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</div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Industry_and_technology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Industry and technology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Industry_and_technology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Iron" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iron"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Iron</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iron-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Steel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Steel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Steel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Steel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rail" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rail"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Rail</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rail-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electrification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electrification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Electrification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electrification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Machine_tools" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Machine_tools"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Machine tools</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Machine_tools-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Paper_making" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paper_making"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Paper making</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paper_making-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Petroleum" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Petroleum"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Petroleum</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Petroleum-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chemical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chemical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Chemical</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chemical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Maritime_technology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maritime_technology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9</span> <span>Maritime technology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maritime_technology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rubber" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rubber"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.10</span> <span>Rubber</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rubber-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bicycles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bicycles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.11</span> <span>Bicycles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bicycles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Automobile" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Automobile"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.12</span> <span>Automobile</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Automobile-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applied_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applied_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.13</span> <span>Applied science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Applied_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fertilizer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fertilizer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.14</span> <span>Fertilizer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fertilizer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Engines_and_turbines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Engines_and_turbines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.15</span> <span>Engines and turbines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Engines_and_turbines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Telecommunications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Telecommunications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.16</span> <span>Telecommunications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Telecommunications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_business_management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_business_management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.17</span> <span>Modern business management</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_business_management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Socio-economic_impacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Socio-economic_impacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Socio-economic impacts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Socio-economic_impacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>United Kingdom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Germany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Germany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Germany</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Germany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Belgium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Belgium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Belgium</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Belgium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alternative_uses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alternative_uses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Alternative uses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alternative_uses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" 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type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 45 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-45" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">45 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tweede_Nywerheidsomwenteling" title="Tweede Nywerheidsomwenteling – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Tweede Nywerheidsomwenteling" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AB%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AB%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الثورة الصناعية الثانية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الثورة الصناعية الثانية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Segunda_Revoluci%C3%B3n_Industrial" title="Segunda Revolución Industrial – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Segunda Revolución Industrial" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%83%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Втора индустриална революция – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Втора индустриална революция" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Segona_Revoluci%C3%B3_Industrial" title="Segona Revolució Industrial – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Segona Revolució Industrial" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zweite_industrielle_Revolution" title="Zweite industrielle Revolution – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Zweite industrielle Revolution" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%B5%CF%8D%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B7_%CE%B2%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%B7%CF%87%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B5%CF%80%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%AC%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%B7" title="Δεύτερη βιομηχανική επανάσταση – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Δεύτερη βιομηχανική επανάσταση" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Segunda_Revoluci%C3%B3n_Industrial" title="Segunda Revolución Industrial – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Segunda Revolución Industrial" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dua_industria_revolucio" title="Dua industria revolucio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Dua industria revolucio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bigarren_Industria_Iraultza" title="Bigarren Industria Iraultza – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Bigarren Industria Iraultza" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%B5%D9%86%D8%B9%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%85" title="انقلاب صنعتی دوم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="انقلاب صنعتی دوم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innovation_en_Europe_%C3%A0_la_Belle_%C3%89poque" title="Innovation en Europe à la Belle Époque – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Innovation en Europe à la Belle Époque" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Segunda_revoluci%C3%B3n_industrial" title="Segunda revolución industrial – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Segunda revolución industrial" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%9C2%EC%B0%A8_%EC%82%B0%EC%97%85_%ED%98%81%EB%AA%85" title="제2차 산업 혁명 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="제2차 산업 혁명" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%94%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="द्वितीय औद्योगिक क्रांति – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="द्वितीय औद्योगिक क्रांति" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Druga_industrijska_revolucija" title="Druga industrijska revolucija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Druga industrijska revolucija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolusi_Industri_Kedua" title="Revolusi Industri Kedua – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Revolusi Industri Kedua" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/INguqulo_yeziMboni_yesibili" title="INguqulo yeziMboni yesibili – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="INguqulo yeziMboni yesibili" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%AD%C3%B0ari_i%C3%B0nbyltingin" title="Síðari iðnbyltingin – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Síðari iðnbyltingin" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seconda_rivoluzione_industriale" title="Seconda rivoluzione industriale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Seconda rivoluzione industriale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%94%D7%A4%D7%9B%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%AA%D7%A2%D7%A9%D7%99%D7%99%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%A9%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%99%D7%94" title="המהפכה התעשייתית השנייה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="המהפכה התעשייתית השנייה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%AC%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%95%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A3%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="მეორე სამრეწველო რევოლუცია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მეორე სამრეწველო რევოლუცია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1sodik_ipari_forradalom" title="Második ipari forradalom – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Második ipari forradalom" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AB%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%87_%D8%B5%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%8A%D9%87_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%87" title="ثوره صناعيه تانيه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ثوره صناعيه تانيه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Segunda_Rebolu%C3%A7on_Andustrial" title="Segunda Reboluçon Andustrial – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Segunda Reboluçon Andustrial" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B6_%D2%AF%D0%B9%D0%BB%D0%B4%D0%B2%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D1%85%D0%BE%D1%91%D1%80%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B0%D1%80_%D1%85%D1%83%D0%B2%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Аж үйлдвэрийн хоёрдугаар хувьсгал – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Аж үйлдвэрийн хоёрдугаар хувьсгал" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tweede_industri%C3%ABle_revolutie" title="Tweede industriële revolutie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Tweede industriële revolutie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%AC%AC%E4%BA%8C%E6%AC%A1%E7%94%A3%E6%A5%AD%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD" title="第二次産業革命 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="第二次産業革命" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_andre_industrielle_revolusjonen" title="Den andre industrielle revolusjonen – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Den andre industrielle revolusjonen" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_andre_industrielle_revolusjonen" title="Den andre industrielle revolusjonen – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Den andre industrielle revolusjonen" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Druga_rewolucja_przemys%C5%82owa" title="Druga rewolucja przemysłowa – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Druga rewolucja przemysłowa" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Segunda_Revolu%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Industrial" title="Segunda Revolução Industrial – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Segunda Revolução Industrial" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%8B%D1%88%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Вторая промышленная революция – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Вторая промышленная революция" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolucioni_i_Dyt%C3%AB_Industrial" title="Revolucioni i Dytë Industrial – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Revolucioni i Dytë Industrial" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Second Industrial Revolution" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B0_%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%83%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Друга индустријска револуција – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Друга индустријска револуција" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Druga_industrijska_revolucija" title="Druga industrijska revolucija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Druga industrijska revolucija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toinen_teollinen_vallankumous" title="Toinen teollinen vallankumous – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Toinen teollinen vallankumous" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andra_industriella_revolutionen" title="Andra industriella revolutionen – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Andra industriella revolutionen" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikalawang_Rebolusyong_Industriyal" title="Ikalawang Rebolusyong Industriyal – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Ikalawang Rebolusyong Industriyal" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%8F%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B5%E0%B9%88_2" title="การปฏิวัติอุตสาหกรรมครั้งที่ 2 – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การปฏิวัติอุตสาหกรรมครั้งที่ 2" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0kinci_Sanayi_Devrimi" title="İkinci Sanayi Devrimi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="İkinci Sanayi Devrimi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a 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.infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="text-align:center;background-color:#ededed;">Second Industrial Revolution</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa; font-weight: bold;">c. <a href="/wiki/1870" title="1870">1870</a> – c. <a href="/wiki/1914" title="1914">1914</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Skglb_promo_1895.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Skglb_promo_1895.jpg/220px-Skglb_promo_1895.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Skglb_promo_1895.jpg/330px-Skglb_promo_1895.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Skglb_promo_1895.jpg/440px-Skglb_promo_1895.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1682" data-file-height="1084" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">An Austrian <a href="/wiki/Railway" class="mw-redirect" title="Railway">railway</a> in <a href="/wiki/1895" title="1895">1895</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Key events</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li>Adoption of the <a href="/wiki/Telegraph" class="mw-redirect" title="Telegraph">telegraph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrification" title="Electrification">Electrification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Production_line" title="Production line">Production line</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below"><b>Chronology</b> <br /><table style="background:var(--background-color-neutral, #eaecf0); color: inherit; border-top: 1px solid #aaa;" width="100%"> <tbody><tr> <td width="50%" style="text-align:left;"><span class="skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Arrleft.svg/10px-Arrleft.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Arrleft.svg/15px-Arrleft.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Arrleft.svg/20px-Arrleft.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="110" data-file-height="133" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">First Industrial Revolution</a></td> <td width="50%" style="text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Third_Industrial_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Industrial Revolution">Third Industrial Revolution</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><span title="class-skin-invert-image"><img alt="class-skin-invert-image" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Arrright.svg/10px-Arrright.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Arrright.svg/15px-Arrright.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Arrright.svg/20px-Arrright.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="110" data-file-height="133" /></span></span></td> </tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> <style 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.sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#ccccff;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">By technological eras</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt>Premodern / <a href="/wiki/Pre-industrial_society" title="Pre-industrial society">Pre-industrial</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_technology" title="Prehistoric technology">Prehistoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">Stone Age</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lithic_technology" title="Lithic technology">lithic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Copper Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_technology" title="Ancient technology">Ancient</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Modern</dt></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-industrialization" title="Proto-industrialization">Proto-industrialization</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">First Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standardization" title="Standardization">Standardization</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Second Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_Age" title="Machine Age">Machine Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_Age" title="Atomic Age">Atomic Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jet_Age" title="Jet Age">Jet Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Age" title="Space Age">Space Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Revolution">Third Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_transformation" title="Digital transformation">Digital transformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Industrial_Revolution" title="Fourth Industrial Revolution">Fourth Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagination_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Imagination age">Imagination Age</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Future</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post-industrial_society" title="Post-industrial society">Post-industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emerging_technologies" title="Emerging technologies">Emerging technologies</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">By historical regions</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa" title="History of science and technology in Africa">Ancient Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_technology" title="Ancient Egyptian technology">Ancient Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_China" title="History of science and technology in China">Ancient China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Maya civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_technology" title="Ancient Greek technology">Hellenistic world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman technology">Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_inventions" title="List of Byzantine inventions">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islamic world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Agricultural_Revolution" title="Arab Agricultural Revolution">Arab Agricultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_technology" title="Medieval technology">Medieval Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_technology" title="Renaissance technology">Renaissance Europe</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">By type of technology</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture" title="History of agriculture">History of agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biotechnology" title="History of biotechnology">History of biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_communication" title="History of communication">History of communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computer_hardware" class="mw-redirect" title="History of computer hardware">History of computer hardware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_engineering#History" title="Electrical engineering">History of electrical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_manufacturing" class="mw-redirect" title="History of manufacturing">History of manufacturing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history" title="Maritime history">History of maritime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_materials_science" title="History of materials science">History of materials science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_measurement" title="History of measurement">History of measurement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">History of medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_machine" title="Simple machine">History of simple machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_technology#History" title="Nuclear technology">History of nuclear technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_transport" title="History of transport">History of transport</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Technology timelines</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_historic_inventions" title="Timeline of historic inventions">Timeline of historic inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_revolution" title="Technological revolution">Technological revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Technology_timelines" title="Category:Technology timelines">Complete list by category</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Technology" title="Portal:Technology">Article indices</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_technology" title="Outline of technology">Outline of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_prehistoric_technology" title="Outline of prehistoric technology">Outline of prehistoric technology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar 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class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_technology_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of technology sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Morsetaste.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Morsetaste.jpg/220px-Morsetaste.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Morsetaste.jpg/330px-Morsetaste.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Morsetaste.jpg/440px-Morsetaste.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5472" data-file-height="3648" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Telegraph_key" title="Telegraph key">telegraph key</a> used to transmit text messages in <a href="/wiki/Morse_code" title="Morse code">Morse code</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Symonds_and_Co_Collection_Q22343.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Symonds_and_Co_Collection_Q22343.jpg/220px-Symonds_and_Co_Collection_Q22343.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Symonds_and_Co_Collection_Q22343.jpg/330px-Symonds_and_Co_Collection_Q22343.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Symonds_and_Co_Collection_Q22343.jpg/440px-Symonds_and_Co_Collection_Q22343.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="637" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Ocean_liner" title="Ocean liner">ocean liner</a> <a href="/wiki/SS_Kaiser_Wilhelm_der_Grosse" title="SS Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse">SS <i>Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse</i></a>, a <a href="/wiki/Steamboat" title="Steamboat">steamboat</a>. As the main means of trans-oceanic travel for more than a century, ocean liners were essential to the transport needs of national governments, commercial enterprises and the general public.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>Second Industrial Revolution</b>, also known as the <b>Technological Revolution</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was a phase of rapid <a href="/wiki/Discovery_(observation)" title="Discovery (observation)">scientific discovery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Standardisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Standardisation">standardisation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mass_production" title="Mass production">mass production</a> and <a href="/wiki/Industrialisation" title="Industrialisation">industrialisation</a> from the late 19th century into the early 20th century. The <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">First Industrial Revolution</a>, which ended in the middle of the 19th century, was punctuated by a slowdown in important inventions before the Second Industrial Revolution in 1870. Though a number of its events can be traced to earlier innovations in manufacturing, such as the establishment of a <a href="/wiki/Machine_tool" title="Machine tool">machine tool</a> industry, the development of methods for manufacturing <a href="/wiki/Interchangeable_parts" title="Interchangeable parts">interchangeable parts</a>, as well as the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Bessemer_process" title="Bessemer process">Bessemer process</a> and <a href="/wiki/Open_hearth_furnace" class="mw-redirect" title="Open hearth furnace">open hearth furnace</a> to produce steel, later developments heralded the Second Industrial Revolution, which is generally dated between 1870 and 1914 (the beginning of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Advancements in manufacturing and production technology enabled the widespread adoption of technological systems such as <a href="/wiki/Electrical_telegraph" title="Electrical telegraph">telegraph</a> and railroad networks, <a href="/wiki/Fuel_gas" title="Fuel gas">gas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Water_supply" title="Water supply">water supply</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sewage_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Sewage systems">sewage systems</a>, which had earlier been limited to a few select cities. The enormous expansion of rail and telegraph lines after 1870 allowed unprecedented movement of people and ideas, which culminated in a new wave of <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonialism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a>. In the same time period, new technological systems were introduced, most significantly <a href="/wiki/Electrical_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical power">electrical power</a> and telephones. The Second Industrial Revolution continued into the 20th century with early factory <a href="/wiki/Electrification" title="Electrification">electrification</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Production_line" title="Production line">production line</a>; it ended at the beginning of World War I. </p><p>Starting in 1947, the <a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information Age</a> is sometimes also called the Third Industrial Revolution. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Industrial_Revolution&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Second Industrial Revolution was a period of rapid industrial development, primarily in the United Kingdom, Germany, and the United States, but also in France, the <a href="/wiki/Low_Countries" title="Low Countries">Low Countries</a>, Italy and Japan. It followed on from the <a href="/wiki/First_Industrial_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="First Industrial Revolution">First Industrial Revolution</a> that began in Britain in the late 18th century that then spread throughout Western Europe. It came to an end with the start of the <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>. While the First Revolution was driven by limited use of <a href="/wiki/Steam_engines" class="mw-redirect" title="Steam engines">steam engines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Interchangeable_parts" title="Interchangeable parts">interchangeable parts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mass_production" title="Mass production">mass production</a>, and was largely water-powered, especially in the United States, the Second was characterized by the build-out of railroads, large-scale iron and steel production, widespread use of <a href="/wiki/Machinery" class="mw-redirect" title="Machinery">machinery</a> in manufacturing, greatly increased use of steam power, widespread use of the <a href="/wiki/Electrical_telegraph" title="Electrical telegraph">telegraph</a>, use of petroleum and the beginning of <a href="/wiki/Electrification" title="Electrification">electrification</a>. It also was the period during which modern organizational methods for operating large-scale businesses over vast areas came into use.<sup id="cite_ref-rv_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rv-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The concept was introduced by <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Geddes" title="Patrick Geddes">Patrick Geddes</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Geddes#Published_works" title="Patrick Geddes">Cities in Evolution</a></i> (1910), and was being used by economists such as <a href="/wiki/Erich_Zimmermann" title="Erich Zimmermann">Erich Zimmermann</a> (1951),<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but <a href="/wiki/David_Landes" title="David Landes">David Landes</a>' use of the term in a 1966 essay and in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Unbound_Prometheus" title="The Unbound Prometheus">The Unbound Prometheus</a></i> (1972) standardized scholarly definitions of the term, which was most intensely promoted by <a href="/wiki/Alfred_D._Chandler,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Alfred D. Chandler, Jr.">Alfred Chandler</a> (1918–2007). However, some continue to express reservations about its use. In 2003, Landes stressed the importance of new technologies, especially the <a href="/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine" title="Internal combustion engine">internal combustion engine</a>, petroleum, new materials and substances, including alloys and <a href="/wiki/Chemical_industry" title="Chemical industry">chemicals</a>, electricity and communication technologies, such as the <a href="/wiki/Telegraph" class="mw-redirect" title="Telegraph">telegraph</a>, telephone, and radio.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One author has called the period from 1867 to 1914, during which most of the great innovations were developed, "The Age of <a href="/wiki/Synergy" title="Synergy">Synergy</a>" since the inventions and innovations were engineering and <a href="/wiki/Applied_science" title="Applied science">science-based</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Smil2005_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smil2005-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Industry_and_technology">Industry and technology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Industrial_Revolution&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Industry and technology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A synergy between iron and steel, railroads and coal developed at the beginning of the Second Industrial Revolution. Railroads allowed cheap transportation of materials and products, which in turn led to cheap rails to build more roads. Railroads also benefited from cheap coal for their steam locomotives. This synergy led to the laying of 75,000 miles of track in the U.S. in the 1880s, the largest amount anywhere in world history.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Iron">Iron</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Industrial_Revolution&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Iron"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Hot_blast" title="Hot blast">hot blast</a> technique, in which the hot <a href="/wiki/Flue_gas" title="Flue gas">flue gas</a> from a blast furnace is used to <a href="/wiki/Air_preheater" title="Air preheater">preheat</a> combustion air blown into a <a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">blast furnace</a>, was invented and patented by <a href="/wiki/James_Beaumont_Neilson" title="James Beaumont Neilson">James Beaumont Neilson</a> in 1828 at <a href="/wiki/Wilsontown_Ironworks" title="Wilsontown Ironworks">Wilsontown Ironworks</a> in Scotland. Hot blast was the single most important advance in fuel efficiency of the blast furnace as it greatly reduced the fuel consumption for making pig iron, and was one of the most important technologies developed during the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Falling costs for producing <a href="/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">wrought iron</a> coincided with the emergence of the railway in the 1830s. </p><p>The early technique of hot blast used iron for the regenerative heating medium. Iron caused problems with expansion and contraction, which stressed the iron and caused failure. <a href="/wiki/Edward_Alfred_Cowper" title="Edward Alfred Cowper">Edward Alfred Cowper</a> developed the Cowper stove in 1857.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This stove used firebrick as a storage medium, solving the expansion and cracking problem. The Cowper stove was also capable of producing high heat, which resulted in very high throughput of blast furnaces. The Cowper stove is still used in today's blast furnaces. </p><p>With the greatly reduced cost of producing pig iron with <a href="/wiki/Coke_(fuel)" title="Coke (fuel)">coke</a> using hot blast, demand grew dramatically and so did the size of blast furnaces.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Steel">Steel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Industrial_Revolution&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Steel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ConverterB.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/ConverterB.jpg/220px-ConverterB.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/ConverterB.jpg/330px-ConverterB.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/ConverterB.jpg/440px-ConverterB.jpg 2x" data-file-width="792" data-file-height="628" /></a><figcaption>A diagram of the <a href="/wiki/Bessemer_converter" class="mw-redirect" title="Bessemer converter">Bessemer converter</a>. Air blown through holes in the converter bottom creates a violent reaction in the molten pig iron that oxidizes the excess carbon, converting the pig iron to pure iron or steel, depending on the residual carbon.