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class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Types </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Types subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Walker's_five_kinds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Walker's_five_kinds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Walker's five kinds </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Walker's_five_kinds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Barkun's_three_types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Barkun's_three_types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Barkun's three types </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Barkun's_three_types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rothbard:_shallow_vs._deep" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rothbard:_shallow_vs._deep"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Rothbard: shallow vs. deep </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rothbard:_shallow_vs._deep-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lack_of_evidence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lack_of_evidence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Lack of evidence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lack_of_evidence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rhetoric" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rhetoric"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Rhetoric </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rhetoric-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consequences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consequences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Consequences </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consequences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interventions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interventions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Interventions </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Interventions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Interventions subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Interventions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Target_audience" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Target_audience"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Target audience </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Target_audience-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-General_public" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_public"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1.1 General public </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_public-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conspiracy_theorists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conspiracy_theorists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1.2 Conspiracy theorists </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conspiracy_theorists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reducing_transmission" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reducing_transmission"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Reducing transmission </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reducing_transmission-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Government_policies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government_policies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Government policies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Government_policies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_health_campaigns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_health_campaigns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4 Public health campaigns </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_health_campaigns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Backfire_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Backfire_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.5 Backfire effects </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Backfire_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Psychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Psychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Psychology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Psychology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Psychology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Psychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Attractions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Attractions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Attractions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Attractions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Causes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Causes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Causes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Causes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Projection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Projection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2.1 Projection </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Projection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2.2 Physiology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sociology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sociology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Sociology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sociology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Sociology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Sociology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Influence_of_critical_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influence_of_critical_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Influence of critical theory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Influence_of_critical_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fusion_paranoia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fusion_paranoia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.2 Fusion paranoia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fusion_paranoia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Viability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Viability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Viability </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Viability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Terminology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Terminology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Terminology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Terminology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Politics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Politics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Politics </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Politics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Politics subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Politics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Arab_world" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arab_world"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.1 Arab world </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arab_world-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Turkey" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Turkey"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.2 Turkey </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Turkey-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.3 United States </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 17 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 18 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Conspiracy theory</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 85 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-85" aria-hidden="true" > 85 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samesweringsteorie" title="Samesweringsteorie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Samesweringsteorie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verschw%C3%B6rungstheorie" title="Verschwörungstheorie – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Verschwörungstheorie" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A4%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A9" title="نظرية المؤامرة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="نظرية المؤامرة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teor%C3%ADa_de_la_conspiraci%C3%B3n" title="Teoría de la conspiración – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Teoría de la conspiración" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konspirasiya_n%C9%99z%C9%99riyy%C9%99si" title="Konspirasiya nəzəriyyəsi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Konspirasiya nəzəriyyəsi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC" title="ষড়যন্ত্র তত্ত্ব – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ষড়যন্ত্র তত্ত্ব" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Im-b%C3%B4%CD%98-l%C5%ABn" title="Im-bô͘-lūn – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Im-bô͘-lūn" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%8D%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B" title="Тэорыя змовы – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Тэорыя змовы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teorya_nin_sabwatan" title="Teorya nin sabwatan – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Teorya nin sabwatan" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Конспиративна теория – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Конспиративна теория" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaschwearungstheorie" title="Vaschwearungstheorie – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Vaschwearungstheorie" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teorija_zavjere" title="Teorija zavjere – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Teorija zavjere" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iriennouriezh" title="Iriennouriezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Iriennouriezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teoria_de_la_conspiraci%C3%B3" title="Teoria de la conspiració – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Teoria de la conspiració" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9%C4%95" title="Кавар теорийĕ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Кавар теорийĕ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konspira%C4%8Dn%C3%AD_teorie" title="Konspirační teorie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Konspirační teorie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damcaniaeth_gydgynllwyniol" title="Damcaniaeth gydgynllwyniol – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Damcaniaeth gydgynllwyniol" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konspirationsteori" title="Konspirationsteori – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Konspirationsteori" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verschw%C3%B6rungstheorie" title="Verschwörungstheorie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Verschwörungstheorie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanden%C3%B5uteooria" title="Vandenõuteooria – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Vandenõuteooria" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%98%CE%B5%CF%89%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CF%83%CF%85%CE%BD%CF%89%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%AF%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Θεωρία συνωμοσίας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Θεωρία συνωμοσίας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teor%C3%ADa_conspirativa" title="Teoría conspirativa – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Teoría conspirativa" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konspira_teorio" title="Konspira teorio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Konspira teorio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konspirazioaren_teoria" title="Konspirazioaren teoria – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Konspirazioaren teoria" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A6%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B7%D8%A6%D9%87" title="تئوری توطئه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تئوری توطئه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A9orie_du_complot" title="Théorie du complot – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Théorie du complot" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gearspanningsteory" title="Gearspanningsteory – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Gearspanningsteory" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teor%C3%ADa_da_conspiraci%C3%B3n" title="Teoría