-all" protection law on Intellectual Property has been viewed with controversies regarding differences in the development level of countries.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the controversy, the agreement has extensively incorporated intellectual property rights into the global trading system for the first time in 1995, and has prevailed as the most comprehensive agreement reached by the world.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rights">Rights</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Rights"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Intellectual property rights include <a href="/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">patents</a>, <a href="/wiki/Copyright" title="Copyright">copyright</a>, <a href="/wiki/Industrial_design_right" title="Industrial design right">industrial design rights</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trademark" title="Trademark">trademarks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plant_variety_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant variety rights">plant variety rights</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trade_dress" title="Trade dress">trade dress</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geographical_indication" title="Geographical indication">geographical indications</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in some jurisdictions <a href="/wiki/Trade_secret" title="Trade secret">trade secrets</a>. There are also more specialized or derived varieties of <i><a href="/wiki/Sui_generis" title="Sui generis">sui generis</a></i> exclusive rights, such as circuit design rights (called <a href="/wiki/Mask_work" class="mw-redirect" title="Mask work">mask work</a> rights in the US), <a href="/wiki/Supplementary_protection_certificate" title="Supplementary protection certificate">supplementary protection certificates</a> for pharmaceutical products (after expiry of a patent protecting them), and <a href="/wiki/Database_right" title="Database right">database rights</a> (in <a href="/wiki/European_law" class="mw-redirect" title="European law">European law</a>). The term "industrial property" is sometimes used to refer to a large subset of intellectual property rights including patents, trademarks, industrial designs, utility models, service marks, trade names, and geographical indications.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Patents">Patents</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Patents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">Patent</a></div> <p>A patent is a form of right granted by the government to an inventor or their successor-in-title, giving the owner the right to exclude others from making, using, selling, offering to sell, and importing an <a href="/wiki/Invention" title="Invention">invention</a> for a limited period of time, in exchange for the public disclosure of the invention. An invention is a solution to a specific technological problem, which may be a product or a process, and generally has to fulfill three main requirements: it has to be <a href="/wiki/Novelty_(patent)" title="Novelty (patent)">new</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inventive_step_and_non-obviousness" title="Inventive step and non-obviousness">not obvious</a> and there needs to be an <a href="/wiki/Industrial_applicability" title="Industrial applicability">industrial applicability</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-WIPO_Handbook_Ch_2_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WIPO_Handbook_Ch_2-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 17">: 17 </span></sup> To enrich the body of knowledge and to stimulate innovation, it is an obligation for patent owners to disclose valuable information about their inventions to the public.<sup id="cite_ref-wipo.int_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wipo.int-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Copyright">Copyright</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Copyright"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Copyright" title="Copyright">Copyright</a></div> <p>A copyright gives the creator of an original work <a href="/wiki/Exclusive_right" title="Exclusive right">exclusive rights</a> to it, usually for a limited time. Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms, or "works".<sup id="cite_ref-Intellectual_Property_and_Information_Wealth:_Copyright_and_related_rights_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Intellectual_Property_and_Information_Wealth:_Copyright_and_related_rights-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed.<sup id="cite_ref-Art_and_copyright_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Art_and_copyright-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Industrial_design_rights">Industrial design rights</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Industrial design rights"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Industrial_design_right" title="Industrial design right">Industrial design right</a></div> <p>An industrial design right (sometimes called "design right" or <i>design patent</i>) protects the visual design of objects that are not purely utilitarian. An industrial design consists of the creation of a shape, configuration or composition of pattern or color, or combination of pattern and color in three-dimensional form containing aesthetic value. An industrial design can be a two- or three-dimensional pattern used to produce a product, industrial commodity or handicraft. Generally speaking, it is what makes a product look appealing, and as such, it increases the commercial value of goods.<sup id="cite_ref-wipo.int_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wipo.int-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plant_varieties">Plant varieties</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Plant varieties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Plant_breeders%27_rights" title="Plant breeders' rights">Plant breeders' rights</a></div> <p>Plant breeders' rights or plant variety rights are the rights to commercially use a <a href="/wiki/Plant_variety_(law)" title="Plant variety (law)">new variety of a plant</a>. The variety must, amongst others, be novel and distinct and for registration the evaluation of propagating material of the variety is considered. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trademarks">Trademarks</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Trademarks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Trademark" title="Trademark">Trademark</a></div> <p>A trademark is a recognizable <a href="/wiki/Sign_(semiotics)" title="Sign (semiotics)">sign</a>, <a href="/wiki/Design" title="Design">design</a> or <a href="/wiki/Idiom" title="Idiom">expression</a> that distinguishes a particular trader's <a href="/wiki/Goods" title="Goods">products</a> or <a href="/wiki/Service_(economics)" title="Service (economics)">services</a> from similar products or services of other traders.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trade_dress">Trade dress</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Trade dress"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Trade_dress" title="Trade dress">Trade dress</a></div> <p>Trade dress is a legal term of art that generally refers to characteristics of the visual and aesthetic appearance of a product or its packaging (or even the design of a building) that signify the source of the product to consumers.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trade_secrets">Trade secrets</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Trade secrets"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Trade_secret" title="Trade secret">Trade secret</a></div> <p>A trade secret is a <a href="/wiki/Formula" title="Formula">formula</a>, practice, process, <a href="/wiki/Design" title="Design">design</a>, instrument, <a href="/wiki/Pattern" title="Pattern">pattern</a>, or compilation of <a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">information</a> which is not generally known or reasonably ascertainable, by which a <a href="/wiki/Business" title="Business">business</a> can obtain an economic advantage over competitors and customers.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is no formal government protection granted; each business must take measures to guard its own trade secrets.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Examples of trade secrets include <a href="/wiki/Coca-Cola" title="Coca-Cola">Coca-Cola</a>'s formulas for its soft drinks and the <a href="/wiki/WD-40_Company" title="WD-40 Company">WD-40 Company</a>'s formula for its lubricant <a href="/wiki/WD-40" title="WD-40">WD-40</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Motivation_and_justification">Motivation and justification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Motivation and justification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The main purpose of intellectual property law is to encourage the creation of a wide variety of intellectual goods for consumers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinReese200817_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinReese200817-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To achieve this, the law gives people and businesses property rights to the information and intellectual goods they create, usually for a limited period of time. Because they can then profit from them, this gives economic incentive for their creation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinReese200817_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinReese200817-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The intangible nature of intellectual property presents difficulties when compared with traditional property like land or goods. Unlike traditional property, intellectual property is indivisible—an unlimited number of people can "consume" an intellectual good without it being depleted. Additionally, investments in intellectual goods suffer from problems of appropriation—while a landowner can surround their land with a robust fence and hire armed guards to protect it, a producer of information or an intellectual good can usually do very little to stop their first buyer from replicating it and selling it at a lower price. Balancing rights so that they are strong enough to encourage the creation of information and intellectual goods but not so strong that they prevent their wide use is the primary focus of modern intellectual property law.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinReese200818–19_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinReese200818–19-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By exchanging limited exclusive rights for disclosure of inventions and creative works, society and the patentee/copyright owner mutually benefit, and an incentive is created for inventors and authors to create and disclose their work. Some commentators have noted that the objective of intellectual property legislators and those who support its implementation appears to be "absolute protection". "If some intellectual property is desirable because it encourages innovation, they reason, more is better. The thinking is that creators will not have sufficient incentive to invent unless they are legally entitled to capture the full social value of their inventions".<sup id="cite_ref-Mark_A._Lemley_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mark_A._Lemley-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This absolute protection or full value view treats intellectual property as another type of "real" property, typically adopting its law and rhetoric. Other recent developments in intellectual property law, such as the <a href="/wiki/Leahy%E2%80%93Smith_America_Invents_Act" title="Leahy–Smith America Invents Act">America Invents Act</a>, stress international harmonization. Recently there has also been much debate over the desirability of using intellectual property rights to protect cultural heritage, including intangible ones, as well as over risks of <a href="/wiki/Commodification" title="Commodification">commodification</a> derived from this possibility.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The issue still remains open in legal scholarship. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Financial_incentive">Financial incentive</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Financial incentive"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>These exclusive rights allow intellectual property owners to benefit from the property they have created, providing a financial incentive for the creation of an investment in intellectual property, and, in case of patents, pay associated <a href="/wiki/Research_and_development" title="Research and development">research and development</a> costs.<sup id="cite_ref-MonoProf_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MonoProf-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the United States Article I Section 8 Clause 8 of the Constitution, commonly called the Patent and Copyright Clause, reads; "The Congress shall have power 'To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries.<span style="padding-right:.15em;">'</span>"<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Some commentators, such as <a href="/wiki/David_K._Levine" title="David K. Levine">David Levine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Michele_Boldrin" title="Michele Boldrin">Michele Boldrin</a>, dispute this justification.<sup id="cite_ref-R000000_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-R000000-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2013, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Patent_and_Trademark_Office" title="United States Patent and Trademark Office">United States Patent and Trademark Office</a> approximated that the worth of intellectual property to the <a href="/wiki/U.S._economy" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. economy">U.S. economy</a> is more than US$5 trillion and creates employment for an estimated 18 million American people. The value of intellectual property is considered similarly high in other developed nations, such as those in the European Union.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the UK, IP has become a recognised asset class for use in <a href="/wiki/Pension_led_funding" title="Pension led funding">pension-led funding</a> and other types of business finance. However, in 2013, the <a href="/wiki/UK_Intellectual_Property_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="UK Intellectual Property Office">UK Intellectual Property Office</a> stated: "There are millions of intangible business assets whose value is either not being leveraged at all, or only being leveraged inadvertently".<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An October 2023 study released by <a href="/wiki/Americans_for_the_Arts" title="Americans for the Arts">Americans for the Arts</a> (AFTA) found that "nonprofit arts and culture organizations and their audiences generated $151.7 billion in economic activity—$73.3 billion in spending by the organizations, which leveraged an additional $78.4 billion in event-related spending by their audiences." This spending supported 2.6 million jobs and generated $29.1 billion in local, state and federal tax revenue." 224,000 audience members and over 16,000 organizations in all 50 states and Puerto Rico were surveyed over an 18-month period to collect the data.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_growth">Economic growth</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Economic growth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The WIPO treaty and several related international agreements underline that the protection of intellectual property rights is essential to maintaining economic growth. The <i>WIPO Intellectual Property Handbook</i> gives two reasons for intellectual property laws: "One is to give statutory expression to the moral and economic rights of creators in their creations and the rights of the public in access to those creations. The second is to promote, as a deliberate act of Government policy, creativity and the dissemination and application of its results and to encourage fair trading which would contribute to economic and social development."<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Anti-Counterfeiting_Trade_Agreement" title="Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement">Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement</a> (ACTA) states that "effective enforcement of intellectual property rights is critical to sustaining economic growth across all industries and globally".<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Economists estimate that two-thirds of the value of large businesses in the United States can be traced to intangible assets.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "IP-intensive industries" are estimated to generate 72% more <a href="/wiki/Value_added" title="Value added">value added</a> (price minus material cost) per employee than "non-IP-intensive industries".<sup id="cite_ref-Shapiro-Pham_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shapiro-Pham-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="The material near this tag is possibly inaccurate or nonfactual. (July 2009)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Intellectual_property#Dubious" title="Talk:Intellectual property">discuss</a></i>]</sup> A joint research project of the <a href="/wiki/WIPO" class="mw-redirect" title="WIPO">WIPO</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_University" title="United Nations University">United Nations University</a> measuring the impact of IP systems on six Asian countries found "a positive correlation between the strengthening of the IP system and subsequent economic growth."<sup id="cite_ref-WIPO:_Economic_Impact_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WIPO:_Economic_Impact-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Morality">Morality</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Morality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to Article 27 of the <a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a>, "everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and material interests resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic production of which he is the author".<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the relationship between intellectual property and <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a> is complex,<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> there are moral arguments for intellectual property. The arguments that justify intellectual property fall into three major categories. Personality theorists believe intellectual property is an extension of an individual. Utilitarians believe that intellectual property stimulates social progress and pushes people to further innovation. Lockeans argue that intellectual property is justified based on deservedness and hard work.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Various moral justifications for private property can be used to argue in favor of the morality of intellectual property, such as: </p> <ol><li><i>Natural Rights/Justice Argument</i>: this argument is based on Locke's idea that a person has a natural right over the labour and products which are produced by their body. Appropriating these products is viewed as unjust. Although Locke had never explicitly stated that natural right applied to products of the mind,<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it is possible to apply his argument to intellectual property rights, in which it would be unjust for people to misuse another's ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Locke's argument for intellectual property is based upon the idea that laborers have the right to control that which they create. They argue that we own our bodies which are the laborers, this right of ownership extends to what we create. Thus, intellectual property ensures this right when it comes to production.</li> <li><i>Utilitarian-Pragmatic Argument</i>: according to this rationale, a society that protects private property is more effective and prosperous than societies that do not. Innovation and invention in 19th-century America has been attributed to the development of the <a href="/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">patent</a> system.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By providing innovators with "durable and tangible return on their investment of time, labor, and other resources", intellectual property rights seek to maximize social utility.<sup id="cite_ref-Spinello_2007_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spinello_2007-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The presumption is that they promote public welfare by encouraging the "creation, production, and distribution of intellectual works".<sup id="cite_ref-Spinello_2007_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spinello_2007-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Utilitarians argue that without intellectual property there would be a lack of incentive to produce new ideas. Systems of protection such as Intellectual property optimize social utility.</li> <li><i>"Personality" Argument</i>: this argument is based on a quote from <a href="/wiki/Hegel" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegel">Hegel</a>: "Every man has the right to turn his will upon a thing or make the thing an object of his will, that is to say, to set aside the mere thing and recreate it as his own".<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> European intellectual property law is shaped by this notion that ideas are an "extension of oneself and of one's personality".<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Personality theorists argue that by being a creator of something one is inherently at risk and vulnerable for having their ideas and designs stolen and/or altered. Intellectual property protects these moral claims that have to do with personality.</li></ol> <p><a href="/wiki/Lysander_Spooner" title="Lysander Spooner">Lysander Spooner</a> (1855) argues that "a man has a natural and absolute right—and if a natural and absolute, then necessarily a perpetual, right—of property, in the ideas, of which he is the discoverer or creator; that his right of property, in ideas, is intrinsically the same as, and stands on identically the same grounds with, his right of property in material things; that no distinction, of principle, exists between the two cases."<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Writer <a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Ayn Rand</a> argued in her book <i><a href="/wiki/Capitalism:_The_Unknown_Ideal" title="Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal">Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal</a></i> that the protection of intellectual property is essentially a moral issue. The belief is that the human mind itself is the source of wealth and survival and that all property at its base is intellectual property. To violate intellectual property is therefore no different morally than violating other property rights which compromises the very processes of survival and therefore constitutes an immoral act.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Infringement,_misappropriation,_and_enforcement"><span id="Infringement.2C_misappropriation.2C_and_enforcement"></span>Infringement, misappropriation, and enforcement</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Infringement, misappropriation, and enforcement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property_infringement" title="Intellectual property infringement">Intellectual property infringement</a></div> <p>Violation of intellectual property rights, called "infringement" with respect to patents, copyright, and trademarks, and "misappropriation" with respect to trade secrets, may be a breach of civil law or criminal law, depending on the type of intellectual property involved, jurisdiction, and the nature of the action. As of 2011, trade in counterfeit copyrighted and trademarked works was a $600 billion industry worldwide and accounted for 5‍–‍7% of global trade.<sup id="cite_ref-Bitton_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bitton-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the <a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a>, IP has been a consideration in punishment of the aggressor through trade sanctions,<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> has been proposed as a method to prevent future wars of aggression involving <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and has caused concern about stifling innovation by keeping patent information secret.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Patent_infringement">Patent infringement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Patent infringement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Patent_infringement" title="Patent infringement">Patent infringement</a></div> <p>Patent infringement typically is caused by using or selling a patented invention without permission from the patent holder, i.e. from the patent owner. The scope of the patented invention or the extent of protection<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is defined in the <a href="/wiki/Patent_claim" title="Patent claim">claims</a> of the granted patent. There is <a href="/wiki/Safe_harbor_(law)" title="Safe harbor (law)">safe harbor</a> in many jurisdictions to use a patented invention for research. This safe harbor does not exist in the US unless the research is done for purely philosophical purposes, or to gather data to prepare an application for regulatory approval of a drug.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In general, patent infringement cases are handled under civil law (e.g., in the United States) but several jurisdictions incorporate infringement in criminal law also (for example, Argentina, China, France, Japan, Russia, South Korea).<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Copyright_infringement">Copyright infringement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Copyright infringement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Copyright_infringement" title="Copyright infringement">Copyright infringement</a></div> <p>Copyright infringement is reproducing, distributing, displaying or performing a <a href="/wiki/Creative_work" title="Creative work">work</a>, or to make <a href="/wiki/Derivative_work" title="Derivative work">derivative works</a>, without permission from the copyright holder, which is typically a publisher or other business representing or assigned by the work's creator. It is often called "piracy".<sup id="cite_ref-Panethiere_p2_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Panethiere_p2-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the United States, while copyright is created the instant a work is fixed, generally the copyright holder can only get money damages if the owner registers the copyright.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Enforcement of copyright is generally the responsibility of the copyright holder.<sup id="cite_ref-Xuan_p211_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Xuan_p211-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Anti-Counterfeiting_Trade_Agreement" title="Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement">ACTA trade agreement</a>, signed in May 2011 by the United States, Japan, Switzerland, and the EU, and which has not entered into force, requires that its parties add criminal penalties, including incarceration and fines, for copyright and trademark infringement, and obligated the parties to actively police for infringement.<sup id="cite_ref-Bitton_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bitton-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Musa_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Musa-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are <a href="/wiki/Limitations_and_exceptions_to_copyright" title="Limitations and exceptions to copyright">limitations and exceptions to copyright</a>, allowing limited use of copyrighted works, which does not constitute infringement. Examples of such doctrines are the <a href="/wiki/Fair_use" title="Fair use">fair use</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fair_dealing" title="Fair dealing">fair dealing</a> doctrine. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trademark_infringement">Trademark infringement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Trademark infringement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Trademark_infringement" title="Trademark infringement">Trademark infringement</a></div> <p>Trademark infringement occurs when one party uses a trademark that is identical or <a href="/wiki/Confusing_similarity" title="Confusing similarity">confusingly similar</a> to a trademark owned by another party, in relation to products or services which are identical or similar to the products or services of the other party. In many countries, a trademark receives protection without registration, but registering a trademark provides legal advantages for enforcement. Infringement can be addressed by civil litigation and, in several jurisdictions, under criminal law.<sup id="cite_ref-Bitton_68-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bitton-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Musa_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Musa-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trade_secret_misappropriation">Trade secret misappropriation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Trade secret misappropriation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Trade_secret#Misappropriation" title="Trade secret">Trade secret § Misappropriation</a></div> <p>Trade secret misappropriation is different from violations of other intellectual property laws, since by definition trade secrets are secret, while patents and registered copyrights and trademarks are publicly available. In the United States, trade secrets are protected under state law, and states have nearly universally adopted the <a href="/wiki/Uniform_Trade_Secrets_Act" title="Uniform Trade Secrets Act">Uniform Trade Secrets Act</a>. The United States also has federal law in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Economic_Espionage_Act_of_1996" title="Economic Espionage Act of 1996">Economic Espionage Act of 1996</a> (<a href="/wiki/Title_18_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 18 of the United States Code">18 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/1831">§§ 1831</a>–<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/1839">1839</a>), which makes the theft or misappropriation of a trade secret a federal crime. This law contains two provisions criminalizing two sorts of activity. The first, <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><a href="/wiki/Title_18_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 18 of the United States Code">18 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/1831#a">§ 1831(a)</a></span>, criminalizes the theft of trade secrets to benefit foreign powers. The second, <a href="/wiki/Title_18_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 18 of the United States Code">18 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/1832">§ 1832</a>, criminalizes their theft for commercial or economic purposes. The statutory penalties are different for the two offenses. In <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth</a> <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> jurisdictions, confidentiality and trade secrets are regarded as an <a href="/wiki/Equity_(law)" title="Equity (law)">equitable</a> right rather than a <a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">property</a> right but penalties for theft are roughly the same as in the United States.