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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Revolutionary period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Revolutionary_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Controversy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Controversy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Controversy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Controversy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-Revolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-Revolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Post-Revolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-Revolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Corps_of_Discovery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Corps_of_Discovery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Corps of Discovery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Corps_of_Discovery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reforms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reforms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Reforms</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Reforms-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Reforms subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Reforms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Anti-slavery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anti-slavery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Anti-slavery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anti-slavery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anti-capital_punishment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anti-capital_punishment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Anti-capital punishment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anti-capital_punishment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Status_of_women" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Status_of_women"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Status of women</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Status_of_women-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medical_contributions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medical_contributions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Medical contributions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Medical_contributions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Medical contributions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Medical_contributions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Physical_medicine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physical_medicine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Physical medicine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physical_medicine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mental_health" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mental_health"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Mental health</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mental_health-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Educational_legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Educational_legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Educational legacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Educational_legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religious_views_and_vision" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_views_and_vision"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Religious views and vision</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religious_views_and_vision-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Personal life</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Death" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Death</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Death-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Legacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Writings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Writings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Writings</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Writings-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Writings subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Writings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Archival_collections" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Archival_collections"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.1</span> <span>Archival collections</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Archival_collections-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17.1</span> <span>Primary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Benjamin Rush</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 29 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-29" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">29 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%86_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B4" title="بنجامين راش – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بنجامين راش" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B4" title="بنجامین روش – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="بنجامین روش" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BD_%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%88" title="Бенджамін Раш – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Бенджамін Раш" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%A0%D1%8A%D1%88" title="Бенджамин Ръш – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Бенджамин Ръш" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Rush" title="Benjamin Rush – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Benjamin Rush" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Rush" title="Benjamin Rush – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Benjamin Rush" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Rush" title="Benjamin Rush – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Benjamin Rush" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B4" title="بنیامین راش – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بنیامین راش" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Rush" title="Benjamin Rush – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Benjamin Rush" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Rush" title="Benjamin Rush – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Benjamin Rush" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B2%A4%EC%A0%80%EB%AF%BC_%EB%9F%AC%EC%8B%9C" title="벤저민 러시 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="벤저민 러시" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Rush" title="Benjamin Rush – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Benjamin Rush" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%A0%D7%92%27%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%9F_%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%A9" title="בנג'מין ראש – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="בנג'מין ראש" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beniaminus_Rush" title="Beniaminus Rush – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Beniaminus Rush" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%86_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B4" title="بنجامين راش – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="بنجامين راش" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Rush" title="Benjamin Rush – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Benjamin Rush" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%99%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B8%E3%83%A3%E3%83%9F%E3%83%B3%E3%83%BB%E3%83%A9%E3%83%83%E3%82%B7%E3%83%A5" title="ベンジャミン・ラッシュ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ベンジャミン・ラッシュ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Rush" title="Benjamin Rush – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Benjamin Rush" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%B1%D8%B4" title="بنجامین رش – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="بنجامین رش" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Rush" title="Benjamin Rush – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Benjamin Rush" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Rush" title="Benjamin Rush – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Benjamin Rush" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Rush" title="Benjamin Rush – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Benjamin Rush" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%88,_%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Раш, Бенджамин – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Раш, Бенджамин" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Rush" title="Benjamin Rush – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Benjamin Rush" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Rush" title="Benjamin Rush – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Benjamin Rush" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Rush" title="Benjamin Rush – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Benjamin Rush" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%9E%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81" title="பெஞ்சமின் ரசு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பெஞ்சமின் ரசு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BD_%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%88" title="Бенджамін Раш – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Бенджамін Раш" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9C%AC%E6%9D%B0%E6%98%8E%C2%B7%E6%8B%89%E4%BB%80" title="本杰明·拉什 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="本杰明·拉什" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit 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class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">American Founding Father, physician, educator (1746–1813)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other people named Benjamin Rush, see <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Rush_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Benjamin Rush (disambiguation)">Benjamin Rush (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%;"><div class="fn" style="font-size:125%;">Benjamin Rush</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Benjamin_Rush_Painting_by_Peale.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Benjamin_Rush_Painting_by_Peale.jpg/220px-Benjamin_Rush_Painting_by_Peale.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Benjamin_Rush_Painting_by_Peale.jpg/330px-Benjamin_Rush_Painting_by_Peale.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Benjamin_Rush_Painting_by_Peale.jpg/440px-Benjamin_Rush_Painting_by_Peale.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="698" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="line-height:normal;padding-top:0.2em;">A <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1818</span> portrait of Rush by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Willson_Peale" title="Charles Willson Peale">Charles Willson Peale</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">Delegate to the <br /><a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Second Continental Congress</a><br />from <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />1776–1777</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender">Personal details</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1746-01-04</span>)</span>January 4, 1746<br /><a href="/wiki/Byberry,_Philadelphia" title="Byberry, Philadelphia">Byberry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Pennsylvania" title="Province of Pennsylvania">Province of Pennsylvania</a>, <a href="/wiki/British_America" title="British America">British America</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">April 19, 1813<span style="display:none">(1813-04-19)</span> (aged 67)<br /><a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a>, U.S.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Resting place</th><td class="infobox-data label"><a href="/wiki/Christ_Church_Burial_Ground" title="Christ Church Burial Ground">Christ Church Burial Ground</a>, Philadelphia</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Children</th><td class="infobox-data">13, including <a href="/wiki/Richard_Rush" title="Richard Rush">Richard</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_Rush" title="James Rush">James</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Alma_mater" title="Alma mater">Alma mater</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton University</a><br /><a href="/wiki/University_of_Edinburgh" title="University of Edinburgh">University of Edinburgh</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Occupation</th><td class="infobox-data">Physician, writer, educator</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data">Signer of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">United States Declaration of Independence</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Signature</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Benjamin_Rush_signature.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Benjamin Rush's signature"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Benjamin_Rush_signature.png/128px-Benjamin_Rush_signature.png" decoding="async" width="128" height="37" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Benjamin_Rush_signature.png/192px-Benjamin_Rush_signature.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Benjamin_Rush_signature.png/256px-Benjamin_Rush_signature.png 2x" data-file-width="435" data-file-height="127" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="border-top: 1px solid right;"><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Dr. Benjamin Rush</b> (January 4, 1746 [<a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">O.S.</a> December 24, 1745] – April 19, 1813) was an <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American revolutionary</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Father of the United States</a> and signatory to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">U.S. Declaration of Independence</a>, and a civic leader in <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>, where he was a physician, politician, social reformer, humanitarian, educator, and the founder of <a href="/wiki/Dickinson_College" title="Dickinson College">Dickinson College</a>. Rush was a Pennsylvania delegate to the <a href="/wiki/Continental_Congress" title="Continental Congress">Continental Congress</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-signers_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-signers-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He later described his efforts in support of the American Revolution, saying: "He aimed well."<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He served as <a href="/wiki/Surgeon_general" title="Surgeon general">surgeon general</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Continental_Army" title="Continental Army">Continental Army</a> and became a professor of chemistry, medical theory, and clinical practice at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania" title="University of Pennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-upenn-rush_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-upenn-rush-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Dr. Benjamin Rush was a leader of the <a href="/wiki/American_Enlightenment" title="American Enlightenment">American Enlightenment</a> and an enthusiastic supporter of the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a>. He was a leader in Pennsylvania's ratification of the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">U.S. Constitution</a> in 1788. He was prominent in many reforms, especially in the areas of medicine and education. He opposed slavery, advocated free public schools, and sought improved, but patriarchal,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> education for women, and a more enlightened penal system. As a leading physician, Rush had a major impact on the emerging medical profession. </p><p>As an <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> intellectual, Rush was committed to organizing all medical knowledge around explanatory theories, rather than relying on <a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">empirical methods</a>. Rush argued that illness was the result of imbalances in the body's physical system and was caused by malfunctions in the brain. His approach prepared the way for later medical research, but Rush undertook none of it. He promoted public health by advocating clean environment and stressing the importance of personal and military hygiene. His study of mental disorder made him one of the founders of American <a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">psychiatry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1965, the <a href="/wiki/American_Psychiatric_Association" title="American Psychiatric Association">American Psychiatric Association</a> recognized Rush as the "father of American psychiatry".<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life_and_career">Early life and career</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Rush&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life and career"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_Arms_of_Benjamin_Rush.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Coat_of_Arms_of_Benjamin_Rush.svg/220px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Benjamin_Rush.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Coat_of_Arms_of_Benjamin_Rush.svg/330px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Benjamin_Rush.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Coat_of_Arms_of_Benjamin_Rush.svg/440px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Benjamin_Rush.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="395" data-file-height="463" /></a><figcaption>Coat of Arms of Benjamin Rush</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BenjRushBirthplace.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/BenjRushBirthplace.jpg/220px-BenjRushBirthplace.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/BenjRushBirthplace.jpg/330px-BenjRushBirthplace.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/BenjRushBirthplace.jpg/440px-BenjRushBirthplace.jpg 2x" data-file-width="867" data-file-height="595" /></a><figcaption>Rush's birthplace in the <a href="/wiki/Byberry,_Philadelphia" title="Byberry, Philadelphia">Byberry</a> section of <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>, photographed in 1959</figcaption></figure> <p>Rush was born to John Rush and Susanna Hall on January 4, 1746 (December 24, 1745, O.S.). The family, of English descent,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> lived on a farm in the <a href="/wiki/Byberry,_Philadelphia" title="Byberry, Philadelphia">Township of Byberry</a> in <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia_County,_Pennsylvania" title="Philadelphia County, Pennsylvania">Philadelphia County</a>, about 14 miles outside of Philadelphia (the township was incorporated into Philadelphia in 1854). Rush was the fourth of seven children. His father died in July 1751 at age 39, leaving his mother, who ran a country store, to care for the family. At age eight, Benjamin was sent to live with an aunt and uncle to receive an education.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He and his older brother <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Rush_(jurist)" title="Jacob Rush (jurist)">Jacob</a><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> attended a school run by Reverend <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Finley" title="Samuel Finley">Samuel Finley</a>, which later became <a href="/wiki/West_Nottingham_Academy" title="West Nottingham Academy">West Nottingham Academy</a>. </p><p>In 1760, after further studies at the College of New Jersey, which in 1895 became <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton University</a>, Rush graduated with a <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts" title="Bachelor of Arts">Bachelor of Arts</a> degree at age 14. From 1761 to 1766, Rush apprenticed under Dr. <a href="/wiki/John_Redman_(physician)" title="John Redman (physician)">John Redman</a> in Philadelphia. Redman encouraged him to further his studies at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Edinburgh_Medical_School" title="University of Edinburgh Medical School">University of Edinburgh</a> in Scotland, where Rush studied from 1766 to 1768 and earned an M.D. degree.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hawke1971_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hawke1971-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 60">: 60 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Binger1966_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Binger1966-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 40">: 40 </span></sup> Rush became fluent in French, Italian, and Spanish as a result of his studies and European tour. While at <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a>, he became a friend of the <a href="/wiki/David_Leslie,_6th_Earl_of_Leven" title="David Leslie, 6th Earl of Leven">Earl of Leven</a> and his family, including <a href="/wiki/William_Leslie_(British_Army_officer)" title="William Leslie (British Army officer)">William Leslie</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hawke1971_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hawke1971-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 51–52">: 51–52 </span></sup> </p><p>Returning to the <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Colonies</a> in 1769, Rush opened a medical practice in Philadelphia and became professor of chemistry at the <a href="/wiki/Academy_and_College_of_Philadelphia" title="Academy and College of Philadelphia">College of Philadelphia</a> (which in 1791 changed its name to its present name, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania" title="University of Pennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After his election to the revived <a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a> in 1768, Rush served as the society's curator from 1770 to 1773, as secretary from 1773 to 1773, and vice president from 1797 to 1801.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rush ultimately published the first American textbook on <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a> and several volumes on medical student education and wrote influential patriotic essays.<sup id="cite_ref-Binger1966_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Binger1966-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Revolutionary_period">Revolutionary period</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Rush&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Revolutionary period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rush was active in the <a href="/wiki/Sons_of_Liberty" title="Sons of Liberty">Sons of Liberty</a> and was elected to attend the provincial conference to send delegates to the <a href="/wiki/Continental_Congress" title="Continental Congress">Continental Congress</a>. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Thomas Paine</a> consulted Rush when writing the profoundly influential pro-independence pamphlet <i><a href="/wiki/Common_Sense" title="Common Sense">Common Sense</a></i>. Starting in 1776, Rush represented Pennsylvania and signed the Declaration of Independence.<sup id="cite_ref-signers_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-signers-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also represented Philadelphia at Pennsylvania's own Constitutional Convention.<sup id="cite_ref-signers_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-signers-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In an 1811 letter to John Adams, Rush recounted in stark fashion the signing of the Declaration of Independence. He described it as a scene of "pensive and awful silence". Rush said the delegates were called up, one after another, and then filed forward somberly to subscribe to what each thought was their ensuing death warrant.<sup id="cite_ref-Rush_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rush-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He related that the "gloom of the morning" was briefly interrupted when the rotund <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison_V" title="Benjamin Harrison V">Benjamin Harrison</a> of Virginia said to a diminutive <a href="/wiki/Elbridge_Gerry" title="Elbridge Gerry">Elbridge Gerry</a> of Massachusetts, at the signing table, "I shall have a great advantage over you, Mr. Gerry, when we are all hung for what we are now doing. From the size and weight of my body I shall die in a few minutes and be with the Angels, but from the lightness of your body you will dance in the air an hour or two before you are dead."<sup id="cite_ref-Rush_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rush-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Rush, Harrison's remark "procured a transient smile, but it was soon succeeded by the Solemnity with which the whole business was conducted."<sup id="cite_ref-Rush_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rush-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Death_of_General_Mercer_at_the_Battle_of_Princeton_January_3_1777.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/The_Death_of_General_Mercer_at_the_Battle_of_Princeton_January_3_1777.jpeg/220px-The_Death_of_General_Mercer_at_the_Battle_of_Princeton_January_3_1777.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/The_Death_of_General_Mercer_at_the_Battle_of_Princeton_January_3_1777.jpeg/330px-The_Death_of_General_Mercer_at_the_Battle_of_Princeton_January_3_1777.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/The_Death_of_General_Mercer_at_the_Battle_of_Princeton_January_3_1777.jpeg/440px-The_Death_of_General_Mercer_at_the_Battle_of_Princeton_January_3_1777.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2005" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/The_Death_of_General_Mercer_at_the_Battle_of_Princeton,_January_3,_1777" title="The Death of General Mercer at the Battle of Princeton, January 3, 1777">The Death of General Mercer at the Battle of Princeton, January 3, 1777</a></i> a portrait by <a href="/wiki/John_Trumbull" title="John Trumbull">John Trumbull</a> depicting Rush and General <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> entering from the background with Captain <a href="/wiki/William_Leslie_(British_Army_officer)" title="William Leslie (British Army officer)">William Leslie</a>, shown on the right, mortally wounded</figcaption></figure> <p>While Rush was representing Pennsylvania in the Continental Congress (and serving on its medical committee), he also used his medical skills in the field. Rush accompanied the Philadelphia militia during the battles after which the British occupied Philadelphia and most of New Jersey. He was depicted serving in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Princeton" title="Battle of Princeton">Battle of Princeton</a> in the painting <i><a href="/wiki/The_Death_of_General_Mercer_at_the_Battle_of_Princeton,_January_3,_1777" title="The Death of General Mercer at the Battle of Princeton, January 3, 1777">The Death of General Mercer at the Battle of Princeton, January 3, 1777</a></i> by the American artist <a href="/wiki/John_Trumbull" title="John Trumbull">John Trumbull</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Army Medical Service was in disarray, between the military casualties, extremely high losses from <a href="/wiki/Typhoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Typhoid">typhoid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yellow_fever" title="Yellow fever">yellow fever</a> and other camp illnesses, political conflicts between Dr. <a href="/wiki/John_Morgan_(physician)" title="John Morgan (physician)">John Morgan</a> and Dr. <a href="/wiki/William_Shippen_Jr." title="William Shippen Jr.">William Shippen Jr.</a>, and inadequate supplies and guidance from the medical committee.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 29–43, 65–92">: 29–43, 65–92 </span></sup> Nonetheless, Rush accepted an appointment as surgeon-general of the middle department of the Continental Army. Rush's order "Directions for preserving the health of soldiers" became one of the foundations of preventive military medicine and was repeatedly republished, including as late as 1908.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 36–41">: 36–41 </span></sup> However, Rush's reporting of Shippen's misappropriation of food and wine supplies intended to comfort hospitalized soldiers, under-reporting of patient deaths, and failure to visit the hospitals under his command, ultimately led to Rush's resignation in 1778. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Controversy"><span id="Controversy_surrounding_Benjamin_Rush"></span>Controversy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Rush&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Controversy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rush criticized General <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> in two handwritten but unsigned letters while still serving under the surgeon general. One, to Virginia Governor <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Henry" title="Patrick Henry">Patrick Henry</a> dated October 13, 1778, quotes General <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Conway" title="Thomas Conway">Thomas Conway</a> saying that if not for God's grace the ongoing war would have been lost by Washington and his weak counselors. Henry forwarded the letter to Washington, despite Rush's request that the criticism be conveyed orally, and Washington recognized the handwriting. At the time, the supposed <a href="/wiki/Conway_Cabal" title="Conway Cabal">Conway Cabal</a> was reportedly trying to replace Washington with <a href="/wiki/Horatio_Gates" title="Horatio Gates">Horatio Gates</a> as commander-in-chief.<sup id="cite_ref-Binger1966_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Binger1966-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 133–34">: 133–34 </span></sup> Rush's letter relayed General <a href="/wiki/John_Sullivan_(general)" title="John Sullivan (general)">John Sullivan</a>'s criticism that forces directly under Washington were undisciplined and mob-like, and contrasted Gates' army as "a well-regulated family".<sup id="cite_ref-Brodsky2004_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brodsky2004-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 212–215">: 212–215 </span></sup> Ten days later, Rush wrote to <a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">John Adams</a> relaying complaints inside Washington's army, including about "bad bread, no order, universal disgust" and praising Conway, who had been appointed to inspector general.<sup id="cite_ref-Binger1966_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Binger1966-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 136–37">: 136–37 </span></sup> </p><p>Shippen sought Rush's resignation and received it by the end of the month after Continental Congress delegate <a href="/wiki/John_Witherspoon" title="John Witherspoon">John Witherspoon</a>, chairman of a committee to investigate Morgan's and Rush's charges of misappropriation and mismanagement against Shippen, told Rush his complaints would not produce reform.<sup id="cite_ref-Hawke1971_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hawke1971-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 219–20">: 219–20 </span></sup> Rush later expressed regret for his gossip against Washington. In a letter to John Adams in 1812, Rush wrote, "He [Washington] was the highly favored instrument whose patriotism and name contributed greatly to the establishment of the independence of the United States." Rush also successfully pleaded with Washington's biographers Justice <a href="/wiki/Bushrod_Washington" title="Bushrod Washington">Bushrod Washington</a> and Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/John_Marshall" title="John Marshall">John Marshall</a> to delete his association with those stinging words.<sup id="cite_ref-Binger1966_14-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Binger1966-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 137">: 137 </span></sup> </p><p> In his 2005 book <i><a href="/wiki/1776_(book)" title="1776 (book)">1776</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/David_McCullough" title="David McCullough">David McCullough</a> quotes Rush, referring to George Washington:<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The Philadelphia physician and patriot Benjamin Rush, a staunch admirer, observed that Washington "has so much martial dignity in his deportment that you would distinguish him to be a general and a soldier from among 10,000 people. There is not a king in Europe that would not look like a valet de chambre by his side."<sup id="cite_ref-McCullough2006_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McCullough2006-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Post-Revolution">Post-Revolution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Rush&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Post-Revolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Admission_ticket_to_Benjamin_Rush_lecture_1807.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Admission_ticket_to_Benjamin_Rush_lecture_1807.jpg/220px-Admission_ticket_to_Benjamin_Rush_lecture_1807.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Admission_ticket_to_Benjamin_Rush_lecture_1807.jpg/330px-Admission_ticket_to_Benjamin_Rush_lecture_1807.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Admission_ticket_to_Benjamin_Rush_lecture_1807.jpg/440px-Admission_ticket_to_Benjamin_Rush_lecture_1807.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2824" data-file-height="1840" /></a><figcaption>Ticket to an 1807 lecture given by Rush, then a <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania_School_of_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine">University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine</a> professor</figcaption></figure> <p>Rush believed that, while America was free from British rule, the "American Revolution" had yet to finish. As expressed in his 1787 'Address to the People of the United States', "The American war is over: but this is far from being the case with the American revolution. On the contrary, nothing but the first act of the great drama is closed."<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this address, he encouraged Americans to "come forward" and continue advancements on behalf of America. </p><p>In 1783, he was appointed to the staff of <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Hospital" title="Pennsylvania Hospital">Pennsylvania Hospital</a>, and he remained a member until his death. He was elected to the Pennsylvania convention which adopted the Federal constitution and was appointed treasurer of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Mint" title="United States Mint">United States Mint</a>, serving from 1797 to 1813.<sup id="cite_ref-signers_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-signers-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was elected a fellow of the <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="American Academy of Arts and Sciences">American Academy of Arts and Sciences</a> in 1788.<sup id="cite_ref-AAAS_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AAAS-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He became a professor of medical theory and clinical practice at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania" title="University of Pennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania</a> in 1791, though the quality of his medicine was quite primitive even for the time: he advocated <a href="/wiki/Bloodletting" title="Bloodletting">bloodletting</a> for almost any illness, long after its practice had declined. While teaching at the University of Pennsylvania, one of his students was future president <a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Harrison" title="William Henry Harrison">William Henry Harrison</a>, who took a chemistry class from Rush.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He was also founder of <a href="/wiki/Dickinson_College" title="Dickinson College">Dickinson College</a> in <a href="/wiki/Carlisle,_Pennsylvania" title="Carlisle, Pennsylvania">Carlisle, Pennsylvania</a>. In 1794, he was elected a foreign member of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Swedish_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences">Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/1793_Philadelphia_yellow_fever_epidemic" title="1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic">1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic</a>, Rush treated patients with bleeding, calomel, and other early medicinal techniques that often were ineffective and actually brought many patients closer to their deathbeds. Rush's ideas on yellow fever treatments differed from those of many experienced French doctors, who came from the <a href="/wiki/West_Indies" title="West Indies">West Indies</a> where there were <a href="/wiki/Yellow_fever" title="Yellow fever">yellow fever</a> outbreaks every year. However, he also helped the population of the city by convincing <a href="/wiki/Richard_Allen_(bishop)" title="Richard Allen (bishop)">Richard Allen</a> to ask members of his <a href="/wiki/African_Methodist_Episcopal_Church" title="African Methodist Episcopal Church">African Methodist Episcopal Church</a> and other free blacks, who it was believed were less affected by yellow fever than other Philadelphians,<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to perform <a href="/wiki/Volunteering" title="Volunteering">volunteer</a> <a href="/wiki/Humanitarian_aid" title="Humanitarian aid">aid work</a> for doctors and <a href="/wiki/Funeral_home" title="Funeral home">funeral homes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rush came down with yellow fever himself during the 1793 epidemic, although he recovered from it.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rush took on several social causes during his lifetime. Rush became a social activist and an abolitionist and was a founding member of the Philadelphia Society for Alleviating the Miseries of Public Prisons (known today as the <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Prison_Society" title="Pennsylvania Prison Society">Pennsylvania Prison Society</a><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), which greatly influenced the construction of <a href="/wiki/Eastern_State_Penitentiary" title="Eastern State Penitentiary">Eastern State Penitentiary</a> in Philadelphia.<sup id="cite_ref-WDL1_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WDL1-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He supported <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> for president in <a href="/wiki/1796_United_States_presidential_election" title="1796 United States presidential election">1796</a> over the eventual winner, John Adams.<sup id="cite_ref-McCullough2001_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McCullough2001-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Corps_of_Discovery">Corps of Discovery</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Rush&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Corps of Discovery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1803, Jefferson sent <a href="/wiki/Meriwether_Lewis" title="Meriwether Lewis">Meriwether Lewis</a> to Philadelphia to prepare for the <a href="/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition" title="Lewis and Clark Expedition">Lewis and Clark Expedition</a> under the tutelage of Rush, who taught Lewis about frontier illnesses and the performance of bloodletting. Rush provided the corps with a medical kit that included: </p> <ul><li>Turkish <a href="/wiki/Opium" title="Opium">opium</a> for nervousness</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Emetic">emetics</a> to induce vomiting</li> <li>medicinal wine</li> <li>fifty dozen of <i>Dr. Rush's Bilious Pills,</i> laxatives containing more than 50% <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a>, which have since colloquially been referred to as "thunderclappers". Their meat-rich diet and lack of clean water during the expedition gave the men cause to use them frequently. Although their efficacy is questionable, their high mercury content provided a tracer by which archaeologists have been able to verify one of the Corps' campsites on their route to the Pacific. As of 2024, <a href="/wiki/Traveler%27s_Rest_(Lolo,_Montana)" title="Traveler's Rest (Lolo, Montana)">Travelers' Rest State Park</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Lolo,_Montana" title="Lolo, Montana">Lolo, Montana</a>, is the only location to be confirmed via the analysis of the Corps' latrines.<sup id="cite_ref-Travelers_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Travelers-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-dd_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dd-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-sa_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sa-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reforms">Reforms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Rush&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Reforms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anti-slavery">Anti-slavery</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Rush&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Anti-slavery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1766, when Rush set out for his studies in Edinburgh, he was outraged by the sight of 100 slave ships in <a href="/wiki/Liverpool" title="Liverpool">Liverpool</a> harbor. As a prominent Presbyterian doctor and professor of chemistry in Philadelphia, he provided a bold and respected voice against the slave trade.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He warmly praised the ministry of <a href="/wiki/Harry_Hosier" title="Harry Hosier">"Black Harry" Hosier</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Freedman" title="Freedman">freedman</a> <a href="/wiki/Circuit_rider_(religious)" title="Circuit rider (religious)">circuit rider</a> who accompanied Bishop <a href="/wiki/Francis_Asbury" title="Francis Asbury">Francis Asbury</a> during the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodist Church</a> in America,<sup id="cite_ref-intro_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-intro-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but the highlight of his involvement was the pamphlet he wrote in 1773 entitled "An Address to the Inhabitants of the British Settlements in America, upon Slave-Keeping." In this first of his many attacks on the social evils of his day, he assailed the slave trade as well as the entire institution of slavery. Rush argued scientifically that Blacks were not by nature intellectually or morally inferior. Any apparent evidence to the contrary was only the perverted expression of slavery, which "is so foreign to the human mind, that the moral faculties, as well as those of the understanding are debased, and rendered torpid by it."<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anti-capital_punishment">Anti-capital punishment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Rush&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Anti-capital punishment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rush deemed public punishments such as putting a person on display in <a href="/wiki/Stocks" title="Stocks">stocks</a>, common at the time, to be counterproductive. Instead, he proposed private confinement, labor, solitude, and religious instruction for criminals, and he opposed the death penalty.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His outspoken opposition to <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Capital punishment">capital punishment</a> pushed the Pennsylvania legislature to abolish the death penalty for all crimes other than <a href="/wiki/First-degree_murder" class="mw-redirect" title="First-degree murder">first-degree murder</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-upenn-rush_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-upenn-rush-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He authored a 1792 treatise on punishing murder by death in which he made three principal arguments:<sup id="cite_ref-press-pubs.uchicago.edu_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-press-pubs.uchicago.edu-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd>I. Every man possesses an absolute power over his own liberty and property, but not over his own life...</dd> <dd>II. The punishment of murder by death, is contrary to reason, and to the order and happiness of society...</dd> <dd>III. The punishment of murder by death, is contrary to divine revelation.</dd></dl> <p>Rush led the state of Pennsylvania to establish the first state penitentiary, the <a href="/wiki/Walnut_Street_Prison" title="Walnut Street Prison">Walnut Street Prison</a>, in 1790. Rush campaigned for long-term imprisonment, the denial of liberty, as both the most humane but severe punishment.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This 1792 treatise was preceded by comments on the efficacy of the death penalty that he self-references and which, evidently, appeared in the second volume of the <i>American Museum</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-press-pubs.uchicago.edu_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-press-pubs.uchicago.edu-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Status_of_women">Status of women</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Rush&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Status of women"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the Revolution, Rush proposed a new model of education for elite women that included English language, vocal music, dancing, sciences, bookkeeping, history, and moral philosophy. He was instrumental to the founding of the <a href="/wiki/Young_Ladies%27_Academy_of_Philadelphia" title="Young Ladies' Academy of Philadelphia">Young Ladies' Academy of Philadelphia</a>, the first chartered women's institution of higher education in Philadelphia.