da conspiración – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Teoría da conspiración" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%8C%EB%AA%A8%EB%A1%A0" title="음모론 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="음모론" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B4%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%A1%D5%A4%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%BF%D5%A5%D5%BD%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Դավադրության տեսություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Դավադրության տեսություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4" title="षड्यन्त्र का सिद्धान्त – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="षड्यन्त्र का सिद्धान्त" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teorija_urote" title="Teorija urote – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Teorija urote" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teori_konspirasi" title="Teori konspirasi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Teori konspirasi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teorie_de_conspiration" title="Teorie de conspiration – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Teorie de conspiration" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imbono_yozungu" title="Imbono yozungu – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Imbono yozungu" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiZulu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sams%C3%A6riskenning" title="Samsæriskenning – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Samsæriskenning" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teoria_del_complotto" title="Teoria del complotto – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Teoria del complotto" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%A7%D7%A9%D7%A8" title="תאוריית קשר – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="תאוריית קשר" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A8%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%A5%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%97%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="შეთქმულების თეორია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="შეთქმულების თეორია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%9A%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Қастандық теориясы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Қастандық теориясы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nadharia_ya_njama" title="Nadharia ya njama – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Nadharia ya njama" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoria_coniurationis" title="Theoria coniurationis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Theoria coniurationis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sazv%C4%93rest%C4%ABbas_teorija" title="Sazvērestības teorija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Sazvērestības teorija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C4%85mokslo_teorija" title="Sąmokslo teorija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Sąmokslo teorija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teoria_de_conspira" title="Teoria de conspira – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Teoria de conspira" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96sszeesk%C3%BCv%C3%A9s-elm%C3%A9let" title="Összeesküvés-elmélet – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Összeesküvés-elmélet" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Теорија на заговор – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Теорија на заговор" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8B%E0%B5%BA%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BF_%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BF" title="കോൺസ്പിറസി തിയറി – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="കോൺസ്പിറസി തിയറി" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A4%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1%D9%87" title="نظرية المؤامره – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="نظرية المؤامره" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teori_konspirasi" title="Teori konspirasi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Teori konspirasi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complottheorie" title="Complottheorie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Complottheorie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%99%B0%E8%AC%80%E8%AB%96" title="陰謀論 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="陰謀論" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konspirasjonsteori" title="Konspirasjonsteori – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Konspirasjonsteori" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konspirasjonsteori" title="Konspirasjonsteori – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Konspirasjonsteori" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitna_nazariyasi" title="Fitna nazariyasi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Fitna nazariyasi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC_%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%8D%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B5" title="ਸਾਜ਼ਿਸ਼ ਪ੍ਰਸਤਾਵ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸਾਜ਼ਿਸ਼ ਪ੍ਰਸਤਾਵ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%B1%DB%8C%DB%81_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%84_%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%84" title="نظریہ تال میل – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="نظریہ تال میل" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B7%DB%8C%DB%90_%D8%AA%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A" title="د توطیې تیوري – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د توطیې تیوري" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi mw-list-item"><a href="https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giaman_tiori" title="Giaman tiori – Tok Pisin" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi" data-title="Giaman tiori" data-language-autonym="Tok Pisin" data-language-local-name="Tok Pisin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tok Pisin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teoria_spiskowa" title="Teoria spiskowa – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Teoria