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Bessemer_process" title="Bessemer process">Bessemer process</a>, invented by <a href="/wiki/Sir_Henry_Bessemer" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Henry Bessemer">Sir Henry Bessemer</a>, allowed the <a href="/wiki/Mass-production" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass-production">mass-production</a> of steel, increasing the scale and speed of production of this vital material, and decreasing the labor requirements. The key principle was the removal of excess carbon and other impurities from <a href="/wiki/Pig_iron" title="Pig iron">pig iron</a> by <a href="/wiki/Oxidation" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidation">oxidation</a> with air blown through the molten iron. The oxidation also raises the temperature of the iron mass and keeps it molten. </p><p>The "acid" Bessemer process had a serious limitation in that it required relatively scarce <a href="/wiki/Hematite" title="Hematite">hematite</a> ore<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is low in phosphorus. <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Gilchrist_Thomas" title="Sidney Gilchrist Thomas">Sidney Gilchrist Thomas</a> developed a more sophisticated process to eliminate the <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a> from iron. Collaborating with his cousin, <a href="/wiki/Percy_Gilchrist" title="Percy Gilchrist">Percy Gilchrist</a> a chemist at the <a href="/wiki/Blaenavon_Ironworks" title="Blaenavon Ironworks">Blaenavon Ironworks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a>, he patented his process in 1878;<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Bolckow_Vaughan" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolckow Vaughan">Bolckow Vaughan</a> & Co. in <a href="/wiki/Yorkshire" title="Yorkshire">Yorkshire</a> was the first company to use his patented process.<sup id="cite_ref-EB-Thom_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB-Thom-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His process was especially valuable on the continent of Europe, where the proportion of phosphoric iron was much greater than in England, and both in Belgium and in Germany the name of the inventor became more widely known than in his own country. In America, although non-phosphoric iron largely predominated, an immense interest was taken in the invention.<sup id="cite_ref-EB-Thom_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB-Thom-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Barrow_Steelworks.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Barrow_Steelworks.jpg/220px-Barrow_Steelworks.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Barrow_Steelworks.jpg/330px-Barrow_Steelworks.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Barrow_Steelworks.jpg/440px-Barrow_Steelworks.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="563" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Barrow_Hematite_Steel_Company" title="Barrow Hematite Steel Company">Barrow Hematite Steel Company</a> operated 18 Bessemer converters and owned the largest steelworks in the world at the turn of the 20th century.</figcaption></figure> <p>The next great advance in steel making was the <a href="/wiki/Siemens%E2%80%93Martin_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Siemens–Martin process">Siemens–Martin process</a>. Sir <a href="/wiki/Charles_William_Siemens" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles William Siemens">Charles William Siemens</a> developed his regenerative furnace in the 1850s, for which he claimed in 1857 to able to recover enough heat to save 70–80% of the fuel. The furnace operated at a high temperature by using <a href="/wiki/Air_preheater" title="Air preheater">regenerative preheating</a> of fuel and air for <a href="/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion">combustion</a>. Through this method, an open-hearth furnace can reach temperatures high enough to melt steel, but Siemens did not initially use it in that manner. </p><p>French engineer <a href="/wiki/Pierre-%C3%89mile_Martin" title="Pierre-Émile Martin">Pierre-Émile Martin</a> was the first to take out a license for the Siemens furnace and apply it to the production of steel in 1865. The Siemens–Martin process complemented rather than replaced the <a href="/wiki/Bessemer_process" title="Bessemer process">Bessemer process</a>. Its main advantages were that it did not expose the steel to excessive nitrogen (which would cause the steel to become brittle), it was easier to control, and that it permitted the melting and refining of large amounts of scrap steel, lowering steel production costs and recycling an otherwise troublesome waste material. It became the leading steel making process by the early 20th century. </p><p>The availability of cheap steel allowed building larger bridges, railroads, skyscrapers, and ships.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other important steel products—also made using the open hearth process—were <a href="/wiki/Steel_cable" class="mw-redirect" title="Steel cable">steel cable</a>, steel rod and sheet steel which enabled large, high-pressure boilers and high-tensile strength steel for machinery which enabled much more powerful engines, gears and axles than were previously possible. With large amounts of steel it became possible to build much more powerful guns and carriages, tanks, <a href="/wiki/Armored_fighting_vehicle" class="mw-redirect" title="Armored fighting vehicle">armored fighting vehicles</a> and naval ships. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rail">Rail</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Industrial_Revolution&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Rail"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_rail_rolling_mill,_Hughesovka.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/The_rail_rolling_mill%2C_Hughesovka.jpg/220px-The_rail_rolling_mill%2C_Hughesovka.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/The_rail_rolling_mill%2C_Hughesovka.jpg/330px-The_rail_rolling_mill%2C_Hughesovka.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/The_rail_rolling_mill%2C_Hughesovka.jpg/440px-The_rail_rolling_mill%2C_Hughesovka.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="542" /></a><figcaption>A rail rolling mill in <a href="/wiki/Donetsk" title="Donetsk">Donetsk</a> in 1887</figcaption></figure> <p>The increase in steel production from the 1860s meant that railways could finally be made from steel at a competitive cost. Being a much more durable material, steel steadily replaced iron as the standard for railway rail, and due to its greater strength, longer lengths of rails could now be rolled. <a href="/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">Wrought iron</a> was soft and contained flaws caused by included <a href="/wiki/Dross" title="Dross">dross</a>. Iron rails could also not support heavy locomotives and were damaged by <a href="/wiki/Hammer_blow" title="Hammer blow">hammer blow</a>. The first to make durable <a href="/wiki/Rail_profile" title="Rail profile">rails</a> of steel rather than <a href="/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">wrought iron</a> was <a href="/wiki/Robert_Forester_Mushet" title="Robert Forester Mushet">Robert Forester Mushet</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Darkhill_Ironworks" title="Darkhill Ironworks">Darkhill Ironworks</a>, Gloucestershire in 1857. </p><p>The first of Mushet's steel rails was sent to <a href="/wiki/Derby_Midland_railway_station" class="mw-redirect" title="Derby Midland railway station">Derby Midland railway station</a>. The rails were laid at part of the station approach where the iron rails had to be renewed at least every six months, and occasionally every three. Six years later, in 1863, the rail seemed as perfect as ever, although some 700 trains had passed over it daily.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This provided the basis for the accelerated construction of railways throughout the world in the late nineteenth century. </p><p>The first commercially available steel rails in the US were manufactured in 1867 at the <a href="/wiki/Cambria_Iron_Company" title="Cambria Iron Company">Cambria Iron Works</a> in <a href="/wiki/Johnstown,_Pennsylvania" title="Johnstown, Pennsylvania">Johnstown, Pennsylvania</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Steel rails lasted over ten times longer than did iron,<sup id="cite_ref-Fogel-1964_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fogel-1964-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and with the falling cost of steel, heavier weight rails were used. This allowed the use of more powerful locomotives, which could pull longer trains, and longer rail cars, all of which greatly increased the productivity of railroads.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rail became the dominant form of transport infrastructure throughout the industrialized world,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> producing a steady decrease in the cost of shipping seen for the rest of the century.<sup id="cite_ref-Fogel-1964_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fogel-1964-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electrification">Electrification</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Industrial_Revolution&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Electrification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Electrification" title="Electrification">Electrification</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">Electricity</a></div> <p>The theoretical and practical basis for the harnessing of electric power was laid by the scientist and experimentalist <a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a>. Through his research on the <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_field" title="Electromagnetic field">magnetic field</a> around a <a href="/wiki/Electrical_conductor" title="Electrical conductor">conductor</a> carrying a <a href="/wiki/Direct_current" title="Direct current">direct current</a>, Faraday established the basis for the concept of the electromagnetic field in physics.<sup id="cite_ref-EncBrit_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EncBrit-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-IEEUK_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IEEUK-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His <a href="/wiki/Invention" title="Invention">inventions</a> of <a href="/wiki/Electric_motor" title="Electric motor">electromagnetic rotary devices</a> were the foundation of the practical use of electricity in technology. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Light_bulb_Edison_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Light_bulb_Edison_2.jpg/220px-Light_bulb_Edison_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="323" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Light_bulb_Edison_2.jpg/330px-Light_bulb_Edison_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Light_bulb_Edison_2.jpg/440px-Light_bulb_Edison_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2128" data-file-height="3120" /></a><figcaption>U.S. Patent#223898: Electric-Lamp, issued 27 January 1880</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1881, <a href="/wiki/Sir_Joseph_Swan" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Joseph Swan">Sir Joseph Swan</a>, inventor of the first feasible <a href="/wiki/Incandescent_light_bulb" title="Incandescent light bulb">incandescent light bulb</a>, supplied about 1,200 Swan incandescent lamps to the <a href="/wiki/Savoy_Theatre" title="Savoy Theatre">Savoy Theatre</a> in the City of Westminster, London, which was the first theatre, and the first public building in the world, to be lit entirely by electricity.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-TRE_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TRE-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Swan's lightbulb had already been used in 1879 to light Mosley Street, in <a href="/wiki/Newcastle_upon_Tyne" title="Newcastle upon Tyne">Newcastle upon Tyne</a>, the first electrical street lighting installation in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This set the stage for the electrification of industry and the home. The first large scale central distribution supply plant was opened at <a href="/wiki/Holborn_Viaduct_power_station" title="Holborn Viaduct power station">Holborn Viaduct</a> in London in 1882<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and later at <a href="/wiki/Pearl_Street_Station" title="Pearl Street Station">Pearl Street Station</a> in New York City.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHunterBryant1991191_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHunterBryant1991191-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:3phase-rmf-noadd-60f-airopt.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/3phase-rmf-noadd-60f-airopt.gif/220px-3phase-rmf-noadd-60f-airopt.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/3phase-rmf-noadd-60f-airopt.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="240" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Three-phase_electric_power" title="Three-phase electric power">Three-phase</a> rotating magnetic field of an <a href="/wiki/AC_motor" title="AC motor">AC motor</a>. The three poles are each connected to a separate wire. Each wire carries current 120 degrees apart in phase. Arrows show the resulting magnetic force vectors. Three phase current is used in commerce and industry.</figcaption></figure> <p>The first modern power station in the world was built by the English <a href="/wiki/Electrical_engineer" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical engineer">electrical engineer</a> <a href="/wiki/Sebastian_de_Ferranti" class="mw-redirect" title="Sebastian de Ferranti">Sebastian de Ferranti</a> at <a href="/wiki/Deptford" title="Deptford">Deptford</a>. Built on an unprecedented scale and pioneering the use of high voltage (10,000V) <a href="/wiki/Alternating_current" title="Alternating current">alternating current</a>, it generated 800 kilowatts and supplied central London. On its completion in 1891 it supplied high-voltage <a href="/wiki/AC_power" title="AC power">AC power</a> that was then "stepped down" with transformers for consumer use on each street. <a href="/wiki/Electrification" title="Electrification">Electrification</a> allowed the final major developments in manufacturing methods of the Second Industrial Revolution, namely the <a href="/wiki/Assembly_line" title="Assembly line">assembly line</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mass_production" title="Mass production">mass production</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ford1922_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ford1922-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Electrification" title="Electrification">Electrification</a> was called "the most important engineering achievement of the 20th century" by the <a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Engineering" title="National Academy of Engineering">National Academy of Engineering</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Electric lighting in factories greatly improved working conditions, eliminating the heat and pollution caused by gas lighting, and reducing the fire hazard to the extent that the cost of electricity for lighting was often offset by the reduction in fire insurance premiums. <a href="/wiki/Frank_J._Sprague" title="Frank J. Sprague">Frank J. Sprague</a> developed the first successful DC motor in 1886. By 1889 110 electric <a href="/wiki/Tram" title="Tram">street railways</a> were either using his equipment or in planning. The electric street railway became a major infrastructure before 1920. The AC motor (<a href="/wiki/Induction_motor" title="Induction motor">Induction motor</a>) was developed in the 1890s and soon began to be used in the <a href="/wiki/Electrification#History_of_electrification" title="Electrification">electrification</a> of industry.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Household electrification did not become common until the 1920s, and then only in cities. <a href="/wiki/Fluorescent_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluorescent light">Fluorescent lighting</a> was commercially introduced at the <a href="/wiki/1939_World%27s_Fair" class="mw-redirect" title="1939 World's Fair">1939 World's Fair</a>. </p><p>Electrification also allowed the inexpensive production of <a href="/wiki/Electrochemistry#19th_century" title="Electrochemistry">electro-chemicals</a>, such as aluminium, chlorine, sodium hydroxide, and magnesium.<sup id="cite_ref-McNeil1990_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McNeil1990-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Machine_tools">Machine tools</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Industrial_Revolution&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Machine tools"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Machine_tool" title="Machine tool">Machine tool</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:JFIScrewThread300.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/JFIScrewThread300.png/220px-JFIScrewThread300.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/JFIScrewThread300.png 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="363" /></a><figcaption>A graphic representation of formulas for the pitches of threads of screw bolts</figcaption></figure> <p>The use of <a href="/wiki/Machine_tool" title="Machine tool">machine tools</a> began with the onset of the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">First Industrial Revolution</a>. The increase in <a href="/wiki/Mechanization" title="Mechanization">mechanization</a> required more metal parts, which were usually made of <a href="/wiki/Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">cast iron</a> or <a href="/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">wrought iron</a>—and hand working lacked precision and was a slow and expensive process. One of the first machine tools was <a href="/wiki/John_Wilkinson_(industrialist)" title="John Wilkinson (industrialist)">John Wilkinson</a>'s boring machine, that bored a precise hole in <a href="/wiki/James_Watt" title="James Watt">James Watt</a>'s first steam engine in 1774. Advances in the accuracy of machine tools can be traced to <a href="/wiki/Henry_Maudslay" title="Henry Maudslay">Henry Maudslay</a> and refined by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Whitworth" title="Joseph Whitworth">Joseph Whitworth</a>. Standardization of screw threads began with <a href="/wiki/Henry_Maudslay" title="Henry Maudslay">Henry Maudslay</a> around 1800, when the modern <a href="/wiki/Screw-cutting_lathe" title="Screw-cutting lathe">screw-cutting lathe</a> made <a href="/wiki/Interchangeable_parts" title="Interchangeable parts">interchangeable</a> V-thread machine screws a practical commodity. </p><p>In 1841, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Whitworth" title="Joseph Whitworth">Joseph Whitworth</a> created a design that, through its adoption by many British railway companies, became the world's first national machine tool standard called <a href="/wiki/British_Standard_Whitworth" title="British Standard Whitworth">British Standard Whitworth</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Roe1916pp9-10_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roe1916pp9-10-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the 1840s through 1860s, this standard was often used in the United States and Canada as well, in addition to myriad intra- and inter-company standards. </p><p>The importance of <a href="/wiki/Machine_tools" class="mw-redirect" title="Machine tools">machine tools</a> to mass production is shown by the fact that production of the <a href="/wiki/Ford_Model_T" title="Ford Model T">Ford Model T</a> used 32,000 machine tools, most of which were powered by electricity.<sup id="cite_ref-Hounshell1984_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hounshell1984-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Henry_Ford" title="Henry Ford">Henry Ford</a> is quoted as saying that mass production would not have been possible without electricity because it allowed placement of machine tools and other equipment in the order of the work flow.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Paper_making">Paper making</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Industrial_Revolution&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Paper making"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Paper_machine" title="Paper machine">Paper machine</a></div> <p>The first paper making machine was the <a href="/wiki/Fourdrinier_machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Fourdrinier machine">Fourdrinier machine</a>, built by Sealy and <a href="/wiki/Henry_Fourdrinier" title="Henry Fourdrinier">Henry Fourdrinier</a>, stationers in London. In 1800, <a href="/wiki/Matthias_Koops" title="Matthias Koops">Matthias Koops</a>, working in London, investigated the idea of using wood to make paper, and began his printing business a year later. However, his enterprise was unsuccessful due to the prohibitive cost at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It was in the 1840s, that <a href="/wiki/Charles_Fenerty" title="Charles Fenerty">Charles Fenerty</a> in Nova Scotia and <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Gottlob_Keller" title="Friedrich Gottlob Keller">Friedrich Gottlob Keller</a> in Saxony both invented a successful machine which extracted the fibres from wood (as with rags) and from it, made paper. This started a new era for <a href="/wiki/History_of_paper" title="History of paper">paper making</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and, together with the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Fountain_pen" title="Fountain pen">fountain pen</a> and the mass-produced <a href="/wiki/Pencil" title="Pencil">pencil</a> of the same period, and in conjunction with the advent of the steam driven rotary <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a>, wood based paper caused a major transformation of the 19th century economy and society in industrialized countries. With the introduction of cheaper paper, schoolbooks, fiction, non-fiction, and newspapers became gradually available by 1900. Cheap wood based paper also allowed keeping personal diaries or writing letters and so, by 1850, the <a href="/wiki/Clerk_(position)" class="mw-redirect" title="Clerk (position)">clerk</a>, or writer, ceased to be a high-status job. By the 1880s chemical processes for paper manufacture were in use, becoming dominant by 1900. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Petroleum">Petroleum</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Industrial_Revolution&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Petroleum"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry#History" title="Petroleum industry">petroleum industry</a>, both production and <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_refinery" class="mw-redirect" title="Petroleum refinery">refining</a>, began in 1848 with the first oil works in Scotland. The chemist <a href="/wiki/James_Young_(Scottish_chemist)" class="mw-redirect" title="James Young (Scottish chemist)">James Young</a> set up a tiny business refining the crude oil in 1848. Young found that by slow distillation he could obtain a number of useful liquids from it, one of which he named "paraffine oil" because at low temperatures it congealed into a substance resembling paraffin wax.<sup id="cite_ref-russell_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-russell-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1850 Young built the first truly commercial oil-works and oil refinery in the world at <a href="/wiki/Bathgate" title="Bathgate">Bathgate</a>, using oil extracted from locally mined <a href="/wiki/Torbanite" title="Torbanite">torbanite</a>, shale, and bituminous coal to manufacture <a href="/wiki/Naphtha" title="Naphtha">naphtha</a> and lubricating oils; paraffin for fuel use and solid paraffin were not sold till 1856. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Drilling_rig#Cable_tool_drilling" title="Drilling rig">Cable tool drilling</a> was developed in ancient China and was used for drilling brine wells. The salt domes also held natural gas, which some wells produced and which was used for evaporation of the brine. Chinese well drilling technology was introduced to Europe in 1828.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although there were many efforts in the mid-19th century to drill for oil, <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Drake" title="Edwin Drake">Edwin Drake</a>'s 1859 well near Titusville, Pennsylvania, is considered the first "modern oil well".<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Drake's well touched off a major boom in oil production in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Drake learned of cable tool drilling from Chinese laborers in the U. S.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first primary product was kerosene for lamps and heaters.<sup id="cite_ref-McNeil1990_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McNeil1990-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Yergin_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yergin-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar developments around <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_Azerbaijan" title="Petroleum industry in Azerbaijan">Baku</a> fed the European market. </p><p>Kerosene lighting was much more efficient and less expensive than vegetable oils, tallow and whale oil. Although town gas lighting was available in some cities, kerosene produced a brighter light until the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Gas_mantle" title="Gas mantle">gas mantle</a>. Both were replaced by electricity for street lighting following the 1890s and for households during the 1920s. Gasoline was an unwanted byproduct of oil refining until automobiles were mass-produced after 1914, and gasoline shortages appeared during World War I. The invention of the <a href="/wiki/Burton_process" title="Burton process">Burton process</a> for <a href="/wiki/Cracking_(chemistry)" title="Cracking (chemistry)">thermal cracking</a> doubled the yield of gasoline, which helped alleviate the shortages.<sup id="cite_ref-Yergin_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yergin-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chemical">Chemical</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Industrial_Revolution&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Chemical"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BASF_Werk_Ludwigshafen_1881.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/BASF_Werk_Ludwigshafen_1881.JPG/220px-BASF_Werk_Ludwigshafen_1881.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/BASF_Werk_Ludwigshafen_1881.JPG/330px-BASF_Werk_Ludwigshafen_1881.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/BASF_Werk_Ludwigshafen_1881.JPG/440px-BASF_Werk_Ludwigshafen_1881.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1156" data-file-height="650" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/BASF" title="BASF">BASF</a>-chemical factories in <a href="/wiki/Ludwigshafen" title="Ludwigshafen">Ludwigshafen</a>, Germany, in 1881</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_dye" class="mw-redirect" title="Synthetic dye">Synthetic dye</a> was discovered by English chemist <a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Perkin" title="William Henry Perkin">William Henry Perkin</a> in 1856. At the time, chemistry was still in a quite primitive state; it was still a difficult proposition to determine the arrangement of the elements in compounds and chemical industry was still in its infancy. Perkin's accidental discovery was that <a href="/wiki/Aniline" title="Aniline">aniline</a> could be partly transformed into a crude mixture which when extracted with alcohol produced a substance with an intense purple colour. He scaled up production of the new "<a href="/wiki/Mauveine" title="Mauveine">mauveine</a>", and commercialized it as the world's first synthetic dye.<sup id="cite_ref-chemistry.msu.edu_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chemistry.msu.edu-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the discovery of mauveine, many new <a href="/wiki/Aniline_dye" class="mw-redirect" title="Aniline dye">aniline dyes</a> appeared (some discovered by Perkin himself), and factories producing them were constructed across Europe. Towards the end of the century, Perkin and other British companies found their research and development efforts increasingly eclipsed by the German chemical industry which became world dominant by 1914. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Maritime_technology">Maritime technology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Industrial_Revolution&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Maritime technology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HMS_Devastation_(1871).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/HMS_Devastation_%281871%29.jpg/220px-HMS_Devastation_%281871%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/HMS_Devastation_%281871%29.jpg/330px-HMS_Devastation_%281871%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/HMS_Devastation_%281871%29.jpg/440px-HMS_Devastation_%281871%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="999" data-file-height="594" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/HMS_Devastation_(1871)" title="HMS Devastation (1871)">HMS <i>Devastation</i></a>, built in 1871, as it appeared in 1896</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RMS_Olympic%27s_propellers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/RMS_Olympic%27s_propellers.jpg/220px-RMS_Olympic%27s_propellers.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/RMS_Olympic%27s_propellers.jpg/330px-RMS_Olympic%27s_propellers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/RMS_Olympic%27s_propellers.jpg/440px-RMS_Olympic%27s_propellers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3500" data-file-height="2731" /></a><figcaption>Propellers of the <a href="/wiki/RMS_Olympic" title="RMS Olympic">RMS <i>Olympic</i></a> in 1911</figcaption></figure> <p>This era saw the birth of the modern ship as disparate technological advances came together. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Propeller_(marine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Propeller (marine)">screw propeller</a> was introduced in 1835 by <a href="/wiki/Francis_Pettit_Smith" title="Francis Pettit Smith">Francis Pettit Smith</a> who discovered a new way of building propellers by accident. Up to that time, propellers were literally screws, of considerable length. But during the testing of a boat propelled by one, the screw snapped off, leaving a fragment shaped much like a modern boat propeller. The boat moved faster with the broken propeller.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The superiority of screw against paddles was taken up by navies. Trials with Smith's <a href="/wiki/SS_Archimedes" title="SS Archimedes">SS <i>Archimedes</i></a>, the first steam driven screw, led to the famous tug-of-war competition in 1845 between the screw-driven <a href="/wiki/HMS_Rattler_(1843)" title="HMS Rattler (1843)">HMS <i>Rattler</i></a> and the paddle steamer <a href="/wiki/HMS_Alecto_(1839)" title="HMS Alecto (1839)">HMS <i>Alecto</i></a>; the former pulling the latter backward at 2.5 knots (4.6 km/h). </p><p>The first seagoing iron steamboat was built by <a href="/wiki/Horseley_Ironworks" title="Horseley Ironworks">Horseley Ironworks</a> and named the <i><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Manby" title="Aaron Manby">Aaron Manby</a></i>. It also used an innovative oscillating engine for power. The boat was built at Tipton using temporary bolts, disassembled for transportation to London, and reassembled on the Thames in 1822, this time using permanent rivets. </p><p>Other technological developments followed, including the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Surface_condenser" title="Surface condenser">surface condenser</a>, which allowed boilers to run on purified water rather than salt water, eliminating the need to stop to clean them on long sea journeys. The <i><a href="/wiki/SS_Great_Western" title="SS Great Western">Great Western</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ,<sup id="cite_ref-Beckett_2006,_pp._171–173_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beckett_2006,_pp._171–173-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> built by engineer <a href="/wiki/Isambard_Kingdom_Brunel" title="Isambard Kingdom Brunel">Isambard Kingdom Brunel</a>, was the longest ship in the world at 236 ft (72 m) with a 250-foot (76 m) <a href="/wiki/Keel" title="Keel">keel</a> and was the first to prove that transatlantic steamship services were viable. The ship was constructed mainly from wood, but Brunel added bolts and iron diagonal reinforcements to maintain the keel's strength. In addition to its steam-powered <a href="/wiki/Paddle_wheel" title="Paddle wheel">paddle wheels</a>, the ship carried four masts for sails. </p><p>Brunel followed this up with the <a href="/wiki/SS_Great_Britain" title="SS Great Britain"><i>Great Britain</i></a>, launched in 1843 and considered the first modern ship built of metal rather than wood, powered by an engine rather than wind or oars, and driven by propeller rather than paddle wheel.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Brunel's vision and engineering innovations made the building of large-scale, propeller-driven, all-metal steamships a practical reality, but the prevailing economic and industrial conditions meant that it would be several decades before transoceanic steamship travel emerged as a viable industry. </p><p>Highly efficient <a href="/wiki/Steam_engine#Multiple_expansion_engines" title="Steam engine">multiple expansion steam engines</a> began being used on ships, allowing them to carry less coal than freight.<sup id="cite_ref-Wells1890_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wells1890-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Marine_steam_engine#Oscillating" title="Marine steam engine">The oscillating engine</a> was first built by <a href="/wiki/Aaron_Manby_(ironmaster)" title="Aaron Manby (ironmaster)">Aaron Manby</a> and Joseph Maudslay in the 1820s as a type of direct-acting engine that was designed to achieve further reductions in engine size and weight. Oscillating engines had the piston rods connected directly to the crankshaft, dispensing with the need for connecting rods. To achieve this aim, the engine cylinders were not immobile as in most engines, but secured in the middle by trunnions which allowed the cylinders themselves to pivot back and forth as the crankshaft rotated, hence the term <i>oscillating</i>. </p><p>It was <a href="/wiki/John_Penn_(engineer)" title="John Penn (engineer)">John Penn</a>, engineer for the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> who perfected the oscillating engine. One of his earliest engines was the <a href="/wiki/Grasshopper_beam_engine" title="Grasshopper beam engine">grasshopper beam engine</a>. In 1844 he replaced the engines of the <a href="/wiki/British_Admiralty" class="mw-redirect" title="British Admiralty">Admiralty</a> yacht, <a href="/wiki/HMS_Black_Eagle" title="HMS Black Eagle">HMS <i>Black Eagle</i></a> with oscillating engines of double the power, without increasing either the weight or space occupied, an achievement which broke the naval supply dominance of <a href="/wiki/Boulton_%26_Watt" class="mw-redirect" title="Boulton & Watt">Boulton & Watt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henry_Maudslay" title="Henry Maudslay">Maudslay, Son & Field</a>. Penn also introduced the <a href="/wiki/Marine_steam_engine#Trunk" title="Marine steam engine">trunk engine</a> for driving screw propellers in vessels of war. <a href="/wiki/HMS_Encounter_(1846)" title="HMS Encounter (1846)">HMS <i>Encounter</i></a> (1846) and <a href="/wiki/HMS_Arrogant_(1848)" title="HMS Arrogant (1848)">HMS <i>Arrogant</i></a> (1848) were the first ships to be fitted with such engines and such was their efficacy that by the time of Penn's death in 1878, the engines had been fitted in 230 ships and were the first mass-produced, high-pressure and high-revolution marine engines.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The revolution in naval design led to the first modern <a href="/wiki/Battleship" title="Battleship">battleships</a> in the 1870s, evolved from the <a href="/wiki/Ironclad" class="mw-redirect" title="Ironclad">ironclad</a> design of the 1860s. The <a href="/wiki/Devastation-class_ironclad" title="Devastation-class ironclad"><i>Devastation</i>-class</a> <a href="/wiki/Turret_ship" title="Turret ship">turret ships</a> were built for the British <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> as the first class of ocean-going <a href="/wiki/Capital_ship" title="Capital ship">capital ship</a> that did not carry <a href="/wiki/Sail" title="Sail">sails</a>, and the first whose entire main armament was mounted on top of the hull rather than inside it. