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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"> The modern era or the modern period is considered the current <a href="/wiki/Historical_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical period">historical period</a> of <a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">human history</a>. It was originally applied to the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">history of Europe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Western history">Western history</a> for events that came after the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, often from around the year 1500. From the 1990s, it is more common among historians to refer to the period after the Middle Ages and up to the 19th century as the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern period</a>. The modern period is today more often used for events from the 19th century until today. The time from the end of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> (1945) can also be described as being part of <a href="/wiki/Contemporary_history" title="Contemporary history">contemporary history</a>. The common definition of the modern period today is often associated with events like the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>, and the transition to <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalism</a> towards the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_international_order" title="Liberal international order">liberal international order</a>. The modern period has been a period of significant development in the fields of <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">politics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Warfare">warfare</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">technology</a>. It has also been an <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a>. During this time, the <a href="/wiki/European_powers" class="mw-redirect" title="European powers">European powers</a> and later their colonies, strengthened its political, economic, and cultural <a href="/wiki/Colonization" title="Colonization">colonization</a> of the rest of the world. It also created a new modern lifestyle and has permanently changed the way people around the world live.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> In the <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#19th_century">19th</a> and early <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#20th_century">20th century</a>, <a href="/wiki/Modernist" class="mw-redirect" title="Modernist">modernist</a> <a href="/wiki/Art" title="Art">art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">politics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a> have come to dominate not only <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a> and <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a>, but almost every area on the globe, including <a href="/wiki/Anti-Western_sentiment" title="Anti-Western sentiment">movements thought of as opposed to</a> the <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">western world</a> and <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a>. The modern era is closely associated with the development of <a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">individualism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanization</a>, and a belief in the positive possibilities of technological and political <a href="/wiki/Progress" title="Progress">progress</a>. The <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#World_War_I">brutal</a> <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#World_War_II">wars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">other conflicts of this era</a>, many of which come from the effects of rapid change, and the connected <a href="/wiki/Detraditionalization" title="Detraditionalization">loss of strength of traditional religious</a> and ethical norms, have led to many <a href="/wiki/Modernism#Criticism_of_late_modernity" title="Modernism">reactions against modern development</a>. <a href="/wiki/Optimism" title="Optimism">Optimism</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Whig_history" title="Whig history">belief in constant progress</a> have been most recently criticized by <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">postmodernism</a>, while the <a href="/wiki/Eurocentrism" title="Eurocentrism">dominance</a> of Western Europe and North America over the rest of the world has been criticized by <a href="/wiki/Postcolonialism" title="Postcolonialism">postcolonial theory</a>. <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Terminology">1 Terminology</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Characteristics">2 Characteristics</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Early_modern_period">3 Early modern period</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Late_15th_to_17th_century">3.1 Late 15th to 17th century</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-5"><a href="#Renaissance_and_early_Reformation_(c._1450%E2%80%931600)">3.1.1 Renaissance and early Reformation (c. 1450–1600)</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-6"><a href="#Late_Reformation_and_early_Baroque_(c._1600%E2%80%931700)">3.1.2 Late Reformation and early Baroque (c. 1600–1700)</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#18th_century">3.2 18th century</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-8"><a href="#Age_of_Enlightenment_and_early_Age_of_Revolution_(ca._1700%E2%80%931800)">3.2.1 Age of Enlightenment and early Age of Revolution (ca. 1700–1800)</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#19th_century">4 19th century</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Napoleonic_era_(1799%E2%80%931815)">4.1 Napoleonic era (1799–1815)</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Spreading_of_the_Industrial_Revolution">4.2 Spreading of the Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Late_19th_century">4.3 Late 19th century</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#20th_century">5 20th century</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#World_War_I">5.1 World War I</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Interwar_period">5.2 Interwar period</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#World_War_II">5.3 World War II</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Cold_War">5.4 Cold War</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#1990s">5.5 1990s</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#See_also">6 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="#Notes">7 Notes</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#References">8 References</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><a href="#External_links">9 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_era&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Terminology" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> Eras can not easily be defined. 1500 is an approximate starting period for the modern era because many major events caused the Western world to change around that time: from the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">fall of Constantinople</a> (1453), <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg">Gutenberg</a>'s moveable type <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a> (1450s), completion of the <a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a> (1492) and <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a>'s voyage to the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a> (also 1492), to the <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a> begun with <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Ninety-five_Theses" title="Ninety-five Theses">Ninety-five Theses</a> (1517).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">further explanation needed</a>] The term "modern" was coined shortly before 1585 to describe the beginning of a new era.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> The term "early modern" was introduced in the English language by American historians at the turn of the 20th century (around 1900).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENipperdey2022199-4">[4]</a> It was long thought that the concept was invented either in the 1930s to distinguish the time between the Middle Ages and time of the late Enlightenment (1800),<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> or that "early modern" was not coined until the mid-20th century and only gained substantial traction in the 1960s and 1970s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENipperdey2022199-4">[4]</a> Nipperdey (2022) pointed to its widespread usage by American historians around 1900 already, adding: 'In the interwar years the term permeated all areas of professional activity from textbooks and graduate school seminars to conferences, research articles, and job descriptions.'<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENipperdey2022199-4">[4]</a> The difference between "early modern" and just "modern" was defined by the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENipperdey2022199-4">[4]</a> Sometimes distinct from the modern periods themselves, the terms "<a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">modernity</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">modernism</a>" refer to a new way of thinking, distinct, from previous ways of thinking such as medieval thinking. The <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">European</a> <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> (about 1420–1630) is an important transition period beginning between the <a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a> and Early Modern Times, which started in Italy. "<a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">Postmodernism</a>", coined 1949, on the other hand, would describe rather a movement in <a href="/wiki/Art" title="Art">art</a> than a period of history, and is usually applied to arts, but not to any events of the very recent history.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> This changed, when <a href="/wiki/Postmodernity" title="Postmodernity">postmodernity</a> was coined to describe the major changes in the 1950s and 1960s in economy, society, culture, and philosophy. These terms stem from European History; in worldwide usage, such as in China, India, and Islam, the terms are applied in a very different way, but often in the context with their contact with European culture in the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discoveries" class="mw-redirect" title="Age of Discoveries">Age of Discoveries</a>.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="Characteristics">Characteristics</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_era&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Characteristics" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> Changes, mostly seen as advances, in all areas of human activity—<a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">politics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Industry_(economics)" title="Industry (economics)">industry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">society</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Commerce" title="Commerce">commerce</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transport" title="Transport">transport</a>, <a href="/wiki/Communication" title="Communication">communication</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mechanization" title="Mechanization">mechanization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Automation" title="Automation">automation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">technology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Arts" class="mw-redirect" title="Arts">arts</a>, and other aspects of <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a>—appear to have transformed an Old World into the Modern or New World. In each case, the identification of the change over time can be used to demarcate the old and old-fashioned from the modern.