spiskowa" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teoria_da_conspira%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Teoria da conspiração – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Teoria da conspiração" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teorie_conspirativ%C4%83" title="Teorie conspirativă – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Teorie conspirativă" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Теория заговора – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Теория заговора" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%83" title="दुर्गोष्ठ्याः सिद्धान्तः – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="दुर्गोष्ठ्याः सिद्धान्तः" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teoria_e_komplotit" title="Teoria e komplotit – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Teoria e komplotit" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%B8%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%AB_%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BA" title="කුමන්ත්‍රණ න්‍යාය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="කුමන්ත්‍රණ න්‍යාය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conspiracy_theory" title="Conspiracy theory – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Conspiracy theory" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kon%C5%A1pira%C4%8Dn%C3%A1_te%C3%B3ria" title="Konšpiračná teória – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Konšpiračná teória" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teorija_zarote" title="Teorija zarote – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Teorija zarote" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teorija_zavere" title="Teorija zavere – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Teorija zavere" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teorija_zavjere" title="Teorija zavjere – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Teorija zavjere" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salaliittoteoria" title="Salaliittoteoria – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Salaliittoteoria" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a 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print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theory_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Conspiracy theory (disambiguation)">Conspiracy theory (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dollarnote_siegel_hq.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Dollarnote_siegel_hq.jpg/220px-Dollarnote_siegel_hq.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Dollarnote_siegel_hq.jpg/330px-Dollarnote_siegel_hq.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Dollarnote_siegel_hq.jpg/440px-Dollarnote_siegel_hq.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="726" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Eye_of_Providence" title="Eye of Providence">Eye of Providence</a>, as seen on the US $1 bill, has been perceived by some to be evidence of a conspiracy linking the <a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers of the United States</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Illuminati" title="Illuminati">Illuminati</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Barkun2003-1">[1]</a>: 58 <a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a>: 47–49 </figcaption></figure> A conspiracy theory is an explanation for an event or situation that asserts the existence of a <a href="/wiki/Conspiracy" title="Conspiracy">conspiracy</a> (generally by powerful sinister groups, often political in motivation),<a href="#cite_note-Harambam-Aupers_2021-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> when other explanations are more probable.<a href="#cite_note-Harambam-Aupers_2021-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-BrothertonFrench2013-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-probability-7">[7]</a> The term generally has a <a href="/wiki/Connotation" title="Connotation">negative connotation</a>, implying that the appeal of a conspiracy theory is based in prejudice, emotional conviction, or insufficient evidence.<a href="#cite_note-Byford-8">[8]</a> A conspiracy theory is distinct from a <a href="/wiki/Conspiracy" title="Conspiracy">conspiracy</a>; it refers to a hypothesized conspiracy with specific characteristics, including but not limited to opposition to the mainstream consensus among those who are qualified to evaluate its accuracy, such as <a href="/wiki/Scientist" title="Scientist">scientists</a> or <a href="/wiki/Historians" class="mw-redirect" title="Historians">historians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Andrade2020-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Barkun2016-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brotherton2013-q-11">[11]</a> Conspiracy theories tend to be internally consistent and correlate with each other;<a href="#cite_note-annurev-psych-12">[12]</a> they are generally designed to resist <a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">falsification</a> either by evidence against them or a lack of evidence for them.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> They are reinforced by <a href="/wiki/Circular_reasoning" title="Circular reasoning">circular reasoning</a>: both evidence against the conspiracy and absence of evidence for it are misinterpreted as evidence of its truth.<a href="#cite_note-Byford-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Keeley1999-14">[14]</a> <a href="/wiki/Stephan_Lewandowsky" title="Stephan Lewandowsky">Stephan Lewandowsky</a> observes "This interpretation relies on the notion that, the stronger the evidence against a conspiracy, the more the conspirators must want people to believe their version of events."<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> As a consequence, the conspiracy becomes a matter of faith rather than something that can be proven or disproven.<a href="#cite_note-Barkun2003-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Barkun2011-16">[16]</a> Studies have linked belief in conspiracy theories to distrust of authority and political <a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(contemporary)" title="Cynicism (contemporary)">cynicism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> Some researchers suggest that conspiracist ideation—belief in conspiracy theories—may be psychologically harmful or pathological.