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rubber">Rubber</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Industrial_Revolution&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Rubber"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Vulcanization" title="Vulcanization">vulcanization</a> of rubber, by American <a href="/wiki/Charles_Goodyear" title="Charles Goodyear">Charles Goodyear</a> and Englishman <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hancock_(inventor)" title="Thomas Hancock (inventor)">Thomas Hancock</a> in the 1840s paved the way for a growing rubber industry, especially the manufacture of <a href="/wiki/Tyres" class="mw-redirect" title="Tyres">rubber tyres</a><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/John_Boyd_Dunlop" title="John Boyd Dunlop">John Boyd Dunlop</a> developed the first practical <a href="/wiki/Pneumatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pneumatic">pneumatic</a> tyre in 1887 in South Belfast. <a href="/wiki/Willie_Hume" title="Willie Hume">Willie Hume</a> demonstrated the supremacy of Dunlop's newly invented pneumatic tyres in 1889, winning the tyre's first ever races in Ireland and then England.<sup id="cite_ref-Gold_Hume_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gold_Hume-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-Dunlop_time_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dunlop_time-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dunlop's development of the pneumatic tyre arrived at a crucial time in the development of <a href="/wiki/Road_transport" title="Road transport">road transport</a> and commercial production began in late 1890. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bicycles">Bicycles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Industrial_Revolution&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Bicycles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The modern bicycle was designed by the English engineer <a href="/wiki/Harry_John_Lawson" title="Harry John Lawson">Harry John Lawson</a> in 1876, although it was <a href="/wiki/John_Kemp_Starley" title="John Kemp Starley">John Kemp Starley</a> who produced the first commercially successful safety bicycle a few years later.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its popularity soon grew, causing the <a href="/wiki/Bike_boom" title="Bike boom">bike boom</a> of the 1890s. </p><p>Road networks improved greatly in the period, using the <a href="/wiki/Macadam" title="Macadam">Macadam</a> method pioneered by Scottish engineer <a href="/wiki/John_Loudon_McAdam" title="John Loudon McAdam">John Loudon McAdam</a>, and hard surfaced roads were built around the time of the bicycle craze of the 1890s. Modern <a href="/wiki/Tarmacadam" title="Tarmacadam">tarmac</a> was patented by British civil engineer <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Purnell_Hooley" title="Edgar Purnell Hooley">Edgar Purnell Hooley</a> in 1901.<sup id="cite_ref-Morton2002_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morton2002-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Automobile">Automobile</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Industrial_Revolution&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Automobile"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1885Benz.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/1885Benz.jpg/220px-1885Benz.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/1885Benz.jpg/330px-1885Benz.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/1885Benz.jpg/440px-1885Benz.jpg 2x" data-file-width="976" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Benz Patent-Motorwagen, first production automobile, first built in 1885</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1910Ford-T.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/1910Ford-T.jpg/220px-1910Ford-T.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/1910Ford-T.jpg/330px-1910Ford-T.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/1910Ford-T.jpg/440px-1910Ford-T.jpg 2x" data-file-width="670" data-file-height="527" /></a><figcaption>The 1910 Ford Model T</figcaption></figure> <p>German inventor <a href="/wiki/Karl_Benz" class="mw-redirect" title="Karl Benz">Karl Benz</a> patented the world's <a href="/wiki/Benz_Patent_Motorwagen" class="mw-redirect" title="Benz Patent Motorwagen">first automobile</a> in 1886. It featured wire wheels (unlike carriages' wooden ones)<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with a four-stroke engine of his own design between the rear wheels, with a very advanced coil ignition <sup id="cite_ref-Georgano_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Georgano-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and evaporative cooling rather than a radiator.<sup id="cite_ref-Georgano_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Georgano-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Power was transmitted by means of two <a href="/wiki/Roller_chain" title="Roller chain">roller chains</a> to the rear axle. It was the first <a href="/wiki/Automobile" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobile">automobile</a> entirely designed as such to generate its own power, not simply a motorized-stage coach or horse carriage. </p><p>Benz began to sell the vehicle, advertising it as the Benz Patent Motorwagen, in the late summer of 1888, making it the first commercially available automobile in history. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Henry_Ford" title="Henry Ford">Henry Ford</a> built his first car in 1896 and worked as a pioneer in the industry, with others who would eventually form their own companies, until the founding of Ford Motor Company in 1903.<sup id="cite_ref-Ford1922_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ford1922-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ford and others at the company struggled with ways to scale up production in keeping with Henry Ford's vision of a car designed and manufactured on a scale so as to be affordable by the average worker.<sup id="cite_ref-Ford1922_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ford1922-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The solution that Ford Motor developed was a completely redesigned factory with <a href="/wiki/Machine_tools" class="mw-redirect" title="Machine tools">machine tools</a> and special purpose machines that were systematically positioned in the work sequence. All unnecessary human motions were eliminated by placing all work and tools within easy reach, and where practical on conveyors, forming the <a href="/wiki/Assembly_line" title="Assembly line">assembly line</a>, the complete process being called <a href="/wiki/Mass_production" title="Mass production">mass production</a>. This was the first time in history when a large, complex product consisting of 5000 parts had been produced on a scale of hundreds of thousands per year.<sup id="cite_ref-Ford1922_29-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ford1922-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hounshell1984_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hounshell1984-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The savings from <a href="/wiki/Mass_production" title="Mass production">mass production</a> methods allowed the price of the <a href="/wiki/Model_T" class="mw-redirect" title="Model T">Model T</a> to decline from $780 in 1910 to $360 in 1916. In 1924 2 million T-Fords were produced and retailed $290 each.($5,156 in 2023 dollars<sup id="cite_ref-inflation-US_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-inflation-US-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>)<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Applied_science">Applied science</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Industrial_Revolution&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Applied science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Applied_science" title="Applied science">Applied science</a> opened many opportunities. By the middle of the 19th century there was a scientific understanding of chemistry and a fundamental understanding of <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a> and by the last quarter of the century both of these sciences were near their present-day basic form. Thermodynamic principles were used in the development of <a href="/wiki/Physical_chemistry" title="Physical chemistry">physical chemistry</a>. Understanding chemistry greatly aided the development of basic inorganic chemical manufacturing and the aniline dye industries. </p><p>The science of <a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">metallurgy</a> was advanced through the work of <a href="/wiki/Henry_Clifton_Sorby" title="Henry Clifton Sorby">Henry Clifton Sorby</a> and others. Sorby pioneered <a href="/wiki/Metallography" title="Metallography">metallography</a>, the study of metals under the <a href="/wiki/Microscope" title="Microscope">microscope</a>, which paved the way for a scientific understanding of metal and the mass-production of steel. In 1863 he used etching with acid to study the microscopic structure of metals and was the first to understand that a small but precise quantity of carbon gave steel its strength.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This paved the way for <a href="/wiki/Henry_Bessemer" title="Henry Bessemer">Henry Bessemer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Forester_Mushet" title="Robert Forester Mushet">Robert Forester Mushet</a> to develop the method for mass-producing steel. </p><p>Other processes were developed for purifying various elements such as <a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">chromium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Molybdenum" title="Molybdenum">molybdenum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Titanium" title="Titanium">titanium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vanadium" title="Vanadium">vanadium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a> which could be used for making alloys with special properties, especially with steel. <a href="/wiki/Vanadium_steel" class="mw-redirect" title="Vanadium steel">Vanadium steel</a>, for example, is strong and fatigue resistant, and was used in half the automotive steel.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alloy steels were used for ball bearings which were used in large scale bicycle production in the 1880s. Ball and roller bearings also began being used in machinery. Other important alloys are used in high temperatures, such as steam turbine blades, and stainless steels for corrosion resistance. </p><p>The work of <a href="/wiki/Justus_von_Liebig" title="Justus von Liebig">Justus von Liebig</a> and <a href="/wiki/August_Wilhelm_von_Hofmann" title="August Wilhelm von Hofmann">August Wilhelm von Hofmann</a> laid the groundwork for modern industrial chemistry. Liebig is considered the "father of the fertilizer industry" for his discovery of <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> as an essential plant nutrient and went on to establish <a href="/wiki/Liebig%27s_Extract_of_Meat_Company" title="Liebig's Extract of Meat Company">Liebig's Extract of Meat Company</a> which produced the <a href="/wiki/Oxo_(food)" title="Oxo (food)">Oxo</a> <a href="/wiki/Meat_extract" title="Meat extract">meat extract</a>. Hofmann headed a school of practical chemistry in London, under the style of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_College_of_Chemistry" title="Royal College of Chemistry">Royal College of Chemistry</a>, introduced modern conventions for <a href="/wiki/Molecular_modeling" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular modeling">molecular modeling</a> and taught Perkin who discovered the first synthetic dye. </p><p>The science of <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a> was developed into its modern form by <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_L%C3%A9onard_Sadi_Carnot" title="Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot">Sadi Carnot</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Rankine" title="William Rankine">William Rankine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Clausius" title="Rudolf Clausius">Rudolf Clausius</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Thomson,_1st_Baron_Kelvin" class="mw-redirect" title="William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin">William Thomson</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell">James Clerk Maxwell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Boltzmann" title="Ludwig Boltzmann">Ludwig Boltzmann</a> and <a href="/wiki/J._Willard_Gibbs" class="mw-redirect" title="J. Willard Gibbs">J. Willard Gibbs</a>. These scientific principles were applied to a variety of industrial concerns, including improving the efficiency of boilers and <a href="/wiki/Steam_turbine" title="Steam turbine">steam turbines</a>. The work of <a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a> and others was pivotal in laying the foundations of the modern scientific understanding of electricity. </p><p>Scottish scientist <a href="/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell">James Clerk Maxwell</a> was particularly influential—his discoveries ushered in the era of <a href="/wiki/Modern_physics" title="Modern physics">modern physics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His most prominent achievement was to formulate a <a href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations" title="Maxwell's equations">set of equations</a> that described electricity, <a href="/wiki/Magnetism" title="Magnetism">magnetism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">optics</a> as manifestations of the same <a href="/wiki/Phenomenon" title="Phenomenon">phenomenon</a>, namely the <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_field" title="Electromagnetic field">electromagnetic field</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The unification of light and electrical phenomena led to the prediction of the existence of <a href="/wiki/Radio_waves" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio waves">radio waves</a> and was the basis for the future development of radio technology by <a href="/wiki/David_Edward_Hughes" title="David Edward Hughes">Hughes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Marconi</a> and others.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Maxwell himself developed the first durable <a href="/wiki/Color_photography" title="Color photography">colour photograph</a> in 1861 and published the first scientific treatment of <a href="/wiki/Control_theory" title="Control theory">control theory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Control theory is the basis for <a href="/wiki/Process_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Process control">process control</a>, which is widely used in <a href="/wiki/Automation" title="Automation">automation</a>, particularly for <a href="/wiki/Process_industries" class="mw-redirect" title="Process industries">process industries</a>, and for controlling ships and airplanes.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Control_theory" title="Control theory">Control theory</a> was developed to analyze the functioning of <a href="/wiki/Centrifugal_governor" title="Centrifugal governor">centrifugal governors</a> on steam engines. These governors came into use in the late 18th century on wind and water mills to correctly position the gap between mill stones, and were adapted to steam engines by <a href="/wiki/James_Watt" title="James Watt">James Watt</a>. Improved versions were used to stabilize automatic tracking mechanisms of telescopes and to control speed of ship propellers and rudders. However, those governors were sluggish and oscillated about the <a href="/wiki/Setpoint_(control_system)" title="Setpoint (control system)">set point</a>. <a href="/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell">James Clerk Maxwell</a> wrote a paper mathematically analyzing the actions of governors, which marked the beginning of the formal development of control theory. The science was continually improved and evolved into an engineering discipline. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fertilizer">Fertilizer</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Industrial_Revolution&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Fertilizer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Justus_von_Liebig" title="Justus von Liebig">Justus von Liebig</a> was the first to understand the importance of <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a> as <a href="/wiki/Fertilizer" title="Fertilizer">fertilizer</a>, and promoted the importance of inorganic minerals to <a href="/wiki/Plant_nutrition" title="Plant nutrition">plant nutrition</a>. In England, he attempted to implement his theories commercially through a fertilizer created by treating <a href="/wiki/Phosphate_of_lime" class="mw-redirect" title="Phosphate of lime">phosphate of lime</a> in bone meal with <a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric acid</a>. Another pioneer was <a href="/wiki/John_Bennet_Lawes" title="John Bennet Lawes">John Bennet Lawes</a> who began to experiment on the effects of various manures on plants growing in pots in 1837, leading to a manure formed by treating phosphates with sulphuric acid; this was to be the first product of the nascent artificial manure industry.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The discovery of <a href="/wiki/Coprolite#Coprolite_mining" title="Coprolite">coprolites</a> in commercial quantities in <a href="/wiki/East_Anglia" title="East Anglia">East Anglia</a>, led Fisons and <a href="/wiki/Edward_Packard_(businessman,_born_1819)" title="Edward Packard (businessman, born 1819)">Edward Packard</a> to develop one of the first large-scale commercial fertilizer plants at <a href="/wiki/Bramford" title="Bramford">Bramford</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Snape,_Suffolk" title="Snape, Suffolk">Snape</a> in the 1850s. By the 1870s <a href="/wiki/Superphosphate" title="Superphosphate">superphosphates</a> produced in those factories, were being shipped around the world from the port at <a href="/wiki/Ipswich" title="Ipswich">Ipswich</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Birkeland%E2%80%93Eyde_process" title="Birkeland–Eyde process">Birkeland–Eyde process</a> was developed by Norwegian industrialist and scientist <a href="/wiki/Kristian_Birkeland" title="Kristian Birkeland">Kristian Birkeland</a> along with his business partner <a href="/wiki/Sam_Eyde" title="Sam Eyde">Sam Eyde</a> in 1903,<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but was soon replaced by the much more efficient <a href="/wiki/Haber_process" title="Haber process">Haber process</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> developed by the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a>-winning chemists <a href="/wiki/Carl_Bosch" title="Carl Bosch">Carl Bosch</a> of <a href="/wiki/IG_Farben" title="IG Farben">IG Farben</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Haber" title="Fritz Haber">Fritz Haber</a> in Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The process used molecular nitrogen (N<sub>2</sub>) and methane (CH<sub>4</sub>) gas in an economically sustainable synthesis of <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a> (NH<sub>3</sub>). The ammonia produced in the Haber process is the main raw material for production of <a href="/wiki/Nitric_acid" title="Nitric acid">nitric acid</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Engines_and_turbines">Engines and turbines</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Industrial_Revolution&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Engines and turbines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Steam_turbine" title="Steam turbine">steam turbine</a> was developed by Sir <a href="/wiki/Charles_Algernon_Parsons" title="Charles Algernon Parsons">Charles Parsons</a> in 1884. His first model was connected to a <a href="/wiki/Dynamo" title="Dynamo">dynamo</a> that generated 7.5 kW (10 hp) of electricity.<sup id="cite_ref-birrcastle.com_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-birrcastle.com-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The invention of Parson's steam turbine made cheap and plentiful electricity possible and revolutionized <a href="/wiki/Turbinia" title="Turbinia">marine transport and naval warfare</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the time of Parson's death, his turbine had been adopted for all major world power stations.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike earlier steam engines, the turbine produced rotary power rather than reciprocating power which required a crank and heavy flywheel. The large number of stages of the turbine allowed for high efficiency and reduced size by 90%. The turbine's first application was in shipping followed by electric generation in 1903. </p><p>The first widely used <a href="/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine" title="Internal combustion engine">internal combustion engine</a> was the <a href="/wiki/Otto_engine" title="Otto engine">Otto type</a> of 1876. From the 1880s until electrification it was successful in small shops because small steam engines were inefficient and required too much operator attention.<sup id="cite_ref-Smil2005_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smil2005-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Otto engine soon began being used to power automobiles, and remains as today's common gasoline engine. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Diesel_engine" title="Diesel engine">diesel engine</a> was independently designed by <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Diesel" title="Rudolf Diesel">Rudolf Diesel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Akroyd_Stuart" title="Herbert Akroyd Stuart">Herbert Akroyd Stuart</a> in the 1890s using thermodynamic principles with the specific intention of being highly efficient. It took several years to perfect and become popular, but found application in shipping before powering locomotives. It remains the world's most efficient prime mover.<sup id="cite_ref-Smil2005_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smil2005-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Telecommunications">Telecommunications</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Industrial_Revolution&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Telecommunications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1891_Telegraph_Lines.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/1891_Telegraph_Lines.jpg/220px-1891_Telegraph_Lines.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/1891_Telegraph_Lines.jpg/330px-1891_Telegraph_Lines.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/1891_Telegraph_Lines.jpg/440px-1891_Telegraph_Lines.jpg 2x" data-file-width="956" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Major telegraph lines in 1891</figcaption></figure> <p>The first commercial <a href="/wiki/Telegraph" class="mw-redirect" title="Telegraph">telegraph</a> system was installed by Sir <a href="/wiki/William_Fothergill_Cooke" title="William Fothergill Cooke">William Fothergill Cooke</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Wheatstone" title="Charles Wheatstone">Charles Wheatstone</a> in May 1837 between <a href="/wiki/Euston_railway_station" title="Euston railway station">Euston railway station</a> and <a href="/wiki/Camden_Town" title="Camden Town">Camden Town</a> in London.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The rapid expansion of telegraph networks took place throughout the century, with the first <a href="/wiki/Undersea_telegraph_cable" class="mw-redirect" title="Undersea telegraph cable">undersea telegraph cable</a> being built by <a href="/wiki/John_Watkins_Brett" title="John Watkins Brett">John Watkins Brett</a> between France and England. The <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Telegraph_Company" title="Atlantic Telegraph Company">Atlantic Telegraph Company</a> was formed in London in 1856 to undertake construction of a commercial telegraph cable across the Atlantic Ocean. This was successfully completed on 18 July 1866 by the ship <a href="/wiki/SS_Great_Eastern" title="SS Great Eastern">SS <i>Great Eastern</i></a>, captained by <a href="/wiki/Sir_James_Anderson" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir James Anderson">Sir James Anderson</a> after many mishaps along the away.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From the 1850s until 1911, British submarine cable systems dominated the world system. This was set out as a formal strategic goal, which became known as the <a href="/wiki/All_Red_Line" title="All Red Line">All Red Line</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-kennedy197110_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kennedy197110-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The telephone was patented in 1876 by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell" title="Alexander Graham Bell">Alexander Graham Bell</a>, and like the early telegraph, it was used mainly to speed business transactions.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As mentioned above, one of the most important scientific advancements in all of history was the unification of light, electricity and magnetism through <a href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations" title="Maxwell's equations">Maxwell's electromagnetic theory</a>. A scientific understanding of electricity was necessary for the development of efficient electric generators, motors and transformers. <a href="/wiki/David_Edward_Hughes" title="David Edward Hughes">David Edward Hughes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Hertz" title="Heinrich Hertz">Heinrich Hertz</a> both demonstrated and confirmed the phenomenon of electromagnetic waves that had been predicted by Maxwell.<sup id="cite_ref-Smil2005_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smil2005-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It was Italian inventor <a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Guglielmo Marconi</a> who successfully commercialized radio at the turn of the century.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He founded <a href="/wiki/Marconi_Company" title="Marconi Company">The Wireless Telegraph & Signal Company</a> in Britain in 1897<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in the same year transmitted <a href="/wiki/Morse_code" title="Morse code">Morse code</a> across <a href="/wiki/Salisbury_Plain" title="Salisbury Plain">Salisbury Plain</a>, sent the first ever wireless communication over open sea<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and made the first transatlantic transmission in 1901 from <a href="/wiki/Poldhu" title="Poldhu">Poldhu</a>, Cornwall to <a href="/wiki/Signal_Hill_(Newfoundland_and_Labrador)" class="mw-redirect" title="Signal Hill (Newfoundland and Labrador)">Signal Hill</a>, <a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_and_Labrador" title="Newfoundland and Labrador">Newfoundland</a>. Marconi built high-powered stations on both sides of the Atlantic and began a commercial service to transmit nightly news summaries to subscribing ships in 1904.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The key development of the <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">vacuum tube</a> by Sir <a href="/wiki/John_Ambrose_Fleming" title="John Ambrose Fleming">John Ambrose Fleming</a> in 1904 underpinned the development of modern electronics and radio broadcasting. <a href="/wiki/Lee_De_Forest" class="mw-redirect" title="Lee De Forest">Lee De Forest</a>'s subsequent invention of the <a href="/wiki/Triode" title="Triode">triode</a> allowed the amplification of electronic signals, which paved the way for radio broadcasting in the 1920s. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_business_management">Modern business management</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Industrial_Revolution&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Modern business management"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Railroads are credited with creating the modern <a href="/wiki/Business_enterprise" class="mw-redirect" title="Business enterprise">business enterprise</a> by scholars such as Alfred Chandler. Previously, the management of most businesses had consisted of individual owners or groups of partners, some of whom often had little daily hands-on operations involvement. Centralized expertise in the home office was not enough. A railroad required expertise available across the whole length of its trackage, to deal with daily crises, breakdowns and bad weather. A collision in Massachusetts in 1841 led to a call for safety reform. This led to the reorganization of railroads into different departments with clear lines of management authority. When the telegraph became available, companies built telegraph lines along the railroads to keep track of trains.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Railroads involved complex operations and employed extremely large amounts of capital and ran a more complicated business compared to anything previous. Consequently, they needed better ways to track costs. For example, to calculate rates they needed to know the cost of a ton-mile of freight. They also needed to keep track of cars, which could go missing for months at a time. This led to what was called "railroad accounting", which was later adopted by steel and other industries, and eventually became modern accounting.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ford_assembly_line_-_1913.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Ford_assembly_line_-_1913.jpg/220px-Ford_assembly_line_-_1913.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Ford_assembly_line_-_1913.jpg/330px-Ford_assembly_line_-_1913.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Ford_assembly_line_-_1913.jpg/440px-Ford_assembly_line_-_1913.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3916" data-file-height="2826" /></a><figcaption>Workers on the first moving assembly line put together magnetos and flywheels for 1913 Ford autos in Michigan.</figcaption></figure> <p>Later in the Second Industrial Revolution, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Winslow_Taylor" title="Frederick Winslow Taylor">Frederick Winslow Taylor</a> and others in America developed the concept of <a href="/wiki/Scientific_management" title="Scientific management">scientific management</a> or <a href="/wiki/Taylorism" class="mw-redirect" title="Taylorism">Taylorism</a>. Scientific management initially concentrated on reducing the steps taken in performing work (such as bricklaying or shoveling) by using analysis such as <a href="/wiki/Time_and_motion_study" title="Time and motion study">time-and-motion studies</a>, but the concepts evolved into fields such as <a href="/wiki/Industrial_engineering" title="Industrial engineering">industrial engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manufacturing_engineering" title="Manufacturing engineering">manufacturing engineering</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Business_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Business management">business management</a> that helped to completely restructure<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> the operations of factories, and later entire segments of the economy. </p><p>Taylor's core principles included:<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <ul><li>replacing rule-of-thumb work methods with methods based on a scientific study of the tasks</li> <li>scientifically selecting, training, and developing each employee rather than passively leaving them to train themselves</li> <li>providing "detailed instruction and supervision of each worker in the performance of that worker's discrete task"</li> <li>dividing work nearly equally between managers and workers, such that the managers apply scientific-management principles to planning the work and the workers actually perform the tasks</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Socio-economic_impacts">Socio-economic impacts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Industrial_Revolution&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Socio-economic impacts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gdp-maddison-project-database.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Gdp-maddison-project-database.png/220px-Gdp-maddison-project-database.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Gdp-maddison-project-database.png/330px-Gdp-maddison-project-database.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Gdp-maddison-project-database.png/440px-Gdp-maddison-project-database.png 2x" data-file-width="3400" data-file-height="2825" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">GDP</a> of the European powers experienced a significant growth during the Second Industrial Revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The period from 1870 to 1890 saw the greatest increase in economic growth in such a short period as ever in previous history. Living standards improved significantly in the newly industrialized countries as the prices of goods fell dramatically due to the increases in <a href="/wiki/Productivity_improving_technologies_(historical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Productivity improving technologies (historical)">productivity</a>. This caused unemployment and great upheavals in commerce and industry, with many laborers being displaced by machines and many factories, ships and other forms of fixed capital becoming obsolete in a very short time span.<sup id="cite_ref-Wells1890_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wells1890-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote> <p>"The economic changes that have occurred during the last quarter of a century -or during the present generation of living men- have unquestionably been more important and more varied than during any period of the world's history".<sup id="cite_ref-Wells1890_52-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wells1890-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </blockquote> <p>Crop failures no longer resulted in starvation in areas connected to large markets through transport infrastructure.<sup id="cite_ref-Wells1890_52-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wells1890-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Massive improvements in public health and sanitation resulted from <a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">public health</a> initiatives, such as the construction of the <a href="/wiki/London_sewerage_system" class="mw-redirect" title="London sewerage system">London sewerage system</a> in the 1860s and the passage of laws that regulated filtered water supplies—(the <a href="/wiki/Metropolis_Water_Act_1852" title="Metropolis Water Act 1852">Metropolis Water Act</a> introduced regulation of the water supply companies in London, including minimum standards of water quality for the first time in 1852). This greatly reduced the infection and death rates from many diseases. </p><p>By 1870 the work done by steam engines exceeded that done by animal and human power. Horses and mules remained important in agriculture until the development of the internal combustion tractor near the end of the Second Industrial Revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Improvements in steam efficiency, like <a href="/wiki/Triple-expansion_steam_engine" class="mw-redirect" title="Triple-expansion steam engine">triple-expansion steam engines</a>, allowed ships to carry much more freight than coal, resulting in greatly increased volumes of international trade. Higher steam engine efficiency caused the number of steam engines to increase several fold, leading to an increase in coal usage, the phenomenon being called the <a href="/wiki/Jevons_paradox" title="Jevons paradox">Jevons paradox</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 1890 there was an international telegraph network allowing orders to be placed by merchants in England or the US to suppliers in India and China for goods to be transported in efficient new steamships. This, plus the opening of the <a href="/wiki/Suez_Canal" title="Suez Canal">Suez Canal</a>, led to the decline of the great warehousing districts in London and elsewhere, and the elimination of many middlemen.<sup id="cite_ref-Wells1890_52-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wells1890-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The tremendous growth in productivity, transportation networks, industrial production and agricultural output lowered the prices of almost all goods. This led to many business failures and periods that were called <i>depressions</i> that occurred as the world economy actually grew.