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> Starting in western countries, the modern world has seen a systematic re-evaluation of <a href="/wiki/Value_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Value system">value systems</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">monarchical</a> regimes, and <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudal</a> economic systems. These have often been replaced by <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democratic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberal</a> ideas in the areas of <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">politics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Some events of modern history, though born out of context not entirely new, show a new way of perceiving the world. The concept of modernity interprets the general meaning of these events and seeks explanations for major developments.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> Historians analyze the events taking place in Modern Times, since the so-called "<a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>" (between Modern and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Times">Ancient Times</a>).<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Early_modern_period">Early modern period</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_era&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Early modern period" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern period</a> and <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">Early modern Europe</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_15th_to_17th_century">Late 15th to 17th century</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_era&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Late 15th to 17th century" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/16th_century" title="16th century">16th century</a> and <a href="/wiki/17th_century" title="17th century">17th century</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Renaissance_and_early_Reformation_(c._1450–1600)"><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> and early <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1450–1600)</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_era&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Renaissance and early Reformation (c. 1450–1600)" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg">Gutenberg</a>'s moveable type <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a> (1450s): information age and <a href="/wiki/Newspaper" title="Newspaper">newspapers</a>.</li> <li>Conquest of <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> (1453).</li> <li>Discovery of <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">America</a> (1492): <a href="/wiki/Voyages_of_Christopher_Columbus" title="Voyages of Christopher Columbus">Voyages of Christopher Columbus</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machiavelli" class="mw-redirect" title="Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Prince" title="The Prince">Il Principe (The Prince)</a> started to circulate.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copernicus" class="mw-redirect" title="Copernicus">Copernicus</a> and the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a> challenges the Church on <a href="/wiki/31_October" class="mw-redirect" title="31 October">31 October</a> <a href="/wiki/1517" title="1517">1517</a> with <a href="/wiki/The_95_Theses" class="mw-redirect" title="The 95 Theses">the 95 Theses</a>: <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Reformation</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">Mercantilist</a> economic theory and policy</li> <li>Fall of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armada" title="Spanish Armada">Spanish Armada</a> <a href="/wiki/8_August" class="mw-redirect" title="8 August">8 August</a> <a href="/wiki/1588" title="1588">1588</a> enabled the Rise of the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Late_Reformation_and_early_Baroque_(c._1600–1700)">Late <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a> and early <a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1600–1700)</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_era&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Late Reformation and early Baroque (c. 1600–1700)" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The "<a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a>" is a term usually applied to the history of art, architecture and music during this period. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a> 1618–1648 in <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central Europe</a> decimated the population by up to 20%.</li> <li>The treaties of the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</a> are signed in 1648, which ended several wars in Europe and established the beginning of sovereign states.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a> of 1688 establishes modern <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_democracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Parliamentary democracy">parliamentary democracy</a> in England.</li> <li>Continuation of the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li>The beginning of the reign of <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV" title="Louis XIV">Louis XIV</a> r. 1643–1715, an example of the <a href="/wiki/Absolutism_(European_history)" title="Absolutism (European history)">Age of Absolutism</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="18th_century">18th century</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_era&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: 18th century" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/18th_century" title="18th century">18th century</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Age_of_Enlightenment_and_early_Age_of_Revolution_(ca._1700–1800)"><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a> and early <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Revolution" title="Age of Revolution">Age of Revolution</a> (ca. 1700–1800)</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_era&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Age of Enlightenment and early Age of Revolution (ca. 1700–1800)" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a> (1701–1714)</li> <li>The 1713 <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Utrecht" title="Peace of Utrecht">Peace of Utrecht</a> marked the change from <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish</a> to <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">British</a> naval supremacy.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Austrian_Succession" title="War of the Austrian Succession">War of the Austrian Succession</a> (1740–1748)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a> (1754–1763)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> (1765–1783)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> (1789–1799)</li> <li>The beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> around 1760.</li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="19th_century">19th century</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_era&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: 19th century" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/19th_century" title="19th century">19th century</a></div> Historians sometimes define a nineteenth century <a href="/wiki/List_of_time_periods" title="List of time periods">historical era</a> stretching from 1815 (the Congress of Vienna) to 1914 (the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">First World War</a>); alternatively, Eric Hobsbawm defined the "<a href="/wiki/Long_nineteenth_century" title="Long nineteenth century">long nineteenth century</a>" as spanning the years 1789 to 1914. During this century, the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empires</a> began to crumble and the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empires</a> ceased. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Napoleonic_era_(1799–1815)">Napoleonic era (1799–1815)</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_era&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Napoleonic era (1799–1815)" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_era" title="Napoleonic era">Napoleonic era</a></div> The Napoleonic era is a period in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">history of France</a> and Europe. It is generally classified as the fourth stage of the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>, the first being the <a href="/wiki/National_Assembly" title="National Assembly">National Assembly</a>, the second being the <a href="/wiki/Legislative_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Legislative Assembly">Legislative Assembly</a>, and the third being the <a href="/wiki/French_Directory" title="French Directory">Directory</a>. The Napoleonic era begins roughly with Napoleon's <a href="/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="Coup d'état">coup d'état</a>, overthrowing the Directory and ends at the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Days" title="Hundred Days">Hundred Days</a> and his defeat at <a href="/wiki/Waterloo,_Belgium" title="Waterloo, Belgium">Waterloo</a> (<a href="/wiki/November_9" title="November 9">November 9</a> <a href="/wiki/1799" title="1799">1799</a> – <a href="/wiki/June_28" title="June 28">June 28</a> <a href="/wiki/1815" title="1815">1815</a>). The <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a> soon set out to restore Europe to pre-French Revolution days. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spreading_of_the_Industrial_Revolution">Spreading of the Industrial Revolution</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_era&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Spreading of the Industrial Revolution" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg/211px-Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg" decoding="async" width="211" height="157" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="760"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 211px;height: 157px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg/211px-Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg" data-width="211" data-height="157" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg/317px-Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg/422px-Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A Watt steam engine in <a href="/wiki/Madrid" title="Madrid">Madrid</a>. The development of the <a href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">steam engine</a> started the industrial revolution in England. The steam engine was created to pump water from coal mines, enabling them to be deepened beyond <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> levels.</figcaption></figure> The Industrial Revolution was the major <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">technological</a>, <a href="/wiki/Socioeconomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Socioeconomics">socioeconomic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">cultural</a> change in late 18th and early 19th century that began in <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Britain</a> and spread throughout the world. During that time, an <a href="/wiki/Economic_system" title="Economic system">economy</a> based on <a href="/wiki/Manual_labour" title="Manual labour">manual labour</a> was replaced by one dominated by industry and the <a href="/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">manufacture</a> of <a href="/wiki/Machine" title="Machine">machinery</a>. It began with the mechanisation of the <a href="/wiki/Textile" title="Textile">textile</a> industries and the development of <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>-making techniques, and trade expansion was enabled by the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Canal" title="Canal">canals</a>, improved <a href="/wiki/Road" title="Road">roads</a>, and then <a href="/wiki/Rail_transport" title="Rail transport">railways</a>. The introduction of <a href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">steam power</a> (fuelled primarily by <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a>) and powered machinery (mainly in <a href="/wiki/Textile_manufacturing" title="Textile manufacturing">textile manufacturing</a>) underpinned the dramatic increases in production capacity.