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="International_framework">International framework</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: International framework"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The international governance of IP involves multiple overlapping institutions and forums.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 25">: 25 </span></sup> There is no overall rule-making body.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 25">: 25 </span></sup> One of the most important aspects of global IP governance is the <a href="/wiki/TRIPS_Agreement" title="TRIPS Agreement">Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights</a> (TRIPS).<sup id="cite_ref-:4_79-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 7">: 7 </span></sup> The TRIPS Agreement sets minimum international standards for IP which every member of the <a href="/wiki/World_Trade_Organization" title="World Trade Organization">World Trade Organization</a> (WTO) must comply with.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_79-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 7">: 7 </span></sup> A member's non-compliance with the TRIPS Agreement may be grounds for suit under the <a href="/wiki/Dispute_settlement_in_the_World_Trade_Organization" title="Dispute settlement in the World Trade Organization">WTO's Dispute Settlement Mechanism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_79-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 7">: 7 </span></sup> Bilateral and multi-lateral agreements often establish IP requirements above the requirements of the TRIPS Agreement.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_79-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 7">: 7 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticisms">Criticisms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Criticisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_patents" title="Criticism of patents">Criticism of patents</a> and <a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_copyright" class="mw-redirect" title="Opposition to copyright">Opposition to copyright</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Split plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-move" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Split-arrows.svg/50px-Split-arrows.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Split-arrows.svg/75px-Split-arrows.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Split-arrows.svg/100px-Split-arrows.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="60" data-file-height="20" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">It has been suggested that this article be <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Splitting" title="Wikipedia:Splitting">split</a></b> into a new article titled <i><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_intellectual_property" class="mw-redirect" title="Criticism of intellectual property">Criticism of intellectual property</a></i>. (<a href="/wiki/Talk:Intellectual_property#Split_proposal" title="Talk:Intellectual property">Discuss</a>) <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2021</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pro_piracy_demonstration.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Pro_piracy_demonstration.jpg/220px-Pro_piracy_demonstration.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Pro_piracy_demonstration.jpg/330px-Pro_piracy_demonstration.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Pro_piracy_demonstration.jpg/440px-Pro_piracy_demonstration.jpg 2x" data-file-width="740" data-file-height="511" /></a><figcaption>Demonstration in <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a> in support of <a href="/wiki/File_sharing" title="File sharing">file sharing</a>, 2006</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GlamCamp_NY_Kippelboy_nina_Paley_(2).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/GlamCamp_NY_Kippelboy_nina_Paley_%282%29.JPG/220px-GlamCamp_NY_Kippelboy_nina_Paley_%282%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/GlamCamp_NY_Kippelboy_nina_Paley_%282%29.JPG/330px-GlamCamp_NY_Kippelboy_nina_Paley_%282%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/GlamCamp_NY_Kippelboy_nina_Paley_%282%29.JPG/440px-GlamCamp_NY_Kippelboy_nina_Paley_%282%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1414" data-file-height="1398" /></a><figcaption>"Copying is not theft!" badge with a character resembling <a href="/wiki/Mickey_Mouse" title="Mickey Mouse">Mickey Mouse</a> in reference to the "in popular culture" rationale behind the <a href="/wiki/Sonny_Bono_Copyright_Term_Extension_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act">Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act</a> of 1998</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_term_"intellectual_property""><span id="The_term_.22intellectual_property.22"></span>The term "intellectual property"</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: The term "intellectual property""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Criticism of the term <i>intellectual property</i> ranges from discussing its vagueness and abstract overreach to direct contention to the semantic validity of using words like <i>property</i> and <i>rights</i> in fashions that contradict practice and law. Many detractors think this term specially serves the doctrinal agenda of parties opposing reform in the public interest or otherwise abusing related legislations, and that it disallows intelligent discussion about specific and often unrelated aspects of copyright, patents, trademarks, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Free_Software_Foundation" title="Free Software Foundation">Free Software Foundation</a> founder <a href="/wiki/Richard_Stallman" title="Richard Stallman">Richard Stallman</a> argues that, although the term <i>intellectual property</i> is in wide use, it should be rejected altogether, because it "systematically distorts and confuses these issues, and its use was and is promoted by those who gain from this confusion". He claims that the term "operates as a catch-all to lump together disparate laws [which] originated separately, evolved differently, cover different activities, have different rules, and raise different public policy issues" and that it creates a "bias" by confusing these monopolies with ownership of limited physical things, likening them to "property rights".<sup id="cite_ref-mirage_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mirage-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Stallman advocates referring to copyrights, patents and trademarks in the singular and warns against abstracting disparate laws into a collective term. He argues that, "to avoid spreading unnecessary bias and confusion, it is best to adopt a firm policy not to speak or even think in terms of 'intellectual property'."<sup id="cite_ref-words-to-avoid_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-words-to-avoid-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Similarly, economists <a href="/wiki/Michele_Boldrin" title="Michele Boldrin">Boldrin</a> and <a href="/wiki/David_K._Levine" title="David K. Levine">Levine</a> prefer to use the term "intellectual monopoly" as a more appropriate and clear definition of the concept, which, they argue, is very dissimilar from property rights.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They further argued that "stronger patents do little or nothing to encourage innovation", mainly explained by its tendency to create market monopolies, thereby restricting further innovations and technology transfer.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the assumption that intellectual property rights are actual rights, Stallman says that this claim does not live to the historical intentions behind these laws, which in the case of copyright served as a censorship system, and later on, a regulatory model for the printing press that may have benefited authors incidentally, but never interfered with the freedom of average readers.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Still referring to copyright, he cites legal literature such as the United States Constitution and <a href="/wiki/Case_law" title="Case law">case law</a> to demonstrate that the law is meant to be an optional and experimental bargain to temporarily trade property rights and free speech for public, not private, benefits in the form of increased artistic production and knowledge. He mentions that "if copyright were a natural right nothing could justify terminating this right after a certain period of time".<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Law professor, writer and political activist <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Lessig" title="Lawrence Lessig">Lawrence Lessig</a>, along with many other <a href="/wiki/Copyleft" title="Copyleft">copyleft</a> and free software activists, has criticized the implied analogy with physical property (like land or an automobile). They argue such an analogy fails because physical property is generally rivalrous while intellectual works are non-rivalrous (that is, if one makes a copy of a work, the enjoyment of the copy does not prevent enjoyment of the original).<sup id="cite_ref-lessigperpetual_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lessigperpetual-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other arguments along these lines claim that unlike the situation with tangible property, there is <a href="/wiki/Artificial_scarcity" title="Artificial scarcity">no natural scarcity</a> of a particular idea or information: once it exists at all, it can be re-used and duplicated indefinitely without such re-use diminishing the original. <a href="/wiki/Stephan_Kinsella" title="Stephan Kinsella">Stephan Kinsella</a> has objected to <i>intellectual property</i> on the grounds that the word "property" implies scarcity, which is not applicable to ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Entrepreneur and politician <a href="/wiki/Rick_Falkvinge" title="Rick Falkvinge">Rick Falkvinge</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hacker" title="Hacker">hacker</a> Alexandre Oliva have independently compared George Orwell's fictional dialect <a href="/wiki/Newspeak" title="Newspeak">Newspeak</a> to the terminology used by intellectual property supporters as a linguistic weapon to shape public opinion regarding copyright debate and <a href="/wiki/Digital_rights_management" title="Digital rights management">digital rights management</a> (DRM).<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Alternative_terms">Alternative terms</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Alternative terms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">civil law</a> jurisdictions, intellectual property has often been referred to as intellectual rights, traditionally a somewhat broader concept that has included <a href="/wiki/Moral_rights" title="Moral rights">moral rights</a> and other personal protections that cannot be bought or sold. Use of the term <i>intellectual rights</i> has declined since the early 1980s, as use of the term <i>intellectual property</i> has increased. Alternative terms <i>monopolies on information</i> and <i>intellectual monopoly</i> have emerged among those who argue against the <i>property</i> or <i>intellect</i> or <i>rights</i> assumptions, notably <a href="/wiki/Richard_Stallman" title="Richard Stallman">Richard Stallman</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Backronym" title="Backronym">backronyms</a> <i>intellectual protectionism</i> and <i>intellectual poverty</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whose initials are also <i>IP</i>, have also found supporters, especially among those who have used the backronym <i><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_digital_rights_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Opposition to digital rights management">digital restrictions management</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The argument that an intellectual property right should (in the interests of better balancing of relevant private and public interests) be termed an <i>intellectual monopoly privilege</i> (IMP) has been advanced by several academics including Birgitte Andersen<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Faunce" title="Thomas Faunce">Thomas Faunce</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Objections_to_overly_broad_intellectual_property_laws">Objections to overly broad intellectual property laws</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Objections to overly broad intellectual property laws"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg/220px-Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg/330px-Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg/440px-Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="219" data-file-height="218" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Free-culture_movement" title="Free-culture movement">free-culture movement</a> champions the production of <a href="/wiki/Free_content" title="Free content">content</a> <a href="/wiki/Information_wants_to_be_free" title="Information wants to be free">that bears little or no restrictions</a>.</figcaption></figure><p> Some critics of intellectual property, such as those in the <a href="/wiki/Free-culture_movement" title="Free-culture movement">free-culture movement</a>, point at intellectual monopolies as harming health (in the case of <a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_patent" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmaceutical patent">pharmaceutical patents</a>), preventing progress, and benefiting concentrated interests to the detriment of the masses,<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and argue that ever-expansive monopolies in the form of <a href="/wiki/Copyright_extension" class="mw-redirect" title="Copyright extension">copyright extensions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Software_patent" title="Software patent">software patents</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Business_method_patent" title="Business method patent">business method patents</a> harm the public interest. More recently, scientists and engineers are expressing concern that <a href="/wiki/Patent_thicket" title="Patent thicket">patent thickets</a> are undermining technological development even in high-tech fields like <a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">nanotechnology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Petra_Moser" title="Petra Moser">Petra Moser</a> has asserted that historical analysis suggests that intellectual property laws may harm innovation:</p><blockquote><p>Overall, the weight of the existing historical evidence suggests that patent policies, which grant strong intellectual property rights to early generations of inventors, may discourage innovation. On the contrary, policies that encourage the diffusion of ideas and modify patent laws to facilitate entry and encourage competition may be an effective mechanism to encourage innovation.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In support of that argument, <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6rg_Baten" title="Jörg Baten">Jörg Baten</a>, Nicola Bianchi and Petra Moser<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> find historical evidence that especially compulsory licensing—which allows governments to license patents without the consent of patent-owners—encouraged invention in Germany in the early 20th century by increasing the threat of competition in fields with low pre-existing levels of competition. <a href="/wiki/Peter_Drahos" title="Peter Drahos">Peter Drahos</a> notes, "Property rights confer authority over resources. When authority is granted to the few over resources on which the many depend, the few gain power over the goals of the many. This has consequences for both political and economic freedom within a society."<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 13">: 13 </span></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/World_Intellectual_Property_Organization" title="World Intellectual Property Organization">World Intellectual Property Organization</a> (WIPO) recognizes that conflicts may exist between respecting and implementing current intellectual property systems and other human rights.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2001 the UN <a href="/wiki/Committee_on_Economic,_Social_and_Cultural_Rights" title="Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights">Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights</a> issued a document called "Human rights and intellectual property" that argued that intellectual property tends to be governed by economic goals when it should be viewed primarily as a social product; in order to serve human well-being, intellectual property systems must respect and conform to human rights laws. According to the Committee, when systems fail to do so, they risk infringing upon the human right to food and health, and to cultural participation and scientific benefits.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2004, the General Assembly of WIPO adopted <i>The Geneva Declaration on the Future of the World Intellectual Property Organization</i> which argues that WIPO should "focus more on the needs of developing countries, and to view IP as one of many tools for development—not as an end in itself".<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Ethical problems are most pertinent when socially valuable goods like life-saving medicines are given IP protection. While the application of IP rights can allow companies to charge higher than the marginal cost of production in order to recoup the costs of research and development, the price may exclude from the market anyone who cannot afford the cost of the product, in this case a life-saving drug.<sup id="cite_ref-Sonderholm_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sonderholm-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "An IPR driven regime is therefore not a regime that is conductive to the investment of R&D of products that are socially valuable to predominately poor populations".<sup id="cite_ref-Sonderholm_110-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sonderholm-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1108–9">: 1108–9 </span></sup> <a href="/wiki/Libertarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Libertarian">Libertarians</a> have <a href="/wiki/Libertarian_perspectives_on_intellectual_property" title="Libertarian perspectives on intellectual property">differing views on intellectual property</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Stephan_Kinsella" title="Stephan Kinsella">Stephan Kinsella</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Anarcho-capitalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarcho-capitalist">anarcho-capitalist</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Right-wing_of_libertarianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Right-wing of libertarianism">right-wing of libertarianism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> argues against intellectual property because allowing property rights in ideas and information creates <a href="/wiki/Artificial_scarcity" title="Artificial scarcity">artificial scarcity</a> and infringes on the right to own tangible property. Kinsella uses the following scenario to argue this point:</p><blockquote><p>[I]magine the time when men lived in caves. One bright guy—let's call him Galt-Magnon—decides to build a log cabin on an open field, near his crops. To be sure, this is a good idea, and others notice it. They naturally imitate Galt-Magnon, and they start building their own cabins. But the first man to invent a house, according to IP advocates, would have a right to prevent others from building houses on their own land, with their own logs, or to charge them a fee if they do build houses. It is plain that the innovator in these examples becomes a partial owner of the tangible property (e.g., land and logs) of others, due not to first occupation and use of that property (for it is already owned), but due to his coming up with an idea. Clearly, this rule flies in the face of the first-user homesteading rule, arbitrarily and groundlessly overriding the very homesteading rule that is at the foundation of all property rights.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> once said in a letter to Isaac McPherson on 13 August 1813: </p> <blockquote><p>If nature has made any one thing less susceptible than all others of exclusive property, it is the action of the thinking power called an idea, which an individual may exclusively possess as long as he keeps it to himself; but the moment it is divulged, it forces itself into the possession of every one, and the receiver cannot dispossess himself of it. Its peculiar character, too, is that no one possesses the less, because every other possesses the whole of it. He who receives an idea from me, receives instruction himself without lessening mine; as he who lights his <a href="/wiki/Candle" title="Candle">taper</a> at mine, receives light without darkening me.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In 2005, the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Arts" title="Royal Society of Arts">Royal Society of Arts</a> launched the <a href="/wiki/Adelphi_Charter" title="Adelphi Charter">Adelphi Charter</a>, aimed at creating an international policy statement to frame how governments should make balanced intellectual property law.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another aspect of current U.S. Intellectual Property legislation is its focus on individual and joint works; thus, copyright protection can only be obtained in 'original' works of authorship. Critics like Philip Bennet argue that this does not provide adequate protection against <a href="/wiki/Cultural_appropriation" title="Cultural appropriation">cultural appropriation</a> of indigenous knowledge, for which a <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_intellectual_property" title="Indigenous intellectual property">collective IP regime</a> is needed.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Intellectual property law has been criticized as not recognizing new forms of art such as the <a href="/wiki/Remix_culture" title="Remix culture">remix culture</a>, whose participants often commit what technically constitutes violations of such laws, creation works such as <a href="/wiki/Anime_music_video" title="Anime music video">anime music videos</a> and others, or are otherwise subject to unnecessary burdens and limitations which prevent them from fully expressing themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-JemielniakPrzegalinska20202_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JemielniakPrzegalinska20202-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 70">: 70 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Objections_to_the_expansion_in_nature_and_scope_of_intellectual_property_laws">Objections to the expansion in nature and scope of intellectual property laws</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Objections to the expansion in nature and scope of intellectual property laws"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tom_Bell%27s_graph_showing_extension_of_U.S._copyright_term_over_time.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Tom_Bell%27s_graph_showing_extension_of_U.S._copyright_term_over_time.svg/220px-Tom_Bell%27s_graph_showing_extension_of_U.S._copyright_term_over_time.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Tom_Bell%27s_graph_showing_extension_of_U.S._copyright_term_over_time.svg/330px-Tom_Bell%27s_graph_showing_extension_of_U.S._copyright_term_over_time.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Tom_Bell%27s_graph_showing_extension_of_U.S._copyright_term_over_time.svg/440px-Tom_Bell%27s_graph_showing_extension_of_U.S._copyright_term_over_time.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="606" data-file-height="375" /></a><figcaption>Expansion of U.S. copyright law (assuming authors create their works by age 35 and live for seventy years)</figcaption></figure> <p>Other criticism of intellectual property law concerns the expansion of intellectual property, both in duration and in scope. As scientific knowledge has expanded and allowed new industries to arise in fields such as biotechnology and nanotechnology, originators of technology have sought IP protection for the new technologies. Patents have been granted for living organisms,<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in the United States, <a href="/wiki/Plant_breeders%27_rights" title="Plant breeders' rights">certain living organisms</a> have been patentable for over a century.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The increase in terms of protection is particularly seen in relation to copyright, which has recently been the subject of serial extensions <a href="/wiki/Copyright_Term_Extension_Act" title="Copyright Term Extension Act">in the United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Copyright_Duration_Directive" title="Copyright Duration Directive">in Europe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-lessigperpetual_87-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lessigperpetual-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-td_confused_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-td_confused-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With no need for registration or copyright notices, this is thought to have led to an increase in <a href="/wiki/Orphan_work" title="Orphan work">orphan works</a> (copyrighted works for which the copyright owner cannot be contacted), a problem that has been noticed and addressed by governmental bodies around the world.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Also with respect to copyright, the American film industry helped to change the social construct of intellectual property via its trade organization, the <a href="/wiki/Motion_Picture_Association" title="Motion Picture Association">Motion Picture Association</a> (MPA). In amicus briefs in important cases, in lobbying before Congress, and in its statements to the public, the MPAA has advocated strong protection of intellectual property rights. In framing its presentations, the association has claimed that people are entitled to the property that is produced by their labor. Additionally Congress's awareness of the position of the United States as the world's largest producer of films has made it convenient to expand the conception of intellectual property.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These doctrinal reforms have further strengthened the industry, lending the MPAA even more power and authority.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The growth of the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>, and particularly distributed search engines like <a href="/wiki/Kazaa" title="Kazaa">Kazaa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gnutella" title="Gnutella">Gnutella</a>, have represented a challenge for copyright policy. The <a href="/wiki/Recording_Industry_Association_of_America" title="Recording Industry Association of America">Recording Industry Association of America</a>, in particular, has been on the front lines of the fight against <a href="/wiki/Copyright_infringement" title="Copyright infringement">copyright infringement</a>, which the industry calls "piracy". The industry has had victories against some services, including a highly publicized case against the file-sharing company <a href="/wiki/Napster" title="Napster">Napster</a>, and some people have been prosecuted for sharing files in violation of copyright. The electronic age has seen an increase in the attempt to use software-based DRM tools to restrict the copying and use of digitally based works. Laws such as the <a href="/wiki/Digital_Millennium_Copyright_Act" title="Digital Millennium Copyright Act">Digital Millennium Copyright Act</a> have been enacted that use criminal law to prevent any circumvention of software used to enforce DRM systems. Equivalent provisions, to prevent circumvention of copyright protection have existed in EU for some time, and are being expanded in, for example, Article 6 and 7 the <a href="/wiki/Copyright_and_Information_Society_Directive_2001" title="Copyright and Information Society Directive 2001">Copyright Directive</a>. Other examples are Article 7 of the Software Directive of 1991 (91/250/EEC), and the <a href="/wiki/Conditional_Access_Directive" title="Conditional Access Directive">Conditional Access Directive</a> of 1998 (98/84/EEC). This can hinder legal uses, affecting <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a> works, <a href="/wiki/Limitations_and_exceptions_to_copyright" title="Limitations and exceptions to copyright">limitations and exceptions to copyright</a>, or uses allowed by the copyright holder. Some <a href="/wiki/Copyleft" title="Copyleft">copyleft</a> licenses, like the <a href="/wiki/GNU_GPL_3" class="mw-redirect" title="GNU GPL 3">GNU GPL 3</a>, are designed to counter this.