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rush saw little need for training women in metaphysics, logic, mathematics, or advanced science; rather he wanted the emphasis on guiding women toward moral essays, poetry, history, and religious writings. This type of education for elite women grew dramatically during the post-revolutionary period, as women claimed a role in creating the Republic. And so, the ideal of <a href="/wiki/Republican_motherhood" title="Republican motherhood">Republican motherhood</a> emerged, lauding women's responsibility of instructing the young in the obligations of patriotism, the blessings of liberty and the true meaning of <a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States" title="Republicanism in the United States">Republicanism</a>. He opposed coeducational classrooms and insisted on the need to instruct all youth in the Christian religion.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Medical_contributions">Medical contributions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Rush&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Medical contributions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Physical_medicine">Physical medicine</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Rush&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Physical medicine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Benjamin_Rush_Painting_by_Peale_1783.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Benjamin_Rush_Painting_by_Peale_1783.jpg/220px-Benjamin_Rush_Painting_by_Peale_1783.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="276" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Benjamin_Rush_Painting_by_Peale_1783.jpg/330px-Benjamin_Rush_Painting_by_Peale_1783.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Benjamin_Rush_Painting_by_Peale_1783.jpg/440px-Benjamin_Rush_Painting_by_Peale_1783.jpg 2x" data-file-width="666" data-file-height="836" /></a><figcaption>A 1783 portrait of Rush by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Willson_Peale" title="Charles Willson Peale">Charles Willson Peale</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Rush was a leading proponent of <a href="/wiki/Heroic_medicine" title="Heroic medicine">heroic medicine</a>. He firmly believed in such practices as <a href="/wiki/Bloodletting" title="Bloodletting">bloodletting</a> patients<sup id="cite_ref-defense_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-defense-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (a practice now known to be generally harmful,<sup id="cite_ref-harmful_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harmful-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but at the time common practice), as well as purges using <a href="/wiki/Calomel" title="Calomel">calomel</a> and other toxic substances. In his report on the Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic of 1793, Rush wrote: "I have found bleeding to be useful, not only in cases where the pulse was full and quick but where it was slow and tense. I have bled twice in many and in one acute case four times, with the happiest effect. I consider intrepidity in the use of the <a href="/wiki/Scalpel" title="Scalpel">lancet</a>, at present, to be necessary, as it is in the use of mercury and <a href="/wiki/Jalap" title="Jalap">jalap</a>, in this insidious and ferocious disease." During that epidemic, Rush gained acclaim for remaining in town and treating sometimes 100 patients per day (some through freed black volunteers coordinated by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Allen_(bishop)" title="Richard Allen (bishop)">Richard Allen</a>), but many died. Even Rush acknowledged the failure of two treatments, sweats in vinegar-wrapped blankets accompanied by mercury rubs, and cold baths.<sup id="cite_ref-Brodsky2004_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brodsky2004-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 329">: 329 </span></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/William_Cobbett" title="William Cobbett">William Cobbett</a> vociferously objected to Rush's extreme use of bloodletting, and even in Rush's day and location, many physicians had abandoned on scientific grounds this favorite remedy of Rush's former teachers <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sydenham" title="Thomas Sydenham">Thomas Sydenham</a> and <a href="/wiki/Herman_Boerhaave" title="Herman Boerhaave">Hermann Boerhaave</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Binger1966_14-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Binger1966-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 223–31">: 223–31 </span></sup> Cobbett accused Rush of killing more patients than he had saved. Rush ultimately sued Cobbett for <a href="/wiki/Defamation" title="Defamation">libel</a>, winning a judgment of $5,000 and $3,000 in court costs, which was only partially paid before Cobbett returned to England.<sup id="cite_ref-Binger1966_14-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Binger1966-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 239–47">: 239–47 </span></sup> Nonetheless, Rush's practice waned as he continued to advocate bloodletting and purges, much to the chagrin of his friend Thomas Jefferson.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Binger1966_14-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Binger1966-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 296">: 296 </span></sup> Some even blamed Rush's bleeding for hastening the death of <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a>, as well as George Washington (although the only one of Washington's medics who opposed the bleeding was Rush's former student), and Rush insisted upon being bled himself shortly before his death (as he had during the yellow fever epidemic two decades earlier).<sup id="cite_ref-Brodsky2004_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brodsky2004-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 331, 363">: 331, 363 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Binger1966_14-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Binger1966-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 220, 295">: 220, 295 </span></sup> </p><p>Rush also wrote the first case report on <a href="/wiki/Dengue_fever" title="Dengue fever">dengue fever</a> (published in 1789 on a case from 1780).<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Perhaps his greatest contributions to physical medicine were his establishment of a public dispensary for low-income patients (Philadelphia Dispensary), and public works associated with draining and rerouting <a href="/wiki/Dock_Creek" title="Dock Creek">Dock Creek</a> (eliminating mosquito breeding grounds, which greatly decreased <a href="/wiki/Typhus" title="Typhus">typhus</a>, typhoid and <a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a> outbreaks). </p><p>Another of Rush's medical views that now draws criticism is his analysis of race. In reviewing the case of Henry Moss, a slave who lost his dark skin color (probably through <a href="/wiki/Vitiligo" title="Vitiligo">vitiligo</a>), Rush characterized being black as a hereditary and curable skin disease. Rush wrote that the "disease, instead of inviting us [whites] to tyrannise over them [blacks], it should entitle them to a double portion of our humanity." He added that this "should teach white people the necessity of keeping up that prejudice against [miscegenation], as it would tend to infect posterity with … their disorder" and called for an "endeavour to discover a remedy for it."<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rush was interested in Native American health. He wanted to find out why Native Americans were susceptible to certain illnesses and whether they had higher mortality rates as compared to other people. Other questions that he raised were whether they dreamed more and if their hair turned gray as they got older. His fascination with indigenous peoples came from his interest in the theory that social scientists can better study the history of their own civilization by studying cultures in earlier stages of development, "primitive men". In his autobiography, he writes "From a review of the three different species of settlers, it appears that there are certain regular stages which mark the progress from the savage to civilized life. The first settler is nearly related to an Indian in his manners. In the second, the Indian manners are more diluted. It is in the third species only that we behold civilization completed. It is to the third species of settlers only that it is proper to apply the term of farmers. While we record the voices of the first and second settlers, it is but just to mention their virtues likewise. Their mutual wants to produce mutual dependence; hence they are kind and friendly to each other. Their solitary situation makes visitors agreeable to them; hence they are hospitable to a stranger."<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mental_health">Mental health</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Rush&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Mental health"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1790_EffectsOfSpiritousLiquors_byBenjaminRush.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/1790_EffectsOfSpiritousLiquors_byBenjaminRush.png/220px-1790_EffectsOfSpiritousLiquors_byBenjaminRush.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="369" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/1790_EffectsOfSpiritousLiquors_byBenjaminRush.png/330px-1790_EffectsOfSpiritousLiquors_byBenjaminRush.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/1790_EffectsOfSpiritousLiquors_byBenjaminRush.png 2x" data-file-width="384" data-file-height="644" /></a><figcaption>"The Moral Thermometer" from Rush's <i>An Inquiry into the Effects of Spirituous Liquors on the Human Body and the Mind</i>, published in 1790; its original edition is now housed in the <a href="/wiki/Library_Company_of_Philadelphia" title="Library Company of Philadelphia">Library Company of Philadelphia</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Rush published one of the first descriptions and treatments for psychiatric disorders in American medicine, <i>Medical Inquiries and Observations, Upon the Diseases of the Mind</i> (1812).<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He undertook to classify different forms of mental illness and to theorize as to their causes and possible cures. Rush believed (incorrectly) that many mental illnesses were caused by disruptions of blood circulation or by sensory overload and treated them with devices meant to improve circulation to the brain such as a <a href="/wiki/Centrifugal_force" title="Centrifugal force">centrifugal</a> spinning board, and inactivity/sensory deprivation via a restraining chair with a sensory-deprivation head enclosure ("tranquilizer chair").<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After seeing mental patients in appalling conditions in Pennsylvania Hospital, Rush led a successful campaign in 1792 for the state to build a separate mental ward where the patients could be kept in more humane conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rush believed, as did so many physicians of the time, that bleeding and active purging with mercury(I) chloride (calomel) were the preferable medical treatments for insanity, a fact evidenced by his statement that, "It is sometimes difficult to prevail upon patients in this state of madness, or even to compel them, to take mercury in any of the ways in which it is usually administered. In these cases I have succeeded, by sprinkling a few grains of calomel daily upon a piece of bread, and afterwards spreading over it, a thin covering of butter."<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rush followed the standard procedures of bleeding and treatment with mercury, he did believe that "coercion" and "restraint", the physical punishment, chains and dungeons, which were the practice of the time, were the answer as proven by his invention of the restraint chair and other devices. For this reason, some aspects of his approach could be seen as similar to <i><a href="/wiki/Moral_treatment" title="Moral treatment">Moral Therapy</a>,</i> which would soon rise to prominence in at least the wealthier institutions of Europe and the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rush is sometimes considered a pioneer of <a href="/wiki/Occupational_therapy" title="Occupational therapy">occupational therapy</a> particularly as it pertains to the institutionalized.<sup id="cite_ref-Brodsky2004_22-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brodsky2004-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <i>Diseases of the Mind</i> (1812), Rush wrote: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>It has been remarked that the maniacs of the male sex in all hospitals, who assist in cutting wood, making fires, and digging in a garden, and the females who are employed in washing, ironing, and scrubbing floors, often recover, while persons, whose rank exempts them from performing such services, languish away their lives within the walls of the hospital.</p></blockquote> <p>Furthermore, Rush was one of the first people to describe Savant Syndrome. In 1789, he described the abilities of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Fuller_(mental_calculator)" title="Thomas Fuller (mental calculator)">Thomas Fuller</a>, an enslaved African who was a <a href="/wiki/Lightning_calculator" class="mw-redirect" title="Lightning calculator">lightning calculator</a>. His observation would later be described in other individuals by notable scientists like <a href="/wiki/John_Langdon_Down" title="John Langdon Down">John Langdon Down</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rush pioneered the therapeutic approach to <a href="/wiki/Substance_use_disorder" title="Substance use disorder">addiction</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prior to his work, drunkenness was viewed as being sinful and a matter of choice. Rush believed that the alcoholic loses control over himself and identified the properties of alcohol, rather than the alcoholic's choice, as the causal agent. He developed the conception of <a href="/wiki/Alcoholism" title="Alcoholism">alcoholism</a> as a form of medical disease and proposed that alcoholics should be weaned from their addiction via less potent substances.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rush advocated for more humane mental institutions and perpetuated the idea that people with mental illness are people who have an illness, rather than inhuman animals. He is quoted to have said, "Terror acts powerfully upon the body, through the medium of the mind, and should be employed in the cure of madness."<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also championed the idea of "partial madness," or that people could have varying degrees of mental illness.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/American_Psychiatric_Association" title="American Psychiatric Association">American Psychiatric Association</a>'s seal bears an image of Rush's purported profile at its center.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-history_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-history-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The outer ring of the seal contains the words "American Psychiatric Association 1844".<sup id="cite_ref-history_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-history-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Association's history of the seal states: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The choice of Rush (1746–1813) for the seal reflects his place in history. .... Rush's practice of psychiatry was based on bleeding, purging, and the use of the tranquilizer chair and gyrator.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1844 these practices were considered erroneous and abandoned. Rush, however, was the first American to study mental disorder in a systematic manner, and he is considered the father of American Psychiatry.<sup id="cite_ref-history_65-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-history-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Educational_legacy">Educational legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Rush&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Educational legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During his career, he educated over 3,000 medical students, and several of these established <a href="/wiki/Rush_Medical_College" title="Rush Medical College">Rush Medical College</a> in <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a> in his honor after his death. His students included <a href="/wiki/Valentine_Seaman" title="Valentine Seaman">Valentine Seaman</a>, who mapped yellow fever mortality patterns in New York and introduced the <a href="/wiki/Smallpox_vaccine" title="Smallpox vaccine">smallpox vaccine</a> to the United States in 1799.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of his last apprentices was <a href="/wiki/Samuel_A._Cartwright" title="Samuel A. Cartwright">Samuel A. Cartwright</a>, later a <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederate States of America</a> surgeon charged with improving sanitary conditions in the camps around <a href="/wiki/Vicksburg,_Mississippi" title="Vicksburg, Mississippi">Vicksburg, Mississippi</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Port_Hudson,_Louisiana" title="Port Hudson, Louisiana">Port Hudson, Louisiana</a>. <a href="/wiki/Rush_University_Medical_Center" title="Rush University Medical Center">Rush University Medical Center</a> in Chicago, formerly Rush-Presbyterian-St. Luke's Medical Center, was named in his honor.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religious_views_and_vision">Religious views and vision</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Rush&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Religious views and vision"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rush advocated Christianity in public life and in education and sometimes compared himself to the prophet <a href="/wiki/Jeremiah" title="Jeremiah">Jeremiah</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rush regularly attended <a href="/wiki/Christ_Church,_Philadelphia" title="Christ Church, Philadelphia">Christ Church</a> in Philadelphia and counted <a href="/wiki/William_White_(bishop_of_Pennsylvania)" title="William White (bishop of Pennsylvania)">William White</a> among his closest friends (and neighbors). Ever the controversialist, Rush became involved in internal disputes over the revised <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Common_Prayer" title="Book of Common Prayer">Book of Common Prayer</a> and the splitting of the <a href="/wiki/Episcopal_Church_(United_States)" title="Episcopal Church (United States)">Episcopal Church</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a>. He dabbled with <a href="/wiki/Presbyterianism" title="Presbyterianism">Presbyterianism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodism</a> (which split from <a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglicanism</a> in those years), and <a href="/wiki/Unitarianism" title="Unitarianism">Unitarianism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hawke1971_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hawke1971-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 312">: 312 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Brodsky2004_22-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brodsky2004-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 11–12, 16–17, 269–70, 322, 346">: 11–12, 16–17, 269–70, 322, 346 </span></sup> In a letter to <a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">John Adams</a>, Rush describes his religious views as "a compound of the orthodoxy and heterodoxy of most of our Christian churches."<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Christian_universalism" title="Christian universalism">Christian Universalists</a> consider him one of their founders, although Rush stopped attending that church after the death of his friend, former <a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptist</a> pastor <a href="/wiki/Elhanan_Winchester" title="Elhanan Winchester">Elhanan Winchester</a>, in 1797.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rush fought for <a href="/wiki/Temperance_movement" title="Temperance movement">temperance</a><sup id="cite_ref-Hawke1971_13-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hawke1971-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 379–380">: 379–380 </span></sup> and both public and Sunday schools. He helped found the Bible Society at Philadelphia (now known as the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pabible.org">Pennsylvania Bible Society</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and promoted the <a href="/wiki/InFaith" title="InFaith">American Sunday School Union</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-AmericaGod_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AmericaGod-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When many public schools stopped using the Bible as a textbook, Rush proposed that the U.S. government require such use, as well as furnish an American Bible to every family at public expense. In 1806, Rush proposed inscribing "The Son of Man Came into the World, Not To Destroy Men's Lives, But To Save Them."<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> above the doors of courthouses and other public buildings. Earlier, on July 16, 1776, Rush had complained to Patrick Henry about a provision in <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Virginia" title="Constitution of Virginia">Virginia's constitution</a> of 1776 which forbade clergymen from serving in the legislature.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rush felt that the United States was the work of God: "I do not believe that the Constitution was the offspring of inspiration, but I am as perfectly satisfied that the Union of the United States in its form and adoption is as much the work of a Divine Providence as any of the miracles recorded in the Old and New Testament".<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1798, after the Constitution's adoption, Rush declared: "The only foundation for a useful education in a republic is to be laid in Religion. Without this there can be no virtue, and without virtue there can be no liberty, and liberty is the object and life of all republican governments."<sup id="cite_ref-AmericaGod_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AmericaGod-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One quote popularly assigned to Rush, however, which portrays him as a medical libertarian: "Unless we put medical freedoms into the Constitution, the time will come when medicine will organize into an undercover dictatorship [. . .] To restrict the art of healing to one class of men and deny equal privileges to others will constitute the Bastille of medical science. All such laws are un-American and despotic and have no place in a republic [. . .] The Constitution of this republic should make special privilege for medical freedom as well as religious freedom," is likely a misattribution. No primary source for it has been found, and the words "un-American" and "undercover" are anachronisms, as their usage as such did not appear until after Rush's death.