<a href="#cite_note-Freeman_595–604-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-Barron_156–159-21">[21]</a> Such belief is correlated with <a href="/wiki/Psychological_projection" title="Psychological projection">psychological projection</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paranoia" title="Paranoia">paranoia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Machiavellianism_(psychology)" title="Machiavellianism (psychology)">Machiavellianism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> Psychologists usually attribute belief in conspiracy theories to a number of psychopathological conditions such as <a href="/wiki/Paranoia" title="Paranoia">paranoia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Schizotypy" title="Schizotypy">schizotypy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Narcissism" title="Narcissism">narcissism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Insecure_attachment" class="mw-redirect" title="Insecure attachment">insecure attachment</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Andrade2020-9">[9]</a> or to a form of <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias" title="Cognitive bias">cognitive bias</a> called "<a href="/wiki/Illusory_pattern_perception" class="mw-redirect" title="Illusory pattern perception">illusory pattern perception</a>".<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> It has also been linked with the so-called <a href="/wiki/Dark_triad" title="Dark triad">Dark triad</a> personality types, whose common feature is lack of <a href="/wiki/Empathy" title="Empathy">empathy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> However, a 2020 review article found that most <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">cognitive scientists</a> view conspiracy theorizing as typically nonpathological, given that unfounded belief in conspiracy is common across both historical and contemporary cultures, and may arise from innate human tendencies towards gossip, group cohesion, and religion.<a href="#cite_note-Andrade2020-9">[9]</a> One historical review of conspiracy theories concluded that "Evidence suggests that the aversive feelings that people experience when in crisis—fear, uncertainty, and the feeling of being out of control—stimulate a motivation to make sense of the situation, increasing the likelihood of perceiving conspiracies in social situations."<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> Historically, conspiracy theories have been closely linked to <a href="/wiki/Prejudice" title="Prejudice">prejudice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">propaganda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Witch_hunt" title="Witch hunt">witch hunts</a>, <a href="/wiki/War" title="War">wars</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocides</a>.<a href="#cite_note-annurev-psych-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-DouglasUscinski2019-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-Goertzel2010-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-HR-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> They are often strongly believed by the perpetrators of <a href="/wiki/Terrorism" title="Terrorism">terrorist attacks</a>, and were used as justification by <a href="/wiki/Timothy_McVeigh" title="Timothy McVeigh">Timothy McVeigh</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anders_Breivik" class="mw-redirect" title="Anders Breivik">Anders Breivik</a>, as well as by governments such as <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>,<a href="#cite_note-DouglasUscinski2019-28">[28]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theories_in_Turkey" title="Conspiracy theories in Turkey">Turkey</a>.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> <a href="/wiki/AIDS_denialism" class="mw-redirect" title="AIDS denialism">AIDS denialism</a> by the government of <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>, motivated by conspiracy theories, caused an estimated 330,000 deaths from AIDS.<a href="#cite_note-Thresher-Andrews2013-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-SimelelaVenter2015-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-BurtonGiddy2015-35">[35]</a> <a href="/wiki/QAnon" title="QAnon">QAnon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Election_denial_movement_in_the_United_States" title="Election denial movement in the United States">denialism</a> about the <a href="/wiki/2020_United_States_presidential_election" title="2020 United States presidential election">2020 United States presidential election</a> results led to the <a href="/wiki/January_6_United_States_Capitol_attack" title="January 6 United States Capitol attack">January 6 United States Capitol attack</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Nature_2021-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-Crossley_2021-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> and belief in <a href="/wiki/GMO_conspiracy_theories" title="GMO conspiracy theories">conspiracy theories about genetically modified foods</a> led the government of <a href="/wiki/Zambia" title="Zambia">Zambia</a> to reject food aid during a <a href="/wiki/Famine" title="Famine">famine</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Goertzel2010-29">[29]</a> at a time when three million people in the country were suffering from <a href="/wiki/Hunger" title="Hunger">hunger</a>.<a href="#cite_note-BrossardShanahan2007-39">[39]</a> Conspiracy theories are a significant obstacle to improvements in <a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">public health</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Goertzel2010-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-GlickBooth2014-40">[40]</a> encouraging opposition to such public health measures as <a href="/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">vaccination</a> and <a href="/wiki/Water_fluoridation" title="Water fluoridation">water fluoridation</a>. They have been linked to outbreaks of <a href="/wiki/Vaccine-preventable_disease" title="Vaccine-preventable disease">vaccine-preventable diseases</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Goertzel2010-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-Thresher-Andrews2013-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-GlickBooth2014-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-PrematungeCorace2012-41">[41]</a> Other effects of conspiracy theories include reduced trust in <a href="/wiki/Scientific_evidence" title="Scientific evidence">scientific evidence</a>,<a