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Laws may permit circumvention under specific conditions, such as when it is necessary to achieve interoperability with the circumventor's program, or for <a href="/wiki/Accessibility" title="Accessibility">accessibility</a> reasons; however, distribution of circumvention tools or instructions may be illegal. </p><p>In the context of trademarks, this expansion has been driven by international efforts to harmonise the definition of "trademark", as exemplified by the <a href="/wiki/TRIPS_Agreement" title="TRIPS Agreement">Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights</a> ratified in 1994, which formalized regulations for IP rights that had been handled by common law, or not at all, in member states. Pursuant to TRIPS, any <a href="/wiki/Sign_(semiotics)" title="Sign (semiotics)">sign</a> which is "capable of distinguishing" the products or services of one business from the products or services of another business is capable of constituting a trademark.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Use_in_corporate_tax_avoidance">Use in corporate tax avoidance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Use in corporate tax avoidance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:26em; border-width: 1px; color: #202122;background-color: #c6dbf7;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>Make no mistake: the headline [tax] rate is not what triggers tax evasion and aggressive tax planning. That comes from schemes that facilitate profit shifting. </p> </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="left-aligned" style=""><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Moscovici" title="Pierre Moscovici">Pierre Moscovici</a><br />European Commissioner for Tax<br /><i>Financial Times</i>, 11 March 2018<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div> </div> <p>Intellectual property has become a core tool in corporate tax planning and <a href="/wiki/Tax_avoidance" title="Tax avoidance">tax avoidance</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-fordam_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fordam-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ucla_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ucla-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-lux_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lux-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> IP is a key component of the leading multinational tax avoidance <a href="/wiki/Base_erosion_and_profit_shifting" title="Base erosion and profit shifting">base erosion and profit shifting</a> (BEPS) tools,<sup id="cite_ref-tilburg_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tilburg-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-zew_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zew-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which the OECD estimates costs $100‍–‍240 billion in lost annual tax revenues.<sup id="cite_ref-BEPS_Background_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BEPS_Background-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2017–2018, both the U.S. and the EU Commission simultaneously decided to depart from the <a href="/wiki/Base_erosion_and_profit_shifting_(OECD_project)" title="Base erosion and profit shifting (OECD project)">OECD BEPS Project</a> timetable, which was set up in 2013 to combat IP BEPS tax tools like the above,<sup id="cite_ref-BEPS_Background_138-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BEPS_Background-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and launch their own anti-IP BEPS tax regimes: </p> <ul><li>U.S. <a href="/wiki/Tax_Cuts_and_Jobs_Act" title="Tax Cuts and Jobs Act">Tax Cuts and Jobs Act</a>, which has several anti-IP BEPS abuse tax regimes, including GILTI tax and the BEAT tax regimes.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>EU Commission 2018 Digital Services Tax, which is less advanced than the U.S. TCJA, but does seek to override IP BEPS tools via a quasi-VAT.<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The departure of the U.S. and EU Commission from the OECD BEPS Project process, is attributed to frustrations with the rise in IP as a key BEPS tax tool, creating intangible assets, which are then turned into royalty payment BEPS schemes (double Irish), and/or <a href="/wiki/Capital_allowance" title="Capital allowance">capital allowance</a> BEPS schemes (capital allowances for intangibles). In contrast, the OECD has spent years developing and advocating intellectual property as a legal and a GAAP accounting concept.<sup id="cite_ref-un1_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-un1-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gender_gap_in_intellectual_property">Gender gap in intellectual property</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Gender gap in intellectual property"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Women have historically been underrepresented in the creation and ownership of intellectual property covered by intellectual property rights. According to the World Intellectual Property Organization, women composed only 16.5% of patent holders even as recently as 2020.<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This disparity is the result of several factors including systemic bias, sexism and discrimination within the intellectual property space, underrepresentation within <a href="/wiki/Science,_technology,_engineering,_and_mathematics" title="Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics">STEM</a>, and barriers to access of necessary finance and knowledge in order to obtain intellectual property rights, among other reasons.<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Global_IP_ratchet_and_developing_countries">Global IP ratchet and developing countries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Global IP ratchet and developing countries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The global increase in intellectual property protection is sometimes referred to as a global IP ratchet in which a spiral of bilateral and multilateral agreements result in growing obligations where new agreements never recede from existing standards and very often further heighten them.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_79-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 7">: 7 </span></sup> The global IP ratchet has limited the freedom of <a href="/wiki/Developing_country" title="Developing country">developing countries</a> to set their own IP standards.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_79-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 7">: 7 </span></sup> Developing countries' lack of bargaining power relative to the developed countries driving the global IP ratchet means that developing countries' ability to regulate intellectual property to advance domestic interests is eroding.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_79-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 6–7">: 6–7 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Copyfraud" title="Copyfraud">Copyfraud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defensive_publication" title="Defensive publication">Defensive publication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_information" title="Freedom of information">Freedom of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_policy" title="Information policy">Information policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_perspectives_on_intellectual_property" title="Libertarian perspectives on intellectual property">Libertarian perspectives on intellectual property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_product_development" title="New product development">New product development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soft_intellectual_property" title="Soft intellectual property">Soft intellectual property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweat_of_the_brow" title="Sweat of the brow">Sweat of the brow</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWorld_Intellectual_Property_Organization_(WIPO)2016" class="citation book cs1">World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wipo.int/publications/en/details.jsp?id=4080"><i>Understanding Industrial Property</i></a>. World Intellectual Property Organization. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.34667%2Ftind.36288">10.34667/tind.36288</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789280525939" title="Special:BookSources/9789280525939"><bdi>9789280525939</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 December</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+Industrial+Property&rft.pub=World+Intellectual+Property+Organization&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.34667%2Ftind.36288&rft.isbn=9789280525939&rft.au=World+Intellectual+Property+Organization+%28WIPO%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wipo.int%2Fpublications%2Fen%2Fdetails.jsp%3Fid%3D4080&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.europarl.europa.eu/factsheets/en/sheet/36/intellectual-industrial-and-commercial-property">"Intellectual, industrial and commercial property | Fact Sheets on the European Union"</a>. European Parliament<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 December</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Intellectual%2C+industrial+and+commercial+property+%7C+Fact+Sheets+on+the+European+Union&rft.pub=European+Parliament&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.europarl.europa.eu%2Ffactsheets%2Fen%2Fsheet%2F36%2Fintellectual-industrial-and-commercial-property&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/trips_e/intel1_e.htm">"What are intellectual property rights?"</a>. <i>World Trade Organization</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 May</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Trade+Organization&rft.atitle=What+are+intellectual+property+rights%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wto.org%2Fenglish%2Ftratop_e%2Ftrips_e%2Fintel1_e.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWorld_Intellectual_Property_Organization2021" class="citation book cs1">World Intellectual Property Organization (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wipo.int/publications/en/details.jsp?id=4528"><i>What is Intellectual Property?</i></a>. WIPO publication. World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.34667%2Ftind.43765">10.34667/tind.43765</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789280532210" title="Special:BookSources/9789280532210"><bdi>9789280532210</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+is+Intellectual+Property%3F&rft.series=WIPO+publication&rft.pub=World+Intellectual+Property+Organization+%28WIPO%29&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.34667%2Ftind.43765&rft.isbn=9789280532210&rft.au=World+Intellectual+Property+Organization&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wipo.int%2Fpublications%2Fen%2Fdetails.jsp%3Fid%3D4528&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/wipo_pub_895_2016.pdf">"Understanding Industrial Property"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 December</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Understanding+Industrial+Property&rft.pub=World+Intellectual+Property+Organization+%28WIPO%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wipo.int%2Fedocs%2Fpubdocs%2Fen%2Fwipo_pub_895_2016.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lemley_2005-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lemley_2005_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lemley_2005_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"property as a common descriptor of the field probably traces to the foundation of the <a href="/wiki/World_Intellectual_Property_Organization" title="World Intellectual Property Organization">World Intellectual Property Organization</a> (WIPO) by the United Nations." in <a href="/wiki/Mark_A._Lemley" class="mw-redirect" title="Mark A. Lemley">Mark A. Lemley</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.utexas.edu/law/journals/tlr/abstracts/83/83Lemley.pdf"><i>Property, Intellectual Property, and Free Riding</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090226035349/http://www.utexas.edu/law/journals/tlr/abstracts/83/83Lemley.pdf">Archived</a> 26 February 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Texas Law Review, 2005, Vol. 83:1031, page 1033, footnote 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinReese200817-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinReese200817_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinReese200817_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinReese200817_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinReese200817_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldsteinReese2008">Goldstein & Reese (2008)</a>, p. 17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unido.org/sites/default/files/2009-04/Role_of_intellectual_property_rights_in_technology_transfer_and_economic_growth_0.pdf">"The Role of Intellectual Property Rights in Technology Transfer and Economic Growth: Theory and Evidence"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 September</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Role+of+Intellectual+Property+Rights+in+Technology+Transfer+and+Economic+Growth%3A+Theory+and+Evidence&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unido.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2F2009-04%2FRole_of_intellectual_property_rights_in_technology_transfer_and_economic_growth_0.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoberly2014" class="citation book cs1">Moberly, Michael D. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/book/9780128005163/safeguarding-intangible-assets"><i>Safeguarding Intangible Assets</i></a>. Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. <span class="nowrap">33–</span>35. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-800516-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-800516-3"><bdi>978-0-12-800516-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Safeguarding+Intangible+Assets&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E33-%3C%2Fspan%3E35&rft.pub=Butterworth-Heinemann&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-12-800516-3&rft.aulast=Moberly&rft.aufirst=Michael+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fbook%2F9780128005163%2Fsafeguarding-intangible-assets&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinReese200818–19-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinReese200818–19_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinReese200818–19_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldsteinReese2008">Goldstein & Reese (2008)</a>, pp. 18–19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLadas1975" class="citation book cs1">Ladas, Stephen Pericles (1975). <i>Patents, trademarks, and related rights: national and international protection</i>. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-65775-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-65775-5"><bdi>978-0-674-65775-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Patents%2C+trademarks%2C+and+related+rights%3A+national+and+international+protection&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-0-674-65775-5&rft.aulast=Ladas&rft.aufirst=Stephen+Pericles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTeichPorter1996" class="citation book cs1">Teich, Mikuláš; Porter, Roy, eds. (1996). <i>The industrial revolution in national context: Europe and the USA</i> (1. publ ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-40940-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-40940-7"><bdi>978-0-521-40940-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+industrial+revolution+in+national+context%3A+Europe+and+the+USA&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.edition=1.+publ&rft.pub=Cambridge+Univ.+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-521-40940-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShermanBently1999" class="citation book cs1">Sherman, Brad; Bently, Lionel (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5Whg1aNLr30C&q=%221710+Statute+of+Anne+and+the+1624+Statute+of+Monopolies%22"><i>The Making of Modern Intellectual Property Law: The British experience, 1760–1911</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 207. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56363-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56363-5"><bdi>978-0-521-56363-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+Modern+Intellectual+Property+Law%3A+The+British+experience%2C+1760%E2%80%931911&rft.pages=207&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-521-56363-5&rft.aulast=Sherman&rft.aufirst=Brad&rft.au=Bently%2C+Lionel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5Whg1aNLr30C%26q%3D%25221710%2BStatute%2Bof%2BAnne%2Band%2Bthe%2B1624%2BStatute%2Bof%2BMonopolies%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReference-OED-_intellectual_property" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?q=intellectual+property">"intellectual property"</a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i> (Online ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=intellectual+property&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.edition=Online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oed.com%2Fsearch%2Fdictionary%2F%3Fq%3Dintellectual%2Bproperty&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/public/login/loggingin#withyourlibrary">participating institution membership</a> required.)</span> (Citing <i>Monthly Review</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cMsvAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA290">vol. 41. p. 290</a> (1769): "What a niggard this Doctor is of his own, and how profuse he is of other people's intellectual property.")</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReference-OED-_intellectual_property" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?q=intellectual+property">"intellectual property"</a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i> (Online ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=intellectual+property&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.edition=Online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oed.com%2Fsearch%2Fdictionary%2F%3Fq%3Dintellectual%2Bproperty&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/public/login/loggingin#withyourlibrary">participating institution membership</a> required.)</span> (Citing <i>Medical Repository Of Original Essays And Intelligence</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ij9JAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA303">vol. 11. p. 303</a> (1808): "New-England Association in favour of Inventors and Discoverers, and particularly for the Protection of intellectual Property.")</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040706175038/http://www.verfassungen.de/de/de67-18/verfassung67-i.htm">'Article 4 No. 6 of the Constitution of 1867 (German)'</a> Hastings Law Journal, Vol. 52, p. 1255, 2001</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mark A. Lemley, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=582602">"Property, Intellectual Property, and Free Riding"</a> (Abstract); see Table 1: 4–5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mossoff, A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=863925">'Rethinking the Development of Patents: An Intellectual History, 1550–1800,'</a> Hastings Law Journal, Vol. 52, p. 1255, 2001</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>1 Woodb. & M. 53, 3 West. L.J. 151, 7 F.Cas. 197, No. 3662, 2 Robb.Pat.Cas. 303, Merw.Pat.Inv. 414</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130115040700/http://www.ladas.com/Patents/USPatentHistory.html">"Patent Archives – Ladas & Parry LLP"</a>. <i>Ladas & Parry</i>. Ladas.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ladas.com/Patents/USPatentHistory.html">the original</a> on 15 January 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 August</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ladas+%26+Parry&rft.atitle=Patent+Archives+%E2%80%93+Ladas+%26+Parry+LLP&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ladas.com%2FPatents%2FUSPatentHistory.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mark_A._Lemley-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mark_A._Lemley_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mark_A._Lemley_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMark_A._Lemley" class="citation web cs1">Mark A. Lemley. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/tlr83&div=30&g_sent=1&collection=journals">"Property, Intellectual Property, and Free Riding"</a>. <i>Heinonline</i>. Heinonline.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 August</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Heinonline&rft.atitle=Property%2C+Intellectual+Property%2C+and+Free+Riding&rft.au=Mark+A.+Lemley&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fheinonline.org%2FHOL%2FPage%3Fhandle%3Dhein.journals%2Ftlr83%26div%3D30%26g_sent%3D1%26collection%3Djournals&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.economist.com/special-report/2005/10/22/the-liquidity-of-innovation">"The liquidity of innovation"</a>. <i>The Economist</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0013-0613">0013-0613</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 September</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=The+liquidity+of+innovation&rft.issn=0013-0613&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fspecial-report%2F2005%2F10%2F22%2Fthe-liquidity-of-innovation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jlaw.com/Articles/copyright1.html">"Jewish Law – Articles ("Jewish Law and Copyright")"</a>. Jlaw.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 August</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jewish+Law+%E2%80%93+Articles+%28%22Jewish+Law+and+Copyright%22%29&rft.pub=Jlaw.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jlaw.com%2FArticles%2Fcopyright1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Charles Anthon, A Classical Dictionary: Containing an Account of the Principal Proper Names Mentioned in Ancient Authors, and Intended to Elucidate All the Important Points Connected with the Geography, History, Biography, Mythology, and Fine Arts of the Greek and Romans. Together with an Account of Coins, Weights, and Measures, with Tabular Values of the Same 1273 (Harper & Brothers 1841). See also "The first patent law was enacted in Sybaris, a city in the South of Italy, before the Roman domination; The law was mentioned by Atheneus, an ancient writer..." in Takenaka, Toshiko (2013). Intellectual Property in Common Law and Civil Law. Edward Elgar Publishing, p. 419. (chapter by Mario Franzosi).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorin" class="citation web cs1">Morin, Jean-Frédéric. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chaire-epi.ulaval.ca/sites/chaire-epi.ulaval.ca/files/publications/morin_2014_paradigm_shift_agency_of_academics.pdf">"Paradigm shift in the global IP regime: The agency of academics, Review of International Political Economy, vol 21-2, 2014, p. 275"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Paradigm+shift+in+the+global+IP+regime%3A+The+agency+of+academics%2C+Review+of+International+Political+Economy%2C+vol+21-2%2C+2014%2C+p.+275&rft.aulast=Morin&rft.aufirst=Jean-Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chaire-epi.ulaval.ca%2Fsites%2Fchaire-epi.ulaval.ca%2Ffiles%2Fpublications%2Fmorin_2014_paradigm_shift_agency_of_academics.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorin" class="citation web cs1">Morin, Jean-Frédéric. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chaire-epi.ulaval.ca/sites/chaire-epi.ulaval.ca/files/publications/morin_2014_paradigm_shift_agency_of_academics.pdf">"Paradigm shift in the global IP regime: The agency of academics, Review of International Political Economy, vol 21-2, 2014, p. 275"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Paradigm+shift+in+the+global+IP+regime%3A+The+agency+of+academics%2C+Review+of+International+Political+Economy%2C+vol+21-2%2C+2014%2C+p.+275&rft.aulast=Morin&rft.aufirst=Jean-Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chaire-epi.ulaval.ca%2Fsites%2Fchaire-epi.ulaval.ca%2Ffiles%2Fpublications%2Fmorin_2014_paradigm_shift_agency_of_academics.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorin" class="citation web cs1">Morin, Jean-Frédéric. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chaire-epi.ulaval.ca/sites/chaire-epi.ulaval.ca/files/publications/morin_2014_paradigm_shift_agency_of_academics.pdf">"Paradigm shift in the global IP regime: The agency of academics, Review of International Political Economy, vol 21-2, 2014, p. 275"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Paradigm+shift+in+the+global+IP+regime%3A+The+agency+of+academics%2C+Review+of+International+Political+Economy%2C+vol+21-2%2C+2014%2C+p.+275&rft.aulast=Morin&rft.aufirst=Jean-Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chaire-epi.ulaval.ca%2Fsites%2Fchaire-epi.ulaval.ca%2Ffiles%2Fpublications%2Fmorin_2014_paradigm_shift_agency_of_academics.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoisah2017" class="citation journal cs1">Roisah, Kholis (26 December 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.20956%2Fhalrev.v3i3.1153">"Understanding Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights Agreement: From Hard and Soft Law Perspective"</a>. <i>Hasanuddin Law Review</i>. <b>3</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">277–</span>289. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.20956%2Fhalrev.v3i3.1153">10.20956/halrev.v3i3.1153</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2442-9899">2442-9899</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hasanuddin+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Understanding+Trade-Related+Aspects+of+Intellectual+Property+Rights+Agreement%3A+From+Hard+and+Soft+Law+Perspective&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E277-%3C%2Fspan%3E289&rft.date=2017-12-26&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.20956%2Fhalrev.v3i3.1153&rft.issn=2442-9899&rft.aulast=Roisah&rft.aufirst=Kholis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.20956%252Fhalrev.v3i3.1153&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/trips_e/ldc_e.htm">"WTO | intellectual property (TRIPS) - Responding to least developed countries' special needs in intellectual property"</a>. <i>wto.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 September</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=wto.org&rft.atitle=WTO+%7C+intellectual+property+%28TRIPS%29+-+Responding+to+least+developed+countries%27+special+needs+in+intellectual+property&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wto.org%2Fenglish%2Ftratop_e%2Ftrips_e%2Fldc_e.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/treaties/text.jsp?file_id=288514">Article 1(2) of the Paris Convention</a>: "The protection of industrial property has as its object patents, utility models, industrial designs, trademarks, service marks, trade names, indications of source or appellations of origin, and the repression of unfair competition."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140711050507/http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/paris/index.html">"Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property"</a>. <i>Wipo</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/paris/index.html">the original</a> on 11 July 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 September</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Wipo&rft.atitle=Paris+Convention+for+the+Protection+of+Industrial+Property&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wipo.int%2Ftreaties%2Fen%2Fip%2Fparis%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WIPO_Handbook_Ch_2-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WIPO_Handbook_Ch_2_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wipo.int/export/sites/www/about-ip/en/iprm/pdf/ch2.pdf">WIPO Intellectual Property Handbook: Policy, Law and Use. Chapter 2: Fields of Intellectual Property Protection</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130520221306/http://www.wipo.int/export/sites/www/about-ip/en/iprm/pdf/ch2.pdf">Archived</a> 20 May 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> WIPO 2008</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-wipo.int-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wipo.int_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wipo.int_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201111222349/https://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/intproperty/450/wipo_pub_450.pdf">"What is Intellectual Property?"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/intproperty/450/wipo_pub_450.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 11 November 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 September</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+is+Intellectual+Property%3F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wipo.int%2Fedocs%2Fpubdocs%2Fen%2Fintproperty%2F450%2Fwipo_pub_450.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Intellectual_Property_and_Information_Wealth:_Copyright_and_related_rights-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Intellectual_Property_and_Information_Wealth:_Copyright_and_related_rights_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_K,_Yu2007" class="citation book cs1">Peter K, Yu (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tgK9BzcF5WgC&q=statute+of+anne+copyright"><i>Intellectual Property and Information Wealth: Copyright and related rights</i></a>. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 346. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-98883-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-98883-8"><bdi>978-0-275-98883-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Intellectual+Property+and+Information+Wealth%3A+Copyright+and+related+rights&rft.pages=346&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-275-98883-8&rft.au=Peter+K%2C+Yu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtgK9BzcF5WgC%26q%3Dstatute%2Bof%2Banne%2Bcopyright&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWorld_Intellectual_Property_Organisation" class="citation web cs1">World Intellectual Property Organisation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120606013942/http://www.wipo.int/freepublications/en/intproperty/909/wipo_pub_909.pdf">"Understanding Copyright and Related Rights"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. WIPO. p. 8. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wipo.int/freepublications/en/intproperty/909/wipo_pub_909.