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Before 1779, Rush's religious views were influenced by what he described as "Fletcher's controversy with the <a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinists</a> in favor of the Universality of the atonement." After hearing Elhanan Winchester preach, Rush indicated that this theology "embraced and reconciled my ancient calvinistical, and my newly adopted (<a href="/wiki/Arminianism" title="Arminianism">Arminian</a>) principles. From that time on I have never doubted upon the subject of the <a href="/wiki/Salvation_in_Christianity" title="Salvation in Christianity">salvation of all men</a>." To simplify, both believed in punishment after death for the wicked. His wife, Julia Rush, thought her husband like <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a> for his ardent passions, fearless attacks on old prejudices, and quick tongue against perceived enemies.<sup id="cite_ref-Binger1966_14-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Binger1966-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 297–298">: 297–298 </span></sup> </p><p>Rush helped <a href="/wiki/Richard_Allen_(bishop)" title="Richard Allen (bishop)">Richard Allen</a> found the <a href="/wiki/African_Methodist_Episcopal_Church" title="African Methodist Episcopal Church">African Methodist Episcopal Church</a>. In his autobiography, Allen wrote: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>...By this time we had waited on Dr. Rush and Mr. Robert Ralston, and told them of our distressing situation. We considered it a blessing that the Lord had put it into our hearts to wait upon... those gentle-men. They pitied our situation, and subscribed largely towards the church, and were very friendly towards us and advised us how to go on. We appointed Mr. Ralston our treasurer. Dr. Rush did much for us in public by his influence. I hope the name of Dr. Benjamin Rush and Mr. Robert Ralston will never be forgotten among us. They were the two first gentlemen who espoused the cause of the oppressed and aided us in building the house of the Lord for the poor Africans to worship in. Here was the beginning and rise of the first African church in America."<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Personal_life">Personal life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Rush&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Personal life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Julia_Stockton_Rush_(Mrs._Benjamin_Rush)_-_Charles_Willson_Peale.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Julia_Stockton_Rush_%28Mrs._Benjamin_Rush%29_-_Charles_Willson_Peale.jpg/220px-Julia_Stockton_Rush_%28Mrs._Benjamin_Rush%29_-_Charles_Willson_Peale.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="274" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Julia_Stockton_Rush_%28Mrs._Benjamin_Rush%29_-_Charles_Willson_Peale.jpg/330px-Julia_Stockton_Rush_%28Mrs._Benjamin_Rush%29_-_Charles_Willson_Peale.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Julia_Stockton_Rush_%28Mrs._Benjamin_Rush%29_-_Charles_Willson_Peale.jpg/440px-Julia_Stockton_Rush_%28Mrs._Benjamin_Rush%29_-_Charles_Willson_Peale.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1568" data-file-height="1953" /></a><figcaption>Julia Stockton Rush, painted by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Willson_Peale" title="Charles Willson Peale">Charles Willson Peale</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Benjamin_Rush_statue_in_Washington,_DC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Benjamin_Rush_statue_in_Washington%2C_DC.jpg/220px-Benjamin_Rush_statue_in_Washington%2C_DC.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="259" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Benjamin_Rush_statue_in_Washington%2C_DC.jpg/330px-Benjamin_Rush_statue_in_Washington%2C_DC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Benjamin_Rush_statue_in_Washington%2C_DC.jpg/440px-Benjamin_Rush_statue_in_Washington%2C_DC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2524" data-file-height="2976" /></a><figcaption>Benjamin Rush statue on "<a href="/wiki/Old_Naval_Observatory" title="Old Naval Observatory">Navy Hill</a>" which is, due to security, in a section of <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>, not accessible to tourists</figcaption></figure> <p>On January 11, 1776, Rush married Julia Stockton (1759–1848), daughter of <a href="/wiki/Richard_Stockton_(Continental_Congressman)" title="Richard Stockton (Continental Congressman)">Richard Stockton</a>, another signer of the Declaration of Independence, and his wife <a href="/wiki/Annis_Boudinot_Stockton" title="Annis Boudinot Stockton">Annis Boudinot Stockton</a>. They had 13 children, 9 of whom survived their first year: John, Ann Emily, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Rush" title="Richard Rush">Richard</a>, Susannah (died as an infant), Elizabeth Graeme (died as an infant), Mary B, James, William (died as an infant), Benjamin (died as an infant), Benjamin, Julia, Samuel, and William. <a href="/wiki/Richard_Rush" title="Richard Rush">Richard</a> later became a member of the <a href="/wiki/Cabinet_(government)" title="Cabinet (government)">cabinets</a> of James Madison, James Monroe, John Quincy Adams, Andrew Jackson, <a href="/wiki/James_K._Polk" title="James K. Polk">James K. Polk</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Zachary_Taylor" title="Zachary Taylor">Zachary Taylor</a> (at one point during each of their presidencies).<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1812, Rush helped reconcile the friendship of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">Adams</a> by encouraging the two former presidents to resume writing to each other.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Once divided over politics and political rivalries, Jefferson and Adams grew close. On July 4, 1826, the 50th anniversary of the signing of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">U.S. Declaration of Independence</a>, Jefferson and Adams both died within hours of each other.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Death"><span id="Death_of_Benjamin_Rush"></span>Death</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Rush&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Death"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After dying of <a href="/wiki/Typhus" title="Typhus">typhus fever</a>, he was buried (in Section N67) along with his wife Julia in the <a href="/wiki/Christ_Church_Burial_Ground" title="Christ Church Burial Ground">Christ Church Burial Ground</a> in Philadelphia, not far from where <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a> is buried.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the site, a small plaque honoring Benjamin Rush has been placed. However, the box marker is next to the plaque on the right, with inscriptions on the top. The inscription reads,<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="poem"> <p>In memory of<br /> Benjamin Rush MD<br /> he died on the 19th of April<br /> in the year of our Lord 1813<br /> Aged 68 years<br /> Well done good and faithful servant<br /> enter thou into the joy of the Lord<br /> <br /> Mrs Julia Rush<br /> consort of<br /> Benjamin Rush MD<br /> Born March 2, 1759<br /> Died July 7, 1848<br /> For as in Adam, all die, even so in Christ<br /> Shall all be made alive </p> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Rush&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Benjamin Rush Elementary School in <a href="/wiki/Redmond,_Washington" title="Redmond, Washington">Redmond, Washington</a>, was named by its students for him.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/The_Arts_Academy_at_Benjamin_Rush" title="The Arts Academy at Benjamin Rush">The Arts Academy at Benjamin Rush</a> magnet high school in Philadelphia was established in 2008. <a href="/wiki/Rush_County,_Indiana" title="Rush County, Indiana">Rush County, Indiana</a>, is named for him as is its county seat, <a href="/wiki/Rushville,_Indiana" title="Rushville, Indiana">Rushville</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Chicago, <a href="/wiki/Rush_Street,_Chicago" class="mw-redirect" title="Rush Street, Chicago">Rush Street</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Rush_University_Medical_Center" title="Rush University Medical Center">Rush University Medical Center</a> are both named for Rush. <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Rush_State_Park" title="Benjamin Rush State Park">Benjamin Rush State Park</a> in Philadelphia is named after Rush. The eponymous conservative Benjamin Rush Institute is an associate member of the <a href="/wiki/State_Policy_Network" title="State Policy Network">State Policy Network</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Writings">Writings</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Rush&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Writings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRush1773" class="citation web cs1">Rush, Benjamin (1773). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://readtheconstitutionstupid.com/en/2012-01-27-19-34-40/2012-01-27-19-37-04/miscellaneous/2342-1773-an-address-to-the-inhabitants-of-the-bristish-settlements-in-america-upon-slave-keeping-benjamin-rush">"An Address to the Inhabitants of the British Settlements in America, Upon Slave-keeping"</a>. Philadelphia: J. Dunlap<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 1,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=An+Address+to+the+Inhabitants+of+the+British+Settlements+in+America%2C+Upon+Slave-keeping&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=J.+Dunlap&rft.date=1773&rft.aulast=Rush&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Freadtheconstitutionstupid.com%2Fen%2F2012-01-27-19-34-40%2F2012-01-27-19-37-04%2Fmiscellaneous%2F2342-1773-an-address-to-the-inhabitants-of-the-bristish-settlements-in-america-upon-slave-keeping-benjamin-rush&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRush1819" class="citation book cs1">Rush, Benjamin (1819) [1791]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/2569031R.nlm.nih.gov"><i>An inquiry into the effects of ardent spirits upon the human body and mind: with an account of the means of preventing, and of the remedies for curing them</i></a>. Josiah Richardson.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+inquiry+into+the+effects+of+ardent+spirits+upon+the+human+body+and+mind%3A+with+an+account+of+the+means+of+preventing%2C+and+of+the+remedies+for+curing+them&rft.pub=Josiah+Richardson&rft.date=1819&rft.aulast=Rush&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2F2569031R.nlm.nih.gov&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRush1794" class="citation book cs1">Rush, Benjamin (1794). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/accountofbilious00rush"><i>An account of the bilious remitting yellow fever, as it appeared in the city of Philadelphia, in the year 1793</i></a>. Philadelphia: Thomas Dobson.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+account+of+the+bilious+remitting+yellow+fever%2C+as+it+appeared+in+the+city+of+Philadelphia%2C+in+the+year+1793&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=Thomas+Dobson&rft.date=1794&rft.aulast=Rush&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Faccountofbilious00rush&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRush1798" class="citation book cs1">Rush, Benjamin (1798). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/essaysliterarymo00inrush"><i>Essays: Literary, Moral, and Philosophical</i></a>. Philadelphia: Thomas & Samuel F. Bradford.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essays%3A+Literary%2C+Moral%2C+and+Philosophical&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=Thomas+%26+Samuel+F.+Bradford&rft.date=1798&rft.aulast=Rush&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fessaysliterarymo00inrush&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span> 1989 reprint: Syracuse University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-912756-22-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-912756-22-5">0-912756-22-5</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRush1799" class="citation journal cs1">Rush, Benjamin (1799). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/jstor-1005108">"Observations Intended to Favour a Supposition That the Black Color (As It Is Called) of the Negroes Is Derived from the Leprosy"</a>. <i>Transactions of the American Philosophical Society</i>. <b>4</b>: <span class="nowrap">289–</span>297. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1005108">10.2307/1005108</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1005108">1005108</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+of+the+American+Philosophical+Society&rft.atitle=Observations+Intended+to+Favour+a+Supposition+That+the+Black+Color+%28As+It+Is+Called%29+of+the+Negroes+Is+Derived+from+the+Leprosy&rft.volume=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E289-%3C%2Fspan%3E297&rft.date=1799&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1005108&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1005108%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Rush&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjstor-1005108&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRush1806" class="citation book cs1"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rush, Benjamin</a> (1806). "A plan of a Peace-Office for the United States". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/essaysliterarym00rushgoog"><i>Essays, Literary, Moral and Philosophical</i></a> (2nd ed.). Philadelphia: Thomas and William Bradford. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/essaysliterarym00rushgoog/page/n197">183</a>–88<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 3,</span> 2010</span> – via <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+plan+of+a+Peace-Office+for+the+United+States&rft.btitle=Essays%2C+Literary%2C+Moral+and+Philosophical&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pages=183-88&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Thomas+and+William+Bradford&rft.date=1806&rft.aulast=Rush&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fessaysliterarym00rushgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRush1808" class="citation book cs1">Rush, Benjamin (1808) [1778]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/2569012R.nlm.nih.gov"><i>Directions for preserving the health of soldiers: addressed to the officers of the Army of the United States</i></a>. Philadelphia: Thomas Dobson.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Directions+for+preserving+the+health+of+soldiers%3A+addressed+to+the+officers+of+the+Army+of+the+United+States&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=Thomas+Dobson&rft.date=1808&rft.aulast=Rush&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2F2569012R.nlm.nih.gov&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Rush, Benjamin (1812) <i>Medical Inquiries And Observations Upon The Diseases Of The Mind</i>, 2006 reprint: Kessinger Publishing, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4286-2669-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-4286-2669-7">1-4286-2669-7</a>. Free digital copies of original published in 1812 at <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://deila.dickinson.edu/theirownwords/title/0034">http://deila.dickinson.edu/theirownwords/title/0034</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged September 2017">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup>. or <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121024024628/http://collections.nlm.nih.gov/muradora/objectView.action?pid=nlm%3Anlmuid-2569036R-bk">https://web.archive.org/web/20121024024628/http://collections.nlm.nih.gov/muradora/objectView.action?pid=nlm%3Anlmuid-2569036R-bk</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRush2003" class="citation web cs1">Rush, Benjamin (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040107235241/http://deila.dickinson.edu/theirownwords/title/0034.htm">"Medical Inquiries and Observations, Upon the Diseases of the Mind: Philadelphia: Published by Kimber & Richardson, no. 237, Market Street; Merritt, printer, no. 9, Watkins Alley, 1812"</a>. <i>Their Own Words</i>. <a href="/wiki/Carlisle,_Pennsylvania" title="Carlisle, Pennsylvania">Carlisle, Pennsylvania</a>: <a href="/wiki/Dickinson_College" title="Dickinson College">Dickinson College</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/53177922">53177922</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://deila.dickinson.edu/theirownwords/title/0034.htm">the original</a> on January 7, 2004<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 20,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Their+Own+Words&rft.atitle=Medical+Inquiries+and+Observations%2C+Upon+the+Diseases+of+the+Mind%3A+Philadelphia%3A+Published+by+Kimber+%26+Richardson%2C+no.+237%2C+Market+Street%3B+Merritt%2C+printer%2C+no.+9%2C+Watkins+Alley%2C+1812&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F53177922&rft.aulast=Rush&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdeila.dickinson.edu%2Ftheirownwords%2Ftitle%2F0034.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRush1815" class="citation journal cs1">Rush, Benjamin (1815). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bobarnebeck.com/defence.html">"A Defence of Blood-letting, as a Remedy for Certain Diseases"</a>. <i>Medical Inquiries and Observations</i>. <b>4</b><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 24,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medical+Inquiries+and+Observations&rft.atitle=A+Defence+of+Blood-letting%2C+as+a+Remedy+for+Certain+Diseases&rft.volume=4&rft.date=1815&rft.aulast=Rush&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbobarnebeck.com%2Fdefence.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRush1830" class="citation book cs1">Rush, Benjamin (1830). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/66551140R.nlm.nih.gov"><i>Medical Inquiries and Observations upon Diseases of the Mind</i></a> (4 ed.). Philadelphia: John Grigg. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/66551140R.nlm.nih.gov/page/n105">98</a>, 197.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medical+Inquiries+and+Observations+upon+Diseases+of+the+Mind&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pages=98%2C+197&rft.edition=4&rft.pub=John+Grigg&rft.date=1830&rft.aulast=Rush&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2F66551140R.nlm.nih.gov&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRush1835" class="citation book cs1">Rush, Benjamin (1835). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/medicalinquirie04rushgoog"><i>Medical Inquiries and Observations Upon the Diseases of the Mind</i></a> (Fifth ed.). Philadelphia: Grigg and Elliott, No. 9 North Fourth Street. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/2812179">2812179</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 20,</span> 2017</span> – via <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medical+Inquiries+and+Observations+Upon+the+Diseases+of+the+Mind&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.edition=Fifth&rft.pub=Grigg+and+Elliott%2C+No.+9+North+Fourth+Street&rft.date=1835&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F2812179&rft.aulast=Rush&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmedicalinquirie04rushgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRush1947" class="citation book cs1">Rush, Benjamin (1947). <i>The selected writings of Benjamin Rush</i>. New York: Philosophical Library. p. 448. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8065-2955-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8065-2955-4"><bdi>978-0-8065-2955-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+selected+writings+of+Benjamin+Rush&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=448&rft.pub=Philosophical+Library&rft.date=1947&rft.isbn=978-0-8065-2955-4&rft.aulast=Rush&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFButterfield1951" class="citation book cs1">Butterfield, Lyman H., ed. (1951). <i>Letters of Benjamin Rush</i>. Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/877738348">877738348</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Letters+of+Benjamin+Rush&rft.series=Memoirs+of+the+American+Philosophical+Society&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1951&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F877738348&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><i>The Spur of Fame: Dialogues of John Adams and Benjamin Rush, 1805–1813</i> (2001), Liberty Fund, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86597-287-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-86597-287-7">0-86597-287-7</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRush1970" class="citation book cs1">Rush, Benjamin (1970) [1948]. George Washington Corner (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/memorialcontaini00inrush"><i>The autobiography of Benjamin Rush; his Travels through life together with his Commonplace book for 1789–1813</i></a>. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+autobiography+of+Benjamin+Rush%3B+his+Travels+through+life+together+with+his+Commonplace+book+for+1789%E2%80%931813&rft.place=Westport%2C+CT&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Rush&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmemorialcontaini00inrush&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoxMillerMiller1996" class="citation book cs1">Fox, Claire G.; Miller, Gordon L.; Miller, Jacquelyn C. (1996). <i>Benjamin Rush, M.D: A Bibliographic Guide</i>. Greenwood Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-29823-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-29823-3"><bdi>978-0-313-29823-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Benjamin+Rush%2C+M.D%3A+A+Bibliographic+Guide&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-313-29823-3&rft.aulast=Fox&rft.aufirst=Claire+G.&rft.au=Miller%2C+Gordon+L.&rft.au=Miller%2C+Jacquelyn+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Archival_collections">Archival collections</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Rush&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Archival collections"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Presbyterian_Historical_Society" title="Presbyterian Historical Society">Presbyterian Historical Society</a> in <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a>, has a collection of <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.pcusa.org/collections/research-tools/guides-archival-collections/rg-324">Benjamin Rush's original manuscripts</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Library_Company_of_Philadelphia" title="Library Company of Philadelphia">Library Company of Philadelphia</a> has <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://findingaids.library.upenn.edu/records/LCP_LCP.RUSH">papers of the Rush family</a> including a significant correspondence collection. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Rush&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/28px-P_vip.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/41px-P_vip.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/55px-P_vip.