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> The development of all-metal <a href="/wiki/Machine_tool" title="Machine tool">machine tools</a> in the first two decades of the 19th century facilitated the manufacture of more production machines for manufacturing in other industries. The date of the Industrial Revolution is not exact. <a href="/wiki/Eric_Hobsbawm" title="Eric Hobsbawm">Eric Hobsbawm</a> held that it "broke out" in the 1780s and was not fully felt until the 1830s or 1840s,<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> while <a href="/wiki/T._S._Ashton" title="T. S. Ashton">T. S. Ashton</a> held that it occurred roughly between 1760 and 1830 (in effect the reigns of <a href="/wiki/George_III" title="George III">George III</a>, The <a href="/wiki/Regency_era" title="Regency era">Regency</a>, and <a href="/wiki/George_IV" title="George IV">George IV</a>).<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> The effects spread throughout <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a> and <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a> during the 19th century, eventually affecting the majority of the world. The impact of this change on <a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">society</a> was enormous and is often compared to the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a>, when mankind developed <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a> and gave up its <a href="/wiki/Nomad" title="Nomad">nomadic</a> lifestyle.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> The First Industrial Revolution gave way to the <a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a> around 1850, when technological and economic progress gained momentum with the development of steam-powered <a href="/wiki/Ship" title="Ship">ships</a> and railways, and later in the nineteenth century with the <a href="/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine" title="Internal combustion engine">internal combustion engine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electric_power" title="Electric power">electric power</a> generation. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_19th_century">Late 19th century</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_era&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Late 19th century" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Following the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a>, the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> became the world's leading power, controlling one-quarter of the world's population and one-third of the land area.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> It enforced a <a href="/wiki/Pax_Britannica" title="Pax Britannica">Pax Britannica</a>, encouraged trade, and battled rampant piracy.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">Slavery</a> was greatly reduced around the world. Following a successful <a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">slave revolt in Haiti</a>, Britain forced the <a href="/wiki/Barbary_pirates" title="Barbary pirates">Barbary pirates</a> to halt their practice of kidnapping and enslaving Europeans, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_Abolition_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery Abolition Act">banned slavery throughout its domain</a> in 1833, and charged its navy with ending the global slave trade.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> Slavery was then abolished in <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_reform_of_1861_in_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Emancipation reform of 1861 in Russia">Russia</a> in 1861,<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a> in the United States in 1863,<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Lei_%C3%81urea" title="Lei Áurea">Brazil</a> in 1888.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a>). Following the abolition of the <a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery" title="History of slavery">slave trade</a>, and propelled by economic exploitation, the <a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa" title="Scramble for Africa">Scramble for Africa</a> was initiated formally at the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_West_Africa_Conference" class="mw-redirect" title="Berlin West Africa Conference">Berlin West Africa Conference</a> in 1884–1885.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> All the major European powers laid claim to the areas of <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> where they could exhibit a sphere of influence over the area. These claims did not have to have any substantial land holdings or treaties to be legitimate.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> The <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">French</a> gained major ground in <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">British</a> in <a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">East Africa</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Portugal_(1834%E2%80%931910)" title="History of Portugal (1834–1910)">Portuguese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Restoration_(Spain)" title="Restoration (Spain)">Spanish</a> at various points throughout the continent, while <a href="/wiki/Leopold_II_of_Belgium" title="Leopold II of Belgium">Leopold II of Belgium</a> was able to retain his personal fiefdom, <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo" title="Belgian Congo">Congo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> Electricity, steel, and petroleum fuelled a <a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a> which enabled <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">Germany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japan</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> to become <a href="/wiki/Great_power" title="Great power">great powers</a> that <a href="/wiki/New_Imperialism" title="New Imperialism">raced to create empires of their own</a>.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> However, <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">China</a> failed to keep pace with the other world powers, which led to massive social unrest in both empires.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="20th_century">20th century</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_era&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: 20th century" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/20th_century" title="20th century">20th century</a></div> While earlier centuries also saw significant developments, the 20th century was distinguished by the unprecedented pace and global scale of economic, technological, and cultural changes.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> Still, advancing technology and medicine have had a great impact even in the <a href="/wiki/Global_South" class="mw-redirect" title="Global South">Global South</a>. Large-scale industry and more centralized <a href="/wiki/Mass_media" title="Mass media">media</a> made brutal dictatorships possible on an unprecedented scale in the middle of the century, leading to wars that were also unprecedented.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> However, the increased communications contributed to <a href="/wiki/Democratization" title="Democratization">democratization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> Technological developments included the development of <a href="/wiki/Airplane" title="Airplane">airplanes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Space_exploration" title="Space exploration">space exploration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_technology" title="Nuclear technology">nuclear technology</a>, advancement in <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a>, and the dawning of the <a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information Age</a>.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> Major political developments included the <a href="/wiki/Israeli%E2%80%93Palestinian_conflict" title="Israeli–Palestinian conflict">Israeli–Palestinian conflict</a>,<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> two world wars,<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> It also saw the former British Empire lose most of its remaining political power over Commonwealth countries, most notably by the dividing of the British crown into several sovereignties by the <a href="/wiki/Statute_of_Westminster_1931" title="Statute of Westminster 1931">Statute of Westminster</a>,<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Patriation" title="Patriation">patriation</a> of constitutions by the <a href="/wiki/Canada_Act_1982" title="Canada Act 1982">Canada Act 1982</a>,<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Australia_Act_1986" title="Australia Act 1986">Australia Act 1986</a>,<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> as well as the independence of countries like <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland" title="Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a>.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_I">World War I</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_era&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: World War I" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></div> The First World War was a <a href="/wiki/World_war" title="World war">world conflict</a>, ranging from July 1914 to the final <a href="/wiki/Armistice_with_Germany_(Compi%C3%A8gne)" class="mw-redirect" title="Armistice with Germany (Compiègne)">Armistice</a> on 11 November 1918. The <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Allied Powers</a>, led by the <a href="/wiki/Britain_in_World_War_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Britain in World War I">British Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">France</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> until March 1918, <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> after 1917, defeated the <a href="/wiki/Central_Powers" title="Central Powers">Central Powers</a>, led by the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Austro-Hungarian Empire">Austro-Hungarian Empire</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>. The war caused the disintegration of four empires — the Austro-Hungarian, German, Ottoman, and Russian ones — as well as radical change in the European and Middle Eastern maps. The Allied powers before 1917 are sometimes referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Triple_Entente" title="Triple Entente">Triple Entente</a>, and the Central Powers are sometimes referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Triple_Alliance_(1882)" title="Triple Alliance (1882)">Triple Alliance</a>. Much of the fighting in World War I took place along the <a href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Western Front (World War I)">Western Front</a>, within a system of opposing manned trenches and fortifications (separated by a "<a href="/wiki/No_man%27s_land" title="No man's land">no man's land</a>") running from the <a href="/wiki/North_Sea" title="North Sea">North Sea</a> to the border of <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>. On the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Eastern Front (World War I)">Eastern Front</a>, the vast eastern plains and limited rail network prevented a trench warfare stalemate from developing, although the scale of the conflict was just as large. Hostilities also occurred on and under the sea and — for the first time — from the air. More than 9 million soldiers died on the various battlefields, and nearly that many more in the participating countries' home fronts on account of food shortages and <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a> committed under the cover of various civil wars and internal conflicts. Notably, more people died of the worldwide <a href="/wiki/Spanish_flu" title="Spanish flu">influenza outbreak</a> at the end of the war and shortly after than died in the hostilities. The unsanitary conditions engendered by the war, severe overcrowding in barracks, wartime propaganda interfering with public health warnings, and migration of so many soldiers around the world helped the outbreak become a <a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">pandemic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Ultimately, World War I created a decisive break with the old <a href="/wiki/New_world_order_(politics)" title="New world order (politics)">world order</a> that had emerged after the Napoleonic Wars, which was modified by the mid-19th century's nationalistic revolutions. The results of World War I would be important factors in the development of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> approximately 20 years later. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interwar_period">Interwar period</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_era&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Interwar period" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></div> The Interwar period was the period between the end of World War I in 1918 and the beginning of World War II in 1939. It included the <a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a>, and the rise of <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</a> in Russia and <a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">fascism</a> in Italy and Germany. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_II">World War II</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_era&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: World War II" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></div> World War II was a <a href="/wiki/World_war" title="World war">global</a> <a href="/wiki/War" title="War">military conflict</a> that took place in 1939–1945. It was the largest and deadliest war in history, culminating in <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a> and ending with the dropping of the <a href="/wiki/Atom_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Atom bomb">atom bomb</a>.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> Although Japan had invaded China in 1937, the conventional view is that World War II began on September 1, 1939, when <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> invaded Poland. Within two days, the United Kingdom and France declared war on Germany, even though the fighting was confined to Poland. Pursuant to a then-secret provision of its non-aggression <a href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact</a>, the Soviet Union joined Germany on September 17, 1939, to conquer Poland and divide Eastern Europe.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies</a> were initially made up of Poland, the United Kingdom, France, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, as well as <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">British Commonwealth</a> countries which were controlled directly by the UK, such as the <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">Indian Empire</a>. All of these countries declared war on Germany in September 1939.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> Following the lull in fighting, known as the "<a href="/wiki/Phoney_War" title="Phoney War">Phoney War</a>", Germany invaded western Europe in May 1940. Six weeks later, France, in the meantime attacked by Italy as well, surrendered to Germany, which then tried unsuccessfully to conquer Britain. On September 27, Germany, Italy, and Japan signed a mutual defense agreement, the <a href="/wiki/Tripartite_Pact" title="Tripartite Pact">Tripartite Pact</a>, and were known as the <a href="/wiki/Axis_Powers" class="mw-redirect" title="Axis Powers">Axis Powers</a>. Nine months later, on June 22, 1941, Germany launched a massive invasion of the Soviet Union, which prompted it to join the Allies. Germany was now engaged in fighting a war on two fronts.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> On December 7, 1941, <a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">Japan attacked the United States at Pearl Harbor</a>, bringing it too into the war on the side of the Allies. China also joined the Allies, as did most of the rest of the world. China was in turmoil at the time and attacked Japanese armies through guerrilla-type warfare. By the beginning of 1942, the alignment of the major combatants was as follows: the British Commonwealth, the Soviet Union, and the United States were fighting Germany and Italy; China, the British Commonwealth, and the United States were fighting Japan.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> The United Kingdom, the United States, the Soviet Union, and China were referred to as a "trusteeship of the powerful" during World War II<a href="#cite_note-Justus-46">[46]</a> and were recognized as the Allied "Big Four" in the <a href="/wiki/Declaration_by_United_Nations" title="Declaration by United Nations">Declaration by United Nations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> These four countries were considered the "<a href="/wiki/Four_Policemen" title="Four Policemen">Four Policemen</a>" or "Four Sheriffs" of the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies</a> and were the primary victors of World War II.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> Battles raged across all of Europe, in the north <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a>, across North Africa, throughout Southeast Asia, throughout China, across the Pacific Ocean, and in the air over Japan. Italy surrendered in September 1943 and was split into a northern Germany-occupied <a href="/wiki/Puppet_state" title="Puppet state">puppet state</a> and an Allies-friendly state in the south; Germany surrendered in May 1945. Following the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a>, <a href="/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">Japan surrendered</a>, marking the end of the war on September 2, 1945.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> It is possible that around 62 million people <a href="/wiki/World_War_II_casualties" title="World War II casualties">died in the war</a>; estimates vary greatly. About 60% of all casualties were civilians, who died as a result of disease, starvation, <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a> (in particular, the <a href="/wiki/Holocaust" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust">Holocaust</a>), and aerial bombing.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> The former Soviet Union and China suffered the most casualties. Estimates place deaths in the Soviet Union at around 23 million, while China suffered about 10 million. No country lost a greater portion of its population than Poland: approximately 5.6 million, or 16%, of its pre-war population of 34.8 million died.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> The Holocaust (which roughly means "burnt whole") was the deliberate and systematic murder of millions of Jews and other "unwanted" groups during World War II by the Nazi regime in Germany. Several differing views exist regarding whether it was intended to occur from the war's beginning or if the plans for it came about later. Regardless, persecution of Jews extended well before the war even started, such as during <a href="/wiki/Kristallnacht" title="Kristallnacht">Kristallnacht</a> (Night of Broken Glass). The Nazis used propaganda to great effect to stir up anti-Semitic feelings within ordinary Germans.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> After World War II, <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> was informally split into Western and Soviet <a href="/wiki/Sphere_of_influence" title="Sphere of influence">spheres of influence</a>. <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a> later aligned as <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a>. There was a shift in power from Western Europe and the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> to the two new superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union. These two rivals would later face off in the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> In Asia, the defeat of Japan led to its <a href="/wiki/Democratization" title="Democratization">democratization</a>. <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">China's civil war</a> continued through and after the war, eventually resulting in the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a>. The former colonies of the European powers began their road to independence.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cold_War">Cold War</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_era&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Cold War" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Contemporary_history" title="Contemporary history">Contemporary history</a> and <a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Post–Cold War era">Post–Cold War era</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> between the "West" (the United States, Western Europe, and Japan) and the "East" (the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, and China) dominated politics from the end of World War II in 1945, until the <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">collapse of the Soviet Union</a> in 1991, at which point the Cold War ended and the <a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Post–Cold War era">post–Cold War era</a> began (which includes most of the <a href="/wiki/1990s" title="1990s">1990s</a>, the last decade of the 20th century).<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a>, impacted political life, while the <a href="/wiki/Counterculture_of_the_1960s" title="Counterculture of the 1960s">counterculture of the 1960s</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">rise of computers</a> changed society in different, complex ways, including higher social and local mobility.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1990s">1990s</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_era&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: 1990s" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/1990s" title="1990s">1990s</a></div> At the end of the twentieth century, the world was at a major crossroads. Throughout the century, more technological advances had been made than in all of preceding history. Computers, the Internet, and other technologies radically altered daily lives.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> However, several problems faced the world during the Cold War period and the 1990s that followed. First of all, the gap between rich and poor nations continued to widen. Some said that this problem could not be fixed, arguing that there was a set amount of wealth and it could only be shared by so many.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> Others claimed that powerful nations with large economies were not doing enough to help improve the rapidly evolving economies of the <a href="/wiki/Third_World" title="Third World">Third World</a>.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> Developing countries faced many challenges, including the scale of the task to be surmounted, rapidly growing populations, and the need to protect the environment, along with the associated costs.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> Secondly, disease threatened to destabilize many regions of the world. Viruses such as <a href="/wiki/West_Nile_virus" title="West Nile virus">West Nile</a> and <a href="/wiki/Avian_influenza" title="Avian influenza">Avian influenza</a> continued to spread quickly and easily.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> In poor nations, <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a> and other diseases affected the majority of the population.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> Millions were infected with <a href="/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a>, the virus that causes <a href="/wiki/AIDS" class="mw-redirect" title="AIDS">AIDS</a>, which was becoming an <a href="/wiki/AIDS_in_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="AIDS in Africa">epidemic in southern Africa</a> and around the world.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> Increased <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a>, specifically <a href="/wiki/Americanization" title="Americanization">Americanization</a>, was also occurring. While not necessarily a threat, it was causing anti-Western and <a href="/wiki/Anti-Americanism" title="Anti-Americanism">anti-American</a> feelings in parts of the world, especially in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> English was quickly becoming the global language, with people who did not speak it becoming increasingly disadvantaged.