href="#cite_note-annurev-psych-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-Goertzel2010-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-Douglas_538–542-42">[42]</a> radicalization and ideological reinforcement of <a href="/wiki/Extremism" title="Extremism">extremist</a> groups,<a href="#cite_note-DouglasUscinski2019-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brotherton2015-2-43">[43]</a> and negative consequences for the <a href="/wiki/Economy" title="Economy">economy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-DouglasUscinski2019-28">[28]</a> Conspiracy theories once limited to fringe audiences have become commonplace in <a href="/wiki/Mass_media" title="Mass media">mass media</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Social_media" title="Social media">social media</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Andrade2020-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-annurev-psych-12">[12]</a> emerging as a <a href="/wiki/Cultural_phenomenon" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural phenomenon">cultural phenomenon</a> of the late 20th and early 21st centuries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarkun200358-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-Camp_1997-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-Goldberg_2001-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fenster_2008-47">[47]</a> They are widespread around the world and are often commonly believed, some even held by the majority of the population.<a href="#cite_note-van_ProoijenDouglas2018-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-SunsteinVermeule2009-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brotherton2015-i-50">[50]</a> Interventions to reduce the occurrence of conspiracy beliefs include maintaining an <a href="/wiki/Open_society" title="Open society">open society</a>, encouraging people to use <a href="/wiki/Analytical_thinking" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytical thinking">analytical thinking</a>, and reducing feelings of uncertainty, anxiety, or powerlessness.<a href="#cite_note-Douglas_538–542-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-van_ProoijenDouglas2018-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-SunsteinVermeule2009-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-LewandowskyCook2020-51">[51]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origin_and_usage">Origin and usage</h2></div> The <a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a> defines conspiracy theory as "the theory that an event or phenomenon occurs as a result of a conspiracy between interested parties; spec. a belief that some covert but influential agency (typically political in motivation and oppressive in intent) is responsible for an unexplained event". It cites a 1909 article in <a href="/wiki/The_American_Historical_Review" title="The American Historical Review">The American Historical Review</a> as the earliest usage example,<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> although it also appeared in print for several decades before.<a href="#cite_note-JoMS-1870-54">[54]</a> The earliest known usage was by the American author <a href="/wiki/Charles_Astor_Bristed" title="Charles Astor Bristed">Charles Astor Bristed</a>, in a letter to the editor published in <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a> on January 11, 1863.<a href="#cite_note-nyt-55">[55]</a> He used it to refer to claims that British aristocrats were intentionally <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_and_the_American_Civil_War" title="United Kingdom and the American Civil War">weakening the United States during the American Civil War</a> in order to advance their financial interests. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">England has had quite enough to do in Europe and Asia, without going out of her way to meddle with America. It was a physical and moral impossibility that she could be carrying on a gigantic conspiracy against us. But our masses, having only a rough general knowledge of foreign affairs, and not unnaturally somewhat exaggerating the space which we occupy in the world's eye, do not appreciate the complications which rendered such a conspiracy impossible. They only look at the sudden right-about-face movement of the English Press and public, which is most readily accounted for on the conspiracy theory.<a href="#cite_note-nyt-55">[55]</a></blockquote> The term is also used as a way to discredit <a href="/wiki/Dissenting_opinion" title="Dissenting opinion">dissenting</a> analyses.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Robert Blaskiewicz comments that examples of the term were used as early as the nineteenth century and states that its usage has always been derogatory.<a href="#cite_note-CSICOP-57">[57]</a> According to a study by Andrew McKenzie-McHarg, in contrast, in the nineteenth century the term conspiracy theory simply "suggests a plausible postulate of a conspiracy" and "did not, at this stage, carry any connotations, either negative or positive", though sometimes a postulate so-labeled was criticized.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> The author and activist <a href="/wiki/George_Monbiot" title="George Monbiot">George Monbiot</a> argued that the terms "conspiracy theory" and "conspiracy theorist" are misleading, as conspiracies truly exist and <a href="/wiki/Theories" class="mw-redirect" title="Theories">theories</a> are "rational explanations subject to disproof". Instead, he proposed the terms "conspiracy fiction" and "conspiracy fantasist".<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alleged_CIA_origins">Alleged CIA origins</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WarrenReport-cover1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/WarrenReport-cover1.jpg/220px-WarrenReport-cover1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="320" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/WarrenReport-cover1.jpg/330px-WarrenReport-cover1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/WarrenReport-cover1.jpg/440px-WarrenReport-cover1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1399" data-file-height="2037" /></a><figcaption>The Warren Report</figcaption></figure> The term "conspiracy theory" is itself the subject of a conspiracy theory, which posits that the term was popularized by the <a href="/wiki/CIA" class="mw-redirect" title="CIA">CIA</a> in order to discredit conspiratorial believers, particularly critics of the <a href="/wiki/Warren_Commission" title="Warren Commission">Warren Commission</a>, by making them a target of ridicule.