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1911" data-file-height="1944" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Biography" title="Portal:Biography">Biography portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_abolitionist_forerunners" title="List of abolitionist forerunners">List of abolitionist forerunners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memorial_to_the_56_Signers_of_the_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence">Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Rush&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The gyrator is described by the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uphs.upenn.edu/paharc/collections/exhibits/psych/">University of Pennsylvania</a> as "a horizontal board on which torpid patients were strapped and spun to stimulate blood circulation."</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Rush&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-signers-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-signers_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-signers_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-signers_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-signers_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180207213452/http://www.ushistory.org/declaration/signers/rush.html">"Benjamin Rush: 1745–1813: Representing Pennsylvania at the Continental Congress"</a>. <i>Signers of the Decl of Independence</i>. ushistory.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ushistory.org/declaration/signers/rush.html">the original</a> on February 7, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 7,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Signers+of+the+Decl+of+Independence&rft.atitle=Benjamin+Rush%3A+1745%E2%80%931813%3A+Representing+Pennsylvania+at+the+Continental+Congress&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ushistory.org%2Fdeclaration%2Fsigners%2Frush.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRenker1989" class="citation journal cs1">Renker, Elizabeth M. (1989). "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Declaration-Men' and the Rhetoric of Self-Presentation". <i>Early American Literature</i>. <b>24</b> (2): 123 and n. 10 there. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25056766">25056766</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Early+American+Literature&rft.atitle=%27Declaration-Men%27+and+the+Rhetoric+of+Self-Presentation&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=123+and+n.+10+there&rft.date=1989&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25056766%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Renker&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRush1970" class="citation book cs1">Rush, Benjamin (1970) [1948]. George Washington Corner (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/memorialcontaini00inrush"><i>The autobiography of Benjamin Rush; his Travels through life together with his Commonplace book for 1789–1813</i></a>. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+autobiography+of+Benjamin+Rush%3B+his+Travels+through+life+together+with+his+Commonplace+book+for+1789%E2%80%931813&rft.place=Westport%2C+CT&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Rush&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmemorialcontaini00inrush&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-upenn-rush-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-upenn-rush_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-upenn-rush_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110610051840/http://www.archives.upenn.edu/people/1700s/rush_benj.html">"Benjamin Rush (1746–1813)"</a>. University of Pennsylvania. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.archives.upenn.edu/people/1700s/rush_benj.html">the original</a> on June 10, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 20,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Benjamin+Rush+%281746%E2%80%931813%29&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.upenn.edu%2Fpeople%2F1700s%2Frush_benj.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFraser2019" class="citation book cs1">Fraser, James (2019). <i>The school in the United States: a documentary history</i> (Fourth ed.). New York, NY: Routledge. p. 25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-138-47887-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-138-47887-9"><bdi>978-1-138-47887-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+school+in+the+United+States%3A+a+documentary+history&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=25&rft.edition=Fourth&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-138-47887-9&rft.aulast=Fraser&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMuccigrosso1988" class="citation book cs1">Muccigrosso, Robert, ed. (1988). <i>Research Guide to American Historical Biography</i>. Vol. 4. pp. <span class="nowrap">1139–</span>42.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Research+Guide+to+American+Historical+Biography&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1139-%3C%2Fspan%3E42&rft.date=1988&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShorter1997" class="citation book cs1">Shorter, Edward (1997). <i>A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac</i>. Wiley.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Psychiatry%3A+From+the+Era+of+the+Asylum+to+the+Age+of+Prozac&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Shorter&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIrvine1893" class="citation journal cs1">Irvine, James (1893). "Descendants of John Rush". <i>The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography</i>. <b>17</b> (3): 334. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20083549">20083549</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Pennsylvania+Magazine+of+History+and+Biography&rft.atitle=Descendants+of+John+Rush&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=334&rft.date=1893&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20083549%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Irvine&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040126092811/http://deila.dickinson.edu/theirownwords/author/RushB.htm">"About the Author: Benjamin Rush (1745–1813)"</a>. <i>Their Own Words</i>. deila.dickinson.edu. July 9, 2004. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://deila.dickinson.edu/theirownwords/author/RushB.htm">the original</a> on January 26, 2004<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 20,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Their+Own+Words&rft.atitle=About+the+Author%3A+Benjamin+Rush+%281745%E2%80%931813%29&rft.date=2004-07-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdeila.dickinson.edu%2Ftheirownwords%2Fauthor%2FRushB.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The identity of Rush's siblings is confused: there are web pages saying Rush and one brother were responsible for the entire family, and also giving Rush's brothers names as William (a lawyer) and Samuel <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121009232847/http://familytreemaker.genealogy.com/users/m/c/c/Janice-Lee-Mccarty/FILE/0024text.txt">"Descendants of Thomas Rush"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://familytreemaker.genealogy.com/users/m/c/c/Janice-Lee-Mccarty/FILE/0024text.txt">the original</a> on October 9, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-12-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Descendants+of+Thomas+Rush&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffamilytreemaker.genealogy.com%2Fusers%2Fm%2Fc%2Fc%2FJanice-Lee-Mccarty%2FFILE%2F0024text.txt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span> lists Rush's siblings as Jacob, James, John, Rebecca, Rachel, and Stephenson. Most likely, though William and Samuel were relatives and close friends, for Benjamin was a 5th generation removed from the Cromwell era Rush and Benjamin's father's family lived in the Byberry area for generations.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150629002552/http://www.ushistory.org/DECLARATION/signers/rush.htm">"Benjamin Rush"</a>. <i>Signers of the Declaration of Independence</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ushistory.org/declaration/signers/rush.htm">the original</a> on June 29, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 7,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Signers+of+the+Declaration+of+Independence&rft.atitle=Benjamin+Rush&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ushistory.org%2Fdeclaration%2Fsigners%2Frush.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodrich1856" class="citation web cs1">Goodrich, Rev. Charles A. (1856). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100108225753/http://colonialhall.com/rush/rush.php">"Benjamin Rush, 1745–1813"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://colonialhall.com/rush/rush.php">the original</a> on January 8, 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 16,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Benjamin+Rush%2C+1745%E2%80%931813&rft.date=1856&rft.aulast=Goodrich&rft.aufirst=Rev.+Charles+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcolonialhall.com%2Frush%2Frush.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hawke1971-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hawke1971_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hawke1971_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hawke1971_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hawke1971_13-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hawke1971_13-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHawke1971" class="citation book cs1">Hawke, David Freeman (1971). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/benjaminrushrevo0000hawk"><i>Benjamin Rush: Revolutionary Gadfly</i></a></span>. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Benjamin+Rush%3A+Revolutionary+Gadfly&rft.place=Indianapolis&rft.pub=Bobbs-Merrill&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Hawke&rft.aufirst=David+Freeman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbenjaminrushrevo0000hawk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Binger1966-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Binger1966_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Binger1966_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Binger1966_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Binger1966_14-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Binger1966_14-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Binger1966_14-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Binger1966_14-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Binger1966_14-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Binger1966_14-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Binger1966_14-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBinger1966" class="citation book cs1">Binger, Carl (1966). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/revolutionarydoc00bing"><i>Revolutionary Doctor / Benjamin Rush (1746–1813)</i></a>. New York: Norton & Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revolutionary+Doctor+%2F+Benjamin+Rush+%281746%E2%80%931813%29&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Norton+%26+Co.&rft.date=1966&rft.aulast=Binger&rft.aufirst=Carl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frevolutionarydoc00bing&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorth_RL2000" class="citation journal cs1">North RL (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1312212">"Benjamin Rush, MD: assassin or beloved healer?"</a>. <i>Proc Bayl Univ Med Cent</i>. <b>13</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">45–</span>9. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F08998280.2000.11927641">10.1080/08998280.2000.11927641</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1312212">1312212</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16389324">16389324</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proc+Bayl+Univ+Med+Cent&rft.atitle=Benjamin+Rush%2C+MD%3A+assassin+or+beloved+healer%3F&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E45-%3C%2Fspan%3E9&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1312212%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16389324&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F08998280.2000.11927641&rft.au=North+RL&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1312212&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bell, Whitfield J., and Charles Greifenstein, Jr. Patriot-Improvers: Biographical Sketches of Members of the American Philosophical Society. 3 vols. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1997, I:26, 33, 61–62, 184, 193, 250, 452–64, 453,466, 504, II: 136,257, 369, 386, 393, III:49, 54, 135, 204, 254, 272, 408, 524, 573.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rush-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rush_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rush_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rush_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/inde/learn/historyculture/resources-declaration-quotes.htm">"Benjamin Rush to John Adams, July 20, 1811"</a>. National Park Service. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240726163008/https://www.nps.gov/inde/learn/historyculture/resources-declaration-quotes.htm">Archived</a> from the original on July 26, 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 22,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Benjamin+Rush+to+John+Adams%2C+July+20%2C+1811&rft.pub=National+Park+Service&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Finde%2Flearn%2Fhistoryculture%2Fresources-declaration-quotes.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://artgallery.yale.edu/collections/objects/101">"<i>The Death of General Mercer at the Battle of Princeton, January 3, 1777</i>"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Art_Gallery" title="Yale University Art Gallery">Yale University Art Gallery</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160105130518/http://artgallery.yale.edu/collections/objects/101">Archived</a> from the original on January 5, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 26,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Death+of+General+Mercer+at+the+Battle+of+Princeton%2C+January+3%2C+1777&rft.pub=Yale+University+Art+Gallery&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fartgallery.yale.edu%2Fcollections%2Fobjects%2F101&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGillette1981" class="citation book cs1">Gillette, Mary (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130114192640/http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/rev/gillett1/default.html"><i>The Army Medical Department 1775–1818</i></a>. Army Medical Department Office of Medical History. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/rev/gillett1/default.html">the original</a> on January 14, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 24,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Army+Medical+Department+1775%E2%80%931818&rft.pub=Army+Medical+Department+Office+of+Medical+History&rft.date=1981&rft.aulast=Gillette&rft.aufirst=Mary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhistory.amedd.army.mil%2Fbooksdocs%2Frev%2Fgillett1%2Fdefault.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRush1808" class="citation book cs1">Rush, Benjamin (1808). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/2569012R.nlm.nih.gov"><i>Directions for preserving the health of soldiers: addressed to the officers of the Army of the United States</i></a>. Philadelphia: Thomas Dobson.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Directions+for+preserving+the+health+of+soldiers%3A+addressed+to+the+officers+of+the+Army+of+the+United+States&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=Thomas+Dobson&rft.date=1808&rft.aulast=Rush&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2F2569012R.nlm.nih.gov&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBayne-Jones1968" class="citation book cs1">Bayne-Jones, Stanhope (1968). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA291762.pdf"><i>Evolution of Preventative Medicine in the United States Army 1607–1939</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Office of the Surgeon General, Department of the Army. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130801180935/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA291762">Archived</a> from the original on August 1, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 24,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution+of+Preventative+Medicine+in+the+United+States+Army+1607%E2%80%931939&rft.pub=Office+of+the+Surgeon+General%2C+Department+of+the+Army&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Bayne-Jones&rft.aufirst=Stanhope&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapps.dtic.mil%2Fsti%2Fpdfs%2FADA291762.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brodsky2004-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brodsky2004_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brodsky2004_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brodsky2004_22-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brodsky2004_22-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brodsky2004_22-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrodsky2004" class="citation book cs1">Brodsky, Alyn (2004). <i>Benjamin Rush: Patriot and Physician</i>. New York: Truman Talley Books/St. Martin's Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Benjamin+Rush%3A+Patriot+and+Physician&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Truman+Talley+Books%2FSt.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Brodsky&rft.aufirst=Alyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McCullough2006-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-McCullough2006_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCullough2006" class="citation book cs1">McCullough, David G (2006). <i>1776: America and Britain at war</i>. London: Penguin.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=1776%3A+America+and+Britain+at+war&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=McCullough&rft.aufirst=David+G&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kdhist.sitehost.iu.edu/H105-documents-web/week07/Rush1787.html">"Rush 1787"</a>. <i>kdhist.sitehost.iu.edu</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230227185157/https://kdhist.sitehost.iu.edu/H105-documents-web/week07/Rush1787.html">Archived</a> from the original on February 27, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 27,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=kdhist.sitehost.iu.edu&rft.atitle=Rush+1787&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fkdhist.sitehost.iu.edu%2FH105-documents-web%2Fweek07%2FRush1787.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AAAS-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AAAS_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterR.pdf">"Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter R"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. American Academy of Arts and Sciences. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160313035932/http://amacad.org/publications/bookofmembers/chapterr.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on March 13, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 28,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Book+of+Members%2C+1780%E2%80%932010%3A+Chapter+R&rft.pub=American+Academy+of+Arts+and+Sciences&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.amacad.org%2Fpublications%2FBookofMembers%2FChapterR.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRabin2017" class="citation news cs1">Rabin, Alex (January 25, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thedp.com/article/2017/01/william-henry-harrison-history">"With a Penn graduate in the Oval Office for the first time, here's a look at former President William Henry Harrison's time at the University"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Daily_Pennsylvanian" title="The Daily Pennsylvanian">The Daily Pennsylvanian</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200807013708/https://www.thedp.com/article/2017/01/william-henry-harrison-history">Archived</a> from the original on August 7, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 3,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Daily+Pennsylvanian&rft.atitle=With+a+Penn+graduate+in+the+Oval+Office+for+the+first+time%2C+here%27s+a+look+at+former+President+William+Henry+Harrison%27s+time+at+the+University&rft.date=2017-01-25&rft.aulast=Rabin&rft.aufirst=Alex&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thedp.com%2Farticle%2F2017%2F01%2Fwilliam-henry-harrison-history&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.labxchange.org/library/items/lb:LabXchange:46edb8e2:html">"Racism in Epidemics: Yellow Fever in Philadelphia"</a>. <i>LabXchange</i>. July 9, 2024 [Feb 20, 2024]. <q>Despite Rush's claim that Black people were immune to yellow fever, between 200 and 400 Black people died from the virus during the 1793 Philadelphia epidemic. Although that number is quite small when compared to the overall number of deaths, the Black population of Philadelphia at that time was small to begin with. This means that the Black community actually lost a larger percentage of their population to the virus.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=LabXchange&rft.atitle=Racism+in+Epidemics%3A+Yellow+Fever+in+Philadelphia&rft.date=2024-07-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.labxchange.org%2Flibrary%2Fitems%2Flb%3ALabXchange%3A46edb8e2%3Ahtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnsonSmithBlightElse1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_R._Johnson" title="Charles R. Johnson">Johnson, Charles R.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Patricia_Smith_(poet)" title="Patricia Smith (poet)">Smith, Patricia</a>; <a href="/wiki/David_Blight" class="mw-redirect" title="David Blight">Blight, David</a>; <a href="/wiki/Jon_H._Else" title="Jon H. Else">Else, Jon H.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Barbara_Fields" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbara Fields">Fields, Barbara</a>; Frey, Sylvia; <a href="/wiki/Henry_Louis_Gates_Jr." title="Henry Louis Gates Jr.">Gates Jr., Henry Louis</a>; Gill, Gerald; <a href="/wiki/Vincent_Harding" title="Vincent Harding">Harding, Vincent</a> (1998). <i>Africans in America: America's Journey Through Slavery</i> (1st ed.). United States: <a href="/wiki/Harcourt_Brace" class="mw-redirect" title="Harcourt Brace">Harcourt Brace</a>. p. 237. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-15-100339-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-15-100339-6"><bdi>978-0-15-100339-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Africans+in+America%3A+America%27s+Journey+Through+Slavery&rft.place=United+States&rft.pages=237&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Harcourt+Brace&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-15-100339-6&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Charles+R.&rft.au=Smith%2C+Patricia&rft.au=Blight%2C+David&rft.au=Else%2C+Jon+H.&rft.au=Fields%2C+Barbara&rft.au=Frey%2C+Sylvia&rft.au=Gates+Jr.%2C+Henry+Louis&rft.au=Gill%2C+Gerald&rft.au=Harding%2C+Vincent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081105094301/http://www.prisonsociety.org/about/index.shtml">"The Prison Society – About Us"</a>. The Pennsylvania Prison Society. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.prisonsociety.org/about/index.shtml">the original</a> on November 5, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 16,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Prison+Society+%E2%80%93+About+Us&rft.pub=The+Pennsylvania+Prison+Society&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.prisonsociety.org%2Fabout%2Findex.