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> <a href="/wiki/Terrorism" title="Terrorism">Terrorism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">dictatorship</a>, and the spread of nuclear weapons were also issues requiring immediate attention. Dictators such as <a href="/wiki/Kim_Jong-il" class="mw-redirect" title="Kim Jong-il">Kim Jong-il</a> in <a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a> continued to lead their nations toward the development of nuclear weapons.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> The fear existed that not only were terrorists already attempting to obtain nuclear weapons, but that they had already acquired them.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_era&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarrel_of_the_Ancients_and_the_Moderns" title="Quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns">Quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timelines_of_modern_history" title="Timelines of modern history">Timelines of modern history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_La_Fl%C3%A8che" title="History of La Flèche">History of La Flèche</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_era&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Notes" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/colonialism">"Colonialism facts and information"</a>. Culture. 2023-10-06. Retrieved 2024-08-01.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Culture&rft.atitle=Colonialism+facts+and+information&rft.date=2023-10-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalgeographic.com%2Fculture%2Farticle%2Fcolonialism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aljazeera.com/program/the-stream/2019/12/9/how-does-colonialism-shape-the-world-we-live-in">"How does colonialism shape the world we live in?"</a>. Al Jazeera. Retrieved 2024-08-01.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Al+Jazeera&rft.atitle=How+does+colonialism+shape+the+world+we+live+in%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aljazeera.com%2Fprogram%2Fthe-stream%2F2019%2F12%2F9%2Fhow-does-colonialism-shape-the-world-we-live-in&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080622132303/http://www.bartleby.com/61/28/M0362800.html">"modern"</a>. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (4th ed.). Houghton Mifflin. 2000. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bartleby.com/61/28/M0362800.html">the original</a> on June 22, 2008. Retrieved December 19, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=modern&rft.btitle=The+American+Heritage+Dictionary+of+the+English+Language&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin&rft.date=2000&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bartleby.com%2F61%2F28%2FM0362800.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENipperdey2022199-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENipperdey2022199_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENipperdey2022199_4-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENipperdey2022199_4-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENipperdey2022199_4-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFNipperdey2022">Nipperdey 2022</a>, p. 199. </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> New Dictionary of the History of Ideas, Volume 5, Detroit 2005. s.v. "Modernism and Modern". </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/postmodern">"Definition of POSTMODERN"</a>. www.merriam-webster.com. 2 June 2023. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080101091725/http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/postmodern">Archived</a> from the original on 1 January 2008. Retrieved 9 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.merriam-webster.com&rft.atitle=Definition+of+POSTMODERN&rft.date=2023-06-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fpostmodern&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/islamic_medical/islamic_14.html">"Islamic Culture and the Medical Arts: Late Medieval and Early Modern Medicine"</a>. www.nlm.nih.gov. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180423084551/https://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/islamic_medical/islamic_14.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-04-23. Retrieved 2022-10-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.nlm.nih.gov&rft.atitle=Islamic+Culture+and+the+Medical+Arts%3A+Late+Medieval+and+Early+Modern+Medicine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nlm.nih.gov%2Fexhibition%2Fislamic_medical%2Fislamic_14.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiddens1990" class="citation book cs1">Giddens, Anthony (1990). The Consequences of Modernity. Stanford University Press. pp. 1–5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0804718912" title="Special:BookSources/978-0804718912"><bdi>978-0804718912</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Consequences+of+Modernity&rft.pages=1-5&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0804718912&rft.aulast=Giddens&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFukuyama2011" class="citation book cs1">Fukuyama, Francis (2011). The Origins of Political Order: From Prehuman Times to the French Revolution. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. pp. 321–323. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1846682568" title="Special:BookSources/978-1846682568"><bdi>978-1846682568</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+Political+Order%3A+From+Prehuman+Times+to+the+French+Revolution&rft.pages=321-323&rft.pub=Farrar%2C+Straus+and+Giroux&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1846682568&rft.aulast=Fukuyama&rft.aufirst=Francis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHabermas1989" class="citation book cs1">Habermas, Jürgen (1989). The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere. MIT Press. pp. 73–75. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0262581080" title="Special:BookSources/978-0262581080"><bdi>978-0262581080</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Structural+Transformation+of+the+Public+Sphere&rft.pages=73-75&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0262581080&rft.aulast=Habermas&rft.aufirst=J%C3%BCrgen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerman1982" class="citation book cs1">Berman, Marshall (1982). All That Is Solid Melts into Air: The Experience of Modernity. Verso. pp. 14–17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0140109627" title="Special:BookSources/978-0140109627"><bdi>978-0140109627</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=All+That+Is+Solid+Melts+into+Air%3A+The+Experience+of+Modernity&rft.pages=14-17&rft.pub=Verso&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0140109627&rft.aulast=Berman&rft.aufirst=Marshall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavis1975" class="citation book cs1">Davis, Natalie Zemon (1975). Society and Culture in Early Modern France. Stanford University Press. pp. 3–5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0804709729" title="Special:BookSources/978-0804709729"><bdi>978-0804709729</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Society+and+Culture+in+Early+Modern+France&rft.pages=3-5&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-0804709729&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=Natalie+Zemon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeierRauch2000" class="citation book cs1">Meier, Gerald M.; Rauch, James E. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CX9kBaVx4JkC&pg=PA98">Leading Issues in Economic Development</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 98. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511589-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511589-5"><bdi>978-0-19-511589-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230331130624/https://books.google.com/books?id=CX9kBaVx4JkC&pg=PA98">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-03-31. Retrieved 2023-02-08.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Leading+Issues+in+Economic+Development&rft.pages=98&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-19-511589-5&rft.aulast=Meier&rft.aufirst=Gerald+M.&rft.au=Rauch%2C+James+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCX9kBaVx4JkC%26pg%3DPA98&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Revolution: Europe 1789–1848, Weidenfeld and Nicolson Ltd. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-349-10484-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-349-10484-0">0-349-10484-0</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoseph_E_Inikori" class="citation book cs1">Joseph E Inikori. Africans and the Industrial Revolution in England: A Study in International Trade and Economic Development. Cambridge University Press. p. 102. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-01079-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-01079-9"><bdi>0-521-01079-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Africans+and+the+Industrial+Revolution+in+England%3A+A+Study+in+International+Trade+and+Economic+Development&rft.pages=102&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.isbn=0-521-01079-9&rft.au=Joseph+E+Inikori&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown2003" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Lester Russell (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5aCyfUsHM6kC&pg=PA93">Eco-economy: Building an Economy for the Earth</a>. Earthscan. p. 93. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85383-904-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85383-904-7"><bdi>978-1-85383-904-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230414231536/https://books.google.com/books?id=5aCyfUsHM6kC&pg=PA93">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-04-14. Retrieved 2023-02-08.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eco-economy%3A+Building+an+Economy+for+the+Earth&rft.pages=93&rft.pub=Earthscan&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-85383-904-7&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Lester+Russell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5aCyfUsHM6kC%26pg%3DPA93&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerguson2004" class="citation book cs1">Ferguson, Niall (2004). Empire: How Britain Made the Modern World. Penguin. pp. 70–72. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0141007540" title="Special:BookSources/978-0141007540"><bdi>978-0141007540</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empire%3A+How+Britain+Made+the+Modern+World&rft.pages=70-72&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0141007540&rft.aulast=Ferguson&rft.aufirst=Niall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarshall2001" class="citation book cs1">Marshall, P. J. (2001). The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire. Cambridge University Press. pp. 142–145. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521002547" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521002547"><bdi>978-0521002547</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Illustrated+History+of+the+British+Empire&rft.pages=142-145&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0521002547&rft.aulast=Marshall&rft.aufirst=P.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHochschild2005" class="citation book cs1">Hochschild, Adam (2005). Bury the Chains: Prophets and Rebels in the Fight to Free an Empire's Slaves. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. pp. 331–335. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0618619078" title="Special:BookSources/978-0618619078"><bdi>978-0618619078</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bury+the+Chains%3A+Prophets+and+Rebels+in+the+Fight+to+Free+an+Empire%27s+Slaves&rft.pages=331-335&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Harcourt&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0618619078&rft.aulast=Hochschild&rft.aufirst=Adam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRiasanovsky2005" class="citation book cs1">Riasanovsky, Nicholas (2005). A History of Russia. Oxford University Press. pp. 352–355. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195153941" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195153941"><bdi>978-0195153941</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Russia&rft.pages=352-355&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0195153941&rft.aulast=Riasanovsky&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcPherson1988" class="citation book cs1">McPherson, James (1988). Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era. Oxford University Press. pp. 557–560. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195038637" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195038637"><bdi>978-0195038637</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Battle+Cry+of+Freedom%3A+The+Civil+War+Era&rft.pages=557-560&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0195038637&rft.aulast=McPherson&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBethell1970" class="citation book cs1">Bethell, Leslie (1970). The Abolition of the Brazilian Slave Trade: Britain, Brazil and the Slave Trade Question. Cambridge University Press. pp. 412–415. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521074599" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521074599"><bdi>978-0521074599</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Abolition+of+the+Brazilian+Slave+Trade%3A+Britain%2C+Brazil+and+the+Slave+Trade+Question&rft.pages=412-415&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=978-0521074599&rft.aulast=Bethell&rft.aufirst=Leslie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPakenham1991" class="citation book cs1">Pakenham, Thomas (1991). The Scramble for Africa. Harper Collins. pp. 112–115. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0349104492" title="Special:BookSources/978-0349104492"><bdi>978-0349104492</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Scramble+for+Africa&rft.pages=112-115&rft.pub=Harper+Collins&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0349104492&rft.aulast=Pakenham&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChamberlain2010" class="citation book cs1">Chamberlain, M.E. (2010). The Scramble for Africa. Routledge. pp. 54–57. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781408220146" title="Special:BookSources/9781408220146"><bdi>9781408220146</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Scramble+for+Africa&rft.pages=54-57&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9781408220146&rft.aulast=Chamberlain&rft.aufirst=M.E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHochschild1998" class="citation book cs1">Hochschild, Adam (1998). King Leopold's Ghost: A Story of Greed, Terror, and Heroism in Colonial Africa. Houghton Mifflin. pp. 88–92. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0618001903" title="Special:BookSources/978-0618001903"><bdi>978-0618001903</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=King+Leopold%27s+Ghost%3A+A+Story+of+Greed%2C+Terror%2C+and+Heroism+in+Colonial+Africa&rft.pages=88-92&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0618001903&rft.aulast=Hochschild&rft.aufirst=Adam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMokyr1990" class="citation book cs1">Mokyr, Joel (1990). The Lever of Riches: Technological Creativity and Economic Progress. Oxford University Press. pp. 178–181. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195074772" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195074772"><bdi>978-0195074772</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Lever+of+Riches%3A+Technological+Creativity+and+Economic+Progress&rft.pages=178-181&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0195074772&rft.aulast=Mokyr&rft.aufirst=Joel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHobsbawm1987" class="citation book cs1">Hobsbawm, Eric (1987). The Age of Empire: 1875–1914. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pp. 134–136. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0297793670" title="Special:BookSources/978-0297793670"><bdi>978-0297793670</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Age+of+Empire%3A+1875%E2%80%931914&rft.pages=134-136&rft.pub=Weidenfeld+%26+Nicolson&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0297793670&rft.aulast=Hobsbawm&rft.aufirst=Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHobsbawm1994" class="citation book cs1">Hobsbawm, Eric (1994). The Age of Extremes: The Short Twentieth Century, 1914-1991. Michael Joseph. pp. 7–9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0679730057" title="Special:BookSources/978-0679730057"><bdi>978-0679730057</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Age+of+Extremes%3A+The+Short+Twentieth+Century%2C+1914-1991&rft.pages=7-9&rft.pub=Michael+Joseph&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0679730057&rft.aulast=Hobsbawm&rft.aufirst=Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOvery2005" class="citation book cs1">Overy, Richard (2005). The Dictators: Hitler's Germany, Stalin's Russia. Allen Lane. pp. 16–20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0140281491" title="Special:BookSources/978-0140281491"><bdi>978-0140281491</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dictators%3A+Hitler%27s+Germany%2C+Stalin%27s+Russia&rft.pages=16-20&rft.pub=Allen+Lane&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0140281491&rft.aulast=Overy&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiamond2008" class="citation book cs1">Diamond, Larry (2008). The Spirit of Democracy: The Struggle to Build Free Societies Throughout the World. Times Books. pp. 56–58. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0805089134" title="Special:BookSources/978-0805089134"><bdi>978-0805089134</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Spirit+of+Democracy%3A+The+Struggle+to+Build+Free+Societies+Throughout+the+World&rft.pages=56-58&rft.pub=Times+Books&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0805089134&rft.aulast=Diamond&rft.aufirst=Larry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStandage1998" class="citation book cs1">Standage, Tom (1998). The Victorian Internet. Walker & Company. pp. 100–102. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0802713667" title="Special:BookSources/978-0802713667"><bdi>978-0802713667</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Victorian+Internet&rft.pages=100-102&rft.pub=Walker+%26+Company&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0802713667&rft.aulast=Standage&rft.aufirst=Tom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShlaim2000" class="citation book cs1">Shlaim, Avi (2000). The Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab World. Penguin Books. pp. 4–7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0140288704" title="Special:BookSources/978-0140288704"><bdi>978-0140288704</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Iron+Wall%3A+Israel+and+the+Arab+World&rft.pages=4-7&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0140288704&rft.aulast=Shlaim&rft.aufirst=Avi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeegan1998" class="citation book cs1">Keegan, John (1998). The First World War. Knopf. pp. 14–17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780375400520" title="Special:BookSources/9780375400520"><bdi>9780375400520</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+First+World+War&rft.pages=14-17&rft.pub=Knopf&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9780375400520&rft.aulast=Keegan&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeevor2012" class="citation book cs1">Beevor, Antony (2012). The Second World War. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pp. 45–48. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0297860709" title="Special:BookSources/978-0297860709"><bdi>978-0297860709</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Second+World+War&rft.pages=45-48&rft.pub=Weidenfeld+%26+Nicolson&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0297860709&rft.aulast=Beevor&rft.aufirst=Antony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGaddis2005" class="citation book cs1">Gaddis, John Lewis (2005). The Cold War: A New History. Penguin Press. pp. 21–25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1594200625" title="Special:BookSources/978-1594200625"><bdi>978-1594200625</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cold+War%3A+A+New+History&rft.pages=21-25&rft.pub=Penguin+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1594200625&rft.aulast=Gaddis&rft.aufirst=John+Lewis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTownshend2011" class="citation book cs1">Townshend, Charles (2011). The British Empire: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. pp. 106–107. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199605415" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199605415"><bdi>978-0199605415</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+British+Empire%3A+A+Very+Short+Introduction&rft.pages=106-107&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0199605415&rft.aulast=Townshend&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell2004" class="citation book cs1">Russell, Peter H. (2004). Constitutional Odyssey: Can Canadians Become a Sovereign People?. University of Toronto Press. pp. 123–126. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0802085917" title="Special:BookSources/978-0802085917"><bdi>978-0802085917</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constitutional+Odyssey%3A+Can+Canadians+Become+a+Sovereign+People%3F&rft.pages=123-126&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0802085917&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Peter+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaunders2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Cheryl_Saunders" title="Cheryl Saunders">Saunders, Cheryl</a> (2011). The Constitution of Australia: A Contextual Analysis. Hart Publishing. pp. 68–70. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1841137346" title="Special:BookSources/978-1841137346"><bdi>978-1841137346</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Constitution+of+Australia%3A+A+Contextual+Analysis&rft.pages=68-70&rft.pub=Hart+Publishing&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1841137346&rft.aulast=Saunders&rft.aufirst=Cheryl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJudt2006" class="citation book cs1">Judt, Tony (2006). Postwar: A History of Europe Since 1945. Penguin Books. pp. 91–93. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0143037750" title="Special:BookSources/978-0143037750"><bdi>978-0143037750</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Postwar%3A+A+History+of+Europe+Since+1945&rft.pages=91-93&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0143037750&rft.aulast=Judt&rft.aufirst=Tony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarry2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_M._Barry" title="John M. Barry">Barry, John M.</a> (2004). The Great Influenza: The Epic Story of the Greatest Plague in History. Viking Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-670-89473-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-670-89473-7"><bdi>0-670-89473-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Influenza%3A+The+Epic+Story+of+the+Greatest+Plague+in+History&rft.pub=Viking+Penguin&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-670-89473-7&rft.aulast=Barry&rft.aufirst=John+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeegan1989" class="citation book cs1">Keegan, John (1989). The Second World War. Penguin. pp. 5–6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0140113419" title="Special:BookSources/978-0140113419"><bdi>978-0140113419</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Second+World+War&rft.pages=5-6&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0140113419&rft.aulast=Keegan&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts1995" class="citation book cs1">Roberts, Geoffrey (1995). The Soviet Union and the Origins of the Second World War. Macmillan. pp. 55–58. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0333640685" title="Special:BookSources/978-0333640685"><bdi>978-0333640685</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Soviet+Union+and+the+Origins+of+the+Second+World+War&rft.pages=55-58&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0333640685&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOvery1995" class="citation book cs1">Overy, Richard (1995). Why the Allies Won. Pimlico. pp. 3–4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781845950651" title="Special:BookSources/9781845950651"><bdi>9781845950651</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Why+the+Allies+Won&rft.pages=3-4&rft.pub=Pimlico&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=9781845950651&rft.aulast=Overy&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeevor2012" class="citation book cs1">Beevor, Antony (2012). The Second World War. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pp. 137–139. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0297844976" title="Special:BookSources/978-0297844976"><bdi>978-0297844976</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Second+World+War&rft.pages=137-139&rft.pub=Weidenfeld+%26+Nicolson&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0297844976&rft.aulast=Beevor&rft.aufirst=Antony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilbert1989" class="citation book cs1">Gilbert, Martin (1989). The Second World War: A Complete History. Henry Holt. pp. 223–225. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780805005349" title="Special:BookSources/9780805005349"><bdi>9780805005349</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Second+World+War%3A+A+Complete+History&rft.pages=223-225&rft.pub=Henry+Holt&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=9780805005349&rft.aulast=Gilbert&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Justus-46"><a href="#cite_ref-Justus_46-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoeneckeStoler2005" class="citation book cs1">Doenecke, Justus D.; Stoler, Mark A. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xdMF9rX6mX8C&pg=PA62">Debating Franklin D. Roosevelt's Foreign Policies, 1933–1945</a>. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 62–63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0847694167" title="Special:BookSources/978-0847694167"><bdi>978-0847694167</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161203230343/https://books.google.com/books?id=xdMF9rX6mX8C&pg=PA62">Archived</a> from the original on 2016-12-03. Retrieved 2019-10-13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Debating+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt%27s+Foreign+Policies%2C+1933%E2%80%931945&rft.pages=62-63&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0847694167&rft.aulast=Doenecke&rft.aufirst=Justus+D.&rft.au=Stoler%2C+Mark+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxdMF9rX6mX8C%26pg%3DPA62&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> Hoopes, Townsend, and Douglas Brinkley. FDR and the Creation of the U.N. (Yale University Press, 1997), pp. 155–160. </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGaddis1972" class="citation book cs1">Gaddis, John Lewis (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesorig0000gadd">The United States and the Origins of the Cold War, 1941–1947</a>. 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Inferno: The World at War, 1939–1945. Knopf. pp. 510–512. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0307273598" title="Special:BookSources/978-0307273598"><bdi>978-0307273598</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inferno%3A+The+World+at+War%2C+1939%E2%80%931945&rft.pages=510-512&rft.pub=Knopf&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0307273598&rft.aulast=Hastings&rft.aufirst=Max&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerguson2007" class="citation book cs1">Ferguson, Niall (2007). The War of the World: Twentieth-Century Conflict and the Descent of the West. Penguin. pp. 413–416. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0143112396" title="Special:BookSources/978-0143112396"><bdi>978-0143112396</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+War+of+the+World%3A+Twentieth-Century+Conflict+and+the+Descent+of+the+West&rft.pages=413-416&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0143112396&rft.aulast=Ferguson&rft.aufirst=Niall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSnyder2012" class="citation book cs1">Snyder, Timothy (2012). Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin. Basic Books. pp. 67–69. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0465032976" title="Special:BookSources/978-0465032976"><bdi>978-0465032976</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bloodlands%3A+Europe+Between+Hitler+and+Stalin&rft.pages=67-69&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0465032976&rft.aulast=Snyder&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvans2008" class="citation book cs1">Evans, Richard J. (2008). The Third Reich at War. Penguin. pp. 251–255. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1594202063" title="Special:BookSources/978-1594202063"><bdi>978-1594202063</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Third+Reich+at+War&rft.pages=251-255&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1594202063&rft.aulast=Evans&rft.aufirst=Richard+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeffler1993" class="citation book cs1">Leffler, Melvyn P. (1993). A Preponderance of Power: National Security, the Truman Administration, and the Cold War. Stanford University Press. pp. 15–17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0804719247" title="Special:BookSources/978-0804719247"><bdi>978-0804719247</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Preponderance+of+Power%3A+National+Security%2C+the+Truman+Administration%2C+and+the+Cold+War&rft.pages=15-17&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0804719247&rft.aulast=Leffler&rft.aufirst=Melvyn+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDarwin2008" class="citation book cs1">Darwin, John (2008). After Tamerlane: The Rise and Fall of Global Empires, 1400–2000. Bloomsbury Press. pp. 357–360. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1596913936" title="Special:BookSources/978-1596913936"><bdi>978-1596913936</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=After+Tamerlane%3A+The+Rise+and+Fall+of+Global+Empires%2C+1400%E2%80%932000&rft.pages=357-360&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1596913936&rft.aulast=Darwin&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGaddis2005" class="citation book cs1">Gaddis, John Lewis (2005). The Cold War: A New History. Penguin Press. pp. 35–40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1594200625" title="Special:BookSources/978-1594200625"><bdi>978-1594200625</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cold+War%3A+A+New+History&rft.pages=35-40&rft.pub=Penguin+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1594200625&rft.aulast=Gaddis&rft.aufirst=John+Lewis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeffler2007" class="citation book cs1">Leffler, Melvyn P. (2007). For the Soul of Mankind: The United States, the Soviet Union, and the Cold War. Hill and Wang. pp. 80–85. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780374531423" title="Special:BookSources/9780374531423"><bdi>9780374531423</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=For+the+Soul+of+Mankind%3A+The+United+States%2C+the+Soviet+Union%2C+and+the+Cold+War&rft.pages=80-85&rft.pub=Hill+and+Wang&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780374531423&rft.aulast=Leffler&rft.aufirst=Melvyn+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWestad2007" class="citation book cs1">Westad, Odd Arne (2007). The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of Our Times. Cambridge University Press. pp. 212–217. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521703147" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521703147"><bdi>978-0521703147</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Global+Cold+War%3A+Third+World+Interventions+and+the+Making+of+Our+Times&rft.pages=212-217&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0521703147&rft.aulast=Westad&rft.aufirst=Odd+Arne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCastells1996" class="citation book cs1">Castells, Manuel (1996). The Rise of the Network Society. 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Oxford University Press. pp. 40–42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195311457" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195311457"><bdi>978-0195311457</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Bottom+Billion%3A+Why+the+Poorest+Countries+are+Failing+and+What+Can+Be+Done+About+It&rft.pages=40-42&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0195311457&rft.aulast=Collier&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReiter2010" class="citation journal cs1">Reiter, Paul (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2807%2Fese.15.10.19508-en">"West Nile Virus in Europe: Understanding the Present to Gauge the Future"</a>. 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Cambridge University Press. pp. 13–15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521592475" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521592475"><bdi>978-0521592475</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=English+as+a+Global+Language&rft.pages=13-15&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0521592475&rft.aulast=Crystal&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCha2012" class="citation book cs1">Cha, Victor D. (2012). The Impossible State: North Korea, Past and Future. Ecco. pp. 20–22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0061998508" title="Special:BookSources/978-0061998508"><bdi>978-0061998508</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Impossible+State%3A+North+Korea%2C+Past+and+Future&rft.pages=20-22&rft.pub=Ecco&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0061998508&rft.aulast=Cha&rft.aufirst=Victor+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllison2004" class="citation book cs1">Allison, Graham (2004). Nuclear Terrorism: The Ultimate Preventable Catastrophe. Henry Holt and Co. pp. 15–18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780805078527" title="Special:BookSources/9780805078527"><bdi>9780805078527</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nuclear+Terrorism%3A+The+Ultimate+Preventable+Catastrophe&rft.pages=15-18&rft.pub=Henry+Holt+and+Co.&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780805078527&rft.aulast=Allison&rft.aufirst=Graham&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="References">References</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_era&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNipperdey2022" class="citation journal cs1">Nipperdey, Justus (6 July 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/view/journals/jemh/27/3/article-p199_2.xml?language=en">"Inventing "Early Modern" Europe: Fashioning a New Historical Period in American Historiography 1880–1945"</a>. Journal of Early Modern History. 27 (3). Brill: 199–223. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F15700658-bja10051">10.1163/15700658-bja10051</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1385-3783">1385-3783</a>. Retrieved 25 June 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Early+Modern+History&rft.atitle=Inventing+%22Early+Modern%22+Europe%3A+Fashioning+a+New+Historical+Period+in+American+Historiography+1880%E2%80%931945&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=199-223&rft.date=2022-07-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F15700658-bja10051&rft.issn=1385-3783&rft.aulast=Nipperdey&rft.aufirst=Justus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrill.com%2Fview%2Fjournals%2Fjemh%2F27%2F3%2Farticle-p199_2.xml%3Flanguage%3Den&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_era&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: External links" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/chinawh/index.html">China and Europe</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div>    </section></div> <noscript><img src="https://login.