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 6 June 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 August</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Understanding+Copyright+and+Related+Rights&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=WIPO&rft.au=World+Intellectual+Property+Organisation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wipo.int%2Ffreepublications%2Fen%2Fintproperty%2F909%2Fwipo_pub_909.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Art_and_copyright-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Art_and_copyright_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimon,_Stokes2001" class="citation book cs1">Simon, Stokes (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h-XBqKIryaQC&q=idea-expression+dichotomy"><i>Art and copyright</i></a>. Hart Publishing. pp. <span class="nowrap">48–</span>49. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84113-225-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84113-225-9"><bdi>978-1-84113-225-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Art+and+copyright&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E48-%3C%2Fspan%3E49&rft.pub=Hart+Publishing&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-84113-225-9&rft.au=Simon%2C+Stokes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dh-XBqKIryaQC%26q%3Didea-expression%2Bdichotomy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121213072252/http://www.uspto.gov/trademarks/basics/definitions.jsp">"Trademark, Patent, or Copyright?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/United_States_Patent_and_Trademark_Office" title="United States Patent and Trademark Office">United States Patent and Trademark Office</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Department_of_Commerce" class="mw-redirect" title="Department of Commerce">Department of Commerce</a>. 13 December 2015. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uspto.gov/trademarks/basics/definitions.jsp">the original</a> on 13 December 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 November</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=United+States+Patent+and+Trademark+Office&rft.atitle=Trademark%2C+Patent%2C+or+Copyright%3F&rft.date=2015-12-13&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uspto.gov%2Ftrademarks%2Fbasics%2Fdefinitions.jsp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120703105213/http://www.ipo.gov.uk/types/tm/t-about/t-whatis.htm">"What is a trade mark (or brand)?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_Property_Office_(United_Kingdom)" title="Intellectual Property Office (United Kingdom)">Intellectual Property Office</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ipo.gov.uk/types/tm/t-about/t-whatis.htm">the original</a> on 3 July 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 December</span> 2012</span>. <q>A trade mark is a sign which can distinguish your goods and services from those of your competitors (you may refer to your trade mark as your "brand").</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Intellectual+Property+Office&rft.atitle=What+is+a+trade+mark+%28or+brand%29%3F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ipo.gov.uk%2Ftypes%2Ftm%2Ft-about%2Ft-whatis.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141129082624/http://www.patentamt.de/english/trade_marks/index.html">"Trade Marks"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Deutsches_Patent-_und_Markenamt" class="mw-redirect" title="Deutsches Patent- und Markenamt">Deutsches Patent- und Markenamt</a></i>. 28 November 2014. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.patentamt.de/english/trade_marks/index.html">the original</a> on 29 November 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 March</span> 2019</span>. <q>Trade marks identify the goods and services of particular traders</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Deutsches+Patent-+und+Markenamt&rft.atitle=Trade+Marks&rft.date=2014-11-28&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.patentamt.de%2Fenglish%2Ftrade_marks%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMergesMenellLemley2007" class="citation book cs1">Merges, Robert P.; Menell, Peter S.; Lemley, Mark A. (2007). <i>Intellectual Property in the New Technological Age</i> (4th rev. ed.). New York: Wolters Kluwer. p. 29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7355-6989-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7355-6989-8"><bdi>978-0-7355-6989-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Intellectual+Property+in+the+New+Technological+Age&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=29&rft.edition=4th+rev.&rft.pub=Wolters+Kluwer&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7355-6989-8&rft.aulast=Merges&rft.aufirst=Robert+P.&rft.au=Menell%2C+Peter+S.&rft.au=Lemley%2C+Mark+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/trade_secret">"trade secret"</a>. <i>LII / Legal Information Institute</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 February</span> 2025</span>. <q>The UTSA defines a 'trade secret' as: Information, including a formula, pattern, compilation, program, device, method, technique, or process that: Derives independent economic value, actual or potential, from not being generally known to, and not being readily ascertainable by proper means by, other persons who can obtain economic value from its disclosure or use; and Is the subject of efforts that are reasonable under the circumstances to maintain its secrecy.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=LII+%2F+Legal+Information+Institute&rft.atitle=trade+secret&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.cornell.edu%2Fwex%2Ftrade_secret&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://europa.eu/youreurope/business/running-business/intellectual-property/trade-secrets/index_en.htm">"Trade secrets in the EU: What is protected?"</a>. <i>Your Europe</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 February</span> 2025</span>. <q>If you possess valuable information on technology or on any other aspect of your business, you can protect it as a trade secret if the following conditions are met: the information is not known either by the public at large or by the experts of the sector in question[,] the information has commercial value[, and] you have taken steps to keep the information secret: for example, you keep it in safe storage and you have signed non-disclosure agreements with anyone that has access to it or with whom you have shared the information</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Your+Europe&rft.atitle=Trade+secrets+in+the+EU%3A+What+is+protected%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feuropa.eu%2Fyoureurope%2Fbusiness%2Frunning-business%2Fintellectual-property%2Ftrade-secrets%2Findex_en.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/wipo-guide-to-trade-secrets-and-innovation/en/part-iii-basics-of-trade-secret-protection.html">"WIPO Guide to Trade Secrets and Innovation - Part III: Basics of trade secret protection"</a>. <i>WIPO Guide to Trade Secrets and Innovation</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 February</span> 2025</span>. <q>In general, trade secrets are confidential information, which is: not generally known among, or accessible to, the persons in the relevant business sector ("secrecy")[,] commercially valuable because it is secret, and subject to reasonable steps taken by the rightful holder of the information to keep it secret, such as the use of confidentiality agreements for business partners.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=WIPO+Guide+to+Trade+Secrets+and+Innovation&rft.atitle=WIPO+Guide+to+Trade+Secrets+and+Innovation+-+Part+III%3A+Basics+of+trade+secret+protection&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wipo.int%2Fweb-publications%2Fwipo-guide-to-trade-secrets-and-innovation%2Fen%2Fpart-iii-basics-of-trade-secret-protection.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlank" class="citation web cs1">Blank, Jennifer. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uspto.gov/sites/default/files/documents/OPIATradeSecret.pdf">"Trade secret protection in the United States"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>U.S. Patent and Trademark Office</i>. USPTO, Office of Policy and International Affairs<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 February</span> 2025</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=U.S.+Patent+and+Trademark+Office&rft.atitle=Trade+secret+protection+in+the+United+States&rft.aulast=Blank&rft.aufirst=Jennifer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.uspto.gov%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fdocuments%2FOPIATradeSecret.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarahTremolada2014" class="citation journal cs1">Farah, Paolo Davide; Tremolada, Riccardo (15 March 2014). "Desirability of Commodification of Intangible Cultural Heritage: The Unsatisfying Role of Intellectual Property Rights". <i>Transnational Dispute Management</i>. <b>11</b> (2). <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2472339">2472339</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transnational+Dispute+Management&rft.atitle=Desirability+of+Commodification+of+Intangible+Cultural+Heritage%3A+The+Unsatisfying+Role+of+Intellectual+Property+Rights&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2014-03-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D2472339%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft.aulast=Farah&rft.aufirst=Paolo+Davide&rft.au=Tremolada%2C+Riccardo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MonoProf-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MonoProf_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoris_Schroeder_and_Peter_Singer2009" class="citation web cs1">Doris Schroeder and <a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Peter Singer</a> (May 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110927130955/http://www.uclan.ac.uk/schools/school_of_health/research_projects/files/health_innova_IPR_reform_report.pdf">"Prudential Reasons for IPR Reform. A Report for Innova-P2"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/Centre_for_Applied_Philosophy_and_Public_Ethics" title="Centre for Applied Philosophy and Public Ethics">CAPPE</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Melbourne" title="University of Melbourne">University of Melbourne</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uclan.ac.uk/schools/school_of_health/research_projects/files/health_innova_IPR_reform_report.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 27 September 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Prudential+Reasons+for+IPR+Reform.+A+Report+for+Innova-P2&rft.pub=CAPPE%2C+University+of+Melbourne&rft.date=2009-05&rft.au=Doris+Schroeder+and+Peter+Singer&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uclan.ac.uk%2Fschools%2Fschool_of_health%2Fresearch_projects%2Ffiles%2Fhealth_innova_IPR_reform_report.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fairuse.stanford.edu/law/us-constitution/">"US Constitution"</a>. <i>Stanford Copyright and Fair Use Center</i>. 8 April 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170826034742/http://fairuse.stanford.edu/law/us-constitution/">Archived</a> from the original on 26 August 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 June</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Stanford+Copyright+and+Fair+Use+Center&rft.atitle=US+Constitution&rft.date=2013-04-08&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffairuse.stanford.edu%2Flaw%2Fus-constitution%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-R000000-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-R000000_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevineMichele_Boldrin2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_K._Levine" title="David K. Levine">Levine, David</a>; <a href="/wiki/Michele_Boldrin" title="Michele Boldrin">Michele Boldrin</a> (7 September 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dklevine.com/papers/imbookfinalall.pdf"><i>Against intellectual monopoly</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-87928-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-87928-6"><bdi>978-0-521-87928-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240122162223/http://www.dklevine.com/papers/imbookfinalall.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 22 January 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Against+intellectual+monopoly&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008-09-07&rft.isbn=978-0-521-87928-6&rft.aulast=Levine&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Michele+Boldrin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dklevine.com%2Fpapers%2Fimbookfinalall.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBollyky2013" class="citation web cs1">Bollyky, Thomas (10 April 2013). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2013/04/why-chemotherapy-that-costs-70-000-in-the-us-costs-2-500-in-india/274847/">"Why Chemotherapy That Costs $70,000 in the U.S. Costs $2,500 in India"</a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Atlantic" title="The Atlantic">The Atlantic</a></i>. The Atlantic Monthly Group<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 April</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&rft.atitle=Why+Chemotherapy+That+Costs+%2470%2C000+in+the+U.S.+Costs+%242%2C500+in+India&rft.date=2013-04-10&rft.aulast=Bollyky&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fhealth%2Farchive%2F2013%2F04%2Fwhy-chemotherapy-that-costs-70-000-in-the-us-costs-2-500-in-india%2F274847%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrassellKing2013" class="citation book cs1">Brassell, Martin; King, Kelvin (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131114113720/http://www.ipo.gov.uk/ipresearch-bankingip.pdf"><i>Banking on IP?</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Newport, Wales: The Intellectual Property Office. p. 15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-908908-86-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-908908-86-5"><bdi>978-1-908908-86-5</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ipo.gov.uk/ipresearch-bankingip.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 14 November 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Banking+on+IP%3F&rft.place=Newport%2C+Wales&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=The+Intellectual+Property+Office&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-908908-86-5&rft.aulast=Brassell&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft.au=King%2C+Kelvin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ipo.gov.uk%2Fipresearch-bankingip.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.americansforthearts.org/news-room/americans-for-the-arts-news/groundbreaking-arts-economic-prosperity-6-study-reveals-impact-of-the-arts-on-communities-across">"Groundbreaking Arts & Economic Prosperity 6 Study Reveals Impact of the Arts on Communities Across America"</a>. <i>Americans for the Arts</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 May</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Americans+for+the+Arts&rft.atitle=Groundbreaking+Arts+%26+Economic+Prosperity+6+Study+Reveals+Impact+of+the+Arts+on+Communities+Across+America&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.americansforthearts.org%2Fnews-room%2Famericans-for-the-arts-news%2Fgroundbreaking-arts-economic-prosperity-6-study-reveals-impact-of-the-arts-on-communities-across&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130115120714/http://www.wipo.int/export/sites/www/about-ip/en/iprm/pdf/ch1.pdf">"The Concept of Intellectual Property"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/WIPO" class="mw-redirect" title="WIPO">WIPO</a> Intellectual Property Handbook: Policy, Law and Use</i>. p. 3. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wipo.int/export/sites/www/about-ip/en/iprm/pdf/ch1.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 15 January 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 March</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=WIPO+Intellectual+Property+Handbook%3A+Policy%2C+Law+and+Use&rft.atitle=The+Concept+of+Intellectual+Property&rft.pages=3&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wipo.int%2Fexport%2Fsites%2Fwww%2Fabout-ip%2Fen%2Fiprm%2Fpdf%2Fch1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120507132516/http://www.international.gc.ca/trade-agreements-accords-commerciaux/assets/pdfs/acta-crc_apr15-2011_eng.pdf">"Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Foreign_Affairs_and_International_Trade_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada">Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada</a></i>. p. 24. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.international.gc.ca/trade-agreements-accords-commerciaux/assets/pdfs/acta-crc_apr15-2011_eng.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 7 May 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 March</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Foreign+Affairs+and+International+Trade+Canada&rft.atitle=Anti-Counterfeiting+Trade+Agreement&rft.pages=24&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.international.gc.ca%2Ftrade-agreements-accords-commerciaux%2Fassets%2Fpdfs%2Facta-crc_apr15-2011_eng.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShapiroPhamBlinder2007" class="citation web cs1">Shapiro, Robert J.; Pham, Nam D.; Blinder, Alan S. (July 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sonecon.com/docs/studies/0807_thevalueofip.pdf">"Economic Effects of Intellectual Property-Intensive Manufacturing in the United States"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Sonecon.com</i>. <a href="/wiki/World_Growth" class="mw-redirect" title="World Growth">World Growth</a>. p. 29<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 August</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Sonecon.com&rft.atitle=Economic+Effects+of+Intellectual+Property-Intensive+Manufacturing+in+the+United+States&rft.pages=29&rft.date=2007-07&rft.aulast=Shapiro&rft.aufirst=Robert+J.&rft.au=Pham%2C+Nam+D.&rft.au=Blinder%2C+Alan+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sonecon.com%2Fdocs%2Fstudies%2F0807_thevalueofip.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shapiro-Pham-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Shapiro-Pham_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShapiroPhamBlinder2007" class="citation web cs1">Shapiro, Robert; Pham, Nam; Blinder, Alan S. (July 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080216195041/http://www.the-value-of-ip.org/">"Economic Effects of Intellectual Property-Intensive Manufacturing in the United States"</a>. <i>the-value-of-ip.org</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.the-value-of-ip.org/">the original</a> on 16 February 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 March</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=the-value-of-ip.org&rft.atitle=Economic+Effects+of+Intellectual+Property-Intensive+Manufacturing+in+the+United+States&rft.date=2007-07&rft.aulast=Shapiro&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Pham%2C+Nam&rft.au=Blinder%2C+Alan+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.the-value-of-ip.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WIPO:_Economic_Impact-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WIPO:_Economic_Impact_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170521064049/http://www.wipo.int/portal/en/news/2007/article_0032.html">"Measuring the Economic Impact of IP Systems"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/WIPO" class="mw-redirect" title="WIPO">WIPO</a></i>. 19 September 2007. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wipo.int/portal/en/news/2007/article_0032.html">the original</a> on 21 May 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 March</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=WIPO&rft.atitle=Measuring+the+Economic+Impact+of+IP+Systems&rft.date=2007-09-19&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wipo.int%2Fportal%2Fen%2Fnews%2F2007%2Farticle_0032.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/index.shtml">"The Universal Declaration of Human Rights"</a>. United Nations<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 October</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Universal+Declaration+of+Human+Rights&rft.pub=United+Nations&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.un.org%2Fen%2Fdocuments%2Fudhr%2Findex.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWIPO_–_The_World_Intellectual_Property_Organization" class="citation web cs1">WIPO – The World Intellectual Property Organization. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111022125749/http://www.wipo.int/tk/en/hr/">"Human Rights and Intellectual Property: An Overview"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wipo.int/tk/en/hr/">the original</a> on 22 October 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 October</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Human+Rights+and+Intellectual+Property%3A+An+Overview&rft.au=WIPO+%E2%80%93+The+World+Intellectual+Property+Organization&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wipo.int%2Ftk%2Fen%2Fhr%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoore2014" class="citation web cs1">Moore, Adam (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/intellectual-property/">"Intellectual Property"</a>. <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Intellectual+Property&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fintellectual-property%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ronald V. Bettig. "Critical Perspectives on the History and Philosophy of Copyright" in Copyrighting Culture: The Political Economy of Intellectual Property, by Ronald V. Bettig. (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1996), 19–20</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard T. De George, "14. Intellectual Property Rights", in The Oxford Handbook of Business Ethics, by George G. Brenkert and Tom L. Beauchamp, vol. 1, 1st ed. (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, n.d.), 415–416.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard T. De George, "14. Intellectual Property Rights", in The Oxford Handbook of Business Ethics, by George G. Brenkert and Tom L. Beauchamp, vol. 1, 1st ed. (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, n.d.), 416.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Spinello_2007-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Spinello_2007_63-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Spinello_2007_63-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpinello2007" class="citation journal cs1">Spinello, Richard A. (January 2007). "Intellectual property rights". <i>Library Hi Tech</i>. <b>25</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">12–</span>22. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1108%2F07378830710735821">10.1108/07378830710735821</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5159054">5159054</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Library+Hi+Tech&rft.atitle=Intellectual+property+rights&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E12-%3C%2Fspan%3E22&rft.date=2007-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1108%2F07378830710735821&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A5159054%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Spinello&rft.aufirst=Richard+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard T. De George, "14. Intellectual Property Rights", in The Oxford Handbook of Business Ethics, by George G. Brenkert and Tom L. Beauchamp, vol. 1, 1st ed. (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, n.d.), 417.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard T. De George, "14. Intellectual Property Rights", in The Oxford Handbook of Business Ethics, by George G. Brenkert and Tom L. Beauchamp, vol. 1, 1st ed. (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, n.d.), 418.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Law of Intellectual Property, Part 1 Chapter 1 Section 9 – Lysander Spooner</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRand1967" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand, Ayn</a> (1967) [1966]. <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/capitalismunknow00rand"><i>Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal</i></a></span> (paperback 2nd ed.). New York: Signet. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780451147950" title="Special:BookSources/9780451147950"><bdi>9780451147950</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Capitalism%3A+The+Unknown+Ideal&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=paperback+2nd&rft.pub=Signet&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=9780451147950&rft.aulast=Rand&rft.aufirst=Ayn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcapitalismunknow00rand&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bitton-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bitton_68-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bitton_68-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bitton_68-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Miriam Bitton (2012) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121010073552/http://www.law.northwestern.edu/jclc/backissues/v102/n1/1021_67.Bitton.pdf">Rethinking the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement's Criminal Copyright Enforcement Measures</a> The Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology 102(1):67–117</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRanjan2022" class="citation journal cs1">Ranjan, Prabhash (17 July 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00157325221114586">"Russia-Ukraine War and WTO's National Security Exception"</a>. <i>Foreign Trade Review</i>. <b>58</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">246–</span>258. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F00157325221114586">10.1177/00157325221114586</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0015-7325">0015-7325</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:250654113">250654113</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Foreign+Trade+Review&rft.atitle=Russia-Ukraine+War+and+WTO%27s+National+Security+Exception&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E246-%3C%2Fspan%3E258&rft.date=2022-07-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A250654113%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0015-7325&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F00157325221114586&rft.aulast=Ranjan&rft.aufirst=Prabhash&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sagepub.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1177%2F00157325221114586&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPearce2022" class="citation journal cs1">Pearce, Joshua M. (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fsafety8030055">"Leveraging Intellectual Property to Prevent Nuclear War"</a>. <i>Safety</i>. <b>8</b> (3): 55. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fsafety8030055">10.3390/safety8030055</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2313-576X">2313-576X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Safety&rft.atitle=Leveraging+Intellectual+Property+to+Prevent+Nuclear+War&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=55&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fsafety8030055&rft.issn=2313-576X&rft.aulast=Pearce&rft.aufirst=Joshua+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3390%252Fsafety8030055&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatthewsOstapenko2023" class="citation journal cs1">Matthews, Duncan; Ostapenko, Hanna (31 January 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=4344212">"The War in Ukraine Raises Questions About Patents for Secret Inventions"</a>. <i>Queen Mary Law Research Paper</i>. Rochester, NY. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2139%2Fssrn.4344212">10.2139/ssrn.4344212</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:256534179">256534179</a>. <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4344212">4344212</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Queen+Mary+Law+Research+Paper&rft.atitle=The+War+in+Ukraine+Raises+Questions+About+Patents+for+Secret+Inventions&rft.date=2023-01-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A256534179%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D4344212%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2139%2Fssrn.4344212&rft.aulast=Matthews&rft.aufirst=Duncan&rft.au=Ostapenko%2C+Hanna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fabstract%3D4344212&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://new.epo.org/en/legal/epc/2020/a69.html">Article 69</a> <a href="/wiki/European_Patent_Convention" title="European Patent Convention">EPC</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pradip K. Sahu and Shannon Mrksich, Ph.D. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130207023621/http://www.brinkshofer.com/resource_center/85-the-hatch-waxman-act-research-exempt-from-patent-infringement">The Hatch-Waxman Act: When Is Research Exempt from Patent Infringement?</a> ABA-IPL Newsletter 22(4) Summer 2004</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Matthew L. Cutler (2008) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blog.hdp.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/08/60549706_1.PDF">International Patent Litigation Survey: A Survey of the Characteristics of Patent Litigation in 17 International Jurisdictions</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130922062127/http://blog.hdp.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/08/60549706_1.PDF">Archived</a> 22 September 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Panethiere_p2-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Panethiere_p2_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPanethiere2005" class="citation web cs1">Panethiere, Darrell (July–September 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20080816063513/http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/files/28696/11513329261panethiere_en.pdf/panethiere_en.pdf">"The Persistence of Piracy: The Consequences for Creativity, for Culture, and for Sustainable Development"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>portal.unesco</i>. UNESCO e-Copyright Bulletin. p. 2. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/files/28696/11513329261panethiere_en.pdf/panethiere_en.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 16 August 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=portal.unesco&rft.atitle=The+Persistence+of+Piracy%3A+The+Consequences+for+Creativity%2C+for+Culture%2C+and+for+Sustainable+Development&rft.pages=2&rft.date=2005-07%2F2005-09&rft.aulast=Panethiere&rft.aufirst=Darrell&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fportal.unesco.org%2Fculture%2Fen%2Ffiles%2F28696%2F11513329261panethiere_en.pdf%2Fpanethiere_en.