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WDL1-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WDL1_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wdl.org/en/item/9493/">"The Philadelphia Society for Alleviating the Miseries of Public Prisons"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Library_Company_of_Philadelphia" title="Library Company of Philadelphia">Library Company of Philadelphia</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/World_Digital_Library" title="World Digital Library">World Digital Library</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140102194726/http://www.wdl.org/en/item/9493/">Archived</a> from the original on January 2, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 1,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Library+Company+of+Philadelphia&rft.atitle=The+Philadelphia+Society+for+Alleviating+the+Miseries+of+Public+Prisons&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wdl.org%2Fen%2Fitem%2F9493%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McCullough2001-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-McCullough2001_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCullough2008" class="citation book cs1">McCullough, David (2008) [2001]. <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/johnadams00davi"><i>John Adams</i></a></span>. New York: Simon and Schuster. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/johnadams00davi/page/470">470</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4165-7588-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4165-7588-7"><bdi>978-1-4165-7588-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Adams&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=470&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4165-7588-7&rft.aulast=McCullough&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjohnadams00davi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Travelers-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Travelers_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fwp.mt.gov/travelers-rest">"Travelers' Rest State Park"</a>. <i>Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240330162306/https://fwp.mt.gov/travelers-rest">Archived</a> from the original on March 30, 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 4,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Montana+Fish%2C+Wildlife+%26+Parks&rft.atitle=Travelers%27+Rest+State+Park&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffwp.mt.gov%2Ftravelers-rest&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoodgerToropov2009" class="citation book cs1">Woodger, Elin; Toropov, Brandon (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8vYA0zDFy_IC"><i>Encyclopedia of the Lewis and Clark Expedition</i></a>. Infobase Publishing. pp. <span class="nowrap">304–</span>06. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-1023-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-1023-3"><bdi>978-1-4381-1023-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Lewis+and+Clark+Expedition&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E304-%3C%2Fspan%3E06&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4381-1023-3&rft.aulast=Woodger&rft.aufirst=Elin&rft.au=Toropov%2C+Brandon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8vYA0zDFy_IC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dd-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dd_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuncanBurns1997" class="citation book cs1">Duncan, Dayton; Burns, Ken (1997). <i>Lewis & Clark: The Journey of the Corps of Discovery</i>. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. pp. <span class="nowrap">9–</span>10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-679-45450-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-679-45450-2"><bdi>978-0-679-45450-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lewis+%26+Clark%3A+The+Journey+of+the+Corps+of+Discovery&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E9-%3C%2Fspan%3E10&rft.pub=Alfred+A.+Knopf%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-679-45450-2&rft.aulast=Duncan&rft.aufirst=Dayton&rft.au=Burns%2C+Ken&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sa-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sa_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmbrose1996" class="citation book cs1">Ambrose, Stephen (1996). <i>Undaunted Courage: Meriwether Lewis, Thomas Jefferson, and the Opening of the American West</i>. New York: Simon & Schuster. pp. 81, <span class="nowrap">87–</span>91. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-82697-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-82697-4"><bdi>978-0-684-82697-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Undaunted+Courage%3A+Meriwether+Lewis%2C+Thomas+Jefferson%2C+and+the+Opening+of+the+American+West&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=81%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E87-%3C%2Fspan%3E91&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-684-82697-4&rft.aulast=Ambrose&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFD'Elia1969" class="citation journal cs1">D'Elia, Donald J (1969). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 20,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Indiana+Magazine+of+History&rft.atitle=Introducing+Black+Harry+Hoosier%3A+The+History+Behind+Indiana%27s+Namesake&rft.volume=98&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E30-%3C%2Fspan%3E42&rft.date=2002-03&rft.aulast=Webb&rft.aufirst=Stephen+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarworks.iu.edu%2Fjournals%2Findex.php%2Fimh%2Farticle%2Fview%2F11895%2F17497&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDolbeareCummings2010" class="citation book cs1">Dolbeare, Kenneth M.; Cummings, Michael S. 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MIT Press. p. 131. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-55036-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-55036-9"><bdi>978-0-262-55036-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240726163009/https://books.google.com/books?id=63_19D3jPDgC&pg=PA131#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on July 26, 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 17,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Strong+Feelings%3A+Emotion%2C+Addiction%2C+and+Human+Behavior&rft.pages=131&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-262-55036-9&rft.aulast=Elster&rft.aufirst=Jon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D63_19D3jPDgC%26pg%3DPA131&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDurrantThakker2003" class="citation book cs1">Durrant, Russil; Thakker, Jo (2003). <i>Substance Use & Abuse: Cultural and Historical Perspectives</i>. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Substance+Use+%26+Abuse%3A+Cultural+and+Historical+Perspectives&rft.place=Thousand+Oaks%2C+CA&rft.pub=Sage+Publications&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Durrant&rft.aufirst=Russil&rft.au=Thakker%2C+Jo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRush1805" class="citation book cs1">Rush, Benjamin (1805). <i>Inquiry into the Effects of Ardent Spirits upon the Human Body and Mind</i>. Philadelphia: Bartam.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inquiry+into+the+Effects+of+Ardent+Spirits+upon+the+Human+Body+and+Mind&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=Bartam&rft.date=1805&rft.aulast=Rush&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/medicalinquirie04rushgoog">"Medical Inquiries and Observations Upon the Diseases of the Mind" Author Benjamin Rush. Published 1835. Page 209.</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMadden2006" class="citation journal cs1">Madden, Etta (2006). "PhD". <i>Early American Literature</i>. <b>41</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">241–</span>272, 396. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Feal.2006.0022">10.1353/eal.2006.0022</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161899076">161899076</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ProQuest" title="ProQuest">ProQuest</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.proquest.com/docview/215394022">215394022</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Early+American+Literature&rft.atitle=PhD&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E241-%3C%2Fspan%3E272%2C+396&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Feal.2006.0022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161899076%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Madden&rft.aufirst=Etta&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171020182607/https://www.ucsf.edu/sites/default/files/fields/field_insert_file/blog_posts/American-Psychiatric-Association-Logo.jpeg">"American Psychiatric Association Logo"</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_San_Francisco" title="University of California, San Francisco">University of California, San Francisco</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ucsf.edu/sites/default/files/fields/field_insert_file/blog_posts/American-Psychiatric-Association-Logo.jpeg">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(<a href="/wiki/JPEG" title="JPEG">JPEG</a>)</span> on October 20, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 20,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=American+Psychiatric+Association+Logo&rft.pub=University+of+California%2C+San+Francisco&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucsf.edu%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Ffields%2Ffield_insert_file%2Fblog_posts%2FAmerican-Psychiatric-Association-Logo.jpeg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoran2015" class="citation journal cs1">Moran, Mike (May 28, 2015). "New APA Logo Unifies Image of Psychiatry". <i>Psychiatric News</i>. <b>50</b> (11). American Psychiatric Association: 1. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1176%2Fappi.pn.2015.6a14">10.1176/appi.pn.2015.6a14</a>. <q>The seal features the profile of Benjamin Rush, M.D., who is considered the father of American psychiatry and was a signer of the Declaration of Independence. The seal will continue to be used for ceremonial purposes and some internal documents.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychiatric+News&rft.atitle=New+APA+Logo+Unifies+Image+of+Psychiatry&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=1&rft.date=2015-05-28&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1176%2Fappi.pn.2015.6a14&rft.aulast=Moran&rft.aufirst=Mike&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-history-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-history_65-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-history_65-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-history_65-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOzarin1998" class="citation journal cs1">Ozarin, Lucy D. (April 17, 1998). Ramchandam, Dilip (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080829231156/http://www.psychiatricnews.org/pnews/98-04-17/hx.html">"History Notes: The Official Seal of the APA"</a>. <i>Psychiatric News</i>. American Psychiatric Association. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.psychiatricnews.org/pnews/98-04-17/hx.html">the original</a> on August 29, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 20,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychiatric+News&rft.atitle=History+Notes%3A+The+Official+Seal+of+the+APA&rft.date=1998-04-17&rft.aulast=Ozarin&rft.aufirst=Lucy+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.psychiatricnews.org%2Fpnews%2F98-04-17%2Fhx.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson1893" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, James Grant (1893). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/memorialhistory00wilsgoog"><i>The Memorial History of the City of New-York: From Its First Settlement to the Year 1892</i></a>. New York History Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Memorial+History+of+the+City+of+New-York%3A+From+Its+First+Settlement+to+the+Year+1892&rft.pub=New+York+History+Company&rft.date=1893&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=James+Grant&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmemorialhistory00wilsgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rush.edu/about-us/about-rush-university-medical-center/history">"History"</a>. Rush University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190416081751/https://www.rush.edu/about-us/about-rush-university-medical-center/history">Archived</a> from the original on April 16, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 30,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History&rft.pub=Rush+University&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rush.edu%2Fabout-us%2Fabout-rush-university-medical-center%2Fhistory&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hawke, p.5, citing Jeremiah's lament, "Woe is me, my mother, that thou has borne me, a man of strife, and a man of contention to the whole earth. I have neither lent on usury, nor have men lent to me on usury, yet every one of them doth curse me," in Letter to John Adams, December 26, 1811.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Letter to John Adams, April 5, 1808 in Butterfield, Letters of Benjamin Rush, pp. 2:962–963</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100727153816/http://www25.uua.org/uuhs/duub/articles/benjaminrush.html">"Benjamin Rush"</a>. Unitarian Universalist Association. July 8, 2010. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uudb.org/duub/articles/benjaminrush.html">the original</a> on July 27, 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 8,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Benjamin+Rush&rft.pub=Unitarian+Universalist+Association&rft.date=2010-07-08&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fuudb.org%2Fduub%2Farticles%2Fbenjaminrush.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171006162546/http://www.pabible.org/rush_diary.html">"Dr. Benjamin Rush Diary"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pabible.org/rush_diary.html">the original</a> on October 6, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 23,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dr.+Benjamin+Rush+Diary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pabible.org%2Frush_diary.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-unfit"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060215120804/http://www.adherents.com/people/pr/Benjamin_Rush.html">"Benjamin Rush, Signer of Declaration of Independence"</a>. <i>adherents.com</i>. November 28, 2005. Archived from the original on February 15, 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=adherents.com&rft.atitle=Benjamin+Rush%2C+Signer+of+Declaration+of+Independence&rft.date=2005-11-28&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.adherents.com%2Fpeople%2Fpr%2FBenjamin_Rush.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AmericaGod-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AmericaGod_74-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AmericaGod_74-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>America's God and Country Encyclopedia of Quotations,</i> by William Federer, 1999, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-880563-09-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-880563-09-6">1-880563-09-6</a>, p. 543</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(1) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRush1806" class="citation book cs1">Rush, Benjamin (1806). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xtUKAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA183">"A plan of a Peace-Office for the United States"</a>. <i>Essays, Literary, Moral and Philosophical</i> (2 ed.). Philadelphia: Thomas and William Bradford. pp. <span class="nowrap">183–</span>88. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240726163020/https://books.google.com/books?id=xtUKAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA183#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on July 26, 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 3,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+plan+of+a+Peace-Office+for+the+United+States&rft.btitle=Essays%2C+Literary%2C+Moral+and+Philosophical&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E183-%3C%2Fspan%3E88&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Thomas+and+William+Bradford&rft.date=1806&rft.aulast=Rush&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxtUKAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA183&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span><br />(2) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRunes1947" class="citation book cs1">Runes, Dagobert D., ed. (1947). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sVJqAAAAMAAJ">"A Plan of a Peace-Office for the United States"</a>. <i>The Selected Writings of Benjamin Rush</i>. New York: Philosophical Library. pp. <span class="nowrap">19–</span>24. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8022-1448-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8022-1448-5"><bdi>978-0-8022-1448-5</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 15,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+Plan+of+a+Peace-Office+for+the+United+States&rft.btitle=The+Selected+Writings+of+Benjamin+Rush&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E19-%3C%2Fspan%3E24&rft.pub=Philosophical+Library&rft.date=1947&rft.isbn=978-0-8022-1448-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsVJqAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRush1776" class="citation journal cs1">Rush, Benjamin (July 16, 1776). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20121215051647/http://etext.virginia.edu/etcbin/toccer-new2?id=DelVol04.xml&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=public&part=390&division=div1">"To: Patrick Henry"</a>. <i>Delegates to Congress: Letters of Delegates to Congress, 1774–1789, Volume 4, May 16, 1776 – August 15, 1776</i>. Electronic Text Center, University of Virginia Library. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://etext.virginia.edu/etcbin/toccer-new2?id=DelVol04.xml&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=public&part=390&division=div1">the original</a> on December 15, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 20,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Delegates+to+Congress%3A+Letters+of+Delegates+to+Congress%2C+1774%E2%80%931789%2C+Volume+4%2C+May+16%2C+1776+%E2%80%93+August+15%2C+1776&rft.atitle=To%3A+Patrick+Henry&rft.date=1776-07-16&rft.aulast=Rush&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fetext.virginia.edu%2Fetcbin%2Ftoccer-new2%3Fid%3DDelVol04.xml%26images%3Dimages%2Fmodeng%26data%3D%2Ftexts%2Fenglish%2Fmodeng%2Fparsed%26tag%3Dpublic%26part%3D390%26division%3Ddiv1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">To Elias Boudinot on July 9, 1788. <i>Letters of Benjamin Rush</i> L. H. Butterfield, ed., (American Philosophical; Society, 1951), Vol. I, p. 475.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSzasz2005" class="citation journal cs1">Szasz, Thomas (March 1, 2005). "A bogus Benjamin Rush quote: contribution to the history of pharmacracy". <i>History of Psychiatry</i>. <b>16</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">89–</span>98. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0957154X05044554">10.1177/0957154X05044554</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0957-154X">0957-154X</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15981368">15981368</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:20261840">20261840</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+of+Psychiatry&rft.atitle=A+bogus+Benjamin+Rush+quote%3A+contribution+to+the+history+of+pharmacracy&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E89-%3C%2Fspan%3E98&rft.date=2005-03-01&rft.issn=0957-154X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A20261840%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15981368&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0957154X05044554&rft.aulast=Szasz&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://docsouth.unc.edu/neh/allen/menu.html">"The Life, Experience, and Gospel Labours of the Rt. Rev. Richard Allen"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110423102453/http://docsouth.unc.edu/neh/allen/menu.html">Archived</a> from the original on April 23, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 18,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Life%2C+Experience%2C+and+Gospel+Labours+of+the+Rt.+Rev.+Richard+Allen.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdocsouth.unc.edu%2Fneh%2Fallen%2Fmenu.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hawke (1971), pp. 170–171</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brodsky (2004), p. 385.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brodksy (2004), pp. 422–426.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin1988" class="citation web cs1">Martin, Russell L. (June 7, 1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.monticello.org/site/research-and-collections/jeffersons-last-words">"Jefferson's Last Words"</a>. <i>Monticello</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190202095619/https://www.monticello.org/site/research-and-collections/jeffersons-last-words">Archived</a> from the original on February 2, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 2,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Monticello&rft.atitle=Jefferson%27s+Last+Words&rft.date=1988-06-07&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=Russell+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.monticello.org%2Fsite%2Fresearch-and-collections%2Fjeffersons-last-words&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brodsky (2004), pp. 363–365</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClark2012" class="citation book cs1">Clark, Edward L. (June 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2_tbmiwLalYC&pg=PA464"><i>A Record of the Inscriptions on the Tablets and Grave-stones in the Burial-grounds of Christ Church</i></a>. Applewood Books. p. 464. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4290-9309-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4290-9309-5"><bdi>978-1-4290-9309-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240726163024/https://books.google.com/books?id=2_tbmiwLalYC&pg=PA464#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on July 26, 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 19,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Record+of+the+Inscriptions+on+the+Tablets+and+Grave-stones+in+the+Burial-grounds+of+Christ+Church&rft.pages=464&rft.pub=Applewood+Books&rft.date=2012-06&rft.isbn=978-1-4290-9309-5&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=Edward+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2_tbmiwLalYC%26pg%3DPA464&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rush.lwsd.org/about-us/rush-history">"Rush History"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181025150213/https://rush.lwsd.org/about-us/rush-history">Archived</a> October 25, 2018, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved October 25, 2018.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodrichTuttle1875" class="citation book cs1">Goodrich, Dewitt Clinton; Tuttle, Charles Richard (1875). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/anillustratedhi02tuttgoog"><i>An Illustrated History of the State of Indiana</i></a>. Indiana: R. S. Peale & co. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/anillustratedhi02tuttgoog/page/n584">572</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Illustrated+History+of+the+State+of+Indiana&rft.place=Indiana&rft.pages=572&rft.pub=R.+S.+Peale+%26+co.&rft.date=1875&rft.aulast=Goodrich&rft.aufirst=Dewitt+Clinton&rft.au=Tuttle%2C+Charles+Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fanillustratedhi02tuttgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spn.org/organization/benjamin-rush-institute/">"Benjamin Rush Institute"</a>. <i>State Policy Network</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 23,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=State+Policy+Network&rft.atitle=Benjamin+Rush+Institute&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspn.org%2Forganization%2Fbenjamin-rush-institute%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Rush&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodman1934" class="citation book cs1">Goodman, Nathan G. (1934). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/benjamin-rush-physician-and-citizen-1746-1813"><i>Benjamin Rush, Physician and Citizen, (1746–1813)</i></a>. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Benjamin+Rush%2C+Physician+and+Citizen%2C+%281746%E2%80%931813%29&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=1934&rft.aulast=Goodman&rft.aufirst=Nathan+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Ftitle%2Fbenjamin-rush-physician-and-citizen-1746-1813&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBinger1966" class="citation book cs1">Binger, Carl (1966). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/revolutionarydoc00bing"><i>Revolutionary Doctor: Benjamin Rush (1746–1813)</i></a>. New York: Norton & Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revolutionary+Doctor%3A+Benjamin+Rush+%281746%E2%80%931813%29&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Norton+%26+Co.&rft.date=1966&rft.aulast=Binger&rft.aufirst=Carl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frevolutionarydoc00bing&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHawke1971" class="citation book cs1">Hawke, David Freeman (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/benjamin-rush-revolutionary-gadfly"><i>Benjamin Rush: Revolutionary Gadfly</i></a>. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Benjamin+Rush%3A+Revolutionary+Gadfly&rft.place=Indianapolis&rft.pub=Bobbs-Merrill&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Hawke&rft.aufirst=David+Freeman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Ftitle%2Fbenjamin-rush-revolutionary-gadfly&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevine1978" class="citation journal cs1">Levine, Harry G. (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170810185152/http://www.tomfeiling.com/archive/The_Discovery_of_Addiction.pdf">"The Discovery of Addiction: Changing Conceptions of Habitual Drunkenness in America"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of Studies on Alcohol</i>. <b>15</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">493–</span>506. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.15288%2Fjsa.1978.39.143">10.15288/jsa.1978.39.143</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/344994">344994</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tomfeiling.com/archive/The_Discovery_of_Addiction.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on August 10, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Studies+on+Alcohol&rft.atitle=The+Discovery+of+Addiction%3A+Changing+Conceptions+of+Habitual+Drunkenness+in+America&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E493-%3C%2Fspan%3E506&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.15288%2Fjsa.1978.39.143&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F344994&rft.aulast=Levine&rft.aufirst=Harry+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tomfeiling.com%2Farchive%2FThe_Discovery_of_Addiction.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRenker1989" class="citation journal cs1">Renker, Elizabeth M. (1989). "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Declaration-Men' and the Rhetoric of Self-Presentation". <i>Early American Literature</i>. <b>24</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">120–</span>134. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25056766">25056766</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Early+American+Literature&rft.atitle=%27Declaration-Men%27+and+the+Rhetoric+of+Self-Presentation&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E120-%3C%2Fspan%3E134&rft.date=1989&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25056766%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Renker&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCullough2001" class="citation book cs1">McCullough, David (2001). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/johnadams00mccu"><i>John Adams</i></a></span>. Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4165-7588-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4165-7588-7"><bdi>978-1-4165-7588-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Adams&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-4165-7588-7&rft.aulast=McCullough&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjohnadams00mccu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrodsky2004" class="citation book cs1">Brodsky, Alyn (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/benjamin-rush-patriot-and-physician"><i>Benjamin Rush: Patriot and Physician</i></a>. New York: Truman Talley Books/St. Martin's Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Benjamin+Rush%3A+Patriot+and+Physician&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Truman+Talley+Books%2FSt.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Brodsky&rft.aufirst=Alyn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Ftitle%2Fbenjamin-rush-patriot-and-physician&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMyrsiades2012" class="citation book cs1">Myrsiades, Linda S. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/law-and-medicine-in-revolutionary-america-dissecting-the-rush-v-cobbett-trial-1799"><i>Law and medicine in revolutionary America: dissecting the Rush v. Cobbett trial, 1799</i></a>. Bethlehem, PA: Lehigh University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Law+and+medicine+in+revolutionary+America%3A+dissecting+the+Rush+v.+Cobbett+trial%2C+1799&rft.place=Bethlehem%2C+PA&rft.pub=Lehigh+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Myrsiades&rft.aufirst=Linda+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Ftitle%2Flaw-and-medicine-in-revolutionary-america-dissecting-the-rush-v-cobbett-trial-1799&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpencer2013" class="citation book cs1">Spencer, Mark G. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/encyclopedia-of-the-american-nlightenment"><i>Encyclopedia of the American Enlightenment</i></a>. London: Bloomsbury Academic.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+American+Enlightenment&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Academic&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Spencer&rft.aufirst=Mark+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Ftitle%2Fencyclopedia-of-the-american-nlightenment&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFried2018" class="citation book cs1">Fried, Stephen (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/rush-revolution-madness-and-the-visionary-doctor-who-became-a-founding-father"><i>Rush: Revolution, Madness, & the Visionary Doctor Who Became a Founding Father</i></a>. New York: Crown.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rush%3A+Revolution%2C+Madness%2C+%26+the+Visionary+Doctor+Who+Became+a+Founding+Father&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Crown&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Fried&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Ftitle%2Frush-revolution-madness-and-the-visionary-doctor-who-became-a-founding-father&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Unger, Harlow Giles. <i>Dr. Benjamin Rush: The Founding Father Who Healed a Wounded Nation</i> (Da Capo Press, 2018). 320 pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.h-net.msu.edu/reviews/showrev.php?id=53607">online review</a></li> <li>Naramore, Sarah E. (2023). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://boydellandbrewer.com/9781805430261/benjamin-rush-civic-health-and-human-illness-in-the-early-american-republic/">Benjamin Rush, Civic Health, and Human Illness in the Early American Republic</a>.</i> Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781648250699" title="Special:BookSources/9781648250699">9781648250699</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Rush&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Primary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Hansen, Allen Oscar. <i>Liberalism and American education in the eighteenth century</i> (1926; reprinted 1965, 1977) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/liberalismameric0000hans/page/n6/mode/1up">online</a> pp 44–63.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="rush1800" class="citation book cs1"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rush, Benjamin</a> (1800). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/2182034R.nlm.nih.gov/mode/2up"><i>A report of an action for a libel: brought by Dr. Benjamin Rush, against William Cobbett, in the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania</i></a>. Philadelphia : Printed by W.W. Woodward. <q>A report of an action for a libel : brought by Dr. Benjamin Rush, against William Cobbett, in the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania, December term, 1799, for certain defamatory publications in a news-paper, entitled Porcupine's gazette, of which the said William Cobbett was editor</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+report+of+an+action+for+a+libel%3A+brought+by+Dr.+Benjamin+Rush%2C+against+William+Cobbett%2C+in+the+Supreme+Court+of+Pennsylvania&rft.pub=Philadelphia+%3A+Printed+by+W.W.+Woodward&rft.date=1800&rft.aulast=Rush&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2F2182034R.nlm.nih.gov%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Rush&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Benjamin_Rush" class="extiw" title="q:Benjamin Rush">Benjamin Rush</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Benjamin_Rush" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Benjamin Rush">Benjamin Rush</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archives.upenn.edu/exhibits/penn-people/biography/benjamin-rush">"Benjamin Rush (1746–1813)"</a>. University of Pennsylvania.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Benjamin+Rush+%281746%E2%80%931813%29&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchives.upenn.edu%2Fexhibits%2Fpenn-people%2Fbiography%2Fbenjamin-rush&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Appletons' Cyclopædia of American Biography/Rush, Benjamin"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Appletons%27_Cyclop%C3%A6dia_of_American_Biography/Rush,_Benjamin">"Rush, Benjamin" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Appletons%27_Cyclop%C3%A6dia_of_American_Biography" title="Appletons' Cyclopædia of American Biography">Appletons' Cyclopædia of American Biography</a></i>. 1900.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Rush%2C+Benjamin&rft.btitle=Appletons%27+Cyclop%C3%A6dia+of+American+Biography&rft.date=1900&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lewis-clark.org/content/content-article.asp?ArticleID=2332">Article and portrait at "Discovering Lewis & Clark"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071203114503/http://www.lewis-clark.org/content/content-article.asp?ArticleID=2332">Archived</a> December 3, 2007, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/BenjaminRush">"Benjamin Rush: The Revolution's Doctor of Medicine and Universal Humanitarian" – excerpts from his writings</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://quod.lib.umich.edu/e/evans/n15651.0001.001/">"An oration, delivered before the American Philosophical Society, held in Philadelphia on the 27th of February, 1786; containing an enquiry into the influence of physical causes upon the moral faculty."</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://librivox.org/author/13212">Works by Benjamin Rush</a> at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox" title="LibriVox">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) <span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/15px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/23px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/30px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></span></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kansasmemory.org/item/display.php?item_id=223253&f=00315655">Papers</a> from the Historic Psychiatry Collection, Menninger Archives, Kansas Historical Society</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?180836-1/benjamin-rush-patriot-physician">"Benjamin Rush: Patriot and Physician"</a>. <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN" title="C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a>. July 4, 2004<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 25,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Benjamin+Rush%3A+Patriot+and+Physician&rft.pub=C-SPAN&rft.date=2004-07-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.c-span.org%2Fvideo%2F%3F180836-1%2Fbenjamin-rush-patriot-physician&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Rush" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/e/scrc/findingaids/view.php?eadid=ICU.SPCL.CRMS277">Guide to the Benjamin Rush Lectures <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1775–1825</span></a> at the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/scrc/">University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/scrc/">Guide to Benjamin Rush, On the Influence of Physical Causes on the Moral Faculty 1786</a> at the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/scrc/">University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heritage_Documentation_Programs#Historic_American_Buildings_Survey" title="Heritage Documentation Programs">Historic American Buildings Survey</a> (HABS) No. PA-1796, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://loc.gov/pictures/item/pa0790/">Benjamin Rush Birthplace, Red Lion Road, Philadelphia, Philadelphia County, PA</a>", 4 photos, 4 data pages, 1 photo caption page</li> <li>HABS No. PA-1796-A, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://loc.gov/pictures/item/pa1416/">Benjamin Rush Birthplace, Spring House</a>", 1 photo, 1 photo caption page</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output 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navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Template:United States Declaration of Independence"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Template talk:United States Declaration of Independence"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Special:EditPage/Template:United States Declaration of Independence"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="United_States_Declaration_of_Independence344" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">United States Declaration of Independence</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physical_history_of_the_United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Physical history of the United States Declaration of Independence">Physical history of the Declaration of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memorial_to_the_56_Signers_of_the_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence">Memorial to the 56 Signers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syng_inkstand" title="Syng inkstand">Syng inkstand</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Primary author</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Signing_of_the_United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Signing of the United States Declaration of Independence">Signatories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Continental_Congress" title="President of the Continental Congress">President of Congress</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Hancock" title="John Hancock">John Hancock</a> (Massachusetts)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New Hampshire</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Bartlett" title="Josiah Bartlett">Josiah Bartlett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Whipple" title="William Whipple">William Whipple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Thornton" title="Matthew Thornton">Matthew Thornton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Massachusetts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Adams" title="Samuel Adams">Samuel Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">John Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Treat_Paine" title="Robert Treat Paine">Robert Treat Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elbridge_Gerry" title="Elbridge Gerry">Elbridge Gerry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rhode Island</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hopkins_(politician)" title="Stephen Hopkins (politician)">Stephen Hopkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Ellery" title="William Ellery">William Ellery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Connecticut</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Sherman" title="Roger Sherman">Roger Sherman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Huntington_(Connecticut_politician)" title="Samuel Huntington (Connecticut politician)">Samuel Huntington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Williams_(Connecticut_politician)" title="William Williams (Connecticut politician)">William Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Wolcott" title="Oliver Wolcott">Oliver Wolcott</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New York</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Floyd" title="William Floyd">William Floyd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Livingston" title="Philip Livingston">Philip Livingston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Lewis" title="Francis Lewis">Francis Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Morris" title="Lewis Morris">Lewis Morris</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New Jersey</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Stockton_(Continental_Congressman)" title="Richard Stockton (Continental Congressman)">Richard Stockton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Witherspoon" title="John Witherspoon">John Witherspoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Hopkinson" title="Francis Hopkinson">Francis Hopkinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hart_(New_Jersey_politician)" title="John Hart (New Jersey politician)">John Hart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Clark" title="Abraham Clark">Abraham Clark</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pennsylvania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Morris_(financier)" title="Robert Morris (financier)">Robert Morris</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Benjamin Rush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Morton_(American_politician)" title="John Morton (American politician)">John Morton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Clymer" title="George Clymer">George Clymer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Smith_(Pennsylvania_politician)" title="James Smith (Pennsylvania politician)">James Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Taylor_(Pennsylvania_politician)" title="George Taylor (Pennsylvania politician)">George Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Wilson_(Founding_Father)" title="James Wilson (Founding Father)">James Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Ross_(American_politician)" title="George Ross (American politician)">George Ross</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Delaware</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Read_(American_politician,_born_1733)" title="George Read (American politician, born 1733)">George Read</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar_Rodney" title="Caesar Rodney">Caesar Rodney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_McKean" title="Thomas McKean">Thomas McKean</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Maryland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Chase" title="Samuel Chase">Samuel Chase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Paca" title="William Paca">William Paca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Stone" title="Thomas Stone">Thomas Stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Carroll_of_Carrollton" title="Charles Carroll of Carrollton">Charles Carroll of Carrollton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Virginia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Wythe" title="George Wythe">George Wythe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Henry_Lee" title="Richard Henry Lee">Richard Henry Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison_V" title="Benjamin Harrison V">Benjamin Harrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nelson_Jr." title="Thomas Nelson Jr.">Thomas Nelson Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Lightfoot_Lee" title="Francis Lightfoot Lee">Francis Lightfoot Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carter_Braxton" title="Carter Braxton">Carter Braxton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North Carolina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Hooper" title="William Hooper">William Hooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Hewes" title="Joseph Hewes">Joseph Hewes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Penn_(North_Carolina_politician)" title="John Penn (North Carolina politician)">John Penn</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South Carolina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Rutledge" title="Edward Rutledge">Edward Rutledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Heyward_Jr." title="Thomas Heyward Jr.">Thomas Heyward Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Lynch_Jr." title="Thomas Lynch Jr.">Thomas Lynch Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Middleton" title="Arthur Middleton">Arthur Middleton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Georgia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Button_Gwinnett" title="Button Gwinnett">Button Gwinett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyman_Hall" title="Lyman Hall">Lyman Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Walton" title="George Walton">George Walton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Delegates voting<br />for Independence<br />(did not sign)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><b>New York</b>: <a href="/wiki/Robert_R._Livingston" title="Robert R. Livingston">Robert R. Livingston</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Wisner" title="Henry Wisner">Henry Wisner</a><br /> <b>Maryland</b>: <a href="/wiki/John_Rogers_(Continental_Congress)" title="John Rogers (Continental Congress)">John Rogers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Tilghman" title="Matthew Tilghman">Matthew Tilghman</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Halifax_Resolves" title="Halifax Resolves">Halifax Resolves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Declaration_of_Rights" title="Virginia Declaration of Rights">Virginia Declaration of Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Second Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Resolution" title="Lee Resolution">Lee Resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Five" title="Committee of Five">Committee of Five</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/All_men_are_created_equal" title="All men are created equal">All men are created equal</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Life,_Liberty_and_the_pursuit_of_Happiness" title="Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness">Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grievances_of_the_United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Grievances of the United States Declaration of Independence">27 grievances</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_history_of_the_United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Physical history of the United States Declaration of Independence">Document's history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Signing_of_the_United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Signing of the United States Declaration of Independence">signing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Thomson" title="Charles Thomson">Charles Thomson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Matlack" title="Timothy Matlack">Timothy Matlack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journals_of_the_Continental_Congress" title="Journals of the Continental Congress">Journals of the Continental Congress</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Colonies" title="United Colonies">United Colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_Hall" title="Independence Hall">Independence Hall</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syng_inkstand" title="Syng inkstand">Syng inkstand</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Display<br />and legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Archives_Building" title="National Archives Building">National Archives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charters_of_Freedom" title="Charters of Freedom">Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_Day_(United_States)" title="Independence Day (United States)">Independence Day</a></li> <li>Anniversaries <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centennial_Exposition" title="Centennial Exposition">Centennial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sesquicentennial_Exposition" title="Sesquicentennial Exposition">Sesquicentennial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bicentennial" title="United States Bicentennial">Bicentennial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Semiquincentennial" title="United States Semiquincentennial">Semiquincentennial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memorial_to_the_56_Signers_of_the_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence">Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence</a> (Washington, D.C.