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&mobile=1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Modern_era&oldid=1259437521">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Modern_era&oldid=1259437521</a>"</div></div> </div> <div class="post-content" id="page-secondary-actions"> </div> </main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_era&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> Last edited on 25 November 2024, at 04:14 </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuzeit" title="Neuzeit – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Neuzeit" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%AB" title="العصر الحديث – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="العصر الحديث" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%BCasir_tarix" title="Müasir tarix – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Müasir tarix" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%88%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%86_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="مودرن تاریخ – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="مودرن تاریخ" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%A7%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="আধুনিক ইতিহাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="আধুনিক ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hi%C4%81n-t%C4%81i" title="Hiān-tāi – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hiān-tāi" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B_%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%81" title="Новы час – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Новы час" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B_%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%81" title="Новы час – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Новы час" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5" title="Ново време – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Ново време" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neizeid" title="Neizeid – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Neizeid" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_moderna" title="Història moderna – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Història moderna" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87%C4%95%D0%BD%C4%95_%D0%B2%C4%83%D1%85%C4%83%D1%82" title="Çĕнĕ вăхăт – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Çĕнĕ вăхăт" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novov%C4%9Bk" title="Novověk – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Novověk" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyere_tid_(historisk_periode)" title="Nyere tid (historisk periode) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Nyere tid (historisk periode)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuzeit" title="Neuzeit – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Neuzeit" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uusaeg" title="Uusaeg – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Uusaeg" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9D%CE%B5%CF%8C%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B7_%CE%B5%CF%80%CE%BF%CF%87%CE%AE" title="Νεότερη εποχή – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Νεότερη εποχή" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_moderna" title="Historia moderna – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia moderna" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderna_epoko" title="Moderna epoko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Moderna epoko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_modernoa" title="Historia modernoa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Historia modernoa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%87_%D9%85%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%86" title="دوره مدرن – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دوره مدرن" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_moderne" title="Histoire moderne – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire moderne" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storie_moderne" title="Storie moderne – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Storie moderne" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B7%BC%EB%8C%80%EC%82%AC" title="근대사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="근대사" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zamanin_Zamani" title="Zamanin Zamani – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Zamanin Zamani" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%86%D5%B8%D6%80_%D5%B7%D6%80%D5%BB%D5%A1%D5%B6" title="Նոր շրջան – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Նոր շրջան" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="आधुनिक इतिहास – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="आधुनिक इतिहास" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novi_vijek" title="Novi vijek – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Novi vijek" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaman_modern" title="Zaman modern – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Zaman modern" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BD%C3%B6ld" title="Nýöld – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Nýöld" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%97%D7%93%D7%A9%D7%94" title="העת החדשה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="העת החדשה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%AE%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%93%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D" title="ახალი დრო – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ახალი დრო" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D2%A3%D0%B0_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Жаңа заман – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Жаңа заман" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tan_mod%C3%A8n" title="Tan modèn – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Tan modèn" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serdema_n%C3%BB" title="Serdema nû – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Serdema nû" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%8D%E0%BA%B8%E0%BA%81%E2%80%8B%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B0%E2%80%8B%E0%BB%84%E0%BA%AB%E0%BA%A1%E2%80%8B" title="ຍຸກສະໄຫມ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ຍຸກສະໄຫມ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aevum_modernum" title="Aevum modernum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Aevum modernum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Ajkor" title="Újkor – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Újkor" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%A8_%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="നവീന ചരിത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="നവീന ചരിത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nieuwe_tijd" title="Nieuwe tijd – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Nieuwe tijd" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%97" title="आधुनिक युग – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="आधुनिक युग" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%BF%91%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3" title="近現代 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="近現代" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neitidj" title="Neitidj – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Neitidj" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yangi_tarix" title="Yangi tarix – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Yangi tarix" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%8A_%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%87" title="عصري دوره – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="عصري دوره" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutiet" title="Nutiet – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Nutiet" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epoca_modern%C4%83" title="Epoca modernă – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Epoca modernă" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%BA" title="Нововік – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Нововік" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%8F" title="Новое время – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Новое время" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/ayza-nisamihmihcaan_a_nasulitan" title="ayza-nisamihmihcaan a nasulitan – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="ayza-nisamihmihcaan a nasulitan" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sakizaya</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periudha_moderne" title="Periudha moderne – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Periudha moderne" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_history" title="Modern history – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Modern history" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novovek" title="Novovek – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Novovek" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novi_vek" title="Novi vek – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Novi vek" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8_%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%BA" title="Нови вијек – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Нови вијек" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novi_vijek" title="Novi vijek – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Novi vijek" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uusi_aika" title="Uusi aika – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Uusi aika" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_historia" title="Modern historia – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Modern historia" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B2_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81" title="புதுமைக்கால வரலாறு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="புதுமைக்கால வரலாறு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D2%A3%D0%B0_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Яңа заман – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Яңа заман" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A2%E0%B9%83%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%88" title="สมัยใหม่ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สมัยใหม่" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Нова історія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Нова історія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%E1%BB%8Bch_s%E1%BB%AD_hi%E1%BB%87n_%C4%91%E1%BA%A1i" title="Lịch sử hiện đại – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Lịch sử hiện đại" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vahts%C3%B5n%C3%B5_aig" title="Vahtsõnõ aig – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Vahtsõnõ aig" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaagi_moderno" title="Kaagi moderno – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Kaagi moderno" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8F%B2" title="現代史 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="現代史" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarixo_modern" title="Tarixo modern – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Tarixo modern" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8F%B2" title="現代史 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="現代史" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 25 November 2024, at 04:14 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Content is available under <a class="external" rel="nofollow" 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<script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-5767f597fb-qh4mz","wgBackendResponseTime":280,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"0.964","walltime":"1.158","ppvisitednodes":{"value":5080,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":189104,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":8817,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":16,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":22,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":377703,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 962.835 1 -total"," 45.08% 434.085 1 Template:Reflist"," 25.68% 247.257 56 Template:Cite_book"," 12.36% 119.033 1 Template:Human_history"," 12.06% 116.098 1 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"," 10.20% 98.167 7 Template:Cite_web"," 8.15% 78.487 1 Template:Short_description"," 7.70% 74.141 1 Template:Multiple_issues"," 5.49% 52.854 4 Template:Sfn"," 5.05% 48.625 2 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