<sup id="cite_ref-Wells1890_52-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wells1890-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> See also: <a href="/wiki/Long_depression" class="mw-redirect" title="Long depression">Long depression</a> </p><p>The factory system centralized production in separate buildings funded and directed by specialists (as opposed to work at home). The division of labor made both unskilled and skilled labor more productive, and led to a rapid growth of population in industrial centers. The shift away from agriculture toward industry had occurred in Britain by the 1730s, when the percentage of the working population engaged in agriculture fell below 50%, a development that would only happen elsewhere (the <a href="/wiki/Low_Countries" title="Low Countries">Low Countries</a>) in the 1830s and '40s. By 1890, the figure had fallen to under 10% and the vast majority of the British population was urbanized. This milestone was reached by the <a href="/wiki/Low_Countries" title="Low Countries">Low Countries</a> and the US in the 1950s.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Like the first industrial revolution, the second supported population growth and saw most governments protect their national economies with tariffs. Britain retained its belief in <a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">free trade</a> throughout this period. The wide-ranging social impact of both revolutions included the remaking of the working class as new technologies appeared. The changes resulted in the creation of a larger, increasingly professional, middle class, the decline of child labor and the dramatic growth of a consumer-based, material culture.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 1900, the leaders in industrial production was Britain with 24% of the world total, followed by the US (19%), Germany (13%), Russia (9%) and France (7%). Europe together accounted for 62%.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The great inventions and innovations of the Second Industrial Revolution are part of our modern life. They continued to be drivers of the economy until after WWII. Major innovations occurred in the post-war era, some of which are: computers, semiconductors, the fiber optic network and the Internet, cellular telephones, <a href="/wiki/Combustion_turbine" class="mw-redirect" title="Combustion turbine">combustion turbines</a> (jet engines) and the <a href="/wiki/Green_Revolution" title="Green Revolution">Green Revolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although commercial aviation existed before WWII, it became a major industry after the war. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Industrial_Revolution&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: United Kingdom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Industrialization_per_capita_1750-1900.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Industrialization_per_capita_1750-1900.svg/220px-Industrialization_per_capita_1750-1900.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Industrialization_per_capita_1750-1900.svg/330px-Industrialization_per_capita_1750-1900.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Industrialization_per_capita_1750-1900.svg/440px-Industrialization_per_capita_1750-1900.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="484" data-file-height="350" /></a><figcaption>Relative per capita levels of industrialization between 1750 and 1910 relative to Great Britain in 1900 = 100)<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>New products and services were introduced which greatly increased international trade. Improvements in <a href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">steam engine</a> design and the wide availability of cheap steel meant that slow, sailing ships were replaced with faster steamship, which could handle more trade with smaller crews. The <a href="/wiki/History_of_chemical_engineering" title="History of chemical engineering">chemical</a> industries also moved to the forefront. Britain invested less in technological research than the U.S. and Germany, which caught up. </p><p>The development of more intricate and efficient machines along with <a href="/wiki/Mass_production" title="Mass production">mass production</a> techniques after 1910 greatly expanded output and lowered production costs. As a result, production often exceeded domestic demand. Among the new conditions, more markedly evident in Britain, the forerunner of Europe's industrial states, were the long-term effects of the severe <a href="/wiki/Long_Depression" title="Long Depression">Long Depression</a> of 1873–1896, which had followed fifteen years of great economic instability. Businesses in practically every industry suffered from lengthy periods of low – and falling – profit rates and price deflation after 1873. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="United_States">United States</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Industrial_Revolution&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The U.S. had its highest economic growth rate in the last two decades of the Second Industrial Revolution;<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, population growth slowed while productivity growth peaked around the mid 20th century. The <a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a> in America was based on heavy industry such as factories, railroads and coal mining. The iconic event was the opening of the <a href="/wiki/First_transcontinental_railroad" title="First transcontinental railroad">First transcontinental railroad</a> in 1869, providing six-day service between the East Coast and San Francisco.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the Gilded Age, American railroad mileage tripled between 1860 and 1880, and tripled again by 1920, opening new areas to commercial farming, creating a truly national marketplace and inspiring a boom in coal mining and steel production. The voracious appetite for capital of the great trunk railroads facilitated the consolidation of the nation's financial market in <a href="/wiki/Wall_Street" title="Wall Street">Wall Street</a>. By 1900, the process of economic concentration had extended into most branches of industry—a few large corporations, some organized as "trusts" (e.g. Standard Oil), dominated in steel, oil, sugar, meatpacking, and the manufacture of agriculture machinery. Other major components of this infrastructure were the new methods for manufacturing steel, especially the <a href="/wiki/Bessemer_process" title="Bessemer process">Bessemer process</a>. The first billion-dollar corporation was <a href="/wiki/United_States_Steel" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Steel">United States Steel</a>, formed by financier <a href="/wiki/J._P._Morgan" title="J. P. Morgan">J. P. Morgan</a> in 1901, who purchased and consolidated steel firms built by <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Carnegie" title="Andrew Carnegie">Andrew Carnegie</a> and others.<sup id="cite_ref-Edward_C._Kirkland_1961_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edward_C._Kirkland_1961-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Increased mechanization of industry and improvements to worker efficiency, increased the productivity of factories while undercutting the need for skilled labor. Mechanical innovations such as batch and continuous processing began to become much more prominent in factories. This mechanization made some factories an assemblage of unskilled laborers performing simple and repetitive tasks under the direction of skilled foremen and engineers. In some cases, the advancement of such mechanization substituted for low-skilled workers altogether. Both the number of unskilled and skilled workers increased, as their wage rates grew<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Engineering colleges were established to feed the enormous demand for expertise. Together with rapid growth of small business, a new middle class was rapidly growing, especially in northern cities.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Germany">Germany</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Industrial_Revolution&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Germany"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a> came to rival Britain as Europe's primary industrial nation during this period. Since Germany industrialized later, it was able to model its factories after those of Britain, thus making more efficient use of its capital and avoiding legacy methods in its leap to the envelope of technology. Germany invested more heavily than the British in research, especially in chemistry, motors and electricity. The German <a href="/wiki/Concern_(business)" title="Concern (business)">concern</a> system (known as <i>Konzerne</i>), being significantly concentrated, was able to make more efficient use of capital. Germany was not weighted down with an expensive worldwide empire that needed defense. Following Germany's annexation of <a href="/wiki/Alsace-Lorraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Alsace-Lorraine">Alsace-Lorraine</a> in 1871, it absorbed parts of what had been France's industrial base.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 1900 the German chemical industry dominated the world market for <a href="/wiki/Dye" title="Dye">synthetic dyes</a>. The three major firms <a href="/wiki/BASF" title="BASF">BASF</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bayer" title="Bayer">Bayer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hoechst_AG" title="Hoechst AG">Hoechst</a> produced several hundred different dyes, along with the five smaller firms. In 1913 these eight firms produced almost 90 percent of the world supply of dyestuffs, and sold about 80 percent of their production abroad. The three major firms had also integrated upstream into the production of essential raw materials and they began to expand into other areas of chemistry such as <a href="/wiki/Drug" title="Drug">pharmaceuticals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Photographic_film" title="Photographic film">photographic film</a>, <a href="/wiki/Agrochemical" title="Agrochemical">agricultural chemicals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electrochemistry" title="Electrochemistry">electrochemical</a>. Top-level decision-making was in the hands of professional salaried managers, leading Chandler to call the German dye companies "the world's first truly managerial industrial enterprises".<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were many spin offs from research—such as the pharmaceutical industry, which emerged from chemical research.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Belgium">Belgium</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Industrial_Revolution&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Belgium"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/History_of_Belgium" title="History of Belgium">Belgium</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Belle_%C3%89poque" title="Belle Époque">Belle Époque</a> showed the value of the <a href="/wiki/History_of_rail_transport" title="History of rail transport">railways</a> for speeding the Second Industrial Revolution. After 1830, when it <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Revolution" title="Belgian Revolution">broke away from the Netherlands</a> and became a new nation, it decided to stimulate industry. It planned and funded a simple cruciform system that connected major cities, ports and mining areas, and linked to neighboring countries. Belgium thus became the railway center of the region. <a href="/wiki/History_of_rail_transport_in_Belgium" title="History of rail transport in Belgium">The system</a> was soundly built along British lines, so that profits were low but the infrastructure necessary for rapid industrial growth was put in place.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Alternative_uses">Alternative uses</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Industrial_Revolution&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Alternative uses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Original_research plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Original_research" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>possibly contains <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" title="Wikipedia:No original research">original research</a></b>. While there are Reliable sources that call earlier advances "industrial revolutions" there might not be any that then number following revolutions as the 2nd<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Second_Industrial_Revolution&action=edit">improve it</a> by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verifying</a> the claims made and adding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a>. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Special:EditPage/Second Industrial Revolution">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Second+Industrial+Revolution%22">"Second Industrial Revolution"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Second+Industrial+Revolution%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Second+Industrial+Revolution%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Second+Industrial+Revolution%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Second+Industrial+Revolution%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Second+Industrial+Revolution%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>There have been other times that have been called "second industrial revolution". Industrial revolutions may be renumbered by taking earlier developments, such as the rise of <a href="/wiki/Medieval_technology" title="Medieval technology">medieval technology</a> in the 12th century,<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or of ancient Chinese technology during the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a>, or of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_technology" title="Ancient Roman technology">ancient Roman technology</a>, as first. "Second industrial revolution" has been used in the popular press and by technologists or industrialists to refer to the changes following the spread of new technology after <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>. </p><p>Excitement and debate over the dangers and benefits of the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_Age" title="Atomic Age">Atomic Age</a> were more intense and lasting than those over the <a href="/wiki/Space_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Space age">Space age</a> but both were predicted to lead to another industrial revolution. At the start of the 21st century the term "second industrial revolution" has been used to describe the anticipated effects of hypothetical <a href="/wiki/Molecular_nanotechnology" title="Molecular nanotechnology">molecular nanotechnology</a> systems upon society.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this more recent scenario, they would render the majority of today's modern manufacturing processes obsolete, transforming all facets of the modern economy. Subsequent industrial revolutions include the <a href="/wiki/Digital_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital revolution">Digital revolution</a> and <a href="/wiki/Environmental_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental revolution">Environmental revolution</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Industrial_Revolution&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <p>in alphabetical order </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Agricultural_Revolution" title="British Agricultural Revolution">British Agricultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism_in_the_nineteenth_century" class="mw-redirect" title="Capitalism in the nineteenth century">Capitalism in the nineteenth century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical Revolution">Chemical Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Revolution">Digital Revolution</a>, also known as the Third Industrial Revolution, late 1990s until present</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Industrial_Revolution" title="Fourth Industrial Revolution">Fourth Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Revolution" title="Green Revolution">Green Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Information Revolution">Information Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Transport Revolution">Transport Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">Nanotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kondratiev_wave" title="Kondratiev wave">Kondratiev wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_steel_producers" title="List of steel producers">List of steel producers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_Age" title="Machine Age">Machine Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Productivity_improving_technologies_(historical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Productivity improving technologies (historical)">Productivity improving technologies (historical)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suez_Canal" title="Suez Canal">Suez Canal</a></li></ul> <p>Economic history of selected countries: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_Kingdom#19th_century" title="Economic history of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom (19th century)</a> & <a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_Kingdom#1900–1945" title="Economic history of the United Kingdom">1900–1945</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_States#Late_19th_century" title="Economic history of the United States">United States (late 19th century)</a> & <a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_States#Early_20th_century" title="Economic history of the United States">Early 20th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_France#1789–1914" title="Economic history of France">France (1789–1914)</a> & <a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_France#1914–1944" title="Economic history of France">1914–1944</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Germany#Industrial_Revolution" title="Economic history of Germany">Economic history of Germany#Industrial Revolution</a> & <a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Germany#Early_20th_century" title="Economic history of Germany">Early 20th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Italy#1861–1918" title="Economic history of Italy">Italy (1861–1918)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Japan#Meiji_period" title="Economic history of Japan">Japan (Meiji period)</a> & <a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Japan#Early_20th_century" title="Economic history of Japan">Early 20th century</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Industrial_Revolution&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMuntone" class="citation web cs1">Muntone, Stephanie. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131022224325/http://www.education.com/study-help/article/us-history-glided-age-technological-revolution/">"Second Industrial Revolution"</a>. <i>Education.com</i>. The McGraw-Hill Companies. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.education.com/study-help/article/us-history-glided-age-technological-revolution/">the original</a> on 2013-10-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-10-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Education.com&rft.atitle=Second+Industrial+Revolution&rft.aulast=Muntone&rft.aufirst=Stephanie&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.education.com%2Fstudy-help%2Farticle%2Fus-history-glided-age-technological-revolution%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Industrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ushistoryscene.com/article/second-industrial-revolution/">The Second Industrial Revolution: 1870–1914</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-rv-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-rv_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichmond_Vale_Academy2022" class="citation web cs1">Richmond Vale Academy (2022-05-16). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://richmondvale.org/en/blog/second-industrial-revolution-the-technological-revolution">"Second Industrial Revolution: The Technological Revolution"</a>. <i>richmondvale.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-12-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=richmondvale.org&rft.atitle=Second+Industrial+Revolution%3A+The+Technological+Revolution&rft.date=2022-05-16&rft.au=Richmond+Vale+Academy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frichmondvale.org%2Fen%2Fblog%2Fsecond-industrial-revolution-the-technological-revolution&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Industrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.instituteforenergyresearch.org/history-electricity/">History of Electricity, Institute for Energy Research</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James Hull, "The Second Industrial Revolution: The History of a Concept", <i>Storia Della Storiografia,</i> 1999, Issue 36, pp. 81–90</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Smil2005-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Smil2005_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Smil2005_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Smil2005_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Smil2005_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmil2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Vaclav_Smil" title="Vaclav Smil">Smil, Vaclav</a> (2005). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/creatingtwentiet0000smil"><i>Creating the Twentieth Century: Technical Innovations of 1867–1914 and Their Lasting Impact</i></a></span>. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-516874-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-516874-7"><bdi>0-19-516874-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Creating+the+Twentieth+Century%3A+Technical+Innovations+of+1867%E2%80%931914+and+Their+Lasting+Impact&rft.place=Oxford%3B+New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-19-516874-7&rft.aulast=Smil&rft.aufirst=Vaclav&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcreatingtwentiet0000smil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Industrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChandler1993">Chandler 1993</a>, pp. 171</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLandes1969" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Landes" title="David Landes">Landes, David. S.</a> (1969). <i>The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present</i>. Cambridge, New York: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. p. 92. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-09418-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-09418-6"><bdi>0-521-09418-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Unbound+Prometheus%3A+Technological+Change+and+Industrial+Development+in+Western+Europe+from+1750+to+the+Present&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+New+York&rft.pages=92&rft.pub=Press+Syndicate+of+the+University+of+Cambridge&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=0-521-09418-6&rft.aulast=Landes&rft.aufirst=David.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Industrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLandes1969">Landes 1969</a>, pp. 256–7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLandes1969">Landes 1969</a>, p. 218</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMisa1995" class="citation book cs1">Misa, Thomas J. (1995). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nationofsteelmak00misa"><i>A Nation of Steel: The Making of Modern America 1965–1925</i></a></span>. Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-6502-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-6502-2"><bdi>978-0-8018-6502-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Nation+of+Steel%3A+The+Making+of+Modern+America+1965%E2%80%931925&rft.place=Baltimore+and+London&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-6502-2&rft.aulast=Misa&rft.aufirst=Thomas+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnationofsteelmak00misa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Industrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLandes1969">Landes 1969</a>, p. 228</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-THOM-GIL-1850">"Thomas, Sidney Gilchrist"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Thomas%2C+Sidney+Gilchrist&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-THOM-GIL-1850&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Industrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EB-Thom-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EB-Thom_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB-Thom_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChisholm1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a>, ed. (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Thomas, Sidney Gilchrist"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Thomas,_Sidney_Gilchrist">"Thomas, Sidney Gilchrist" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 867.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Thomas%2C+Sidney+Gilchrist&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=867&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Industrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alan Birch, <i>Economic History of the British Iron and Steel Industry</i> (2006)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRolt1974" class="citation book cs1">Rolt, L.T.C (1974). <i>Victorian Engineering</i>. London: Pelican. p. 183.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Victorian+Engineering&rft.place=London&rft.pages=183&rft.pub=Pelican&rft.date=1974&rft.aulast=Rolt&rft.aufirst=L.T.C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Industrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBianculli2003" class="citation book cs1">Bianculli, Anthony J. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7T3qECx0CLUC&q=steel%20rail%20railroad&pg=PA109"><i>Trains and Technology: Track and structures</i></a>. Volume 3 of <i>Trains and Technology: The American Railroad in the Nineteenth Century</i>. Newark, DE: University of Delaware Press. p. 109. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87413-802-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87413-802-3"><bdi>978-0-87413-802-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Trains+and+Technology%3A+Track+and+structures&rft.place=Newark%2C+DE&rft.series=Volume+3+of+%27%27Trains+and+Technology%3A+The+American+Railroad+in+the+Nineteenth+Century%27%27&rft.pages=109&rft.pub=University+of+Delaware+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-87413-802-3&rft.aulast=Bianculli&rft.aufirst=Anthony+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7T3qECx0CLUC%26q%3Dsteel%2520rail%2520railroad%26pg%3DPA109&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Industrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fogel-1964-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fogel-1964_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fogel-1964_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFogel1964" class="citation book cs1">Fogel, Robert W. (1964). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/railroadsamerica00foge"><i>Railroads and American Economic Growth: Essays in Econometric History</i></a>. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0801811481" title="Special:BookSources/0801811481"><bdi>0801811481</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Railroads+and+American+Economic+Growth%3A+Essays+in+Econometric+History&rft.place=Baltimore&rft.pub=The+Johns+Hopkins+Press&rft.date=1964&rft.isbn=0801811481&rft.aulast=Fogel&rft.aufirst=Robert+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frailroadsamerica00foge&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Industrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosenberg1982" class="citation book cs1">Rosenberg, Nathan (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/insideblackboxte00rose/page/60"><i>Inside the Black Box: Technology and Economics</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 60. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-27367-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-27367-6"><bdi>0-521-27367-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inside+the+Black+Box%3A+Technology+and+Economics&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=60&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=0-521-27367-6&rft.aulast=Rosenberg&rft.aufirst=Nathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Finsideblackboxte00rose%2Fpage%2F60&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Industrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrubler1990" class="citation book cs1">Grubler, Arnulf (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120301221205/http://www.iiasa.ac.at/Admin/PUB/Documents/XB-90-704.pdf"><i>The Rise and Fall of Infrastructures</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iiasa.ac.at/Admin/PUB/Documents/XB-90-704.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2012-03-01.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+and+Fall+of+Infrastructures&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Grubler&rft.aufirst=Arnulf&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iiasa.ac.at%2FAdmin%2FPUB%2FDocuments%2FXB-90-704.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Industrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EncBrit-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-EncBrit_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaxwell1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell">Maxwell, James Clerk</a> (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Faraday, Michael"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Faraday,_Michael">"Faraday, Michael" </a></span>. In <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 10 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 173.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Faraday%2C+Michael&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=173&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Maxwell&rft.aufirst=James+Clerk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Industrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-IEEUK-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-IEEUK_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theiet.org/about/libarc/archives/biographies/faraday.cfm">"Archives Biographies: Michael Faraday", The Institution of Engineering and Technology.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110929004417/http://www.theiet.org/about/libarc/archives/biographies/faraday.cfm">Archived</a> 29 September 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The Savoy Theatre", <i><a href="/wiki/The_Times" title="The Times">The Times</a></i>, 3 October 1881</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TRE-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-TRE_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gsarchive.net/carte/savoy/electric.html">Description of lightbulb experiment</a> in <i>The Times</i>, 29 December 1881</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110510005841/http://home.frognet.net/~ejcov/jwswan.html">"Sir Joseph Wilson Swan"</a>. home.frognet.net. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://home.frognet.net/~ejcov/jwswan.html">the original</a> on 2011-05-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-10-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sir+Joseph+Wilson+Swan&rft.pub=home.frognet.net&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhome.frognet.net%2F~ejcov%2Fjwswan.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Industrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rsc.org/Chemsoc/Activities/ChemicalLandmarks/UK/JosephSwan.asp">"Sir Joseph Swan, The Literary & Philosophical Society of Newcastle"</a>. rsc.org. 2009-02-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-10-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sir+Joseph+Swan%2C+The+Literary+%26+Philosophical+Society+of+Newcastle&rft.pub=rsc.org&rft.date=2009-02-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rsc.org%2FChemsoc%2FActivities%2FChemicalLandmarks%2FUK%2FJosephSwan.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Industrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101201194910/http://www.engineering-timelines.com/how/electricity/electricity_07.asp">"History of public supply in the UK"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.engineering-timelines.com/how/electricity/electricity_07.asp">the original</a> on 2010-12-01.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History+of+public+supply+in+the+UK&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.engineering-timelines.com%2Fhow%2Felectricity%2Felectricity_07.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Industrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHunterBryant1991191-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHunterBryant1991191_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHunterBryant1991">Hunter & Bryant 1991</a>, p. 191.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ford1922-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ford1922_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ford1922_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ford1922_29-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ford1922_29-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFordCrowther,_Samuel1922" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Ford" title="Henry Ford">Ford, Henry</a>; Crowther, Samuel (1922). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=22786&pageno=45"><i>My Life and Work: An Autobiography of Henry Ford</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=My+Life+and+Work%3A+An+Autobiography+of+Henry+Ford&rft.date=1922&rft.aulast=Ford&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft.au=Crowther%2C+Samuel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Fcatalog%2Fworld%2Freadfile%3Ffk_files%3D22786%26pageno%3D45&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Industrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConstableSomerville,_Bob2003" class="citation book cs1">Constable, George; Somerville, Bob (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.greatachievements.org/?id=2988"><i>A Century of Innovation: Twenty Engineering Achievements That Transformed Our Lives</i></a>. Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-309-08908-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-309-08908-5"><bdi>0-309-08908-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Century+of+Innovation%3A+Twenty+Engineering+Achievements+That+Transformed+Our+Lives&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.pub=Joseph+Henry+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-309-08908-5&rft.aulast=Constable&rft.aufirst=George&rft.au=Somerville%2C+Bob&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.greatachievements.org%2F%3Fid%3D2988&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Industrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span> (Viewable on line)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">*<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNye1990" class="citation book cs1">Nye, David E. (1990). <i>Electrifying America: Social Meanings of a New Technology</i>. Cambridge, MA; London: The MIT Press. pp. 14, 15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Electrifying+America%3A+Social+Meanings+of+a+New+Technology&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA%3B+London&rft.pages=14%2C+15&rft.pub=The+MIT+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Nye&rft.aufirst=David+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Industrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McNeil1990-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McNeil1990_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McNeil1990_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcNeil1990" class="citation book cs1">McNeil, Ian (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780415147927"><i>An Encyclopedia of the History of Technology</i></a>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-14792-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-14792-1"><bdi>0-415-14792-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Encyclopedia+of+the+History+of+Technology&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-415-14792-1&rft.aulast=McNeil&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780415147927&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Industrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Roe1916pp9-10-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Roe1916pp9-10_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoe1916">Roe 1916</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/englishandameri01roegoog/page/n39">pp. 9–10.</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hounshell1984-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hounshell1984_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hounshell1984_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHounshell1984" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/David_A._Hounshell" title="David A. Hounshell">Hounshell, David A.