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ01.pdf">"Copyright Basics"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>U.S. Copyright Office</i>. September 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=U.S.+Copyright+Office&rft.atitle=Copyright+Basics&rft.date=2021-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.copyright.gov%2Fcircs%2Fcirc01.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Xuan_p211-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Xuan_p211_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCorreaLi,_Xuan2009" class="citation book cs1">Correa, Carlos Maria; Li, Xuan (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bN3o1uwpKF4C&q=copyright+infringement+international+acta"><i>Intellectual property enforcement: international perspectives</i></a>. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 211. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84844-663-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84844-663-2"><bdi>978-1-84844-663-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Intellectual+property+enforcement%3A+international+perspectives&rft.pages=211&rft.pub=Edward+Elgar+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-84844-663-2&rft.aulast=Correa&rft.aufirst=Carlos+Maria&rft.au=Li%2C+Xuan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbN3o1uwpKF4C%26q%3Dcopyright%2Binfringement%2Binternational%2Bacta&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Musa-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Musa_78-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Musa_78-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Irina D. Manta Spring 2011 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jolt.law.harvard.edu/articles/pdf/v24/24HarvJLTech469.pdf">The Puzzle of Criminal Sanctions for Intellectual Property Infringement</a> Harvard Journal of Law & Technology 24(2):469–518</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_79-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_79-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_79-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_79-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_79-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_79-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_79-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_79-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_79-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCheng2023" class="citation book cs1">Cheng, Wenting (2023). <i>China in Global Governance of Intellectual Property: Implications for Global Distributive Justice</i>. Palgrave Socio-Legal Studies series. <a href="/wiki/Palgrave_Macmillan" title="Palgrave Macmillan">Palgrave Macmillan</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-031-24369-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-031-24369-1"><bdi>978-3-031-24369-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+in+Global+Governance+of+Intellectual+Property%3A+Implications+for+Global+Distributive+Justice&rft.series=Palgrave+Socio-Legal+Studies+series&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-3-031-24369-1&rft.aulast=Cheng&rft.aufirst=Wenting&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMike_Masnick2008" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mike_Masnick" title="Mike Masnick">Mike Masnick</a> (6 March 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.techdirt.com/articles/20080306/003240458/if-intellectual-property-is-neither-intellectual-property-what-is-it.shtml">"If Intellectual Property Is Neither Intellectual, Nor Property, What Is It?"</a>. <i>techdirt.com</i>. <a href="/wiki/Techdirt" title="Techdirt">Techdirt</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 August</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=techdirt.com&rft.atitle=If+Intellectual+Property+Is+Neither+Intellectual%2C+Nor+Property%2C+What+Is+It%3F&rft.date=2008-03-06&rft.au=Mike+Masnick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.techdirt.com%2Farticles%2F20080306%2F003240458%2Fif-intellectual-property-is-neither-intellectual-property-what-is-it.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mirage-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mirage_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStallman" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_M._Stallman" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard M. Stallman">Stallman, Richard M.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/not-ipr.en.html">"Did You Say "Intellectual Property"? It's a Seductive Mirage"</a>. <i>GNU</i>. Free Software Foundation, Inc<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 March</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=GNU&rft.atitle=Did+You+Say+%22Intellectual+Property%22%3F+It%27s+a+Seductive+Mirage&rft.aulast=Stallman&rft.aufirst=Richard+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gnu.org%2Fphilosophy%2Fnot-ipr.en.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-words-to-avoid-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-words-to-avoid_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStallman" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_M._Stallman" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard M. Stallman">Stallman, Richard M.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/words-to-avoid.en.html#IntellectualProperty">"Words to Avoid (or Use with Care) Because They Are Loaded or Confusing"</a>. <i>gnu</i>. The GNU Project<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 December</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=gnu&rft.atitle=Words+to+Avoid+%28or+Use+with+Care%29+Because+They+Are+Loaded+or+Confusing&rft.aulast=Stallman&rft.aufirst=Richard+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gnu.org%2Fphilosophy%2Fwords-to-avoid.en.html%23IntellectualProperty&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Boldrin, Michele, and David K. Levine. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://levine.sscnet.ucla.edu/general/intellectual/against.htm">Against intellectual monopoly</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171206094352/http://levine.sscnet.ucla.edu/general/intellectual/against.htm">Archived</a> 6 December 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170809070301/http://levine.sscnet.ucla.edu/papers/aea_pp09.pdf">"A Model of Discovery"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://levine.sscnet.ucla.edu/papers/aea_pp09.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 9 August 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 September</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Model+of+Discovery&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flevine.sscnet.ucla.edu%2Fpapers%2Faea_pp09.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStallman2001" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Stallman" title="Richard Stallman">Stallman, Richard</a> (19 April 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150302072256/http://web.mit.edu/comm-forum/forums/copyright.html">"copyright and globalization in the age of computer networks"</a>. <i>mit.edu</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.mit.edu/comm-forum/forums/copyright.html">the original</a> on 2 March 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 October</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=mit.edu&rft.atitle=copyright+and+globalization+in+the+age+of+computer+networks&rft.date=2001-04-19&rft.aulast=Stallman&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.mit.edu%2Fcomm-forum%2Fforums%2Fcopyright.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStallman" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Stallman" title="Richard Stallman">Stallman, Richard</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/misinterpreting-copyright.html">"Misinterpreting Copyright"</a>. <i>gnu.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 October</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=gnu.org&rft.atitle=Misinterpreting+Copyright&rft.aulast=Stallman&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gnu.org%2Fphilosophy%2Fmisinterpreting-copyright.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lessigperpetual-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lessigperpetual_87-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lessigperpetual_87-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091103224919/http://wiki.lessig.org/index.php/Against_perpetual_copyright">"Against perpetual copyright"</a>. <i>wiki.lessig.org</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wiki.lessig.org/index.php/Against_perpetual_copyright">the original</a> on 3 November 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=wiki.lessig.org&rft.atitle=Against+perpetual+copyright&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwiki.lessig.org%2Findex.php%2FAgainst_perpetual_copyright&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoctorow2008" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Cory_Doctorow" title="Cory Doctorow">Doctorow, Cory</a> (21 February 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2008/feb/21/intellectual.property">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Intellectual property" is a silly euphemism"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 February</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=%22Intellectual+property%22+is+a+silly+euphemism&rft.date=2008-02-21&rft.aulast=Doctorow&rft.aufirst=Cory&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Ftechnology%2F2008%2Ffeb%2F21%2Fintellectual.property&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephan Kinsella (2001) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cdn.mises.org/15_2_1.pdf">Against Intellectual Property</a> Journal of Libertarian Studies 15(2):1–53</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRick_Falkvinge2013" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rick_Falkvinge" title="Rick Falkvinge">Rick Falkvinge</a> (14 July 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140604193406/http://torrentfreak.com/language-matters-framing-the-copyright-monopoly-so-we-can-keep-our-liberties-130714/">"Language Matters: Framing The Copyright Monopoly So We Can Keep Our Liberties"</a>. <i>torrentfreak.com</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://torrentfreak.com/language-matters-framing-the-copyright-monopoly-so-we-can-keep-our-liberties-130714/">the original</a> on 4 June 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 August</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=torrentfreak.com&rft.atitle=Language+Matters%3A+Framing+The+Copyright+Monopoly+So+We+Can+Keep+Our+Liberties&rft.date=2013-07-14&rft.au=Rick+Falkvinge&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftorrentfreak.com%2Flanguage-matters-framing-the-copyright-monopoly-so-we-can-keep-our-liberties-130714%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlexandre_Oliva" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexandre_Oliva&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alexandre Oliva (page does not exist)">Alexandre Oliva</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fsfla.org/~lxoliva/fsfla/1984+30.en.pdf">"1984+30: GNU speech to defeat e-newspeak"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 August</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=1984%2B30%3A+GNU+speech+to+defeat+e-newspeak&rft.au=Alexandre+Oliva&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fsfla.org%2F~lxoliva%2Ffsfla%2F1984%2B30.en.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephan Kinsella for Ludwig von Mises Institute blog, 6 January 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120709151150/http://archive.mises.org/15240/intellectual-poverty/">Intellectual Poverty</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://drm.info/">Official drm.info site</a> run by the Free Software Foundation Europe (FSFE)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.defectivebydesign.org/what_is_drm_digital_restrictions_management">"What is DRM?"</a>. <i>defectivebydesign</i>. Defective by Design<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 August</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=defectivebydesign&rft.atitle=What+is+DRM%3F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.defectivebydesign.org%2Fwhat_is_drm_digital_restrictions_management&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Birgitte Andersen. "'Intellectual Property Right' Or 'Intellectual Monopoly Privilege: Which One Should Patent Analysts Focus On?" CONFERENCIA INTERNACIONAL SOBRE SISTEMAS DE INOVAÇÃO E ESTRATÉGIAS DE DESENVOLVIMENTO PARA O TERCEIRO MILÊNIO. Nov 2003</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartinSorensonFaunce2007" class="citation journal cs1">Martin, G; Sorenson, C; Faunce, TA (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1904211">"Balancing intellectual monopoly privileges and the need for essential medicines"</a>. <i>Globalization and Health</i>. <b>3</b> (1): 4. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2F1744-8603-3-4">10.1186/1744-8603-3-4</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1904211">1904211</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17565684">17565684</a>. <q>Balancing the need to protect the intellectual property rights (IPRs) (which the third author considers are more accurately described as intellectual monopoly privileges (IMPs)) of pharmaceutical companies, with the need to ensure access to essential medicines in developing countries is one of the most pressing challenges facing international policy makers today.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Globalization+and+Health&rft.atitle=Balancing+intellectual+monopoly+privileges+and+the+need+for+essential+medicines&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=4&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1904211%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17565684&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2F1744-8603-3-4&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=G&rft.au=Sorenson%2C+C&rft.au=Faunce%2C+TA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1904211&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndersen2003" class="citation web cs1">Andersen, Birgitte (November 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://redesist.ie.ufrj.br/globelics/pdfs/GLOBELICS_0050_Andersen.pdf">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Intellectual Property Right' Or 'Intellectual Monopoly Privilege': Which One Should Patent Analysts Focus On?"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>RedeSist.ie.ufrj.br</i>. Conferência Internacional Sobre Sistemas De Inovação E Estratégias De Desenvolvimento Para O Terceiro Milênio.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=RedeSist.ie.ufrj.br&rft.atitle=%27Intellectual+Property+Right%27+Or+%27Intellectual+Monopoly+Privilege%27%3A+Which+One+Should+Patent+Analysts+Focus+On%3F&rft.date=2003-11&rft.aulast=Andersen&rft.aufirst=Birgitte&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fredesist.ie.ufrj.br%2Fglobelics%2Fpdfs%2FGLOBELICS_0050_Andersen.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartinSorensonFaunce2007" class="citation journal cs1">Martin, G; Sorenson, C; Faunce, TA (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1904211">"Editorial: Balancing the need to protect the intellectual property rights (IPRs)"</a>. <i>Globalization and Health</i>. <b>3</b> (1): 4. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2F1744-8603-3-4">10.1186/1744-8603-3-4</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1904211">1904211</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17565684">17565684</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Globalization+and+Health&rft.atitle=Editorial%3A+Balancing+the+need+to+protect+the+intellectual+property+rights+%28IPRs%29&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=4&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1904211%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17565684&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2F1744-8603-3-4&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=G&rft.au=Sorenson%2C+C&rft.au=Faunce%2C+TA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1904211&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">On patents – <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaniel_B._Ravicher2008" class="citation web cs1">Daniel B. Ravicher (6 August 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d0chez_Jf5A">"Protecting Freedom In The Patent System: The Public Patent Foundation's Mission and Activities"</a>. <i>YouTube</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=YouTube&rft.atitle=Protecting+Freedom+In+The+Patent+System%3A+The+Public+Patent+Foundation%27s+Mission+and+Activities&rft.date=2008-08-06&rft.au=Daniel+B.+Ravicher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3Dd0chez_Jf5A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStiglitz2006" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stiglitz" title="Joseph Stiglitz">Stiglitz, Joseph</a> (13 October 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211028/UzhD7KVs-R4">"Authors@Google: Joseph Stiglitz – Making Globalization Work"</a>. <i>YouTube</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UzhD7KVs-R4#t=16m05s">the original</a> on 28 October 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=YouTube&rft.atitle=Authors%40Google%3A+Joseph+Stiglitz+%E2%80%93+Making+Globalization+Work.&rft.date=2006-10-13&rft.aulast=Stiglitz&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DUzhD7KVs-R4%23t%3D16m05s&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTimmer2012" class="citation web cs1">Timmer, John (21 November 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arstechnica.com/science/2012/11/stallmans-got-company-researcher-wants-nanotech-patent-moratorium/">"Stallman's got company: Researcher wants nanotech patent moratorium"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Ars_Technica" title="Ars Technica">Ars Technica</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ars+Technica&rft.atitle=Stallman%27s+got+company%3A+Researcher+wants+nanotech+patent+moratorium&rft.date=2012-11-21&rft.aulast=Timmer&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farstechnica.com%2Fscience%2F2012%2F11%2Fstallmans-got-company-researcher-wants-nanotech-patent-moratorium%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTimmer2012" class="citation web cs1">Timmer, John (23 November 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140302113908/http://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2012-11/23/professor-seeks-nanotech-patent-moratorium">"Freeze on nanotechnology patents proposed to help grow the sector"</a>. <i>Wired.co.uk</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2012-11/23/professor-seeks-nanotech-patent-moratorium">the original</a> on 2 March 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Wired.co.uk&rft.atitle=Freeze+on+nanotechnology+patents+proposed+to+help+grow+the+sector&rft.date=2012-11-23&rft.aulast=Timmer&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.co.uk%2Fnews%2Farchive%2F2012-11%2F23%2Fprofessor-seeks-nanotech-patent-moratorium&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Moser, Petra. 2013. "Patents and Innovation: Evidence from Economic History." Journal of Economic Perspectives, 27(1): 23–44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBatenBianchiMoser2017" class="citation journal cs1">Baten, Jörg; Bianchi, Nicola; Moser, Petra (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jdeveco.2017.01.002">"Compulsory licensing and innovation–Historical evidence from German patents after WWI"</a>. <i>Journal of Development Economics</i>. <b>126</b>: <span class="nowrap">231–</span>242. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jdeveco.2017.01.002">10.1016/j.jdeveco.2017.01.002</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Development+Economics&rft.atitle=Compulsory+licensing+and+innovation%E2%80%93Historical+evidence+from+German+patents+after+WWI&rft.volume=126&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E231-%3C%2Fspan%3E242&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jdeveco.2017.01.002&rft.aulast=Baten&rft.aufirst=J%C3%B6rg&rft.au=Bianchi%2C+Nicola&rft.au=Moser%2C+Petra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.jdeveco.2017.01.002&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrahosBraithwaite2002" class="citation book cs1">Drahos, Peter; Braithwaite, John (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080814200637/http://www.anu.edu.au/fellows/pdrahos/books/Information%20Feudalism.pdf"><i>Information Feudalism: Who Owns the Knowledge Economy?</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Earthscan Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85383-922-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85383-922-1"><bdi>978-1-85383-922-1</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.anu.edu.au/fellows/pdrahos/books/Information%20Feudalism.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 14 August 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Information+Feudalism%3A+Who+Owns+the+Knowledge+Economy%3F&rft.pub=Earthscan+Publications&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-85383-922-1&rft.aulast=Drahos&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Braithwaite%2C+John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.anu.edu.au%2Ffellows%2Fpdrahos%2Fbooks%2FInformation%2520Feudalism.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|website=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWIPO_–_World_Intellectual_Property_Organization" class="citation web cs1">WIPO – World Intellectual Property Organization. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111022125749/http://www.wipo.int/tk/en/hr/">"Human Rights and Intellectual Property: An Overview"</a>. <i>wipo</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wipo.int/tk/en/hr/">the original</a> on 22 October 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 October</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=wipo&rft.atitle=Human+Rights+and+Intellectual+Property%3A+An+Overview&rft.au=WIPO+%E2%80%93+World+Intellectual+Property+Organization&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wipo.int%2Ftk%2Fen%2Fhr%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUN_Committee_on_Economic_Social_and_Cultural_Rights2001" class="citation web cs1">UN Committee on Economic Social and Cultural Rights (14 December 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cescr/docs/statements/E.C.12.2001.15HRIntel-property.pdf">"Human rights and intellectual property"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>www2.ohchr.org</i>. Geneva. E/C.12/2001/15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www2.ohchr.org&rft.atitle=Human+rights+and+intellectual+property&rft.date=2001-12-14&rft.au=UN+Committee+on+Economic+Social+and+Cultural+Rights&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww2.ohchr.org%2Fenglish%2Fbodies%2Fcescr%2Fdocs%2Fstatements%2FE.C.12.2001.15HRIntel-property.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChapman2002" class="citation journal cs1">Chapman, Audrey R. (December 2002). "The Human Rights Implications of Intellectual Property Protection". <i>Journal of International Economic Law</i>. <b>5</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">861–</span>882. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjiel%2F5.4.861">10.1093/jiel/5.4.861</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+International+Economic+Law&rft.atitle=The+Human+Rights+Implications+of+Intellectual+Property+Protection&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E861-%3C%2Fspan%3E882&rft.date=2002-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjiel%2F5.4.861&rft.aulast=Chapman&rft.aufirst=Audrey+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cptech.org/ip/wipo/genevadeclaration.html">"Geneva Declaration on the Future of the World Intellectual Property Organization"</a>. <i>CPTech.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CPTech.org&rft.atitle=Geneva+Declaration+on+the+Future+of+the+World+Intellectual+Property+Organization&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cptech.org%2Fip%2Fwipo%2Fgenevadeclaration.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sonderholm-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sonderholm_110-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sonderholm_110-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSonderholm2010" class="citation journal cs1">Sonderholm, Jorn (2010). "Ethical Issues Surrounding Intellectual Property Rights". <i>Philosophy Compass</i>. <b>5</b> (12): <span class="nowrap">1107–</span>1115. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1747-9991.2010.00358.x">10.1111/j.1747-9991.2010.00358.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy+Compass&rft.atitle=Ethical+Issues+Surrounding+Intellectual+Property+Rights&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1107-%3C%2Fspan%3E1115&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1747-9991.2010.00358.x&rft.aulast=Sonderholm&rft.aufirst=Jorn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFD'Amato" class="citation web cs1">D'Amato, David. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.libertarianism.org/columns/libertarian-views-intellectual-property-rothbard-tucker-spooner-rand">"Libertarian Views of Intellectual Property: Rothbard, Tucker, Spooner, and Rand"</a>. <i>Libertarianism.org</i>. Cato Institute<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Libertarianism.org&rft.atitle=Libertarian+Views+of+Intellectual+Property%3A+Rothbard%2C+Tucker%2C+Spooner%2C+and+Rand&rft.aulast=D%27Amato&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.libertarianism.org%2Fcolumns%2Flibertarian-views-intellectual-property-rothbard-tucker-spooner-rand&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKinsella2004" class="citation web cs1">Kinsella, Stephan (20 January 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lewrockwell.com/2004/01/stephan-kinsella/what-it-means-to-be-an-anarcho-capitalist/">"What It Means To Be an Anarcho-Capitalist"</a>. <i>LewRockwell.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180415041048/https://www.lewrockwell.com/2004/01/stephan-kinsella/what-it-means-to-be-an-anarcho-capitalist/">Archived</a> from the original on 15 April 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 August</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=LewRockwell.com&rft.atitle=What+It+Means+To+Be+an+Anarcho-Capitalist&rft.date=2004-01-20&rft.aulast=Kinsella&rft.aufirst=Stephan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lewrockwell.com%2F2004%2F01%2Fstephan-kinsella%2Fwhat-it-means-to-be-an-anarcho-capitalist%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKinsella2008" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-unfit">Kinsella, N. Stephan (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080730030236/https://mises.org/books/against.pdf">"Against Intellectual property"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Ludwig von Mises Institute</i>. p. 44. Archived from the original on 30 July 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ludwig+von+Mises+Institute&rft.atitle=Against+Intellectual+property&rft.pages=44&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Kinsella&rft.aufirst=N.+Stephan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmises.org%2Fbooks%2Fagainst.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/a1_8_8s12.html">"Thomas Jefferson to Isaac McPherson"</a>. <i>press-pubs.uchicago.edu</i>. 13 August 1813.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=press-pubs.uchicago.edu&rft.atitle=Thomas+Jefferson+to+Isaac+McPherson&rft.date=1813-08-13&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpress-pubs.uchicago.edu%2Ffounders%2Fdocuments%2Fa1_8_8s12.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoyle2005" class="citation web cs1">Boyle, James (14 October 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/education/2005/oct/14/highereducation.uk">"Protecting the public domain"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Protecting+the+public+domain&rft.date=2005-10-14&rft.aulast=Boyle&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Feducation%2F2005%2Foct%2F14%2Fhighereducation.uk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBennet2009" class="citation journal cs1">Bennet, Philip (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1498783">"Native Americans and Intellectual Property: the Necessity of Implementing Collective Ideals into Current United States Intellectual Property Laws"</a>. <i>SSRN</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2139%2Fssrn.1498783">10.2139/ssrn.1498783</a>. <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1498783">1498783</a></span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231126150854/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1498783">Archived</a> from the original on 26 November 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=SSRN&rft.atitle=Native+Americans+and+Intellectual+Property%3A+the+Necessity+of+Implementing+Collective+Ideals+into+Current+United+States+Intellectual+Property+Laws&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D1498783%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2139%2Fssrn.1498783&rft.aulast=Bennet&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D1498783&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-JemielniakPrzegalinska20202-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-JemielniakPrzegalinska20202_117-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDariusz_JemielniakAleksandra_Przegalinska2020" class="citation book cs1">Dariusz Jemielniak; Aleksandra Przegalinska (18 February 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yLDMDwAAQBAJ"><i>Collaborative Society</i></a>. MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-35645-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-35645-9"><bdi>978-0-262-35645-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Collaborative+Society&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2020-02-18&rft.isbn=978-0-262-35645-9&rft.au=Dariusz+Jemielniak&rft.au=Aleksandra+Przegalinska&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyLDMDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFieslerFeustonBruckman2015" class="citation book cs1">Fiesler, Casey; Feuston, Jessica L.; Bruckman, Amy S. (28 February 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145/2675133.2675234">"Understanding Copyright Law in Online Creative Communities"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the 18th ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work & Social Computing</i>. CSCW '15. Vancouver, BC, Canada: Association for Computing Machinery. pp. <span class="nowrap">116–</span>129. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F2675133.2675234">10.1145/2675133.2675234</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4503-2922-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4503-2922-4"><bdi>978-1-4503-2922-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:28669082">28669082</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Understanding+Copyright+Law+in+Online+Creative+Communities&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+18th+ACM+Conference+on+Computer+Supported+Cooperative+Work+%26+Social+Computing&rft.place=Vancouver%2C+BC%2C+Canada&rft.series=CSCW+%2715&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E116-%3C%2Fspan%3E129&rft.pub=Association+for+Computing+Machinery&rft.date=2015-02-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A28669082%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F2675133.2675234&rft.isbn=978-1-4503-2922-4&rft.aulast=Fiesler&rft.aufirst=Casey&rft.au=Feuston%2C+Jessica+L.&rft.au=Bruckman%2C+Amy+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1145%2F2675133.2675234&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreund2016" class="citation journal cs1">Freund, Katharina (1 August 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444814555952">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Fair use is legal use": Copyright negotiations and strategies in the fan-vidding community"</a>. <i>New Media & Society</i>. <b>18</b> (7): <span class="nowrap">1347–</span>1363. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1461444814555952">10.1177/1461444814555952</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1461-4448">1461-4448</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:11258627">11258627</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Media+%26+Society&rft.atitle=%22Fair+use+is+legal+use%22%3A+Copyright+negotiations+and+strategies+in+the+fan-vidding+community&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1347-%3C%2Fspan%3E1363&rft.date=2016-08-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A11258627%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1461-4448&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1461444814555952&rft.aulast=Freund&rft.aufirst=Katharina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1177%2F1461444814555952&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllen2008" class="citation journal cs1">Allen, Peter James (24 August 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.uic.edu/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/2073">"Rip, mix, burn ... sue ... ad infinitum: The effects of deterrence vs voluntary cooperation on non-commercial online copyright infringing behaviour"</a>. <i>First Monday</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5210%2Ffm.v13i9.2073">10.5210/fm.v13i9.2073</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1396-0466">1396-0466</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=First+Monday&rft.atitle=Rip%2C+mix%2C+burn+...+sue+...+ad+infinitum%3A+The+effects+of+deterrence+vs+voluntary+cooperation+on+non-commercial+online+copyright+infringing+behaviour&rft.date=2008-08-24&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5210%2Ffm.v13i9.2073&rft.issn=1396-0466&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=Peter+James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.uic.edu%2Fojs%2Findex.php%2Ffm%2Farticle%2Fview%2F2073&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Council for Responsible Genetics, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111002092235/http://www.actionbioscience.org/genomics/crg.html">DNA Patents Create Monopolies on Living Organisms</a>". Retrieved 2008.12.18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Plant Patents <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/19990220172601/http://www.uspto.gov/web/offices/pac/plant/">USPTO.gov</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>E.g.</i>, the U.S. <a href="/wiki/Copyright_Term_Extension_Act" title="Copyright Term Extension Act">Copyright Term Extension Act</a>, Pub.L. 105–298.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mark Helprin, Op-ed: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/20/opinion/20helprin.html">A Great Idea Lives Forever. Shouldn't Its Copyright?</a> <i>The New York Times</i>, 20 May 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Eldred_v._Ashcroft" title="Eldred v. Ashcroft">Eldred v. Ashcroft</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/01-618.ZS.html">Eldred v. Ashcroft, 537 U. S. 186 (2003)</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-td_confused-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-td_confused_126-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMasnick2007" class="citation web cs1">Masnick, Mike (21 May 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090907142130/http://www.techdirt.com/articles/20070521/015928.shtml">"Arguing For Infinite Copyright... Using Copied Ideas And A Near Total Misunderstanding Of Property"</a>. <i>techdirt</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.techdirt.com/articles/20070521/015928.shtml">the original</a> on 7 September 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=techdirt&rft.atitle=Arguing+For+Infinite+Copyright...+Using+Copied+Ideas+And+A+Near+Total+Misunderstanding+Of+Property&rft.date=2007-05-21&rft.aulast=Masnick&rft.aufirst=Mike&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.techdirt.com%2Farticles%2F20070521%2F015928.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Library of Congress Copyright Office <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.copyright.gov/fedreg/2012/77fr64555.pdf">Docket No. 2012–12 Orphan Works and Mass Digitization</a> Federal Register, Vol. 77, No. 204. Monday, 22 October 2012. Notices. PP 64555–64561; see p 64555 first column for international efforts and 3rd column for description of the problem.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dennis Wharton, "MPAA's Rebel With Cause Fights for Copyright Coin", Variety (3 August 1992), Vol. 348, No. 2, p. 18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William W. Fisher III, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/property99/history.html">The Growth of Intellectual Property:A History of the Ownership of Ideas in the United States</a> Eigentumskulturen im Vergleich (Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1999)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2007–2010" class="citation web cs1">Smith, Brett (2007–2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gnu.org/licenses/quick-guide-gplv3.en.html">"A Quick Guide to GPLv3"</a>. <i>gnu</i>. <a href="/wiki/Free_Software_Foundation" title="Free Software Foundation">Free Software Foundation</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 February</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=gnu&rft.atitle=A+Quick+Guide+to+GPLv3&rft.date=2007%2F2010&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Brett&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gnu.org%2Flicenses%2Fquick-guide-gplv3.en.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Katherine Beckman and Christa Pletcher (2009) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ipjournal.law.wfu.edu/files/2010/10/article.10.215.pdf">Expanding Global Trademark Regulation</a> Wake Forest Intellectual Property Law Journal 10(2): 215–239</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFToplensky2018" class="citation news cs1">Toplensky, Rochelle (11 March 2018). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ft.com/content/2b356956-17fc-11e8-9376-4a6390addb44">"Multinationals pay lower taxes than a decade ago"</a></span>. <i>Financial Times</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/2b356956-17fc-11e8-9376-4a6390addb44">Archived</a> from the original on 10 December 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Financial+Times&rft.atitle=Multinationals+pay+lower+taxes+than+a+decade+ago&rft.date=2018-03-11&rft.aulast=Toplensky&rft.aufirst=Rochelle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ft.com%2Fcontent%2F2b356956-17fc-11e8-9376-4a6390addb44&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-fordam-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-fordam_133-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190502112434/http://www.fordhamiplj.org/2016/08/30/ip-tax-avoidance-ireland/">"Intellectual Property and Tax Avoidance in Ireland"</a>. <i>fordhamiplj</i>. Fordham Intellectual Property, Media & Entertainment Law Journal. 30 August 2016. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fordhamiplj.org/2016/08/30/ip-tax-avoidance-ireland/">the original</a> on 2 May 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=fordhamiplj&rft.atitle=Intellectual+Property+and+Tax+Avoidance+in+Ireland&rft.date=2016-08-30&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fordhamiplj.org%2F2016%2F08%2F30%2Fip-tax-avoidance-ireland%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ucla-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ucla_134-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Intellectual property (IP) has become the leading tax-avoidance vehicle.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150316232500/http://www.uclalawreview.org/pdf/62-1-1.pdf">"Intellectual Property Law Solutions to Tax Avoidance"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>uclalawreview</i>. UCLA Law Review. 2015. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uclalawreview.org/pdf/62-1-1.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 16 March 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=uclalawreview&rft.atitle=Intellectual+Property+Law+Solutions+to+Tax+Avoidance&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.uclalawreview.org%2Fpdf%2F62-1-1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lux-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lux_135-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.economist.com/business/2015/08/27/patently-problematic">"Patently problematic"</a>. <i>The Economist</i>. August 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=Patently+problematic&rft.date=2015-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fbusiness%2F2015%2F08%2F27%2Fpatently-problematic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tilburg-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tilburg_136-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://arno.uvt.nl/show.cgi?fid=143915">"Intellectual Property Tax Planning in the light of Base Erosion and Profit Shifting"</a>. University of Tilburg. June 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Intellectual+Property+Tax+Planning+in+the+light+of+Base+Erosion+and+Profit+Shifting&rft.pub=University+of+Tilburg&rft.date=2017-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farno.uvt.nl%2Fshow.cgi%3Ffid%3D143915&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-zew-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-zew_137-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ftp.zew.de/pub/zew-docs/dp/dp13078.pdf">"Profit Shifting and "Aggressive" Tax Planning by Multinational Firms"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Centre for European Economic Research (ZEW). October 2013. p. 3.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Profit+Shifting+and+%22Aggressive%22+Tax+Planning+by+Multinational+Firms&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Centre+for+European+Economic+Research+%28ZEW%29&rft.date=2013-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fftp.zew.de%2Fpub%2Fzew-docs%2Fdp%2Fdp13078.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BEPS_Background-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BEPS_Background_138-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BEPS_Background_138-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oecd.org/tax/beps/background-brief-inclusive-framework-for-beps-implementation.pdf">"BEPS Project Background Brief"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. OECD. January 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=BEPS+Project+Background+Brief&rft.pub=OECD&rft.date=2017-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oecd.org%2Ftax%2Fbeps%2Fbackground-brief-inclusive-framework-for-beps-implementation.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://taxfoundation.org/treatment-foreign-profits-tax-cuts-jobs-act/">"A Hybrid Approach: The Treatment of Foreign Profits under the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act"</a>. Tax Foundation. 3 May 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Hybrid+Approach%3A+The+Treatment+of+Foreign+Profits+under+the+Tax+Cuts+and+Jobs+Act&rft.pub=Tax+Foundation&rft.date=2018-05-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftaxfoundation.org%2Ftreatment-foreign-profits-tax-cuts-jobs-act%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.irishtimes.com/business/economy/trump-s-us-tax-reform-a-significant-challenge-for-ireland-1.3310866">"Trump's US tax reform a significant challenge for Ireland"</a>. <i>The Irish Times</i>. 30 November 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Irish+Times&rft.atitle=Trump%27s+US+tax+reform+a+significant+challenge+for+Ireland&rft.date=2017-11-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.irishtimes.com%2Fbusiness%2Feconomy%2Ftrump-s-us-tax-reform-a-significant-challenge-for-ireland-1.3310866&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.irishtimes.com/business/donald-trump-singles-out-ireland-in-tax-speech-1.3310149?mode=sample&auth-failed=1&pw-origin=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.irishtimes.com%2Fbusiness%2Fdonald-trump-singles-out-ireland-in-tax-speech-1.3310149">"Donald Trump singles out Ireland in tax speech"</a>. <i>The Irish Times</i>. 29 November 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Irish+Times&rft.atitle=Donald+Trump+singles+out+Ireland+in+tax+speech&rft.date=2017-11-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.irishtimes.com%2Fbusiness%2Fdonald-trump-singles-out-ireland-in-tax-speech-1.3310149%3Fmode%3Dsample%26auth-failed%3D1%26pw-origin%3Dhttps%253A%252F%252Fwww.irishtimes.com%252Fbusiness%252Fdonald-trump-singles-out-ireland-in-tax-speech-1.3310149&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.irishtimes.com/business/economy/why-ireland-faces-a-fight-on-the-corporate-tax-front-1.3426080">"Why Ireland faces a fight on the corporate tax front"</a>. <i>The Irish Times</i>. 14 March 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Irish+Times&rft.atitle=Why+Ireland+faces+a+fight+on+the+corporate+tax+front&rft.date=2018-03-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.irishtimes.com%2Fbusiness%2Feconomy%2Fwhy-ireland-faces-a-fight-on-the-corporate-tax-front-1.3426080&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.ie/business/irish/eu-digital-levy-could-hit-tech-fdi-and-tax-revenue-here-36725944.html">"EU digital levy could hit tech FDI and tax revenue here"</a>. <i>Irish Independent</i>. 21 March 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Irish+Independent&rft.atitle=EU+digital+levy+could+hit+tech+FDI+and+tax+revenue+here&rft.date=2018-03-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.ie%2Fbusiness%2Firish%2Feu-digital-levy-could-hit-tech-fdi-and-tax-revenue-here-36725944.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thejournal.ie/eu-digital-tax-ireland-2-2-3918628-Mar2018/">"What the EU's new taxes on the tech giants mean – and how they would hurt Ireland"</a>. thejournal.ie. 24 March 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+the+EU%27s+new+taxes+on+the+tech+giants+mean+%E2%80%93+and+how+they+would+hurt+Ireland&rft.pub=thejournal.ie&rft.date=2018-03-24&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thejournal.ie%2Feu-digital-tax-ireland-2-2-3918628-Mar2018%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-un1-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-un1_145-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.taxjustice.net/2017/09/11/new-un-tax-handbook-sets-lower-income-countries-oecd-beps/">"New UN tax handbook: Lower-income countries vs OECD BEPS failure"</a>. Tax Justice Network. 11 September 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=New+UN+tax+handbook%3A+Lower-income+countries+vs+OECD+BEPS+failure&rft.pub=Tax+Justice+Network&rft.date=2017-09-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.taxjustice.net%2F2017%2F09%2F11%2Fnew-un-tax-handbook-sets-lower-income-countries-oecd-beps%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWIPO2021" class="citation web cs1">WIPO, World Intellectual Property Organization (8 March 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wipo.int/women-and-ip/en/">"Gender Equality, Diversity and Intellectual Property"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Gender+Equality%2C+Diversity+and+Intellectual+Property&rft.date=2021-03-08&rft.aulast=WIPO&rft.aufirst=World+Intellectual+Property+Organization&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wipo.int%2Fwomen-and-ip%2Fen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWIPO2021" class="citation web cs1">WIPO, World Intellectual Property Organization (21 May 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wipo.int/women-and-ip/en/news/2021/news_0005.html">"Closing the Gender Gap in IP"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Closing+the+Gender+Gap+in+IP&rft.date=2021-05-21&rft.aulast=WIPO&rft.aufirst=World+Intellectual+Property+Organization&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wipo.int%2Fwomen-and-ip%2Fen%2Fnews%2F2021%2Fnews_0005.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Arai, Hisamitsu. "Intellectual Property Policies for the Twenty-First Century: The Japanese Experience in Wealth Creation", <a href="/wiki/WIPO" class="mw-redirect" title="WIPO">WIPO</a> Publication Number 834 (E). 2000. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20121212232107/http://www.wipo.int/freepublications/en/intproperty/834/index.html">wipo.int</a></li> <li>Bettig, R. V. (1996). "Critical Perspectives on the History and Philosophy of Copyright". In R. V. Bettig, <i>Copyrighting Culture: The Political Economy of Intellectual Property</i> (pp. 9–32). Boulder, CO: <a href="/wiki/Westview_Press" title="Westview Press">Westview Press</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michele_Boldrin" title="Michele Boldrin">Boldrin, Michele</a> and <a href="/wiki/David_K._Levine" title="David K. Levine">David K. Levine</a>. "Against Intellectual Monopoly", 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dklevine.com/papers/imbookfinalall.pdf">dkleving.com</a></li> <li>Hahn, Robert W., <i>Intellectual Property Rights in Frontier Industries: Software and Biotechnology</i>, AEI Press, March 2005.</li> <li>Branstetter, Lee, <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Fisman" title="Raymond Fisman">Raymond Fisman</a> and <a href="/wiki/C._Fritz_Foley" title="C. Fritz Foley">C. Fritz Foley</a>. "Do Stronger Intellectual Property Rights Increase International Technology Transfer? Empirical Evidence from US Firm-Level Data". <a href="/wiki/NBER" class="mw-redirect" title="NBER">NBER</a> Working Paper 11516. July 2005. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081122150353/http://weblog.ipcentral.info/IPRs%20%26%20Tech%20Trans.pdf">weblog.ipcentral.info</a></li> <li>Connell, Shaun. "Intellectual Ownership". October 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071221052053/http://rebirthoffreedom.org/freedom/property/intellectual-ownership/">rebirthofffreedom.org</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_T._De_George" title="Richard T. De George">De George, Richard T.</a> "Intellectual Property Rights". In George G. Brenkert and <a href="/wiki/Tom_L._Beauchamp" class="mw-redirect" title="Tom L. Beauchamp">Tom L. Beauchamp</a> (eds.), <i>The Oxford Handbook of Business Ethics</i>, eds. (pp. 408–439). 1st ed. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, n.d.</li> <li>Farah, Paolo and Elena Cima. "China's Participation in the World Trade Organization: Trade in Goods, Services, Intellectual Property Rights and Transparency Issues". In Aurelio Lopez-Tarruella Martinez (ed.), <span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es">El comercio con China. Oportunidades empresariales, incertidumbres jurídicas</i></span> (pp. 85–121). <a href="/wiki/Tirant_lo_Blanch" title="Tirant lo Blanch">Tirant lo Blanch</a>, Valencia, Spain, 2010. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-8456-981-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-84-8456-981-7">978-84-8456-981-7</a>. Available at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=1527992">SSRN.com</a></li> <li>Farah, Paolo Davide and Tremolada Riccardo. "Desirability of Commodification of Intangible Cultural Heritage: The Unsatisfying Role of IPRs". In <i>Transnational Dispute Management, Special Issue</i>, vol. 11, iss. 2, March 2014. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:1875-4120">1875-4120</a> Available at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=2472339">SSRN.com</a></li> <li>Farah, Paolo Davide and Tremolada Riccardo. "Intellectual Property Rights, Human Rights and Intangible Cultural Heritage". <i>Journal of Intellectual Property Law</i>, iss. 2, p. I, June 2014. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0035-614X">0035-614X</a>, Giuffre, pp. 21–47. Available at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=2472388">SSRN.com</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldsteinReese2008" class="citation book cs1">Goldstein, Paul; Reese, R. Anthony (2008). <i>Copyright, Patent, Trademark and Related State Doctrines: Cases and Materials on the Law of Intellectual Property</i> (6th ed.). New York: Foundation Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59941-139-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59941-139-2"><bdi>978-1-59941-139-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Copyright%2C+Patent%2C+Trademark+and+Related+State+Doctrines%3A+Cases+and+Materials+on+the+Law+of+Intellectual+Property&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Foundation+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-59941-139-2&rft.aulast=Goldstein&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Reese%2C+R.+Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Gowers" title="Andrew Gowers">Gowers, Andrew</a>. "Gowers Review of Intellectual Property". <a href="/wiki/Her_Majesty%27s_Treasury" class="mw-redirect" title="Her Majesty's Treasury">Her Majesty's Treasury</a>, November 2006. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090407093401/http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/d/pbr06_gowers_report_755.pdf">hm-treasury.gov.uk</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-11-840483-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-11-840483-9">978-0-11-840483-9</a>.</li> <li>Greenhalgh, C. and M. Rogers, (2010). <i>Innovation, Intellectual Property, and Economic Growth</i>. New Jersey: <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephan_Kinsella" title="Stephan Kinsella">Kinsella, Stephan</a>. "Against Intellectual Property". <i>Journal of Libertarian Studies</i> (pp. 1–53), vol. 15, no. 2, Spring 2001. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mises.org/journals/jls/15_2/15_2_1.pdf">mises.org</a></li> <li>Lai, Edwin. "The Economics of Intellectual Property Protection in the Global Economy", April 2001. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dklevine.com/archive/refs4122247000000000481.pdf">dklevine.com</a></li> <li>Lee, Richmond K. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.philstar.com/business/320465/scope-and-interplay-ip-rights">Scope and Interplay of IP Rights</a></i>. Accralaw Offices.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Lessig" title="Lawrence Lessig">Lessig, Lawrence</a>. "Free Culture: How Big Media Uses Technology and the Law to Lock Down Culture and Control Creativity", 2004. New York: <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Penguin Press">Penguin Press</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.free-culture.cc/freeculture.pdf">free-culture.cc</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090916145748/http://www.free-culture.cc/freeculture.pdf">Archived</a> 16 September 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li> <li>Lindberg, Van. <i>Intellectual Property and Open Source: A Practical Guide to Protecting Code</i>, 2008. <a href="/wiki/O%27Reilly_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="O'Reilly Books">O'Reilly Books</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-596-51796-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-596-51796-3">0-596-51796-3</a> | <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-596-51796-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-596-51796-0">978-0-596-51796-0</a></li> <li>Maskus, Keith E. "Intellectual Property Rights and Economic Development". <i><a href="/wiki/Case_Western_Reserve_Journal_of_International_Law" title="Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law">Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law</a></i>, vol. 32, no. 471. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081223230716/http://www.law.case.edu/student_life/">journals/jil/32-3/maskusarticle.pdf law.case.edu</a></li> <li>Mazzone, Jason. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=787244">Copyfraud</a>". <a href="/wiki/Brooklyn_Law_School" title="Brooklyn Law School">Brooklyn Law School</a>, Legal Studies Paper No. 40. <i><a href="/wiki/New_York_University_Law_Review" title="New York University Law Review">New York University Law Review</a></i>, no. 81, 2006. (Abstract.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_R._Miller" title="Arthur R. Miller">Miller, Arthur Raphael</a>, and Michael H. Davis. <i>Intellectual Property: Patents, Trademarks, and Copyright</i>, 3rd ed. New York: West/Wadsworth, 2000. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-314-23519-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-314-23519-1">0-314-23519-1</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_D._Moore" title="Adam D. Moore">Moore, Adam</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2011/entries/intellectual-property">"Intellectual Property"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Edward N. Zalta</a> (ed.), <a href="/wiki/The_Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>, Summer 2011 Edition.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chaire-epi.ulaval.ca/sites/chaire-epi.ulaval.ca/files/publications/morin_2014_paradigm_shift_agency_of_academics.pdf">Morin, Jean-Frédéric, Paradigm Shift in the Global IP Regime: The Agency of Academics, Review of International Political Economy, vol. 21(2), 2014, pp. 275–309.</a></li> <li>Mossoff, A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=787244">'Rethinking the Development of Patents: An Intellectual History, 1550–1800,'</a> Hastings Law Journal, Vol. 52, p. 1255, 2001</li> <li>Rozanski, Felix. "Developing Countries and Pharmaceutical Intellectual Property Rights: Myths and Reality" <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091009142207/http://www.stockholm-network.org/downloads/publications/Developing_Countries_and_Intellectual_Property_Rights_Myth_and_Reality_6.pdf">stockholm-network.org</a></li> <li>Perelman, Michael. <i>Steal This Idea: Intellectual Property and The Corporate Confiscation of Creativity</i>. Palgrave Macmillan, 2004.</li> <li>Rand, Ayn. "Patents and Copyrights" in Ayn Rand, ed. 'Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal,' New York: New American Library, 1966, pp. 126–128</li> <li>Reisman, George. 'Capitalism: A Complete & Integrated Understanding of the Nature & Value of Human Economic Life,' Ottawa, Illinois: 1996, pp. 388–389</li> <li>Schechter, Roger E., and John R. Thomas. <i>Intellectual Property: The Law of Copyrights, Patents and Trademarks</i>. New York: West/Wadsworth, 2003, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-314-06599-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-314-06599-7">0-314-06599-7</a>.</li> <li>Schneider, Patricia H. "International Trade, Economic Growth and Intellectual Property Rights: A Panel Data Study of Developed and Developing Countries". July 2004. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090226035349/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/~pschneid/images/Schneider_JDEJuly2004.pdf">mtholyoke.edu</a></li> <li>Shapiro, Robert and Nam Pham. "Economic Effects of Intellectual Property-Intensive Manufacturing in the United States". July 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080216195041/http://www.the-value-of-ip.org/">the-value-of.ip.org</a>. Retrieved 9 April 2008.</li> <li>Spooner, Lysander. "The Law of Intellectual Property; or An Essay on the Right of Authors and Inventors to a Perpetual Property in their Ideas". Boston: Bela Marsh, 1855.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siva_Vaidhyanathan" title="Siva Vaidhyanathan">Vaidhyanathan, Siva</a>. <i>The Anarchist in the Library: How the Clash Between Freedom and Control Is Hacking the Real World and Crashing the System</i>. New York: Basic Books, 2004.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurk,_Dan_L.Mark_A._Lemley2009" class="citation book cs1">Burk, Dan L. & Mark A. Lemley (2009). <i>The Patent Crisis and How the Courts Can Solve It</i>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-08061-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-08061-1"><bdi>978-0-226-08061-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Patent+Crisis+and+How+the+Courts+Can+Solve+It&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-226-08061-1&rft.au=Burk%2C+Dan+L.&rft.au=Mark+A.