<a href="#cite_note-Brotherton2015-4-60">[60]</a> In his 2013 book Conspiracy Theory in America, the political scientist Lance deHaven-Smith wrote that the term entered everyday language in the United States after 1964, the year in which the Warren Commission published its findings on the <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Assassination of John F. Kennedy">assassination of John F. Kennedy</a>, with The New York Times running five stories that year using the term.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> Whether the CIA was responsible for popularising the term "conspiracy theory" was analyzed by Michael Butter, a Professor of American Literary and Cultural History at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_T%C3%BCbingen" title="University of Tübingen">University of Tübingen</a>. Butter wrote in 2020 that the CIA document Concerning Criticism of the Warren Report, which proponents of the theory use as evidence of CIA motive and intention, does not contain the phrase "conspiracy theory" in the singular, and only uses the term "conspiracy theories" once, in the sentence: "Conspiracy theories have frequently thrown suspicion on our organisation [<a href="/wiki/Sic" title="Sic">sic</a>], for example, by falsely alleging that Lee Harvey Oswald worked for us."<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Difference_from_conspiracy">Difference from conspiracy</h2></div> A conspiracy theory is not simply a <a href="/wiki/Conspiracy" title="Conspiracy">conspiracy</a>, which refers to any covert plan involving two or more people.<a href="#cite_note-Barkun2016-10">[10]</a> In contrast, the term "conspiracy theory" refers to hypothesized conspiracies that have specific characteristics. For example, conspiracist beliefs invariably oppose the mainstream consensus among those people who are qualified to evaluate their accuracy, such as <a href="/wiki/Scientist" title="Scientist">scientists</a> or <a href="/wiki/Historians" class="mw-redirect" title="Historians">historians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Brotherton2013-q-11">[11]</a> Conspiracy theorists see themselves as having privileged access to socially persecuted knowledge or a stigmatized mode of thought that separates them from the masses who believe the official account.<a href="#cite_note-Barkun2016-10">[10]</a> <a href="/wiki/Michael_Barkun" title="Michael Barkun">Michael Barkun</a> describes a conspiracy theory as a "template imposed upon the world to give the appearance of order to events".<a href="#cite_note-Barkun2016-10">[10]</a> Real conspiracies, even very simple ones, are difficult to conceal and routinely experience unexpected problems.<a href="#cite_note-Brotherton2013-63">[63]</a> In contrast, conspiracy theories suggest that conspiracies are unrealistically successful and that groups of conspirators, such as <a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">bureaucracies</a>, can act with near-perfect competence and secrecy. The causes of events or situations are simplified to exclude complex or interacting factors, as well as the role of chance and unintended consequences. Nearly all observations are explained as having been deliberately planned by the alleged conspirators.<a href="#cite_note-Brotherton2013-63">[63]</a> In conspiracy theories, the conspirators are usually claimed to be acting with extreme malice.<a href="#cite_note-Brotherton2013-63">[63]</a> As described by Robert Brotherton: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The malevolent intent assumed by most conspiracy theories goes far beyond everyday plots borne out of self-interest, corruption, cruelty, and criminality. The postulated conspirators are not merely people with selfish agendas or differing values. Rather, conspiracy theories postulate a black-and-white world in which good is struggling against evil. The general public is cast as the victim of organised persecution, and the motives of the alleged conspirators often verge on pure maniacal evil. At the very least, the conspirators are said to have an almost inhuman disregard for the basic liberty and well-being of the general population. More grandiose conspiracy theories portray the conspirators as being Evil Incarnate: of having caused all the ills from which we suffer, committing abominable acts of unthinkable cruelty on a routine basis, and striving ultimately to subvert or destroy everything we hold dear.<a href="#cite_note-Brotherton2013-63">[63]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_conspiracy_theories" title="List of conspiracy theories">List of conspiracy theories</a></div> A conspiracy theory may take any matter as its subject, but certain subjects attract greater interest than others. Favored subjects include famous deaths and assassinations, morally dubious government activities, suppressed technologies, and "<a href="/wiki/False_flag" title="False flag">false flag</a>" terrorism. Among the longest-standing and most widely recognized conspiracy theories are notions concerning the <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_assassination_conspiracy_theories" title="John F. Kennedy assassination conspiracy theories">assassination of John F. Kennedy</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Moon_landing_conspiracy_theories" title="Moon landing conspiracy theories">1969 Apollo Moon landings</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/9/11_conspiracy_theories" title="9/11 conspiracy theories">9/11 terrorist attacks</a>, as well as numerous theories pertaining to alleged plots for world domination by various groups, both real and imaginary.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Popularity">Popularity</h2></div> Conspiracy beliefs are widespread around the world.<a href="#cite_note-van_ProoijenDouglas2018-48">[48]</a> In rural Africa, common targets of conspiracy theorizing include societal elites, enemy tribes, and the Western world, with conspirators often alleged to enact their plans via sorcery or witchcraft; one common belief identifies modern technology as itself being a form of sorcery, created with the goal of harming or controlling the people.