</a> (1984), <i>From the American System to Mass Production, 1800–1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States</i>, Baltimore, Maryland: <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University_Press" title="Johns Hopkins University Press">Johns Hopkins University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-2975-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-2975-8"><bdi>978-0-8018-2975-8</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/83016269">83016269</a>, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1104810110">1104810110</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+the+American+System+to+Mass+Production%2C+1800%E2%80%931932%3A+The+Development+of+Manufacturing+Technology+in+the+United+States&rft.place=Baltimore%2C+Maryland&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1104810110&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F83016269&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-2975-8&rft.aulast=Hounshell&rft.aufirst=David+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Industrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFordCrowther,_Samuel1930" class="citation book cs1">Ford, Henry; Crowther, Samuel (1930). <i>Edison as I Know Him</i>. New York: Cosmopolitan Book Company. p. 30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Edison+as+I+Know+Him&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=30&rft.pub=Cosmopolitan+Book+Company&rft.date=1930&rft.aulast=Ford&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft.au=Crowther%2C+Samuel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Industrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carruthers, George. Paper in the Making. Toronto: The Garden City Press Co-Operative, 1947.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Matthew, H.C.G. and Brian Harrison. "Koops. Matthias." <i>Oxford Dictionary of National Biography: from the earliest times to the year 2000</i>, Vol. 32. London: Oxford University Press, 2004: 80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burger, Peter. Charles Fenerty and his Paper Invention. Toronto: Peter Burger, 2007. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9783318-1-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9783318-1-8">978-0-9783318-1-8</a>. pp. 30–32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burger, Peter. Charles Fenerty and his Paper Invention. Toronto: Peter Burger, 2007. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9783318-1-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9783318-1-8">978-0-9783318-1-8</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-russell-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-russell_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell2003" class="citation book cs1">Russell, Loris S. (2003). <i>A Heritage of Light: Lamps and Lighting in the Early Canadian Home</i>. 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Accessed December 2010, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130219081333/http://www.connected-earth.com/journeys/Firstgenerationtechnologies/Thetelegraph/Thetelegraphicagedawns/index.htm">archived</a> 10 February 2013</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wilson, Arthur (1994). The Living Rock: The Story of Metals Since Earliest Times and Their Impact on Civilization. p. 203. Woodhead Publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85573-301-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85573-301-5">978-1-85573-301-5</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kennedy197110-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-kennedy197110_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy,_P._M.1971" class="citation journal cs1">Kennedy, P. M. (October 1971). "Imperial Cable Communications and Strategy, 1870–1914". <i>The English Historical Review</i>. <b>86</b> (341): <span class="nowrap">728–</span>752. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fehr%2Flxxxvi.cccxli.728">10.1093/ehr/lxxxvi.cccxli.728</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/563928">563928</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+English+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Imperial+Cable+Communications+and+Strategy%2C+1870%E2%80%931914&rft.volume=86&rft.issue=341&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E728-%3C%2Fspan%3E752&rft.date=1971-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fehr%2Flxxxvi.cccxli.728&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F563928%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Kennedy%2C+P.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Industrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard John, <i>Network Nation: Inventing American Telecommunications</i> (2010)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoy2008" class="citation news cs1">Roy, Amit (2008-12-08). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090123050302/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1081208/jsp/nation/story_10221833.jsp">"Cambridge 'pioneer' honour for Bose"</a>. <i>The Telegraph</i>. <a href="/wiki/Kolkota" class="mw-redirect" title="Kolkota">Kolkota</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.telegraphindia.com/1081208/jsp/nation/story_10221833.jsp">the original</a> on 2009-01-23<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-06-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Telegraph&rft.atitle=Cambridge+%27pioneer%27+honour+for+Bose&rft.date=2008-12-08&rft.aulast=Roy&rft.aufirst=Amit&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraphindia.com%2F1081208%2Fjsp%2Fnation%2Fstory_10221833.jsp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Industrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WKuG-VIwID8C&pg=PA161"><i>Icons of invention: the makers of the modern world from Gutenberg to Gates</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. 2009. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780313347436" title="Special:BookSources/9780313347436"><bdi>9780313347436</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-08-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Icons+of+invention%3A+the+makers+of+the+modern+world+from+Gutenberg+to+Gates&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780313347436&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWKuG-VIwID8C%26pg%3DPA161&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Industrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=exics12jmtwC&pg=PA313"><i>Ingenious Ireland: A County-by-County Exploration of the Mysteries and Marvels of the Ingenious Irish</i></a>. Simon and Schuster. December 2003. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780684020945" title="Special:BookSources/9780684020945"><bdi>9780684020945</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-08-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ingenious+Ireland%3A+A+County-by-County+Exploration+of+the+Mysteries+and+Marvels+of+the+Ingenious+Irish&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2003-12&rft.isbn=9780684020945&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dexics12jmtwC%26pg%3DPA313&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Industrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">BBC Wales, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070120163444/http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/historyhunters/locations/pages/3_1_flatholm.shtml">Marconi's Waves</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">"The Clifden Station of the Marconi Wireless Telegraph System". <i>Scientific American</i>. 1907-11-23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=The+Clifden+Station+of+the+Marconi+Wireless+Telegraph+System&rft.date=1907-11-23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Industrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Compare: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Chandler, Alfred D. Jr. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lAI3AwAAQBAJ"><i>The Visible Hand: The Management Revolution in American Business</i></a>. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. p. 195. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674940529" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674940529"><bdi>978-0674940529</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-06-29</span></span>. <q>[...] the telegraph companies used the railroad for their rights-of-way, and the railroad used the services of the telegraph to coordinate the flow of trains and traffic. In fact, many of the first telegraph companies were subsidiaries of railroads, formed to carry out this essential operating service.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Visible+Hand%3A+The+Management+Revolution+in+American+Business&rft.pages=195&rft.pub=Belknap+Press+of+Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0674940529&rft.aulast=Chandler&rft.aufirst=Alfred+D.+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlAI3AwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Industrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Compare: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChandler1993" class="citation book cs1">Chandler, Alfred Jr. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lAI3AwAAQBAJ"><i>The Visible Hand</i></a>. Harvard University Press. p. 115. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0674417682" title="Special:BookSources/0674417682"><bdi>0674417682</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-06-29</span></span>. <q>[...] American railroad accounting overstated operating costs and understated capital consumption.[...] The basic innovations in financial and capital accounting appeared in the 1850s in response to specific needs and were perfected in the years after the Civil War. Innovations in a third type of accounting – cost accounting – came more slowly.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Visible+Hand&rft.pages=115&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0674417682&rft.aulast=Chandler&rft.aufirst=Alfred+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlAI3AwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Industrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/gdp-maddison-project-database?tab=chart&time=1820..1913&facet=entity&uniformYAxis=0&country=DEU~GBR~FRA~AUT">"Gross domestic product (GDP)"</a>. <i>Our World in Data</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-08-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Our+World+in+Data&rft.atitle=Gross+domestic+product+%28GDP%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fourworldindata.org%2Fgrapher%2Fgdp-maddison-project-database%3Ftab%3Dchart%26time%3D1820..1913%26facet%3Dentity%26uniformYAxis%3D0%26country%3DDEU~GBR~FRA~AUT&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Industrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAyresWarr2005" class="citation journal cs1">Ayres, Robert U.; Warr, Benjamin S. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101011153550/http://www.iea.org/work/2004/eewp/ayres-paper1.pdf">"Accounting for Growth: The Role of Physical Work"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Structural Change and Economic Dynamics</i>. <b>16</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">181–</span>209. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.strueco.2003.10.003">10.1016/j.strueco.2003.10.003</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iea.org/work/2004/eewp/Ayres-paper1.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2010-10-11<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-01-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Structural+Change+and+Economic+Dynamics&rft.atitle=Accounting+for+Growth%3A+The+Role+of+Physical+Work&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E181-%3C%2Fspan%3E209&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.strueco.2003.10.003&rft.aulast=Ayres&rft.aufirst=Robert+U.&rft.au=Warr%2C+Benjamin+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iea.org%2Fwork%2F2004%2Feewp%2FAyres-paper1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Industrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWells1890" class="citation book cs1">Wells, David A. (1890). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/recenteconomicc01wellgoog"><i>Recent Economic Changes and Their Effect on Production and Distribution of Wealth and Well-Being of Society</i></a>. New York: D. Appleton and Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-543-72474-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-543-72474-3"><bdi>0-543-72474-3</bdi></a>. <q>RECENT ECONOMIC CHANGES AND THEIR EFFECT ON DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH AND WELL BEING OF SOCIETY WELLS.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Recent+Economic+Changes+and+Their+Effect+on+Production+and+Distribution+of+Wealth+and+Well-Being+of+Society&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=D.+Appleton+and+Co.&rft.date=1890&rft.isbn=0-543-72474-3&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=David+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frecenteconomicc01wellgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Industrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_Grigg1992" class="citation journal cs1">David Grigg (1992). "Agriculture in the World Economy: an Historical Geography of Decline". <i>Geography</i>. <b>77</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">210–</span>222. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40572192">40572192</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geography&rft.atitle=Agriculture+in+the+World+Economy%3A+an+Historical+Geography+of+Decline&rft.volume=77&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E210-%3C%2Fspan%3E222&rft.date=1992&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40572192%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=David+Grigg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Industrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hull (1996)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul Kennedy, <i>The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers</i> (1987) p. 149, based on Paul Bairoch, "International Industrialization Levels from 1750 to 1980," <i>Journal of European Economic History</i> (1982) v. 11</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConstableSomerville,_Bob2003" class="citation book cs1">Constable, George; Somerville, Bob (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.greatachievements.org/id=2988"><i>A Century of Innovation: Twenty Engineering Achievements That Transformed Our Lives</i></a>. Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-309-08908-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-309-08908-5"><bdi>0-309-08908-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Century+of+Innovation%3A+Twenty+Engineering+Achievements+That+Transformed+Our+Lives&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.pub=Joseph+Henry+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-309-08908-5&rft.aulast=Constable&rft.aufirst=George&rft.au=Somerville%2C+Bob&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.greatachievements.org%2Fid%3D2988&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Industrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged July 2018">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup>This link is to entire on line book.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Data from Paul Bairoch, "International Industrialization Levels from 1750 to 1980," Journal of European Economic History (1982) v. 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVatterWalkerAlperovitz1995" class="citation journal cs1">Vatter, Harold G.; Walker, John F.; Alperovitz, Gar (June 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00213624.1995.11505696">"The onset and persistence of secular stagnation in the U.S. economy: 1910–1990"</a>. <i>Journal of Economic Issues</i>. <b>29</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">591–</span>600. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00213624.1995.11505696">10.1080/00213624.1995.11505696</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4226974">4226974</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Economic+Issues&rft.atitle=The+onset+and+persistence+of+secular+stagnation+in+the+U.S.+economy%3A+1910%E2%80%931990&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E591-%3C%2Fspan%3E600&rft.date=1995-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00213624.1995.11505696&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4226974%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Vatter&rft.aufirst=Harold+G.&rft.au=Walker%2C+John+F.&rft.au=Alperovitz%2C+Gar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1080%2F00213624.1995.11505696&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Industrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephen E. Ambrose, <i>Nothing Like It in the World; The men who built the Transcontinental Railroad 1863–1869</i> (2000)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Edward_C._Kirkland_1961-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Edward_C._Kirkland_1961_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Edward C. Kirkland, <i>Industry Comes of Age, Business, Labor, and Public Policy 1860–1897</i> (1961)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Daniel Hovey Calhoun, <i>The American Civil Engineer: Origins and Conflicts</i> (1960)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walter Licht, <i>Working for the Railroad: The Organization of Work in the Nineteenth Century</i> (1983)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Broadberry and O'Rourke (2010)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chandler (1990) p 474-5</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carsten Burhop, "Pharmaceutical Research in Wilhelmine Germany: the Case of E. Merck," <i>Business History Review</i>. Volume: 83. Issue: 3. 2009. pp 475+. in <a href="/wiki/ProQuest" title="ProQuest">ProQuest</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Patrick O’Brien, <i>Railways and the Economic Development of Western Europe, 1830–1914</i> (1983)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGimpel1977" class="citation book cs1">Gimpel, Jean (1977). <i>The medieval machine: the industrial revolution of the Middle Ages</i>. New York: Penguin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-004514-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-004514-7"><bdi>978-0-14-004514-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+medieval+machine%3A+the+industrial+revolution+of+the+Middle+Ages&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-14-004514-7&rft.aulast=Gimpel&rft.aufirst=Jean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Industrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTahan2006" class="citation arxiv cs1">Tahan, Charles (2006). "The Nanotechnology Revolution". <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0612229">physics/0612229</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=preprint&rft.jtitle=arXiv&rft.atitle=The+Nanotechnology+Revolution&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fphysics%2F0612229&rft.aulast=Tahan&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Industrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Industrial_Revolution&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Atkeson, Andrew and Patrick J. Kehoe. "Modeling the Transition to a New Economy: Lessons from Two Technological Revolutions," <i>American Economic Review,</i> March 2007, Vol. 97 Issue 1, pp 64–88 in <a href="/wiki/EBSCO_Information_Services" title="EBSCO Information Services">EBSCO</a></li> <li>Appleby, Joyce Oldham. <i>The Relentless Revolution: A History of Capitalism</i> (2010) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0393068943">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Beaudreau, Bernard C. <i>The Economic Consequences of Mr. Keynes: How the Second Industrial Revolution Passed Great Britain</i> (2006)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBernal1970" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/J._D._Bernal" title="J. D. Bernal">Bernal, J. D.</a> (1970) [1953]. <i>Science and Industry in the Nineteenth Century</i>. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-253-20128-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-253-20128-4"><bdi>0-253-20128-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Industry+in+the+Nineteenth+Century&rft.place=Bloomington&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=0-253-20128-4&rft.aulast=Bernal&rft.aufirst=J.+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Industrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Broadberry, Stephen, and Kevin H. O'Rourke. <i>The Cambridge Economic History of Modern Europe</i> (2 vol. 2010), covers 1700 to present</li> <li>Chandler, Jr., Alfred D. <i>Scale and Scope: The Dynamics of Industrial Capitalism</i> (1990).</li> <li>Chant, Colin, ed. <i>Science, Technology and Everyday Life, 1870–1950</i> (1989) emphasis on Britain</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHobsbawm1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eric_Hobsbawm" title="Eric Hobsbawm">Hobsbawm, E. J.</a> (1999). <i>Industry and Empire: From 1750 to the Present Day</i>. rev. and updated with Chris Wrigley (2nd ed.). New York: New Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56584-561-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-56584-561-7"><bdi>1-56584-561-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Industry+and+Empire%3A+From+1750+to+the+Present+Day&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=New+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=1-56584-561-7&rft.aulast=Hobsbawm&rft.aufirst=E.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Industrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Hull, James O. "From Rostow to Chandler to You: How revolutionary was the second industrial revolution?" <i>Journal of European Economic History</i>, Spring 1996, Vol. 25 Issue 1, pp. 191–208</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunterBryant1991" class="citation book cs1">Hunter, Louis C.; Bryant, Lynwood (1991). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofindustr00hunt"><i>A History of Industrial Power in the United States, 1730–1930, Vol. 3: The Transmission of Power</i></a></span>. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0262081986" title="Special:BookSources/978-0262081986"><bdi>978-0262081986</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Industrial+Power+in+the+United+States%2C+1730%E2%80%931930%2C+Vol.+3%3A+The+Transmission+of+Power&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0262081986&rft.aulast=Hunter&rft.aufirst=Louis+C.&rft.au=Bryant%2C+Lynwood&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofindustr00hunt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Industrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Kornblith, Gary. <i>The Industrial Revolution in America</i> (1997)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKranzbergCarroll_W._Pursell_Jr1967" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Melvin_Kranzberg" title="Melvin Kranzberg">Kranzberg, Melvin</a>; Carroll W. Pursell Jr (1967). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/technologyinwest00kran"><i>Technology in Western Civilization</i></a></span> (2 vols. ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Technology+in+Western+Civilization&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=2+vols.&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=Kranzberg&rft.aufirst=Melvin&rft.au=Carroll+W.+Pursell+Jr&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftechnologyinwest00kran&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Industrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLandes2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Landes" title="David Landes">Landes, David</a> (2003). <i>The Unbound Prometheus: Technical Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present</i> (2nd ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-53402-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-53402-X"><bdi>0-521-53402-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Unbound+Prometheus%3A+Technical+Change+and+Industrial+Development+in+Western+Europe+from+1750+to+the+Present&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-521-53402-X&rft.aulast=Landes&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Industrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Licht, Walter. <i>Industrializing America: The Nineteenth Century</i> (1995)</li> <li>Mokyr, Joel <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://faculty.wcas.northwestern.edu/~jmokyr/castronovo.pdf"><i>The Second Industrial Revolution, 1870–1914</i></a> (1998)</li> <li>Mokyr, Joel. <i>The Enlightened Economy: An Economic History of Britain 1700–1850</i> (2010)</li> <li>Rider, Christine, ed. <i>Encyclopedia of the Age of the Industrial Revolution, 1700–1920</i> (2 vol. 2007)</li> <li>Roberts, Wayne. "Toronto Metal Workers and the Second Industrial Revolution, 1889–1914," <i>Labour / Le Travail</i>, Autumn 1980, Vol. 6, pp 49–72</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoe1916" class="citation book cs1">Roe, Joseph Wickham (1916). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/englishandameri01roegoog"><i>English and American Tool Builders</i></a>. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/16011753">16011753</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=English+and+American+Tool+Builders&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+Connecticut&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1916&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F16011753&rft.aulast=Roe&rft.aufirst=Joseph+Wickham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fenglishandameri01roegoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Industrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span>. Reprinted by McGraw-Hill, New York and London, 1926 (<a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/item/27024075">27-24075</a>); and by Lindsay Publications, Inc., Bradley, Illinois, (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0917914737" title="Special:BookSources/978-0917914737">978-0917914737</a>).</li> <li>Smil, Vaclav. <i>Creating the Twentieth Century: Technical Innovations of 1867–1914 and Their Lasting Impact</i></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite2017" class="citation book cs1">White, Richard C. (2017). <a href="/wiki/The_Republic_for_Which_It_Stands" title="The Republic for Which It Stands"><i>The Republic for Which It Stands</i></a>. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Republic+for+Which+It+Stands&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Richard+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Industrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Industrial_Revolution&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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.navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Industrial_and_technological_revolution740" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Industrial_Revolution" title="Template:Industrial Revolution"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Industrial_Revolution" title="Template talk:Industrial Revolution"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Industrial_Revolution" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Industrial Revolution"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Industrial_and_technological_revolution740" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial</a> and <a href="/wiki/Technological_revolution" title="Technological revolution">technological</a> revolution</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Proto-industrialization" title="Proto-industrialization">Proto</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">First</a></b></li> <li><b><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Second</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Digital_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Revolution">Third</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Industrial_Revolution" title="Fourth Industrial Revolution">Fourth</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Technological_revolution#Potential_future_technological_revolutions" title="Technological revolution">Potential future</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Themes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">Coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coal_mining" title="Coal mining">Coal mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coke_(fuel)" title="Coke (fuel)">Coke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton">Cotton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industry_(manufacturing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Industry (manufacturing)">Industry/Manufacturing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invention" title="Invention">Invention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">Iron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine" title="Machine">Machinery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">Steam power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">Steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textile" title="Textile">Textiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydropower" title="Hydropower">Water power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workforce" title="Workforce">Workforce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economies_of_agglomeration" title="Economies of agglomeration">Economies of agglomeration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economies_of_density" title="Economies of density">Economies of density</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economies_of_scale" title="Economies of scale">Economies of scale</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg/100px-Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="74" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg/150px-Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg/200px-Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="760" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People/<br />groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Arkwright" title="Richard Arkwright">Richard Arkwright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Boulsover" title="Thomas Boulsover">Thomas Boulsover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Boulton" title="Matthew Boulton">Matthew Boulton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Brindley" title="James Brindley">James Brindley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isambard_Kingdom_Brunel" title="Isambard Kingdom Brunel">Isambard Kingdom Brunel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Cartwright" title="Edmund Cartwright">Edmund Cartwright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Cort_(Template)" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Cort (Template)">Henry Cort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cranege_brothers" title="Cranege brothers">Thomas and George Cranege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Crompton" title="Samuel Crompton">Samuel Crompton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Darby_I" title="Abraham Darby I">Abraham Darby I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Darby_II" title="Abraham Darby II">Abraham Darby II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Darby_III" title="Abraham Darby III">Abraham Darby III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Egerton,_3rd_Duke_of_Bridgewater" title="Francis Egerton, 3rd Duke of Bridgewater">Francis Egerton, 3rd Duke of Bridgewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Fairbairn" title="William Fairbairn">William Fairbairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hargreaves" title="James Hargreaves">James Hargreaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawks_family" title="Hawks family">Hawks family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Highs" title="Thomas Highs">Thomas Highs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eaton_Hodgkinson" title="Eaton Hodgkinson">Eaton Hodgkinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Huntsman" title="Benjamin Huntsman">Benjamin Huntsman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Marie_Jacquard" title="Joseph Marie Jacquard">Joseph Marie Jacquard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Kay_(flying_shuttle)" title="John Kay (flying shuttle)">John Kay (flying shuttle)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Kay_(spinning_frame)" title="John Kay (spinning frame)">John Kay (spinning frame)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Cabot_Lowell_(businessman)" class="mw-redirect" title="Francis Cabot Lowell (businessman)">Francis Cabot Lowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Lunar Society">Lunar Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Newcomen" title="Thomas Newcomen">Thomas Newcomen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Robert Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Paul" title="Lewis Paul">Lewis Paul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Radcliffe" title="William Radcliffe">William Radcliffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Roberts_(engineer)" title="Richard Roberts (engineer)">Richard Roberts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Savery" title="Thomas Savery">Thomas Savery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Slater" title="Samuel Slater">Samuel Slater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Smeaton" title="John Smeaton">John Smeaton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Stephenson" title="George Stephenson">George Stephenson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Stephenson" title="Robert Stephenson">Robert Stephenson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Telford" title="Thomas Telford">Thomas Telford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Trevithick" title="Richard Trevithick">Richard Trevithick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Watt" title="James Watt">James Watt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wilkinson_(industrialist)" title="John Wilkinson (industrialist)">John Wilkinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wyatt_(inventor)" title="John Wyatt (inventor)">John Wyatt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abbeydale_Industrial_Hamlet" title="Abbeydale Industrial Hamlet">Abbeydale Industrial Hamlet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allentown,_Pennsylvania" title="Allentown, Pennsylvania">Allentown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bethlehem,_Pennsylvania" title="Bethlehem, Pennsylvania">Bethlehem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bridgewater_Canal" title="Bridgewater Canal">Bridgewater Canal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broseley" title="Broseley">Broseley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coalbrookdale" title="Coalbrookdale">Coalbrookdale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cromford" title="Cromford">Cromford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derwent_Valley_Mills" title="Derwent Valley Mills">Derwent Valley Mills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ironbridge" title="Ironbridge">Ironbridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Lanark" title="New Lanark">New Lanark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portsmouth_Block_Mills" title="Portsmouth Block Mills">Portsmouth Block Mills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarry_Bank_Mill" title="Quarry Bank Mill">Quarry Bank Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soho_Foundry" title="Soho Foundry">Soho Foundry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stockton_and_Darlington_Railway" title="Stockton and Darlington Railway">Stockton and Darlington Railway</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Invention/<br />technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">Blast furnace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canal" title="Canal">Canal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cotton_mill" title="Cotton mill">Cotton mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucible_steel" title="Crucible steel">Crucible steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Factory" title="Factory">Factory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flying_shuttle" title="Flying shuttle">Flying shuttle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newcomen_steam_engine" class="mw-redirect" title="Newcomen steam engine">Newcomen steam engine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_loom" title="Power loom">Power loom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport" title="Rail