+Lemley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Intellectual_property" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Intellectual property">Intellectual property</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Scholia_logo.svg/40px-Scholia_logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Scholia_logo.svg/60px-Scholia_logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Scholia_logo.svg/80px-Scholia_logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="107" data-file-height="104" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Wikidata:Scholia" class="extiw" title="d:Wikidata:Scholia">Scholia</a> has a <i>topic</i> profile for <i><b><a href="https://iw.toolforge.org/scholia/topic/Q131257" class="extiw" title="toolforge:scholia/topic/Q131257">Intellectual property</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Intellectual property</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Intellectual+property">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Intellectual+property&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Intellectual property">Intellectual property</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/European_Audiovisual_Observatory" title="European Audiovisual Observatory">European Audiovisual Observatory</a> hosts articles on <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130729081345/http://www.obs.coe.int/en/legal/copyright/">copyright</a> legislature and covers media laws in their <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://merlin.obs.coe.int/newsletter/index">newsletter</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.statista.com/topics/3493/media-piracy/">Internet/Media Piracy: Statistics & Facts</a>—Statista</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Intellectual_property_activism89" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Intellectual_property_activism" title="Template:Intellectual property activism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Intellectual_property_activism" title="Template talk:Intellectual property activism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Intellectual_property_activism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Intellectual property activism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Intellectual_property_activism89" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Intellectual property</a> activism</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_scarcity" title="Artificial scarcity">Artificial scarcity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_by_copyright" title="Censorship by copyright">Censorship by copyright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_infringement" title="Copyright infringement">Copyright infringement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_troll" title="Copyright troll">Copyright troll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_rights_management" title="Digital rights management">Digital rights management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gripe_site" title="Gripe site">Gripe site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_aspects_of_file_sharing" title="Legal aspects of file sharing">Legal aspects of file sharing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashup_(culture)" title="Mashup (culture)">Mashup</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mashup_(web_application_hybrid)" title="Mashup (web application hybrid)">digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashup_(music)" title="Mashup (music)">music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashup_novel" title="Mashup novel">novel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashup_(video)" title="Mashup (video)">videos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopolies_of_knowledge" title="Monopolies of knowledge">Monopolies of knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_piracy" title="Music piracy">Music piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orphan_work" title="Orphan work">Orphan works</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biopiracy" title="Biopiracy">Biopiracy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioprospecting" title="Bioprospecting">Bioprospecting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Societal_views_on_patents" class="mw-redirect" title="Societal views on patents">Patents</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_patent" title="Biological patent">biological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_patent" title="Software patent">software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_patent_debate" title="Software patent debate">software patent debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patent_troll" title="Patent troll">trolling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">Public domain</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/All_rights_reversed" title="All rights reversed">All rights reversed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_alternatives" title="Copyright alternatives">Alternative compensation system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-copyright_notice" title="Anti-copyright notice">Anti-copyright notice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_models_for_open-source_software" title="Business models for open-source software">Business models for open-source software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyleft" title="Copyleft">Copyleft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_use_of_copyleft_works" title="Commercial use of copyleft works">Commercial use of copyleft works</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commons-based_peer_production" title="Commons-based peer production">Commons-based peer production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_sell-through" title="Electronic sell-through">Electronic sell-through</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_content" title="Free content">Free content</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-software_license" title="Free-software license">Free-software license</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_perspectives_on_intellectual_property" title="Libertarian perspectives on intellectual property">Libertarian positions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_content" class="mw-redirect" title="Open content">Open content</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-design_movement" title="Open-design movement">Open-design movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_music_model" title="Open music model">Open music model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patentleft" title="Patentleft">Open patent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_source" title="Open source">Open source</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Open-source_hardware" title="Open-source hardware">hardware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-source_software" title="Open-source software">software</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prizes_as_an_alternative_to_patents" title="Prizes as an alternative to patents">Prizes instead of patents</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inducement_prize_contest" title="Inducement prize contest">contests</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Share-alike" title="Share-alike">Share-alike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_on_demand" title="Video on demand">Video on demand</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Access_to_Knowledge_movement" title="Access to Knowledge movement">Access to Knowledge movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_copyright" title="Criticism of copyright">Anti-copyright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_environmentalism" title="Cultural environmentalism">Cultural environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-culture_movement" title="Free-culture movement">Free-culture movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_software_movement" title="Free software movement">Free software movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pro-copyright</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Alliance" title="Copyright Alliance">Copyright Alliance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pro-copyleft</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anna%27s_Archive" title="Anna's Archive">Anna's Archive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creative_Commons" title="Creative Commons">Creative Commons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_Frontier_Foundation" title="Electronic Frontier Foundation">Electronic Frontier Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Software_Foundation" title="Free Software Foundation">Free Software Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Library_Genesis" title="Library Genesis">Library Genesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Rights_Group" title="Open Rights Group">Open Rights Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_for_Transformative_Works" title="Organization for Transformative Works">Organization for Transformative Works</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Pirate_Bay" title="The Pirate Bay">The Pirate Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piratbyr%C3%A5n" title="Piratbyrån">Piratbyrån</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pirate_Party" title="Pirate Party">Pirate Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Knowledge" title="Public Knowledge">Public Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sci-Hub" title="Sci-Hub">Sci-Hub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shadow_library" title="Shadow library">Shadow library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Students_for_Free_Culture" title="Students for Free Culture">Students for Free Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z-Library" title="Z-Library">Z-Library</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cory_Doctorow" title="Cory Doctorow">Cory Doctorow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandra_Elbakyan" title="Alexandra Elbakyan">Alexandra Elbakyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rick_Falkvinge" title="Rick Falkvinge">Rick Falkvinge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Lessig" title="Lawrence Lessig">Lawrence Lessig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Stallman" title="Richard Stallman">Richard Stallman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Suber" title="Peter Suber">Peter Suber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Sunde" title="Peter Sunde">Peter Sunde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Swartz" title="Aaron Swartz">Aaron Swartz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Documentaries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Steal_This_Film" title="Steal This Film">Steal This Film</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Good_Copy_Bad_Copy" title="Good Copy Bad Copy">Good Copy Bad Copy</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/RiP!:_A_Remix_Manifesto" title="RiP!: A Remix Manifesto">RiP!: A Remix Manifesto</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/TPB_AFK" title="TPB AFK">TPB AFK</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Internet%27s_Own_Boy" title="The Internet's Own Boy">The Internet's Own Boy</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Law519" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Law" title="Template:Law"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Law" title="Template talk:Law"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Law" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Law"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Law519" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Core subjects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_law" title="Administrative law">Administrative law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_civil_law_(common_law)" title="Outline of civil law (common law)">Civil law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_law" title="Constitutional law">Constitutional law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract" title="Contract">Contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">Criminal law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">Crime</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deed" title="Deed">Deed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_doctrine" title="Legal doctrine">Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equity_(law)" title="Equity (law)">Equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_(law)" title="Evidence (law)">Evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">International law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_obligations" title="Law of obligations">Law of obligations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_law" title="Private law">Private law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedural_law" title="Procedural law">Procedure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_procedure" title="Civil procedure">Civil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_procedure" title="Criminal procedure">Criminal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">Property law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_law" title="Public law">Public law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punishment" title="Punishment">Punishment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corporal_punishment" title="Corporal punishment">Corporal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restitution_and_unjust_enrichment" title="Restitution and unjust enrichment">Restitution and unjust enrichment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tort" title="Tort">Tort</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_law" title="Abortion law">Abortion law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_law" title="Agricultural law">Agricultural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_law" title="Aviation law">Aviation law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amnesty_law" title="Amnesty law">Amnesty law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bank_regulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Bank regulation">Banking law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bankruptcy" title="Bankruptcy">Bankruptcy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_law" title="Commercial law">Commercial law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_law" title="Competition law">Competition law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_laws" title="Conflict of laws">Conflict of laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_law" title="Construction law">Construction law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_protection" title="Consumer protection">Consumer protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_law" title="Corporate law">Corporate law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IT_law" class="mw-redirect" title="IT law">Cyberlaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy" title="Drug policy">Drugs law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_law" title="Election law">Election law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_law" title="Energy law">Energy law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entertainment_law" title="Entertainment law">Entertainment law</a> (Media law)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_law" title="Environmental law">Environmental law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_law" title="Family law">Family law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_law" title="Financial law">Financial law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_regulation" title="Financial regulation">Financial regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_law" title="Health law">Health law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_law" title="Immigration law">Immigration law</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Intellectual property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">International criminal law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_human_rights_law" title="International human rights law">International human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_international_law" title="Slavery in international law">International slavery laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_trade_law" title="International trade law">International trade law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurimetrics" title="Jurimetrics">Jurimetrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_law" title="Labour law">Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landlord%E2%80%93tenant_law" title="Landlord–tenant law">Landlord–tenant law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_war" title="Law of war">Law of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_archaeology" title="Legal archaeology">Legal archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_fiction" title="Legal fiction">Legal fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Admiralty_law" title="Admiralty law">Maritime law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_law" title="Marriage law">Marriage law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_justice" title="Military justice">Military law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationality_law" title="Nationality law">Nationality law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probate" title="Probate">Probate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estate_(law)" title="Estate (law)">Estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_and_testament" title="Will and testament">Will and testament</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Product_liability" title="Product liability">Product liability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">Public international law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refugee_law" title="Refugee law">Refugee law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reparation_(legal)" title="Reparation (legal)">Reparations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_law" title="Space law">Space law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_law_in_the_United_States" title="Sports law in the United States">Sports law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_emergency" title="State of emergency">State of emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_law" title="Tax law">Tax law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_law" title="Transport law">Transport law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(law)" title="Trust (law)">Trust law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unenforced_law" title="Unenforced law">Unenforced law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sources_of_law" title="Sources of law">Sources of law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charter" title="Charter">Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_law" title="Code of law">Legal code</a> / <a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution" title="Constitution">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">Custom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_law" title="Divine law">Divine law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(political)" class="mw-redirect" title="Legitimacy (political)">Legitimacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letters_patent" title="Letters patent">Letters patent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man-made_law" title="Man-made law">Man-made law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_rights_and_legal_rights" title="Natural rights and legal rights">Natural and legal rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_law" title="Case law">Case law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Precedent" title="Precedent">Precedent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_report" title="Law report">Law reports</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_treatise" title="Legal treatise">Legal treatise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lawmaking" title="Lawmaking">Law making</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Referendum" title="Referendum">Ballot measure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Codification_(law)" title="Codification (law)">Codification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decree" title="Decree">Decree</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edict" title="Edict">Edict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_order_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Executive order (disambiguation)">Executive order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclamation" title="Proclamation">Proclamation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislation" title="Legislation">Legislation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_and_secondary_legislation" title="Primary and secondary legislation">Delegated legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rulemaking" title="Rulemaking">Rulemaking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promulgation" title="Promulgation">Promulgation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratification" title="Ratification">Ratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repeal" title="Repeal">Repeal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty" title="Treaty">Treaty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concordat" title="Concordat">Concordat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statute" title="Statute">Statute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_of_parliament" title="Act of parliament">Act of parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_of_Congress" title="Act of Congress">Act of Congress</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_structure_doctrine" title="Basic structure doctrine">Basic structure doctrine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_legal_systems" title="List of national legal systems">Legal systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">Civil law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">Common law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_law" title="Chinese law">Chinese law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_pluralism" title="Legal pluralism">Legal pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_law" title="Religious law">Religious law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">Canon law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canon_law_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Canon law of the Catholic Church">Catholic canon law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_law" title="Hindu law">Hindu law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_law" title="Jain law">Jain law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Jewish law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parsi_law" title="Parsi law">Parsi law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_law" title="Byzantine law">Byzantine law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_law" title="Socialist law">Socialist law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xeer" title="Xeer">Xeer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yassa" title="Yassa">Yassa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Legal theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_law" title="Anarchist law">Anarchist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract_theory" title="Contract theory">Contract theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_law" title="Comparative law">Comparative law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressive_function_of_law" title="Expressive function of law">Expressive function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_legal_theory" title="Feminist legal theory">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Law and economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_formalism" title="Legal formalism">Legal formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_theories_of_law" title="Libertarian theories of law">Libertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_legal_theories" title="International legal theories">International legal theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legality" title="Legality">Principle of legality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_typicality" title="Principle of typicality">Principle of typicality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudolaw" title="Pseudolaw">Pseudolaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_man" title="Rule of man">Rule of man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">Sociology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adjudication" title="Adjudication">Adjudication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administration_of_justice" title="Administration of justice">Administration of justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_justice" title="Criminal justice">Criminal justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court-martial" title="Court-martial">Court-martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dispute_resolution" title="Dispute resolution">Dispute resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Fiqh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawsuit" title="Lawsuit">Lawsuit/Litigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_opinion" title="Legal opinion">Legal opinion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_remedy" title="Legal remedy">Legal remedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judge" title="Judge">Judge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Justice_of_the_peace" title="Justice of the peace">Justice of the peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magistrate" title="Magistrate">Magistrate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judgment_(law)" title="Judgment (law)">Judgment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_interpretation" title="Judicial interpretation">Judicial interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_review" title="Judicial review">Judicial review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisdiction" title="Jurisdiction">Jurisdiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jury" title="Jury">Jury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practice_of_law" title="Practice of law">Practice of law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attorney_at_law" title="Attorney at law">Attorney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barrister" title="Barrister">Barrister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counsel" title="Counsel">Counsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawyer" title="Lawyer">Lawyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_(legal)" title="Defense (legal)">Legal representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosecutor" title="Prosecutor">Prosecutor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solicitor" title="Solicitor">Solicitor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Question_of_law#Question_of_fact" title="Question of law">Question of fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Question_of_law" title="Question of law">Question of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial" title="Trial">Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial_advocacy" title="Trial advocacy">Trial advocacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trier_of_fact" title="Trier of fact">Trier of fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verdict" title="Verdict">Verdict</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Legal institutions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barristers%27_chambers" title="Barristers' chambers">Barristers' chambers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_(law)" title="Bar (law)">The bar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bench_(law)" title="Bench (law)">The bench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_society" title="Civil society">Civil society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court" title="Court">Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court_of_equity" title="Court of equity">Court of equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_commission" title="Election commission">Election commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">Executive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary" title="Judiciary">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement" title="Law enforcement">Law enforcement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_agency" title="Law enforcement agency">Agency</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_education" title="Legal education">Legal education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_school" title="Law school">Law school</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislature" title="Legislature">Legislature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police" title="Police">Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_party" title="Political party">Political party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribunal" title="Tribunal">Tribunal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_legal_profession" title="History of the legal profession">History of the legal profession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_American_legal_profession" title="History of the American legal profession">History of the American legal profession</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_law" title="Women in law">Women in law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Balance,_by_David.