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signers_Monument" title="Signers Monument">Signers Monument (Georgia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_Voting_Independence" title="Congress Voting Independence">Pine portrait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_Independence_(painting)" title="Declaration of Independence (painting)">Trumbull portrait</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Obsolete_definitions_of_race279" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Historical_definitions_of_race" title="Template:Historical definitions of race"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Historical_definitions_of_race" title="Template talk:Historical definitions of race"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Historical_definitions_of_race" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Historical definitions of race"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Obsolete_definitions_of_race279" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Historical_race_concepts" title="Historical race concepts">Obsolete definitions of race</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">Scientific racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Color_terminology_for_race" title="Color terminology for race">Color terminology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_people" title="Black people">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_(racial_classification)" title="Bronze (racial classification)">Bronze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_(racial_classification)" title="Brown (racial classification)">Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olive_skin" title="Olive skin">Olive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redskin" title="Redskin">Red</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_people" title="White people">White</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historical_race_concepts" title="Historical race concepts">Concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australo-Melanesian" title="Australo-Melanesian">Australoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Capoid">Capoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasian_race" title="Caucasian race">Caucasoid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpine_race" title="Alpine race">Alpine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabid_race" title="Arabid race">Arabid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenoid_race" title="Armenoid race">Armenoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aryan_race" title="Aryan race">Aryan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantid_race" title="Atlantid race">Atlantid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caspian_race" title="Caspian race">Caspian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinaric_race" title="Dinaric race">Dinaric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Baltic_race" title="East Baltic race">East Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopid_race" title="Ethiopid race">Ethiopid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamites" title="Hamites">Hamites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indid_race" title="Indid race">Indid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irano-Afghan_race" title="Irano-Afghan race">Iranid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_race" title="Mediterranean race">Mediterranean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_race" title="Nordic race">Nordic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semites" class="mw-redirect" title="Semites">Semites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turanid_race" title="Turanid race">Turanid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malay_race" title="Malay race">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongoloid" title="Mongoloid">Mongoloid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Mongoloid" title="Proto-Mongoloid">Proto-Mongoloid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinodonty_and_Sundadonty" title="Sinodonty and Sundadonty">Sinodonty and Sundadonty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negroid" title="Negroid">Negroid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negrito" title="Negrito">Negrito</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_race_and_ethnic_relations" title="Sociology of race and ethnic relations">Sociological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_definitions_of_races_in_India" title="Historical definitions of races in India">in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passing_(racial_identity)" title="Passing (racial identity)">Passing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_discrimination" title="Racial discrimination">Racial discrimination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_stereotype" title="Ethnic stereotype">Racial stereotypes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorism" class="mw-redirect" title="Colorism">Colorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_race" title="Master race">Master race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazism_and_race" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazism and race">Nazism and race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_hygiene" title="Racial hygiene">Racial hygiene</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whiteness_studies" title="Whiteness studies">Whiteness studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C3%A9gritude" title="Négritude">Négritude</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Agassiz" title="Louis Agassiz">Louis Agassiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Baker_(biologist)" title="John Baker (biologist)">John Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erwin_Baur" title="Erwin Baur">Erwin Baur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Beddoe" title="John Beddoe">John Beddoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bennett_Bean" title="Robert Bennett Bean">Robert Bennett Bean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Bernier" title="François Bernier">François Bernier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renato_Biasutti" title="Renato Biasutti">Renato Biasutti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Friedrich_Blumenbach" title="Johann Friedrich Blumenbach">Johann Friedrich Blumenbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Boas" title="Franz Boas">Franz Boas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Garrison_Brinton" title="Daniel Garrison Brinton">Daniel Garrison Brinton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Broca" title="Paul Broca">Paul Broca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alice_Mossie_Brues" title="Alice Mossie Brues">Alice Mossie Brues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halfdan_Bryn" title="Halfdan Bryn">Halfdan Bryn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffon" title="Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon">Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Caldwell_(physician)" title="Charles Caldwell (physician)">Charles Caldwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrus_Camper" title="Petrus Camper">Petrus Camper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_A._Cartwright" title="Samuel A. Cartwright">Samuel A. Cartwright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Houston_Stewart_Chamberlain" title="Houston Stewart Chamberlain">Houston Stewart Chamberlain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonia_Mary_Cole" title="Sonia Mary Cole">Sonia Mary Cole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carleton_S._Coon" title="Carleton S. Coon">Carleton S. Coon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier">Georges Cuvier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Czekanowski" title="Jan Czekanowski">Jan Czekanowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Davenport" title="Charles Davenport">Charles Davenport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Deniker" title="Joseph Deniker">Joseph Deniker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egon_Freiherr_von_Eickstedt" title="Egon Freiherr von Eickstedt">Egon Freiherr von Eickstedt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%A9nor_Firmin" title="Anténor Firmin">Anténor Firmin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_Fischer" title="Eugen Fischer">Eugen Fischer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Galton" title="Francis Galton">Francis Galton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Marion_Garn" title="Stanley Marion Garn">Stanley Marion Garn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reginald_Ruggles_Gates" title="Reginald Ruggles Gates">Reginald Ruggles Gates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Gliddon" title="George Gliddon">George Gliddon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_de_Gobineau" title="Arthur de Gobineau">Arthur de Gobineau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madison_Grant" title="Madison Grant">Madison Grant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Grattan_(naturalist)" title="John Grattan (naturalist)">John Grattan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_F._K._G%C3%BCnther" title="Hans F. K. Günther">Hans F. K. Günther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Ludwig_Hoffman" title="Frederick Ludwig Hoffman">Frederick Ludwig Hoffman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earnest_Hooton" title="Earnest Hooton">Earnest Hooton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Huxley" title="Julian Huxley">Julian Huxley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Henry_Huxley" title="Thomas Henry Huxley">Thomas Henry Huxley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Ira_Kephart" title="Calvin Ira Kephart">Calvin Ira Kephart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Knox_(surgeon)" title="Robert Knox (surgeon)">Robert Knox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Kuttner" title="Robert E. Kuttner">Robert E. Kuttner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Vacher_de_Lapouge" title="Georges Vacher de Lapouge">Georges Vacher de Lapouge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Lenz" title="Fritz Lenz">Fritz Lenz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carl Linnaeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Lombroso" title="Cesare Lombroso">Cesare Lombroso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertil_Lundman" title="Bertil Lundman">Bertil Lundman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felix_von_Luschan" title="Felix von Luschan">Felix von Luschan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominick_McCausland" title="Dominick McCausland">Dominick McCausland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Mitchell_(geographer)" title="John Mitchell (geographer)">John Mitchell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashley_Montagu" title="Ashley Montagu">Ashley Montagu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_H._Morgan" title="Lewis H. Morgan">Lewis H. Morgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_George_Morton" title="Samuel George Morton">Samuel George Morton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_C._Nott" title="Josiah C. Nott">Josiah C. Nott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Pearson" title="Karl Pearson">Karl Pearson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Pearson_(anthropologist)" title="Roger Pearson (anthropologist)">Roger Pearson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Peschel" title="Oscar Peschel">Oscar Peschel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_La_Peyr%C3%A8re" title="Isaac La Peyrère">Isaac La Peyrère</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Pickering_(naturalist)" title="Charles Pickering (naturalist)">Charles Pickering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Hermann_Plate" title="Ludwig Hermann Plate">Ludwig Hermann Plate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Ploetz" title="Alfred Ploetz">Alfred Ploetz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Cowles_Prichard" title="James Cowles Prichard">James Cowles Prichard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Reche" title="Otto Reche">Otto Reche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustaf_Retzius" title="Gustaf Retzius">Gustaf Retzius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Z._Ripley" title="William Z. Ripley">William Z. Ripley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Rosenberg" title="Alfred Rosenberg">Alfred Rosenberg</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Benjamin Rush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henric_Sanielevici" title="Henric Sanielevici">Henric Sanielevici</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Schmidt_(philosopher)" title="Heinrich Schmidt (philosopher)">Heinrich Schmidt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilse_Schwidetzky" title="Ilse Schwidetzky">Ilse Schwidetzky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Gabriel_Seligman" title="Charles Gabriel Seligman">Charles Gabriel Seligman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Sergi" title="Giuseppe Sergi">Giuseppe Sergi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Stanhope_Smith" title="Samuel Stanhope Smith">Samuel Stanhope Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Herbert Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morris_Steggerda" title="Morris Steggerda">Morris Steggerda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lothrop_Stoddard" title="Lothrop Stoddard">Lothrop Stoddard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Graham_Sumner" title="William Graham Sumner">William Graham Sumner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Griffith_Taylor" title="Thomas Griffith Taylor">Thomas Griffith Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Topinard" title="Paul Topinard">Paul Topinard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_H._Van_Evrie" title="John H. Van Evrie">John H. Van Evrie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otmar_Freiherr_von_Verschuer" title="Otmar Freiherr von Verschuer">Otmar Freiherr von Verschuer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Winchell" title="Alexander Winchell">Alexander Winchell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Woltmann" title="Ludwig Woltmann">Ludwig Woltmann</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Publications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Mitchell_(geographer)" title="John Mitchell (geographer)"><i>An Essay upon the Causes of the Different Colours of People<wbr /> in Different Climates</i> (1744)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christoph_Meiners" title="Christoph Meiners"><i>The Outline of History of Mankind</i> (1785)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occasional_Discourse_on_the_Negro_Question" title="Occasional Discourse on the Negro Question"><i>Occasional Discourse on the Negro Question</i> (1849)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_Essay_on_the_Inequality_of_the_Human_Races" title="An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races"><i>An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races</i> (1855)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Races_of_Europe_(Ripley_book)" title="The Races of Europe (Ripley book)"><i>The Races of Europe</i> (Ripley, 1899)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Foundations_of_the_Nineteenth_Century" title="The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century"><i>The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century</i> (1899)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_Life_of_the_Aryan_Peoples" title="Race Life of the Aryan Peoples"><i>Race Life of the Aryan Peoples</i> (1907)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heredity_in_Relation_to_Eugenics" title="Heredity in Relation to Eugenics"><i>Heredity in Relation to Eugenics</i> (1911)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castes_in_India:_Their_Mechanism,_Genesis_and_Development" title="Castes in India: Their Mechanism, Genesis and Development"><i>Castes in India</i> (1916)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Passing_of_the_Great_Race" title="The Passing of the Great Race"><i>The Passing of the Great Race</i> (1916)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Rising_Tide_of_Color_Against_White_World-Supremacy" title="The Rising Tide of Color Against White World-Supremacy"><i>The Rising Tide of Color Against White World-Supremacy</i> (1920)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Myth_of_the_Twentieth_Century" title="The Myth of the Twentieth Century"><i>The Myth of the Twentieth Century</i> (1930)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annihilation_of_Caste" title="Annihilation of Caste"><i>Annihilation of Caste</i> (1936)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_Investigation_of_Global_Policy_with_the_Yamato_Race_as_Nucleus" title="An Investigation of Global Policy with the Yamato Race as Nucleus"><i>An Investigation of Global Policy with the Yamato Race as Nucleus</i> (1943)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Race_Question" class="mw-redirect" title="The Race Question"><i>The Race Question</i> (1950)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnogenesis" title="Ethnogenesis">Ethnogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_chain_of_being" title="Great chain of being">Great chain of being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_anthropometry" title="History of anthropometry">History of anthropometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miscegenation" title="Miscegenation">Miscegenation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monogenism" title="Monogenism">Monogenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiracial" class="mw-redirect" title="Multiracial">Multiracial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygenism" title="Polygenism">Polygenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Adamite" title="Pre-Adamite">Pre-Adamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-modern_conceptions_of_whiteness" title="Pre-modern conceptions of whiteness">Pre-modern conceptions of whiteness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q656478#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2968" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q656478#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2968" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q656478#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, 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style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/11879163X">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n50000649">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12343598f">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12343598f">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35468508">Australia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=nlk20000091330&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX1751009">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p069145946">Netherlands</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90301580">Norway</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/250107">Vatican</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007267337505171">Israel</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/14811550">Belgium</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA01689696?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=122226">Mathematics Genealogy Project</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.leopoldina.org/mitgliederverzeichnis/mitglieder/member/Member/show/benjamin-rush/">Leopoldina</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span 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