transport">Railway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverberatory_furnace" title="Reverberatory furnace">Reverberatory furnace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheffield_plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Sheffield plate">Sheffield plate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinning_frame" title="Spinning frame">Spinning frame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinning_jenny" title="Spinning jenny">Spinning jenny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">Steam engine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephenson%27s_Rocket" title="Stephenson's Rocket">Stephenson's Rocket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_frame" title="Water frame">Water frame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watt_steam_engine" title="Watt steam engine">Watt steam engine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social impact</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">Bourgeoisie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_labour" title="Child labour">Child labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_cooperative_movement" title="History of the cooperative movement">History of the cooperative Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cottage_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Cottage industry">Cottage industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Factory_Acts" title="Factory Acts">Factory Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_unrest" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial unrest">Industrial unrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luddite" title="Luddite">Luddite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proletariat" title="Proletariat">Proletariat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rochdale_Pioneers" class="mw-redirect" title="Rochdale Pioneers">Rochdale Pioneers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">Urbanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_warfare" title="Industrial warfare">Industrial warfare</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reference</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_British_canal_system" title="History of the British canal system">History of the British canal system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_archaeology" title="Industrial archaeology">Industrial archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_Kingdom-related_topics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United Kingdom-related topics">List of United Kingdom-related topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_clothing_and_textiles_technology" title="Timeline of clothing and textiles technology">Timeline of clothing and textiles technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_historic_inventions" title="Timeline of historic inventions">Timeline of invention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_materials_technology" title="Timeline of materials technology">Timeline of materials technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_steam_power" title="Timeline of steam power">Timeline of steam power</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Industrial_Revolution" title="Category:Industrial Revolution">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Industrial_revolution" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Industrial revolution"><b>Commons</b></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_technology25" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_technology" title="Template:History of technology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_technology" title="Template talk:History of technology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_technology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of technology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_technology25" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b>History of technology cultures</b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_prehistoric_technology" title="Outline of prehistoric technology">Prehistoric technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_technology" title="Ancient Egyptian technology">Ancient Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Mayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_technology" title="Inca technology">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_technology" title="Ancient Greek technology">Ancient Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman technology">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_China" title="History of science and technology in China">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_inventions" title="List of Byzantine inventions">Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_technology" title="Medieval technology">Medieval Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_technology" title="Renaissance technology">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Science and technology in the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">Modern</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b>History of technology domains</b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biotechnology" title="History of biotechnology">History of biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_communication" title="History of communication">History of communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing" title="History of computing">History of computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_hardware" title="History of computing hardware">History of computing hardware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_engineering#History" title="Electrical engineering">History of electrical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_materials_science" title="History of materials science">History of materials science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_measurement" title="History of measurement">History of measurement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">History of medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_technology#History_and_scientific_background" title="Nuclear technology">History of nuclear technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_transport" title="History of transport">History of transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Economy_of_the_United_Kingdom503" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Economy_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Template:Economy of the United Kingdom"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Economy_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Template talk:Economy of the United Kingdom"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Economy_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Economy of the United Kingdom"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Economy_of_the_United_Kingdom503" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Economy of the United Kingdom">Economy of the United Kingdom</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center">Companies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_co-operative_movement" title="British co-operative movement">Co-operatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Employee-owned_companies_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Category:Employee-owned companies of the United Kingdom">Employee-owned companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FTSE_100_Index" title="FTSE 100 Index">FTSE 100 Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FTSE_250_Index" title="FTSE 250 Index">FTSE 250 Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FTSE_Fledgling_Index" title="FTSE Fledgling Index">FTSE Fledgling Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FTSE_SmallCap_Index" title="FTSE SmallCap Index">FTSE SmallCap Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Government-owned_companies_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Category:Government-owned companies of the United Kingdom">Government-owned companies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center">Currency,<br />governance,<br />regulation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bank_of_England" title="Bank of England">Bank of England</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Governor_of_the_Bank_of_England" title="Governor of the Bank of England">Governor of the Bank of England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monetary_Policy_Committee_(United_Kingdom)" title="Monetary Policy Committee (United Kingdom)">Monetary Policy Committee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Budget_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Budget of the United Kingdom">Budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_company_law" title="United Kingdom company law">Company law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_and_Markets_Authority" title="Competition and Markets Authority">Competition and Markets Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Department_for_Business_and_Trade" title="Department for Business and Trade">Department for Business and Trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_Conduct_Authority" title="Financial Conduct Authority">Financial Conduct Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilt-edged_securities" title="Gilt-edged securities">Gilts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HM_Revenue_%26_Customs" class="mw-redirect" title="HM Revenue & Customs">HM Revenue & Customs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HM_Treasury" title="HM Treasury">HM Treasury</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chancellor_of_the_Exchequer" title="Chancellor of the Exchequer">Chancellor of the Exchequer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debt_Management_Office_(United_Kingdom)" title="Debt Management Office (United Kingdom)">Debt Management Office</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Office_for_Budget_Responsibility" title="Office for Budget Responsibility">Office for Budget Responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pound_sterling" title="Pound sterling">Pound sterling</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Banknotes_of_the_pound_sterling" title="Banknotes of the pound sterling">Banknotes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coins_of_the_pound_sterling" title="Coins of the pound sterling">Coinage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Taxation in the United Kingdom">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UK_Statistics_Authority" title="UK Statistics Authority">UK Statistics Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UK_Trade_%26_Investment" title="UK Trade & Investment">UK Trade & Investment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Economic history of the United Kingdom">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;text-align:left;background-color:#eee">Chronological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Navigation_Acts" title="Navigation Acts">1659–1849 Navigation Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Agricultural_Revolution" title="British Agricultural Revolution">Agricultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_Revolution" title="Financial Revolution">Financial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1796%E2%80%9397" class="mw-redirect" title="Panic of 1796–97">Panic of 1796–97</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corn_Laws" title="Corn Laws">1815–46 Corn Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Imperialism" title="New Imperialism">New Imperialism 1830s–1945</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Second Industrial Revolution 1860s–1914</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_Depression" title="Long Depression">1873–79 Long Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1926_United_Kingdom_general_strike" title="1926 United Kingdom general strike">1926 general strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Great Depression in the United Kingdom">1929–39 Great Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">1948–52 Marshall Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-Day_Week" title="Three-Day Week">1974 Three-Day Week</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter_of_Discontent" title="Winter of Discontent">1979 Winter of Discontent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Bang_(financial_markets)" title="Big Bang (financial markets)">1986 Big Bang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Wednesday" title="Black Wednesday">1992 Black Wednesday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Europe#United_Kingdom" title="Great Recession in Europe">Late-2000s recession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_United_Kingdom_bank_rescue_package" title="2008 United Kingdom bank rescue package">2008 bank rescue package</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009_United_Kingdom_bank_rescue_package" title="2009 United Kingdom bank rescue package">2009 bank rescue package</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brexit" title="Brexit">2020 Withdrawal from the European Union</a> (<a href="/wiki/Growth_deal" title="Growth deal">Growth deal</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_United_Kingdom%27s_financial_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic" class="mw-redirect" title="Government of the United Kingdom's financial response to the COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom">Impact</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021%E2%80%93present_United_Kingdom_cost-of-living_crisis" title="2021–present United Kingdom cost-of-living crisis">Cost-of-living crisis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;text-align:left;background-color:#eee">Recurrent</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_geography_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Economic geography of the United Kingdom">Economic geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">Free trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_standard" title="Gold standard">Gold standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_recessions_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of recessions in the United Kingdom">Recessions and recoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_champions" title="National champions">National champions policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalism" title="Economic liberalism">Economic liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privatization" title="Privatization">Privatisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalization#United_Kingdom" title="Nationalization">Nationalisation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center">Nations,<br />regions,<br />cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;text-align:left;background-color:#eee"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_England" title="Economy of England">England</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Gateway_(North_West_England)" title="Atlantic Gateway (North West England)">Atlantic Gateway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Birmingham" title="Economy of Birmingham">Birmingham</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_City_Plan" title="Big City Plan">Big City Plan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Bristol" title="Economy of Bristol">Bristol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Cornwall" title="Economy of Cornwall">Cornwall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_London_Borough_of_Croydon" title="Economy of the London Borough of Croydon">Croydon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Devon" title="Economy of Devon">Devon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Dorset" title="Economy of Dorset">Dorset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expansion_plans_for_Milton_Keynes" title="Expansion plans for Milton Keynes">Expansion plans for Milton Keynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_England" title="Fishing industry in England">Fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Leeds" title="Economy of Leeds">Leeds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ceremonial_counties_in_England_by_GDP" title="List of ceremonial counties in England by GDP">List of counties by GDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ceremonial_counties_in_England_by_gross_value_added" class="mw-redirect" title="List of ceremonial counties in England by gross value added">List of counties by GVA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Liverpool" title="Economy of Liverpool">Liverpool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_London" title="Economy of London">London</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_London_Tech_City" title="East London Tech City">East London Tech City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/London_Plan" title="London Plan">London Plan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M4_corridor" title="M4 corridor">M4 corridor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M11_Corridor" class="mw-redirect" title="M11 Corridor">M11 Corridor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Manchester" title="Economy of Manchester">Manchester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Reading,_Berkshire" title="Economy of Reading, Berkshire">Reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Sheffield" title="Economy of Sheffield">Sheffield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silicon_Fen" title="Silicon Fen">Silicon Fen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Somerset" title="Economy of Somerset">Somerset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thames_Gateway" title="Thames Gateway">Thames Gateway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_England" title="Tourism in England">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_England" title="Transport in England">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Wiltshire" title="Economy of Wiltshire">Wiltshire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;text-align:left;background-color:#eee"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Northern_Ireland" title="Economy of Northern Ireland">Northern<br />Ireland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Belfast" title="Economy of Belfast">Belfast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Ireland" title="Transport in Ireland">Transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;text-align:left;background-color:#eee"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Scotland" title="Economy of Scotland">Scotland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Aberdeen" title="Economy of Aberdeen">Aberdeen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Scotland" title="Agriculture in Scotland">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Edinburgh" title="Economy of Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution_in_Scotland" title="Industrial Revolution in Scotland">Industrialisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_Scotland" title="Fishing industry in Scotland">Fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Scotland" title="Economic history of Scotland">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Oil_and_gas_industry_in_Scotland" title="Category:Oil and gas industry in Scotland">Oil and gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Scotland" title="Renewable energy in Scotland">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silicon_Glen" title="Silicon Glen">Silicon Glen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Scotland" title="Tourism in Scotland">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Scotland" title="Transport in Scotland">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotch_whisky" title="Scotch whisky">Whisky</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;text-align:left;background-color:#eee"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Wales" title="Economy of Wales">Wales</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Wales" title="Agriculture in Wales">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Cardiff" title="Economy of Cardiff">Cardiff</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Cardiff_Bay" title="Cardiff Bay">Cardiff Bay</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_Wales" title="Fishing industry in Wales">Fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Wales" title="Economic history of Wales">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution_in_Wales" title="Industrial Revolution in Wales">Industrialisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Wales" title="Renewable energy in Wales">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Swansea" title="Economy of Swansea">Swansea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Wales" title="Tourism in Wales">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Wales" title="Transport in Wales">Transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center">People<br />and labour</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:British_billionaires" title="Category:British billionaires">Billionaires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:British_businesspeople" title="Category:British businesspeople">Businesspeople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Demographics of the United Kingdom">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Income in the United Kingdom">Income</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Poverty in the United Kingdom">Poverty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_labour_law" title="United Kingdom labour law">Labour law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_employment_equality_law" title="United Kingdom employment equality law">Equal opportunities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Minimum_Wage_Act_1998" title="National Minimum Wage Act 1998">Minimum wage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_Time_Directive_2003" title="Working Time Directive 2003">Working Time Directive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pensions_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Pensions in the United Kingdom">Pensions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_unions_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Trade unions in the United Kingdom">Trades unions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trades_Union_Congress" title="Trades Union Congress">Trades Union Congress</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unemployment_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Unemployment in the United Kingdom">Unemployment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center">Sectors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;text-align:left;background-color:#eee"><a href="/wiki/List_of_renewable_resources_produced_and_traded_by_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of renewable resources produced and traded by the United Kingdom">Resource and<br />production</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Energy in the United Kingdom">Energy</a>/<a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Renewable energy in the United Kingdom">Renewable energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiesel_in_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Biodiesel in the United Kingdom">Biodiesel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coal_mining_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Coal mining in the United Kingdom">Coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Geothermal power in the United Kingdom">Geothermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_fracturing_in_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydraulic fracturing in the United Kingdom">Fracking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydroelectricity_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Hydroelectricity in the United Kingdom">Hydroelectricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_the_United_Kingdom#Ocean_power" title="Renewable energy in the United Kingdom">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_oil" title="North Sea oil">North Sea oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Solar power in the United Kingdom">Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Wind power in the United Kingdom">Wind</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_cuisine" title="British cuisine">Food</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Agriculture in the United Kingdom">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cider#United_Kingdom" title="Cider">Cider</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine_from_the_United_Kingdom" title="Wine from the United Kingdom">Wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beer_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Beer in the United Kingdom">Beer</a></li></ul></li> <li>Fishing <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_England" title="Fishing industry in England">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_Scotland" title="Fishing industry in Scotland">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_Wales" title="Fishing industry in Wales">Welsh</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Materials <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Forestry in the United Kingdom">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Mining in the United Kingdom">Mining</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;text-align:left;background-color:#eee"><a href="/wiki/Financial_services_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Financial services in the United Kingdom">Financial<br />services</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_Exchange" title="Baltic Exchange">Baltic Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Banking in the United Kingdom">Banking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banks_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of banks in the United Kingdom">List of banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_building_societies#United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="List of building societies">List of UK building societies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canary_Wharf" title="Canary Wharf">Canary Wharf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_of_London" title="City of London">The City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euronext#Euronext.liffe" title="Euronext">Euronext.liffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Financial_Services_District" title="International Financial Services District">Glasgow International Financial Services District</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Insurance in the United Kingdom">Insurance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lloyd%27s_of_London" title="Lloyd's of London">Lloyd's of London</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LCH_(clearing_house)" title="LCH (clearing house)">LCH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libor" title="Libor">London Interbank Offered Rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/London_Metal_Exchange" title="London Metal Exchange">London Metal Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/London_Platinum_and_Palladium_Market" title="London Platinum and Palladium Market">London Platinum and Palladium Market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/London_Stock_Exchange" title="London Stock Exchange">London Stock Exchange</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_Investment_Market" title="Alternative Investment Market">Alternative Investment Market</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;text-align:left;background-color:#eee">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Education in the United Kingdom">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_students_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="International students in the United Kingdom">International students</a></li></ul></li> <li>Entertainment & <a href="/wiki/Media_of_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of the United Kingdom">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Cinema of the United Kingdom">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambling_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Gambling in the United Kingdom">Gambling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_newspapers_in_the_United_Kingdom_by_circulation" title="List of newspapers in the United Kingdom by circulation">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Radio in the United Kingdom">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Television in the United Kingdom">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Theatre of the United Kingdom">Theatre</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_in_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Health care in the United Kingdom">Healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_services_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Legal services in the United Kingdom">Legal services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Manufacturing in the United Kingdom">Manufacturing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerospace_industry_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Aerospace industry in the United Kingdom">Aerospace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Automotive industry in the United Kingdom">Automotive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_industry_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Pharmaceutical industry in the United Kingdom">Pharmaceuticals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exports_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of exports of the United Kingdom">Exports</a></li></ul></li> <li>Property <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Architecture of the United Kingdom">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_industry_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Construction industry of the United Kingdom">Construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affordability_of_housing_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Affordability of housing in the United Kingdom">Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_estate_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Real estate in the United Kingdom">Real estate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Science and technology in the United Kingdom">Science and technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Internet in the United Kingdom">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Telecommunications in the United Kingdom">Telecommunications</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_supermarket_chains_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of supermarket chains in the United Kingdom">Supermarkets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Tourism in the United Kingdom">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Transport in the United Kingdom">Transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_transport_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Air transport in the United Kingdom">Aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structure_of_the_rail_industry_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Structure of the rail industry in the United Kingdom">Rail</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inter-city_rail_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Inter-city rail in the United Kingdom">Inter-city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-speed_rail_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="High-speed rail in the United Kingdom">High-speed</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center">Trade and<br />business<br />organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Business_organisations_based_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Category:Business organisations based in the United Kingdom">Business organisations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Bankers%27_Association" title="British Bankers' Association">British Bankers' Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Chambers_of_Commerce" title="British Chambers of Commerce">British Chambers of Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_of_British_Industry" title="Confederation of British Industry">Confederation of British Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Co-operatives_UK" title="Co-operatives UK">Co-operatives UK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Small_Businesses" title="Federation of Small Businesses">Federation of Small Businesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Trade_associations_based_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Category:Trade associations based in the United Kingdom">Industry trade groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Directors" title="Institute of Directors">Institute of Directors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Make_UK" title="Make UK">Make UK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UK_Payments_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="UK Payments Administration">UK Payments Administration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Economy_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Category:Economy of the United Kingdom">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Economy_of_the_United_Kingdom" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Economy of the United Kingdom">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Economic_expansions_and_recessions_in_the_United_States_and_Commonwealth_of_Nations_countries2175" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:United_States_%E2%80%93_Commonwealth_of_Nations_recessions" title="Template:United States – Commonwealth of Nations recessions"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:United_States_%E2%80%93_Commonwealth_of_Nations_recessions" title="Template talk:United States – Commonwealth of Nations recessions"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:United_States_%E2%80%93_Commonwealth_of_Nations_recessions" title="Special:EditPage/Template:United States – Commonwealth of Nations recessions"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Economic_expansions_and_recessions_in_the_United_States_and_Commonwealth_of_Nations_countries2175" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_economic_expansions_in_the_United_States" title="List of economic expansions in the United States">Economic expansions</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_recessions_in_the_United_States" title="List of recessions in the United States">recessions in the United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Member_states_of_the_Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth of Nations countries</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aggregate_demand" title="Aggregate demand">Aggregate demand</a>/<a href="/wiki/Aggregate_supply" title="Aggregate supply">Supply</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effective_demand" title="Effective demand">Effective demand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_glut" title="General glut">General glut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AD%E2%80%93AS_model" title="AD–AS model">Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overproduction" title="Overproduction">Overproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_thrift" title="Paradox of thrift">Paradox of thrift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominal_rigidity" title="Nominal rigidity">Price-and-wage stickiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underconsumption" title="Underconsumption">Underconsumption</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_cycle" title="Business cycle">Business cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deflation" title="Deflation">Deflation</a>/<a href="/wiki/Inflation" title="Inflation">Inflation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronic_inflation" title="Chronic inflation">Chronic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_dichotomy" title="Classical dichotomy">Classical dichotomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinflation" title="Disinflation">Disinflation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Money_supply" title="Money supply">Money supply</a>/<a href="/wiki/Demand_for_money" title="Demand for money">demand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutrality_of_money" title="Neutrality of money">Neutrality of money</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price_level" title="Price level">Price level</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_versus_nominal_value_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Real versus nominal