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/30px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/46px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/61px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="606" data-file-height="558" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Law" title="Portal:Law">Law portal</a></b></li> <li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Category:Law" title="Category:Law">Category</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_law_articles" title="Index of law articles">Index</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_law" title="Outline of law">Outline</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Property479" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Property_navbox" title="Template:Property navbox"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Property_navbox" title="Template talk:Property navbox"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Property_navbox" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Property navbox"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Property479" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By owner</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collective_ownership" title="Collective ownership">Collective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_ownership" title="Common ownership">Common</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communal_land" title="Communal land">Communal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_property" title="Community property">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_land" title="Crown land">Crown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_land" title="Customary land">Customary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative" title="Cooperative">Cooperative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">Private</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_property" title="Public property">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-ownership" title="Self-ownership">Self</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_ownership" title="Social ownership">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_ownership" title="State ownership">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unowned_property" title="Unowned property">Unowned</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By nature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Croft_(land)" title="Croft (land)">Croft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estate_in_land" title="Estate in land">Estate (landed)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intangible_property" title="Intangible property">Intangible</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Intellectual</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_intellectual_property" title="Indigenous intellectual property">indigenous</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_property" title="Personal property">Personal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangible_property" title="Tangible property">Tangible</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Real_property" title="Real property">real</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Commons" title="Commons">Commons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Common_land" title="Common land">Common land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common-pool_resource" title="Common-pool resource">Common-pool resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_commons_(economics)" title="Digital commons (economics)">Digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_commons" title="Global commons">Global</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_commons" title="Information commons">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_commons" title="Knowledge commons">Knowledge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bundle_of_rights" title="Bundle of rights">Bundle of rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commodity" title="Commodity">Commodity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fictitious_commodities" title="Fictitious commodities">fictitious commodities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good_(economics)" title="Common good (economics)">Common good (economics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excludability" title="Excludability">Excludability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_possession_theory_of_property" title="First possession theory of property">First possession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Original_appropriation" title="Original appropriation">appropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homestead_principle" title="Homestead principle">homestead principle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-rider_problem" title="Free-rider problem">Free-rider problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_theory" title="Game theory">Game theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgism" title="Georgism">Georgism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gift_economy" title="Gift economy">Gift economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_theory_of_property" title="Labor theory of property">Labor theory of property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_rent" title="Law of rent">Law of rent</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rent-seeking" title="Rent-seeking">rent-seeking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_plunder" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal plunder">Legal plunder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_rights_and_legal_rights" title="Natural rights and legal rights">Natural rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ownership" title="Ownership">Ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_rights_(economics)" title="Property rights (economics)">Property rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primogeniture" title="Primogeniture">primogeniture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usufruct" title="Usufruct">usufruct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_property_rights" title="Women's property rights">women's</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">Right to property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rivalry_(economics)" title="Rivalry (economics)">Rivalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_commons" title="Tragedy of the commons">Tragedy of the commons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_anticommons" title="Tragedy of the anticommons">anticommons</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acequia" title="Acequia"><i>Acequia</i> (watercourse)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ejido" title="Ejido"><i>Ejido</i> (agrarian land)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estate_(law)" title="Estate (law)">Estate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estate_(law)" title="Estate (law)">legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_estate" title="Literary estate">literary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_estate" title="Real estate">real</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_types_of_formally_designated_forests" title="List of types of formally designated forests">Forest types</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Huerta" title="Huerta">Huerta</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inheritance" title="Inheritance">Inheritance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Executor" title="Executor">executor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_tenure" title="Land tenure">Land tenure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">Property law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alienation_(property_law)" title="Alienation (property law)">alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Easement" title="Easement">easement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restraint_on_alienation" title="Restraint on alienation">restraint on alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_estate" title="Real estate">real estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Title_(property)" title="Title (property)">title</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rights</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_rights" title="Air rights">Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusive_economic_zone" title="Exclusive economic zone">Fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Scheduled_Tribes_and_Other_Traditional_Forest_Dwellers_(Recognition_of_Forest_Rights)_Act,_2006" title="The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006">Forest-dwelling (India)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_to_roam" title="Freedom to roam">Freedom to roam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grazing_rights" title="Grazing rights">Grazing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pannage" title="Pannage">pannage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting" title="Hunting">Hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_law#Land_rights" title="Land law">Land</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title" title="Aboriginal title">aboriginal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_land_rights" title="Indigenous land rights">indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squatting" title="Squatting">squatting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_rights" title="Littoral rights">Littoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_rights" title="Mineral rights">Mineral</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Bergregal" title="Bergregal">Bergregal</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_way_(transit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Right of way (transit)">Right of way (transit)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_way_(property_access)" class="mw-redirect" title="Right of way (property access)">Right of way (property access)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_right" title="Water right">Water</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prior-appropriation_water_rights" title="Prior-appropriation water rights">prior-appropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riparian_water_rights" title="Riparian water rights">riparian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Accumulation_by_dispossession" title="Accumulation by dispossession">Disposession</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Redistribution_of_income_and_wealth" title="Redistribution of income and wealth">redistribution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioprospecting" title="Bioprospecting">Bioprospecting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biopiracy" title="Biopiracy">biopiracy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collectivization in the Soviet Union">Collectivization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eminent_domain" title="Eminent domain">Eminent domain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enclosure" title="Enclosure">Enclosure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eviction" title="Eviction">Eviction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expropriation" class="mw-redirect" title="Expropriation">Expropriation</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Farhud" title="Farhud">Farhud</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_displacement" title="Forced displacement">Forced migration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Population_transfer" title="Population transfer">population transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repatriation" title="Repatriation">repatriation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal,_unreported_and_unregulated_fishing" title="Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing">Illegal fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_logging" title="Illegal logging">Illegal logging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_Back" title="Land Back">Land Back</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_reform" title="Land reform">Land reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_plunder" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal plunder">Legal plunder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy" title="Piracy">Piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poaching" title="Poaching">Poaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primitive_accumulation_of_capital" title="Primitive accumulation of capital">Primitive accumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privatization" title="Privatization">Privatization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulatory_taking" class="mw-redirect" title="Regulatory taking">Regulatory taking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bride_buying" title="Bride buying">bride buying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">human trafficking</a></li> <li>spousal <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Husband-selling" class="mw-redirect" title="Husband-selling">husband-selling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">wife selling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">wage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax" title="Tax">Tax</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inheritance_tax" title="Inheritance tax">inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poll_tax" title="Poll tax">poll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_tax" title="Progressive tax">progressive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_tax" title="Property tax">property</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theft" title="Theft">Theft</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scholars<br /><span class="nobold">(<i>key work</i>)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Frédéric Bastiat</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Law_(Bastiat_book)" title="The Law (Bastiat book)">The Law</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Coase" title="Ronald Coase">Ronald Coase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Origin_of_the_Family,_Private_Property_and_the_State" title="The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State">The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_George" title="Henry George">Henry George</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Progress_and_Poverty" title="Progress and Poverty">Progress and Poverty</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garrett_Hardin" title="Garrett Hardin">Garrett Hardin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Harvey" title="David Harvey">David Harvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Das_Kapital" title="Das Kapital">Das Kapital</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcel_Mauss" title="Marcel Mauss">Marcel Mauss</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Gift_(essay)" title="The Gift (essay)">The Gift</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elinor_Ostrom" title="Elinor Ostrom">Elinor Ostrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Karl Polanyi</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Great_Transformation_(book)" title="The Great Transformation (book)">The Great Transformation</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Joseph_Proudhon" title="Pierre-Joseph Proudhon">Pierre-Joseph Proudhon</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Property_is_theft!" class="mw-redirect" title="Property is theft!">What Is Property?</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">David Ricardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Murray N. Rothbard</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Ethics_of_Liberty" title="The Ethics of Liberty">The Ethics of Liberty</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Wealth_of_Nations" title="The Wealth of Nations">The Wealth of Nations</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> Categories: <a href="/wiki/Category:Property" title="Category:Property">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Property_law" title="Category:Property law">Property law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Property_law_by_country" title="Category:Property law by country">by country</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q131257#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2018" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q131257#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2018" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q131257#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4136832-0">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85067167">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Propriété intellectuelle"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119510782">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Propriété intellectuelle"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119510782">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00576736">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="duševní vlastnictví"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph517039&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Propiedad intelectual"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX526938">Spain</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007555624205171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/048078">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10637584">NARA</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://esu.com.ua/search_articles.php?id=12390">Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&oldid=1275558356">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&oldid=1275558356</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_law" title="Category:Intellectual property law">Intellectual property law</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_information_processing" title="Category:Social information processing">Social information processing</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Economics_of_the_arts_and_literature" title="Category:Economics of the arts and literature">Economics of the arts and literature</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Intangible_assets" title="Category:Intangible assets">Intangible assets</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Intellectual_capital" title="Category:Intellectual capital">Intellectual capital</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_errors:_periodical_ignored" title="Category:CS1 errors: periodical ignored">CS1 errors: periodical ignored</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1:_unfit_URL" title="Category:CS1: unfit URL">CS1: unfit URL</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_pending_changes_protected_pages" title="Category:Wikipedia pending changes protected pages">Wikipedia pending changes protected pages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_November_2024" title="Category:Use dmy dates from November 2024">Use dmy dates from November 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_February_2025" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from February 2025">Articles with unsourced statements from February 2025</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_accuracy_disputes" title="Category:All accuracy disputes">All accuracy disputes</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_disputed_statements_from_July_2009" title="Category:Articles with disputed statements from July 2009">Articles with disputed statements from July 2009</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_July_2015" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from July 2015">Articles with unsourced statements from July 2015</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_to_be_split_from_June_2021" title="Category:Articles to be split from June 2021">Articles to be split from June 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_to_be_split" title="Category:All articles to be split">All articles to be split</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Spanish-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Spanish-language text">Articles containing Spanish-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_is_on_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link is on Wikidata">Commons category link is on Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 13 February 2025, at 19:06<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" lang="en" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" width="88" height="31"><img src="/w/resources/assets/mediawiki_compact.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="25" height="25" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-header-container vector-sticky-header-container"> <div id="vector-sticky-header" class="vector-sticky-header"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-start"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-start vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" aria-hidden="true"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-sticky-header-search-toggle" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.vector-sticky-search-form.icon"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </button> </div> <div role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box"> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="vector-sticky-search-form" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia"> <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-sticky-header-toc vector-sticky-header-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-sticky-header-toc-label" for="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar-primary" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="mw-page-title-main">Intellectual property</span></div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-end" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icons"> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-talk-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="talk-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbles mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbles"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-subject-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="subject-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-article mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-article"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-history-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="history-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-history mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-history"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only mw-watchlink" id="ca-watchstar-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="watch-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-star mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-star"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="wikitext-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikiText mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-wikiText"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-ve-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-edit mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-edit"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-viewsource-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-protected-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-editLock mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-editLock"></span> <span></span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-buttons"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet mw-interlanguage-selector" id="p-lang-btn-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-language"></span> <span>73 languages</span> </button> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbleAdd-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbleAdd-progressive"></span> <span>Add topic</span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-65b64b4b74-gzk54","wgBackendResponseTime":154,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.962","walltime":"2.252","ppvisitednodes":{"value":13895,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":339583,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":8419,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":16,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":27,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":496745,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1953.361 1 -total"," 41.21% 804.913 1 Template:Reflist"," 17.87% 349.039 71 Template:Cite_web"," 9.81% 191.530 19 Template:Cite_book"," 6.82% 133.242 1 Template:Lang"," 5.27% 103.013 14 Template:Cite_journal"," 5.18% 101.266 1 Template:Intellectual_property"," 4.97% 97.040 6 Template:Sfnp"," 4.57% 89.284 5 Template:Navbox"," 4.39% 85.730 1 Template:Short_description"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.242","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":24941901,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAlexandre_Oliva\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAllen2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAndersen2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBatenBianchiMoser2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBennet2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlank\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBollyky2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoyle2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrassellKing2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurk,_Dan_L.Mark_A._Lemley2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChapman2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCheng2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCorreaLi,_Xuan2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFD\u0026#039;Amato\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDaniel_B._Ravicher2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDariusz_JemielniakAleksandra_Przegalinska2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDoctorow2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDoris_Schroeder_and_Peter_Singer2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDrahosBraithwaite2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFarahTremolada2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFieslerFeustonBruckman2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFreund2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldsteinReese2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKinsella2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKinsella2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLadas1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevineMichele_Boldrin2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMark_A._Lemley\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartinSorensonFaunce2007\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMasnick2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatthewsOstapenko2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMergesMenellLemley2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMike_Masnick2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoberly2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoore2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorin\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFPanethiere2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPearce2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeter_K,_Yu2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRand1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRanjan2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRick_Falkvinge2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoisah2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShapiroPhamBlinder2007\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFShermanBently1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimon,_Stokes2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith2007–2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSonderholm2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpinello2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStallman\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFStallman2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStiglitz2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTeichPorter1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTimmer2012\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFToplensky2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUN_Committee_on_Economic_Social_and_Cultural_Rights2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWIPO2021\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFWIPO_–_The_World_Intellectual_Property_Organization\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWIPO_–_World_Intellectual_Property_Organization\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWorld_Intellectual_Property_Organisation\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWorld_Intellectual_Property_Organization2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWorld_Intellectual_Property_Organization_(WIPO)2016\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 4,\n [\"'\\\"\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Cbignore\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 19,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 14,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 7,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 71,\n [\"Cn\"] = 1,\n [\"Commons category-inline\"] = 1,\n [\"Dubious\"] = 1,\n [\"EPC Article\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 6,\n [\"ISSN\"] = 2,\n [\"Intellectual property\"] = 1,\n [\"Intellectual property activism\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 1,\n [\"Law\"] = 1,\n [\"Library resources box\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 13,\n [\"Nbnd\"] = 2,\n [\"OED\"] = 2,\n [\"Pp-pc\"] = 1,\n [\"Property navbox\"] = 1,\n [\"Quote box\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Rp\"] = 13,\n [\"Scholia\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfnp\"] = 6,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sic\"] = 2,\n [\"Split\"] = 1,\n [\"Usc\"] = 2,\n [\"Uscsub\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 5,\n [\"Wikiquote\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"small\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","280","21.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","200","15.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","140","10.6"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","120","9.1"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","80","6.1"],["init \u003CModule:Citation/CS1/Date_validation\u003E","60","4.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","60","4.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::test","40","3.0"],["type","40","3.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","40","3.0"],["[others]","260","19.7"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-65b64b4b74-r75qz","timestamp":"20250219122603","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Intellectual property","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intellectual_property","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q131257","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q131257","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-10-16T19:38:16Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/1\/1c\/Intellectual_property_Noun_project.svg","headline":"intangible asset consisting of ownership of ideas and processes"}</script> </body> </html>