value (economics)">Real and nominal values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velocity_of_money" title="Velocity of money">Velocity of money</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_expansion" title="Economic expansion">Economic expansion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_recovery" title="Economic recovery">Recovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_stagnation" title="Economic stagnation">Stagnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_economic_expansions_in_the_United_States" title="List of economic expansions in the United States">U.S. expansions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interest_rate" title="Interest rate">Interest rate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nominal_interest_rate" title="Nominal interest rate">Nominal interest rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_interest_rate" title="Real interest rate">Real interest rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yield_curve" title="Yield curve">Yield curve</a>/<a href="/wiki/Inverted_yield_curve" title="Inverted yield curve">Inverted</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession" title="Recession">Recession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_sheet_recession" title="Balance sheet recession">Balance sheet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_depression" title="Economic depression">Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_recession" title="Global recession">Global</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rolling_recession" title="Rolling recession">Rolling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession_shapes" title="Recession shapes">Shapes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stagflation" title="Stagflation">Stagflation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_recessions_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of recessions in the United Kingdom">U.K. recessions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_recessions_in_the_United_States" title="List of recessions in the United States">U.S. recessions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shock_(economics)" title="Shock (economics)">Shock</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demand_shock" title="Demand shock">Demand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply_shock" title="Supply shock">Supply</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unemployment" title="Unemployment">Unemployment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sahm_rule" title="Sahm rule">Sahm rule</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Commercial_revolution" title="Commercial revolution">Commercial revolution</a><br />(1000–1760)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Slump_(15th_century)" title="Great Slump (15th century)">Great Slump</a> (1430–1490)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">Slump of 1706</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Frost_of_1709" title="Great Frost of 1709">Great Frost of 1709</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">1st Industrial Revolution</a><br />(1760–1840)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_credit_crisis_of_1772%E2%80%931773" title="British credit crisis of 1772–1773">British credit crisis of 1772–1773</a> <ul><li>1772–1774; <a href="/wiki/British_credit_crisis_of_1772%E2%80%931773#Effects_in_London" title="British credit crisis of 1772–1773">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_credit_crisis_of_1772%E2%80%931773#Scotland" title="British credit crisis of 1772–1773">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_credit_crisis_of_1772%E2%80%931773" title="British credit crisis of 1772–1773">American Colonies</a></li></ul></li> <li>1785–1788</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copper_Panic_of_1789" title="Copper Panic of 1789">Copper Panic of 1789</a>/<a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1792" title="Panic of 1792">Panic of 1792</a> (1789–1793)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1796%E2%80%931797" title="Panic of 1796–1797">Panic of 1796–1797</a> (1796–1799)</li> <li>1802–1804</li> <li>1807–1810</li> <li>1812</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Napoleonic_Depression" title="Post-Napoleonic Depression">Post-Napoleonic Depression</a> (1815–1821)</li> <li>1822–23</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1825" title="Panic of 1825">Panic of 1825</a> (1825–1826)</li> <li>1828–29</li> <li>1833–34</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1837" title="Panic of 1837">Panic of 1837</a> (1836–1838 and 1839–1843)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Victorian_era" title="Victorian era">Early Victorian Britain</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1849%E2%80%931865)" title="History of the United States (1849–1865)">Civil War-era United States</a><br />(1840–1870)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1845–46</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1847" title="Panic of 1847">Panic of 1847</a> (1847–1848)</li> <li>1853–54</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1857" title="Panic of 1857">Panic of 1857</a> (1857–1858)</li> <li>1860–61</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1866" title="Panic of 1866">Panic of 1866</a> (1865–1867)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Friday_(1869)" title="Black Friday (1869)">Black Friday</a> (1869–1870)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a>/<br /><a class="mw-selflink selflink">2nd Industrial Revolution</a><br />(1870–1914)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Long_Depression" title="Long Depression">Long Depression</a>/<a href="/wiki/The_Great_Deflation" title="The Great Deflation">Great Deflation</a> <ul><li>1873–1879; <a href="/wiki/Long_Depression#United_Kingdom" title="Long Depression">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_Depression#United_States" title="Long Depression">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depression_of_1882%E2%80%931885" title="Depression of 1882–1885">Depression of 1882–1885</a></li> <li>1887–88</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baring_crisis" title="Baring crisis">Baring crisis</a> (1890–1891)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1893" title="Panic of 1893">Panic of 1893</a> (1893–1897)</li> <li>1899–1900</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1901" title="Panic of 1901">Panic of 1901</a> (1902–1904)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1907" title="Panic of 1907">Panic of 1907</a> (1907–1908)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1910%E2%80%9311" title="Panic of 1910–11">Panic of 1910–11</a> (1910–1912)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_crisis_of_1914" title="Financial crisis of 1914">Financial crisis of 1914</a> (1913–14)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a><br />(1918–1939)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93World_War_I_recession" title="Post–World War I recession">Post–World War I recession</a> (1918–1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depression_of_1920%E2%80%931921" title="Depression of 1920–1921">Depression of 1920–1921</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a></li> <li>1923–1924</li> <li>1926–1927</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> <ul><li>1929–1939; <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_Australia" title="Great Depression in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_Canada" title="Great Depression in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_India" title="Great Depression in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Zealand" title="History of New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_South_Africa" title="Great Depression in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Great Depression in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_the_United_States" title="Great Depression in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession_of_1937%E2%80%931938" title="Recession of 1937–1938">Recession of 1937–1938</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93World_War_II_economic_expansion" title="Post–World War II economic expansion">Post–WWII expansion</a><br />(1945–1973)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1945</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession_of_1949" title="Recession of 1949">Recession of 1949</a> (1948–1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession_of_1953" title="Recession of 1953">Recession of 1953</a> (1953–1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession_of_1958" title="Recession of 1958">Recession of 1958</a> (1957–1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession_of_1960%E2%80%931961" title="Recession of 1960–1961">Recession of 1960–1961</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession_of_1969%E2%80%931970" title="Recession of 1969–1970">Recession of 1969–1970</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stagflation" title="Stagflation">Great Inflation</a><br />(1973–1982)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1973%E2%80%931975_recession" title="1973–1975 recession">1973–1975 recession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1973%E2%80%931975_recession#United_Kingdom" title="1973–1975 recession">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973%E2%80%931975_recession#United_States" title="1973–1975 recession">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_1980s_recession" title="Early 1980s recession">Early 1980s recession</a> <ul><li>1980–1982; <a href="/wiki/Early_1980s_recession#Canada" title="Early 1980s recession">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_1980s_recession#United_Kingdom" title="Early 1980s recession">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_1980s_recession_in_the_United_States" title="Early 1980s recession in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Great_Moderation" title="Great Moderation">Great Moderation</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Great_Regression" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Regression">Great Regression</a><br />(1982–2007)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1990s_United_States_boom" title="1990s United States boom">1990s United States boom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_1990s_recession" title="Early 1990s recession">Early 1990s recession</a> <ul><li>1990–1991; <a href="/wiki/Early_1990s_recession_in_Australia" title="Early 1990s recession in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_1990s_recession#Canada" title="Early 1990s recession">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_1990s_recession#United_Kingdom" title="Early 1990s recession">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_1990s_recession_in_the_United_States" title="Early 1990s recession in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1997_Asian_financial_crisis" title="1997 Asian financial crisis">1997 Asian financial crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_2000s_recession" title="Early 2000s recession">Early 2000s recession</a> (2001)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information Age</a><br />(2007–present)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession" title="Great Recession">Great Recession</a> <ul><li>2007–2009; <a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Oceania#Australia" title="Great Recession in Oceania">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Asia#Bangladesh" title="Great Recession in Asia">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_the_Americas#Canada" title="Great Recession in the Americas">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Asia#India" title="Great Recession in Asia">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Asia#Malysia" title="Great Recession in Asia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Oceania#New_Zealand" title="Great Recession in Oceania">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Asia#Pakistan" title="Great Recession in Asia">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Africa" title="Great Recession in Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Asia#Sri_Lanka" title="Great Recession in Asia">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Europe#United_Kingdom" title="Great Recession in Europe">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_the_United_States" title="Great Recession in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_recession" title="COVID-19 recession">COVID-19 recession</a> <ul><li>2020–2022; <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_recession#Australia" title="COVID-19 recession">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_recession#Bangladsh" title="COVID-19 recession">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_recession#Belize" title="COVID-19 recession">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_recession#Botswana" title="COVID-19 recession">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Canada" title="Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_India" title="Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia" title="Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_recession#Namibia" title="COVID-19 recession">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Zealand" title="Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Singapore#Economic_impact" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States" title="Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_recession#Zambia" title="COVID-19 recession">Zambia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Financial_bubbles822" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Financial_bubbles" title="Template:Financial bubbles"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Financial_bubbles" title="Template talk:Financial bubbles"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Financial_bubbles" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Financial bubbles"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Financial_bubbles822" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Economic_bubble" title="Economic bubble">Financial bubbles</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Market_trend" title="Market trend">Market trend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Credit_cycle" title="Credit cycle">Credit cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irrational_exuberance" title="Irrational exuberance">Irrational exuberance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contagion" title="Social contagion">Social contagion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real-estate_bubble" title="Real-estate bubble">Real-estate bubble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stock_market_bubble" title="Stock market bubble">Stock market bubble</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Commercial_revolution" title="Commercial revolution">Commercial revolution</a><br />(1000–1760)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tulip_mania" title="Tulip mania">Tulip mania</a> (1634–1637)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Company" title="Mississippi Company">Mississippi bubble</a> (1684–1720)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Sea_Company" title="South Sea Company">South Sea bubble</a> (1711–1720)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengal_Bubble_of_1769" title="Bengal Bubble of 1769">Bengal Bubble of 1769</a> (1757–1769)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">1st Industrial Revolution</a><br />(1760–1840)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canal_Mania" title="Canal Mania">Canal Mania</a> (c. 1790–c. 1810)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carolina_gold_rush" title="Carolina gold rush">Carolina gold rush</a> (1802–1825)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_real_estate_bubble_of_the_1810s" title="Alabama real estate bubble of the 1810s">1810s Alabama real estate bubble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgia_Gold_Rush" title="Georgia Gold Rush">Georgia Gold Rush</a> (1828–c. 1840)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_real_estate_bubble_of_the_1830s" title="Chicago real estate bubble of the 1830s">1830s Chicago real estate bubble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilean_silver_rush" title="Chilean silver rush">Chilean silver rush</a> (1830–1850)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1840–1870</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Railway_Mania" title="Railway Mania">Railway Mania</a> (c. 1840–c. 1850)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_gold_rush" title="California gold rush">California gold rush</a> (1848–1855)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Charlottes_Gold_Rush" title="Queen Charlottes Gold Rush">Queen Charlottes Gold Rush</a> (1851)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victorian_gold_rush" title="Victorian gold rush">Victorian gold rush</a> (1851–c. 1870)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_South_Wales_gold_rush" title="New South Wales gold rush">New South Wales gold rush</a> (1851–1880)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_gold_rushes" title="Australian gold rushes">Australian gold rushes</a> (1851–1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fraser_Canyon_Gold_Rush" title="Fraser Canyon Gold Rush">Fraser Canyon Gold Rush</a> (1858)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pike%27s_Peak_gold_rush" title="Pike's Peak gold rush">Pike's Peak gold rush</a> (1858–1861)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_Creek_Gold_Rush" title="Rock Creek Gold Rush">Rock Creek Gold Rush</a> (1859)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_oil_rush" title="Pennsylvania oil rush">Pennsylvania oil rush</a> (1859–1891)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Similkameen_Gold_Rush" title="Similkameen Gold Rush">Similkameen Gold Rush</a> (1860)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stikine_Gold_Rush" title="Stikine Gold Rush">Stikine Gold Rush</a> (1861)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steamboats_of_the_Colorado_River" title="Steamboats of the Colorado River">Colorado River mining boom</a> (1861–1864)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otago_gold_rush" title="Otago gold rush">Otago gold rush</a> (1861–1864)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cariboo_Gold_Rush" title="Cariboo Gold Rush">Cariboo Gold Rush</a> (1861–1867)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_mining_in_Nova_Scotia" title="Gold mining in Nova Scotia">First Nova Scotia Gold Rush</a> (1861–1874)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Coast_gold_rush" title="West Coast gold rush">West Coast gold rush</a> (1864–1867)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Bend_Gold_Rush" title="Big Bend Gold Rush">Big Bend Gold Rush</a> (c. 1865)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vermilion_Lake_gold_rush" title="Vermilion Lake gold rush">Vermilion Lake gold rush</a> (1865–1867)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kildonan_Gold_Rush" title="Kildonan Gold Rush">Kildonan Gold Rush</a> (1869)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omineca_Gold_Rush" title="Omineca Gold Rush">Omineca Gold Rush</a> (1869)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">2nd Industrial Revolution</a><br />(1870–1914)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lapland_gold_rush" title="Lapland gold rush">1870s Lapland gold rush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coromandel_Gold_Rushes" title="Coromandel Gold Rushes">Coromandel Gold Rushes</a> (c. 1870–c. 1890)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassiar_Country" title="Cassiar Country">Cassiar Gold Rush</a> (c. 1870–c. 1890)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hills_gold_rush" title="Black Hills gold rush">Black Hills gold rush</a> (1874–1880)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorado_Silver_Boom" title="Colorado Silver Boom">Colorado Silver Boom</a> (1879–1893)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Australian_gold_rushes" title="Western Australian gold rushes">Western Australian gold rushes</a> (c. 1880–c. 1900)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indiana_gas_boom" title="Indiana gas boom">Indiana gas boom</a> (c. 1880–1903)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_Ohio" title="Petroleum industry in Ohio">Ohio oil rush</a> (c. 1880–c. 1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tierra_del_Fuego_gold_rush" title="Tierra del Fuego gold rush">Tierra del Fuego gold rush</a> (1883–1906)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cayoosh_Gold_Rush" title="Cayoosh Gold Rush">Cayoosh Gold Rush</a> (1884)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witwatersrand_Gold_Rush" title="Witwatersrand Gold Rush">Witwatersrand Gold Rush</a> (1886)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encilhamento" title="Encilhamento">Encilhamento</a> (1886–1890)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cripple_Creek_Gold_Rush" title="Cripple Creek Gold Rush">Cripple Creek Gold Rush</a> (c. 1890–c. 1910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klondike_Gold_Rush" title="Klondike Gold Rush">Klondike Gold Rush</a> (1896–1899)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_mining_in_Nova_Scotia" title="Gold mining in Nova Scotia">Second Nova Scotia Gold Rush</a> (1896–1903)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kobuk_River_Stampede" title="Kobuk River Stampede">Kobuk River Stampede</a> (1897–1899)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Baker_gold_rush" title="Mount Baker gold rush">Mount Baker gold rush</a> (1897–c. 1925)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nome_Gold_Rush" title="Nome Gold Rush">Nome Gold Rush</a> (1899–1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fairbanks_Gold_Rush" title="Fairbanks Gold Rush">Fairbanks Gold Rush</a> (c. 1900–1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_oil_boom" title="Texas oil boom">Texas oil boom</a> (1901–1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cobalt_silver_rush" title="Cobalt silver rush">Cobalt silver rush</a> (1903–1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porcupine_Gold_Rush" title="Porcupine Gold Rush">Porcupine Gold Rush</a> (1909–1918)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a><br />(1918–1939)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Florida_land_boom_of_the_1920s" title="Florida land boom of the 1920s">1920s Florida land boom</a> (c. 1920–1925)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fairbanks_Gold_Rush" title="Fairbanks Gold Rush">Fairbanks Gold Rush</a> (1918–c. 1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_oil_boom" title="Texas oil boom">Texas oil boom</a> (1918–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cobalt_silver_rush" title="Cobalt silver rush">Cobalt silver rush</a> (1918–c. 1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porcupine_Gold_Rush" title="Porcupine Gold Rush">Porcupine Gold Rush</a> (1918–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kakamega_gold_rush" title="Kakamega gold rush">1930s Kakamega gold rush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_mining_in_Nova_Scotia" title="Gold mining in Nova Scotia">Third Nova Scotia Gold Rush</a> (1932–1942)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93World_War_II_economic_expansion" title="Post–World War II economic expansion">Post–WWII expansion</a><br />(1945–1973)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Texas_oil_boom" title="Texas oil boom">Texas oil boom</a> (1945–c. 1950)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porcupine_Gold_Rush" title="Porcupine Gold Rush">Porcupine Gold Rush</a> (1945–c. 1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poseidon_bubble" title="Poseidon bubble">Poseidon bubble</a> (1969–1970)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stagflation" title="Stagflation">The Great Inflation</a><br />(1973–1982)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1970s_commodities_boom" title="1970s commodities boom">1970s commodities boom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_oil_boom" title="Mexican oil boom">Mexican oil boom</a> (1977–1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silver_Thursday" title="Silver Thursday">Silver Thursday</a> (1980)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_property_bubble" title="New Zealand property bubble">New Zealand property bubble</a> (c. 1980–1982)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Great_Moderation" title="Great Moderation">Great Moderation</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Great_Regression" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Regression">Great Regression</a><br />(1982–2007)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1980s_oil_glut" title="1980s oil glut">1980s oil glut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_property_bubble" title="New Zealand property bubble">New Zealand property bubble</a> (1982–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_property_bubble" title="Spanish property bubble">Spanish property bubble</a> (1985–2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_asset_price_bubble" title="Japanese asset price bubble">Japanese asset price bubble</a> (1986–1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dot-com_bubble" title="Dot-com bubble">Dot-com bubble</a> (1995–2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_states_housing_bubble" title="Baltic states housing bubble">Baltic states housing bubble</a> (2000–2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_property_bubble" title="Irish property bubble">Irish property bubble</a> (c. 2000–2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2000s_commodities_boom" title="2000s commodities boom">2000s commodities boom</a> (2000–2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_property_bubble_of_2000s" title="Danish property bubble of 2000s">2000s Danish property bubble</a> (2001–2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2000s_United_States_housing_bubble" title="2000s United States housing bubble">United States housing bubble</a> (2002–2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_property_bubble" title="Romanian property bubble">Romanian property bubble</a> (2002–2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_property_bubble" title="Polish property bubble">Polish property bubble</a> (2002–2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_property_bubble" title="Canadian property bubble">Canadian property bubble</a> (2002–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_property_bubble_(2005%E2%80%932011)" title="Chinese property bubble (2005–2011)">Chinese property bubble</a> (2005–2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_housing_bubble" title="Lebanese housing bubble">Lebanese housing bubble</a> (2005–2008)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_stock_bubble_of_2007" title="Chinese stock bubble of 2007">Chinese stock bubble of 2007</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_bubble_of_2007" title="Uranium bubble of 2007">Uranium bubble of 2007</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information Age</a><br />(2007–present)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2000s_commodities_boom" title="2000s commodities boom">2000s commodities boom</a> (2008–2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_housing_bubble" title="Lebanese housing bubble">Lebanese housing bubble</a> (2008–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_debt_bubble" title="Corporate debt bubble">Corporate debt bubble</a> (2008–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_property_bubble" title="Australian property bubble">Australian property bubble</a> (2010–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptocurrency_bubble" title="Cryptocurrency bubble">Cryptocurrency bubble</a> (2011–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Everything_bubble" title="Everything bubble">Everything bubble</a> (2020–21)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_bubble" title="Carbon bubble">Carbon bubble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_bubble" title="Green bubble">Green bubble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_media_stock_bubble" title="Social media stock bubble">Social media stock bubble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unicorn_bubble" title="Unicorn bubble">Unicorn bubble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Higher_education_bubble_in_the_United_States" title="Higher education bubble in the United States">U.S. higher education bubble</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Financial_crises1226" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Financial_crises" title="Template:Financial crises"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Financial_crises" title="Template talk:Financial crises"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Financial_crises" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Financial crises"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Financial_crises1226" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Financial_crisis" title="Financial crisis">Financial crises</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bank_run" title="Bank run">Bank run</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Commodity_price_shocks" title="Commodity price shocks">Commodity price shocks</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Credit_crunch" title="Credit crunch">Credit crunch</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Credit_cycle" title="Credit cycle">Credit cycle</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Currency_crisis" title="Currency crisis">Currency crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Debt_crisis" title="Debt crisis">Debt crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Energy_crisis" title="Energy crisis">Energy crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Financial_contagion" title="Financial contagion">Financial contagion</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Social_contagion" title="Social contagion">Social contagion</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Flash_crash" title="Flash crash">Flash crash</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation" title="Hyperinflation">Hyperinflation</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Liquidity_crisis" title="Liquidity crisis">Liquidity crisis</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Accounting_liquidity" title="Accounting liquidity">Accounting</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Liquid_capital" title="Liquid capital">Capital</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Funding_liquidity" title="Funding liquidity">Funding</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Market_liquidity" title="Market liquidity">Market</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Minsky_moment" title="Minsky moment">Minsky moment</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Social_crisis" title="Social crisis">Social crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Stock_market_crash" title="Stock market crash">Stock market crash</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-<a href="/wiki/Commercial_revolution" title="Commercial revolution">1000</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Financial_crisis_of_33" title="Financial crisis of 33">Financial crisis of 33 CE</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a> (235–284 CE)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Commercial_revolution" title="Commercial revolution">Commercial revolution</a><br />(1000–1760)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Great_Bullion_Famine" title="Great Bullion Famine">Great Bullion Famine</a> (c. 1400–c. 1500)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/The_Great_Debasement" title="The Great Debasement">The Great Debasement</a> (1544–1551)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Financial_history_of_the_Dutch_Republic" title="Financial history of the Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic stock market crashes</a> (c. 1600–1760)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Kipper_und_Wipper" title="Kipper und Wipper">Kipper und Wipper</a></i> (1621–1623)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tulip_mania" title="Tulip mania">Tulip mania crash</a> (1637)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/South_Sea_Company" title="South Sea Company">South Sea bubble crash</a> (1720)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Company" title="Mississippi Company">Mississippi bubble crash</a> (1720)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">1st Industrial Revolution</a><br />(1760–1840)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Amsterdam_banking_crisis_of_1763" title="Amsterdam banking crisis of 1763">Amsterdam banking crisis of 1763</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bengal_Bubble_of_1769" title="Bengal Bubble of 1769">Bengal bubble crash</a> (1769–1784)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/British_credit_crisis_of_1772%E2%80%931773" title="British credit crisis of 1772–1773">British credit crisis of 1772–1773</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Financial_history_of_the_Dutch_Republic" title="Financial history of the Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic financial collapse</a> (c. 1780–1795)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Copper_Panic_of_1789" title="Copper Panic of 1789">Copper Panic of 1789</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1792" title="Panic of 1792">Panic of 1792</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1796%E2%80%931797" title="Panic of 1796–1797">Panic of 1796–1797</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Danish_state_bankruptcy_of_1813" title="Danish state bankruptcy of 1813">Danish state bankruptcy of 1813</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Commodity_price_shocks" title="Commodity price shocks">Post-Napoleonic Irish grain price and land use shocks</a> (1815–1816)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1819" title="Panic of 1819">Panic of 1819</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1825" title="Panic of 1825">Panic of 1825</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1837" title="Panic of 1837">Panic of 1837</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1840–1870</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/European_potato_failure" title="European potato failure">European potato failure</a> (1845–1856)</span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland)" title="Great Famine (Ireland)">Great Irish Famine</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Highland_Potato_Famine" title="Highland Potato Famine">Highland Potato Famine</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1847" title="Panic of 1847">Panic of 1847</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1857" title="Panic of 1857">Panic of 1857</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1866" title="Panic of 1866">Panic of 1866</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Black_Friday_(1869)" title="Black Friday (1869)">Black Friday</a> (1869)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">2nd Industrial Revolution</a><br />(1870–1914)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1873" title="Panic of 1873">Panic of 1873</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Paris_Bourse_crash_of_1882" title="Paris Bourse crash of 1882">Paris Bourse crash of 1882</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1884" title="Panic of 1884">Panic of 1884</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Arendal_crash" title="Arendal crash">Arendal crash</a> (1886)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Baring_crisis" title="Baring crisis">Baring crisis</a> (1890)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Encilhamento" title="Encilhamento">Encilhamento</a> (1890–1893)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1893" title="Panic of 1893">Panic of 1893</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Australian_banking_crisis_of_1893" title="Australian banking crisis of 1893">Australian banking crisis of 1893</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Black_Monday_(1894)" title="Black Monday (1894)">Black Monday</a> (1894)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1896" title="Panic of 1896">Panic of 1896</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1901" title="Panic of 1901">Panic of 1901</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1907" title="Panic of 1907">Panic of 1907</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_rubber_stock_market_crisis" title="Shanghai rubber stock market crisis">Shanghai rubber stock market crisis</a> (1910)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1910%E2%80%9311" title="Panic of 1910–11">Panic of 1910–11</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Financial_crisis_of_1914" title="Financial crisis of 1914">Financial crisis of 1914</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a><br />(1918–1939)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation_in_early_Soviet_Russia" title="Hyperinflation in early Soviet Russia">Early Soviet hyperinflation</a> (1917–1924)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation_in_the_Weimar_Republic" title="Hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic">Weimar Republic hyperinflation</a> (1921–1923)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sh%C5%8Dwa_financial_crisis" title="Shōwa financial crisis">Shōwa financial crisis</a> (1927)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Wall_Street_crash_of_1929" title="Wall Street crash of 1929">Wall Street crash of 1929</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1930" title="Panic of 1930">Panic of 1930</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_hyperinflation" title="Chinese hyperinflation">Chinese hyperinflation</a> (1937-1950)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">Wartime period</a><br />(1939–1945)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation_in_Greece" title="Hyperinflation in Greece">Greek hyperinflation</a> (1941–1946)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_hyperinflation" title="Chinese hyperinflation">Chinese hyperinflation</a> (1937-1950)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93World_War_II_economic_expansion" title="Post–World War II economic expansion">Post–WWII expansion</a><br />(1945–1973)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_peng%C5%91#Hyperinflation" title="Hungarian pengő">Hungarian pengő hyperinflation</a> (1945–1946)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Slide_of_1962" title="Kennedy Slide of 1962">Kennedy Slide of 1962</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=1963%E2%80%931965_Indonesian_hyperinflation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1963–1965 Indonesian hyperinflation (page does not exist)">1963–1965 Indonesian hyperinflation</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_hyperinflation" title="Chinese hyperinflation">Chinese hyperinflation</a> (1937-1950)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stagflation" title="Stagflation">Great Inflation</a><br />(1973–1982)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1970s_energy_crisis" title="1970s energy crisis">1970s energy crisis</a> (1973–1980)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1973_oil_crisis" title="1973 oil crisis">1973 oil crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1973%E2%80%931974_stock_market_crash" title="1973–1974 stock market crash">1973–1974 stock market crash</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Secondary_banking_crisis_of_1973%E2%80%931975" title="Secondary banking crisis of 1973–1975">Secondary banking crisis of 1973–1975</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Steel_crisis" title="Steel crisis">Steel crisis</a> (1973–1982)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Latin_American_debt_crisis" title="Latin American debt crisis">Latin American debt crisis</a> (1975–1982)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1976_sterling_crisis" title="1976 sterling crisis">1976 British currency crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1979_oil_crisis" title="1979 oil crisis">1979 oil crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation_in_Brazil" title="Hyperinflation in Brazil">Brazilian hyperinflation</a> (1980–1982)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Great_Moderation" title="Great Moderation">Great Moderation</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Great_Regression" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Regression">Great Regression</a><br />(1982–2007)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation_in_Brazil" title="Hyperinflation in Brazil">Brazilian hyperinflation</a> (1982–1994)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Souk_Al-Manakh_stock_market_crash" title="Souk Al-Manakh stock market crash">Souk Al-Manakh stock market crash</a> (1982)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_1982" title="Crisis of 1982">Chilean crisis of 1982</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1983_Israel_bank_stock_crisis" title="1983 Israel bank stock crisis">1983 Israel bank stock crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Black_Saturday_(1983)" title="Black Saturday (1983)">Black Saturday (1983)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Savings_and_loan_crisis" title="Savings and loan crisis">Savings and loan crisis</a> (1986–1995)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Cameroonian_economic_crisis" title="Cameroonian economic crisis">Cameroonian economic crisis</a> (1987–2000s)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Black_Monday_(1987)" title="Black Monday (1987)">Black Monday (1987)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1988%E2%80%931992_Norwegian_banking_crisis" title="1988–1992 Norwegian banking crisis">1988–1992 Norwegian banking crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_asset_price_bubble" title="Japanese asset price bubble">Japanese asset price bubble crash</a> (1990–1992)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Rhode_Island_banking_crisis" title="Rhode Island banking crisis">Rhode Island banking crisis</a> (1990–1992)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1991_Indian_economic_crisis" title="1991 Indian economic crisis">1991 Indian economic crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sweden_financial_crisis_1990%E2%80%931994" class="mw-redirect" title="Sweden financial crisis 1990–1994">1990s Swedish financial crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1990s_Finnish_banking_crisis" title="1990s Finnish banking crisis">1990s Finnish banking crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Armenian_energy_crisis_of_1990s" class="mw-redirect" title="Armenian energy crisis of 1990s">1990s Armenian energy crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Special_Period" title="Special Period">Cuban Special Period</a> (1991–2000)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Black_Wednesday" title="Black Wednesday">Black Wednesday (1992 Sterling crisis)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation_in_the_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia" title="Hyperinflation in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia">Yugoslav hyperinflation</a> (1992–1994)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1994_bond_market_crisis" title="1994 bond market crisis">1994 bond market crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Venezuelan_banking_crisis_of_1994" title="Venezuelan banking crisis of 1994">Venezuelan banking crisis of 1994</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mexican_peso_crisis" title="Mexican peso crisis">Mexican peso crisis</a> (1994–1996)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1997_Asian_financial_crisis" title="1997 Asian financial crisis">1997 Asian financial crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/October_27,_1997,_mini-crash" title="October 27, 1997, mini-crash">October 1997 mini-crash</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1998_Russian_financial_crisis" title="1998 Russian financial crisis">1998 Russian financial crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1998%E2%80%931999_Ecuador_economic_crisis" title="1998–1999 Ecuador economic crisis">1998–1999 Ecuador economic crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1998%E2%80%932002_Argentine_great_depression" title="1998–2002 Argentine great depression">1998–2002 Argentine great depression</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Samba_effect" title="Samba effect">Samba effect</a> (1999)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dot-com_bubble" title="Dot-com bubble">Dot-com bubble crash</a> (2000–2004)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Economic_effects_of_the_September_11_attacks" title="Economic effects of the September 11 attacks">9/11 stock market crash</a> (2001)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2001_Turkish_economic_crisis" title="2001 Turkish economic crisis">2001 Turkish economic crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/South_American_economic_crisis_of_2002" title="South American economic crisis of 2002">South American economic crisis of 2002</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Stock_market_downturn_of_2002" title="Stock market downturn of 2002">Stock market downturn of 2002</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2002_Uruguay_banking_crisis" title="2002 Uruguay banking crisis">2002 Uruguay banking crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2003_Myanmar_banking_crisis" title="2003 Myanmar banking crisis">2003 Myanmar banking crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2000s_energy_crisis" title="2000s energy crisis">2000s energy crisis</a> (2003–2008)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2004_Argentine_energy_crisis" title="2004 Argentine energy crisis">2004 Argentine energy crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_stock_bubble_of_2007" title="Chinese stock bubble of 2007">2007 Chinese stock bubble crash</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation_in_Zimbabwe" title="Hyperinflation in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwean hyperinflation</a> (2007–present)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession" title="Great Recession">Great Recession</a><br />(2007–2009)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2007%E2%80%932008_financial_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="2007–2008 financial crisis">2007–2008 financial crisis</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Global_financial_crisis_in_September_2008" title="Global financial crisis in September 2008">September 2008</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Global_financial_crisis_in_October_2008" title="Global financial crisis in October 2008">October 2008</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Global_financial_crisis_in_November_2008" title="Global financial crisis in November 2008">November 2008</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Global_financial_crisis_in_December_2008" title="Global financial crisis in December 2008">December 2008</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Global_financial_crisis_in_2009" title="Global financial crisis in 2009">2009</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Subprime_mortgage_crisis" title="Subprime mortgage crisis">Subprime mortgage crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2000s_United_States_housing_market_correction" title="2000s United States housing market correction">2000s U.S. housing market correction</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/United_States_bear_market_of_2007%E2%80%932009" title="United States bear market of 2007–2009">U.S. bear market of 2007–2009</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2008_Latvian_financial_crisis" title="2008 Latvian financial crisis">2008 Latvian financial crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2008%E2%80%932009_Belgian_financial_crisis" title="2008–2009 Belgian financial crisis">2008–2009 Belgian financial crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Russia" title="Great Recession in Russia">2008–2009 Russian financial crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2008%E2%80%932009_Ukrainian_financial_crisis" title="2008–2009 Ukrainian financial crisis">2008–2009 Ukrainian financial crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2008%E2%80%932011_Icelandic_financial_crisis" title="2008–2011 Icelandic financial crisis">2008–2011 Icelandic financial crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Post-2008_Irish_banking_crisis" title="Post-2008 Irish banking crisis">2008–2011 Irish banking crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2008%E2%80%932014_Spanish_financial_crisis" title="2008–2014 Spanish financial crisis">2008–2014 Spanish financial crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Blue_Monday_Crash_2009" title="Blue Monday Crash 2009">Blue Monday Crash 2009</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/European_debt_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="European debt crisis">European debt crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Greek_government-debt_crisis" title="Greek government-debt crisis">Greek government-debt crisis</a></span></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information Age</a><br />(2009–present)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dubai_World" title="Dubai World">2009 Dubai debt standstill</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Venezuelan_banking_crisis_of_2009%E2%80%932010" title="Venezuelan banking crisis of 2009–2010">Venezuelan banking crisis of 2009–2010</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2010%E2%80%932014_Portuguese_financial_crisis" title="2010–2014 Portuguese financial crisis">2010–2014 Portuguese financial crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Energy_crisis_in_Venezuela" title="Energy crisis in Venezuela">Energy crisis in Venezuela</a> (2010–present)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Syria" title="Economy of Syria">Syrian economic crisis</a> (2011–present)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/August_2011_stock_markets_fall" title="August 2011 stock markets fall">August 2011 stock markets fall</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2011_Bangladesh_share_market_scam" title="2011 Bangladesh share market scam">2011 Bangladesh share market scam</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2012%E2%80%932013_Cypriot_financial_crisis" title="2012–2013 Cypriot financial crisis">2012–2013 Cypriot financial crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Banking_Liquidity_Crisis_of_2013" title="Chinese Banking Liquidity Crisis of 2013">2013 Chinese banking liquidity crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2013%E2%80%93present_economic_crisis_in_Venezuela" title="2013–present economic crisis in Venezuela">Venezuela economic crisis</a> (2013–present)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2014_Brazilian_economic_crisis" title="2014 Brazilian economic crisis">2014–2016 Brazilian economic crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rican_government-debt_crisis" title="Puerto Rican government-debt crisis">Puerto Rican government-debt crisis</a> (2014–2022)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Russian_financial_crisis_(2014%E2%80%932016)" title="Russian financial crisis (2014–2016)">Russian financial crisis (2014–2016)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2015_Nepal_blockade" title="2015 Nepal blockade">2015 Nepal blockade</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2015%E2%80%932016_Chinese_stock_market_turbulence" title="2015–2016 Chinese stock market turbulence">2015–2016 Chinese stock market turbulence</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2015%E2%80%932016_stock_market_selloff" title="2015–2016 stock market selloff">2015–2016 stock market selloff</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Economic_effects_of_Brexit" title="Economic effects of Brexit">Brexit stock market crash</a> (2016)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation_in_Venezuela" title="Hyperinflation in Venezuela">Venezuelan hyperinflation</a> (2016–2022)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2017_Sri_Lankan_fuel_crisis" title="2017 Sri Lankan fuel crisis">2017 Sri Lankan fuel crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ghana_banking_crisis" title="Ghana banking crisis">Ghana banking crisis</a> (2017–2018)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Turkish_economic_crisis_(2018%E2%80%93current)" title="Turkish economic crisis (2018–current)">Turkish economic crisis</a> (2018–present)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_liquidity_crisis" title="Lebanese liquidity crisis">Lebanese liquidity crisis</a> (2019–present)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lankan_economic_crisis_(2019%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sri Lankan economic crisis (2019–present)">Sri Lankan economic crisis</a> (2019–present)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic" title="Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Financial_market_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic" title="Financial market impact of the COVID-19 pandemic">Financial market impact</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2020_stock_market_crash" title="2020 stock market crash">2020 stock market crash</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Early_2020s_recession" class="mw-redirect" title="Early 2020s recession">Recession</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_property_sector_crisis_(2020%E2%80%93present)" title="Chinese property sector crisis (2020–present)">Chinese property sector crisis</a> (2020–present)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2021%E2%80%932023_inflation_surge" title="2021–2023 inflation surge">2021–2023 inflation surge</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Economic impact of the Russian invasion of Ukraine">2022 Russian financial crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_economic_crisis_(2022%E2%80%93present)" title="Pakistani economic crisis (2022–present)">Pakistani economic crisis</a> (2022–present)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2022_stock_market_decline" title="2022 stock market decline">2022 stock market decline</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/German_economic_crisis_(2022%E2%80%93present)" title="German economic crisis (2022–present)">2022–2024 German economic crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2023_United_States_banking_crisis" title="2023 United States banking crisis">2023 United States banking crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2023%E2%80%932024_Egyptian_financial_crisis" title="2023–2024 Egyptian financial crisis">2023–2024 Egyptian financial crisis</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_banking_crises" title="List of banking crises">List of banking crises</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_economic_crises" title="List of economic crises">List of economic crises</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_debt_crises" title="List of sovereign debt crises">List of sovereign debt crises</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_stock_market_crashes_and_bear_markets" title="List of stock market crashes and bear markets">List of stock market crashes and bear markets</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="International_relations_(1814–1919)105" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Great_Power_diplomacy" title="Template:Great Power diplomacy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Great_Power_diplomacy" title="Template talk:Great Power diplomacy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Great_Power_diplomacy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Great Power diplomacy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="International_relations_(1814–1919)105" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)" title="International relations (1814–1919)">International relations (1814–1919)</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Great powers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1865%E2%80%931917)" title="History of the United States (1865–1917)">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Alliances</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Triple_Alliance_(1882)" title="Triple Alliance (1882)">Triple Alliance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dual_Alliance_(1879)" title="Dual Alliance (1879)">Dual Alliance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple_Entente" title="Triple Entente">Triple Entente</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Russian_Alliance" title="Franco-Russian Alliance">Franco-Russian Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entente_Cordiale" title="Entente Cordiale">Entente Cordiale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Russian_Convention" title="Anglo-Russian Convention">Anglo-Russian Convention</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Japanese_Alliance" title="Anglo-Japanese Alliance">Anglo-Japanese Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/League_of_the_Three_Emperors" title="League of the Three Emperors">League of the Three Emperors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight-Nation_Alliance" title="Eight-Nation Alliance">Eight-Nation Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balkan_League" title="Balkan League">Balkan League</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Trends</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_balance_of_power" title="European balance of power">European balance of power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_and_modernization_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman decline</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_question" title="Eastern question">Eastern question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Rise of nationalism in the Ottoman Empire">Spread of nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_public_debt" title="Ottoman public debt">Sovereign debt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French%E2%80%93German_enmity" title="French–German enmity">French–German enmity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revanchism" title="Revanchism">Revanchism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_Britannica" title="Pax Britannica">Pax Britannica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Imperialism" title="New Imperialism">New Imperialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa" title="Scramble for Africa">Scramble for Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Lever" title="Egyptian Lever">Egyptian Lever</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_imperialism_in_Asia" title="Western imperialism in Asia">In Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Game" title="Great Game">Great Game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_China" title="Scramble for China">Scramble for China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Door_Policy" title="Open Door Policy">Open Door Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiji_era" title="Meiji era">Meiji era</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Slavism" title="Pan-Slavism">Pan-Slavism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Rapprochement" title="Great Rapprochement">Great Rapprochement</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Second Industrial Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_warfare" title="Industrial warfare">Industrial warfare</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Treaties and<br />agreements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles_(1871)" title="Treaty of Versailles (1871)">Treaty of Versailles (1871)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Frankfurt_(1871)" title="Treaty of Frankfurt (1871)">Treaty of Frankfurt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Berlin_(1878)" title="Treaty of Berlin (1878)">Treaty of Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinsurance_Treaty" title="Reinsurance Treaty">Reinsurance Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1898)" title="Treaty of Paris (1898)">Treaty of Paris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Bj%C3%B6rk%C3%B6" title="Treaty of Björkö">Treaty of Björkö</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taft%E2%80%93Katsura_agreement" title="Taft–Katsura agreement">Taft–Katsura agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hague_Conventions_of_1899_and_1907" title="Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907">Hague Conventions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martens_Clause" title="Martens Clause">Martens Clause</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Korea_Treaty_of_1905" title="Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905">Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Korea_Treaty_of_1910" title="Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910">Japan–Korea Annexation Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racconigi_Bargain" title="Racconigi Bargain">Racconigi agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1917_Franco-Russian_agreement" title="1917 Franco-Russian agreement">1917 Franco-Russian agreement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Moldavia_and_Wallachia" title="Unification of Moldavia and Wallachia">Formation of Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Germany" title="Unification of Germany">Unification of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Italy" title="Unification of Italy">Unification of Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Eastern_Crisis" title="Great Eastern Crisis">Great Eastern Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Berlin" title="Congress of Berlin">Congress of Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Conference" title="Berlin Conference">Berlin Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kronstadt%E2%80%93Toulon_naval_visits" title="Kronstadt–Toulon naval visits">Kronstadt–Toulon naval visits</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Weltpolitik" title="Weltpolitik">Weltpolitik</a></i></li> <li>Naval arms races <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-German_naval_arms_race" title="Anglo-German naval arms race">Anglo-German</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dreadnought" title="Dreadnought">Dreadnought</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Naval_Laws" title="German Naval Laws">German Naval Laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austro-Italian_ironclad_arms_race" title="Austro-Italian ironclad arms race">Austro-Italian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fashoda_Incident" title="Fashoda Incident">Fashoda Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territory_of_Hawaii" title="Territory of Hawaii">Annexation of Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venezuelan_crisis_of_1902%E2%80%931903" title="Venezuelan crisis of 1902–1903">Venezuela Naval Blockade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_boundary_dispute" title="Alaska boundary dispute">Alaska boundary dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Moroccan_Crisis" title="First Moroccan Crisis">First Moroccan Crisis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algeciras_Conference" title="Algeciras Conference">Algeciras Conference</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agadir_Crisis" title="Agadir Crisis">Agadir Crisis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fes" title="Treaty of Fes">Treaty of Fes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_Crisis" title="Bosnian Crisis">Bosnian Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/July_Crisis" title="July Crisis">July Crisis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Wars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)">Russo-Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_War" title="Anglo-Egyptian War">Anglo-Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War" title="First Sino-Japanese War">First Sino-Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banana_Wars" title="Banana Wars">Banana Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine%E2%80%93American_War" title="Philippine–American War">Philippine–American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Boer_War" title="Second Boer War">Second Boer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italo-Turkish_War" title="Italo-Turkish War">Italo-Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balkan_Wars" title="Balkan Wars">Balkan Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Balkan_War" title="First Balkan War">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Balkan_War" title="Second Balkan War">Second</a></li> <li>Albanian Revolts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_revolt_of_1910" title="Albanian revolt of 1910">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malissori_uprising" title="Malissori uprising">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_revolt_of_1912" title="Albanian revolt of 1912">Third</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Population682" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Population" title="Template:Population"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Population" title="Template talk:Population"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Population" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Population"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Population682" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_world" title="Demographics of the world">Demographics of the world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographic_transition" title="Demographic transition">Demographic transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estimates_of_historical_world_population" title="Estimates of historical world population">Estimates of historical world population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_growth" title="Population growth">Population growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_momentum" title="Population momentum">Population momentum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Projections_of_population_growth" class="mw-redirect" title="Projections of population growth">Projections of population growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_population" title="World population">World population</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Population_biology" title="Population biology">Population<br />biology</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Population_decline" title="Population decline">Population decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_density" title="Population density">Population density</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physiological_density" title="Physiological density">Physiological density</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_dynamics" title="Population dynamics">Population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_model" title="Population model">Population model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_pyramid" title="Population pyramid">Population pyramid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">Population<br />ecology</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biocapacity" title="Biocapacity">Biocapacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrying_capacity" title="Carrying capacity">Carrying capacity</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/I_%3D_PAT" title="I = PAT">I = P × A × T</a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaya_identity" title="Kaya identity">Kaya identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malthusian_growth_model" title="Malthusian growth model">Malthusian growth model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overshoot_(population)" title="Overshoot (population)">Overshoot (population)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World3" title="World3">World3 model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Society and<br /> population</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysgenics" title="Dysgenics"><i>Dys</i>genics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_overpopulation" title="Human overpopulation">Human overpopulation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malthusianism" title="Malthusianism">Malthusian catastrophe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_population_planning" title="Human population planning">Human population planning</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">Compulsory sterilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_planning" title="Family planning">Family planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-child_policy" title="One-child policy">One-child policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-child_policy" title="Two-child policy">Two-child policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overconsumption_(economics)" title="Overconsumption (economics)">Overconsumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_demography" title="Political demography">Political demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_ethics" title="Population ethics">Population ethics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antinatalism" title="Antinatalism">Antinatalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mere_addition_paradox" title="Mere addition paradox">Mere addition paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natalism" title="Natalism">Natalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-identity_problem" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-identity problem">Non-identity problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_rights" title="Reproductive rights">Reproductive rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_population" title="Sustainable population">Sustainable population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero_population_growth" title="Zero population growth">Zero population growth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Publications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Population_and_Environment" title="Population and Environment">Population and Environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_and_Development_Review" title="Population and Development Review">Population and Development Review</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Population_and_housing_censuses_by_country" title="Population and housing censuses by country">Population and housing censuses by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_cities" title="List of largest cities">Largest cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_population_milestones" title="World population milestones">World population milestones</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Day_of_Six_Billion" title="Day of Six Billion">6 billion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Day_of_Seven_Billion" title="Day of Seven Billion">7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Day_of_Eight_Billion" title="Day of Eight Billion">8</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_population_concern_organizations" title="List of population concern organizations">Population concern organizations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Events and<br />organizations</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/7_Billion_Actions" title="7 Billion Actions">7 Billion Actions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_Euthanasia" title="Church of Euthanasia">Church of Euthanasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Conference_on_Population_and_Development" title="International Conference on Population and Development">International Conference on Population and Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_Action_International" title="Population Action International">Population Action International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_Connection" title="Population Connection">Population Connection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_Matters" title="Population Matters">Population Matters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Population_Fund" title="United Nations Population Fund">United Nations Population Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_world_population_conferences" title="United Nations world population conferences">United Nations world population conferences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voluntary_Human_Extinction_Movement" title="Voluntary Human Extinction Movement">Voluntary Human Extinction Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Population_Conference" title="World Population Conference">World Population Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Population_Day" title="World Population Day">World Population Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Population_Foundation" title="World Population Foundation">World Population Foundation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bennett%27s_law" title="Bennett's law">Bennett's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Revolution" title="Green Revolution">Green Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_migration" title="Human migration">Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">Sustainability</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a 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