<a href="#cite_note-van_ProoijenDouglas2018-48">[48]</a> In <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, one widely published conspiracy theory claims that a number of events including the <a href="/wiki/Rise_of_Hitler" class="mw-redirect" title="Rise of Hitler">rise of Hitler</a>, the <a href="/wiki/1997_Asian_financial_crisis" title="1997 Asian financial crisis">1997 Asian financial crisis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> were planned by the <a href="/wiki/Rothschild_family" title="Rothschild family">Rothschild family</a>, which may have led to effects on discussions about <a href="/wiki/Monetary_policy_of_China" title="Monetary policy of China">China's currency policy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-SunsteinVermeule2009-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-Byford2011-65">[65]</a> Conspiracy theories once limited to fringe audiences have become commonplace in <a href="/wiki/Mass_media" title="Mass media">mass media</a>, contributing to conspiracism emerging as a <a href="/wiki/Cultural_phenomenon" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural phenomenon">cultural phenomenon</a> in the United States of the late 20th and early 21st centuries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarkun200358-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-Camp_1997-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-Goldberg_2001-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fenster_2008-47">[47]</a> The general predisposition to believe conspiracy theories cuts across partisan and ideological lines. Conspiratorial thinking is correlated with antigovernmental orientations and a low sense of political efficacy, with conspiracy believers perceiving a governmental threat to individual rights and displaying a deep skepticism that who one votes for really matters.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> Conspiracy theories are often commonly believed, some even being held by the majority of the population.<a href="#cite_note-van_ProoijenDouglas2018-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-SunsteinVermeule2009-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brotherton2015-i-50">[50]</a> A broad cross-section of Americans today gives credence to at least some conspiracy theories.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> For instance, a study conducted in 2016 found that 10% of Americans think the <a href="/wiki/Chemtrail_conspiracy_theory" title="Chemtrail conspiracy theory">chemtrail conspiracy theory</a> is "completely true" and 20–30% think it is "somewhat true".<a href="#cite_note-Gizearth-68">[68]</a> This puts "the equivalent of 120 million Americans in the 'chemtrails are real' camp".<a href="#cite_note-Gizearth-68">[68]</a> Belief in conspiracy theories has therefore become a topic of interest for sociologists, psychologists and experts in <a href="/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore">folklore</a>. Conspiracy theories are widely present on the <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">Web</a> in the form of <a href="/wiki/Blog" title="Blog">blogs</a> and <a href="/wiki/YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a> videos, as well as on <a href="/wiki/Social_media" title="Social media">social media</a>. Whether the Web has increased the prevalence of conspiracy theories or not is an open research question.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> The presence and representation of conspiracy theories in <a href="/wiki/Search_engine" title="Search engine">search engine</a> results has been monitored and studied, showing significant variation across different topics, and a general absence of reputable, high-quality links in the results.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> One conspiracy theory that propagated through former US President Barack Obama's time in office<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> claimed that he was <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama_citizenship_conspiracy_theories" title="Barack Obama citizenship conspiracy theories">born in Kenya, instead of Hawaii where he was actually born</a>.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> Former governor of Arkansas and political opponent of Obama <a href="/wiki/Mike_Huckabee" title="Mike Huckabee">Mike Huckabee</a> made headlines in 2011<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> when he, among other members of <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican</a> leadership, continued to question Obama's citizenship status. <table class="wikitable sortable"> <caption align="center">Belief in conspiracy theories in the United States, December 2020 – NPR/Ipsos poll, ±3.3%<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Conspiracy theory </th> <th>Believe </th> <th>Not sure </th></tr> <tr> <td>"A group of Satan-worshipping elites who run a child sex ring are trying to control our politics and media" (<a href="/wiki/QAnon" title="QAnon">QAnon</a>) </td> <td><div style="float:right;">17%</div> </td> <td><div style="float:right;">37%</div> </td></tr> <tr> <td>"Several mass shootings in recent years were staged hoaxes" (<a href="/wiki/Crisis_actor" title="Crisis actor">crisis actor</a> theory) </td> <td><div style="float:right;">12%</div> </td> <td><div style="float:right;">27%</div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> was not born in the United States (<a href="/wiki/Birtherism" class="mw-redirect" title="Birtherism">birtherism</a>) </td> <td><div style="float:right;">19%</div> </td> <td><div style="float:right;">22%</div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Moon_landing_conspiracy_theories" title="Moon landing conspiracy theories">Moon landing conspiracy theories</a> </td> <td><div style="float:right;">8%</div> </td> <td><div style="float:right;">20%</div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/9/11_conspiracy_theories" title="9/11 conspiracy theories">9/11 conspiracy theories</a> </td> <td><div style="float:right;">7%</div> </td> <td><div style="float:right;">20%</div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2></div> A conspiracy theory can be local or international, focused on single events or covering multiple incidents and entire countries, regions and periods of history.<a href="#cite_note-Barkun2016-10">[10]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Russell_Muirhead" title="Russell Muirhead">Russell Muirhead</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nancy_Rosenblum" class="mw-redirect" title="Nancy Rosenblum">Nancy Rosenblum</a>, historically, traditional conspiracism has entailed a "theory", but over time, "conspiracy" and "theory" have become decoupled, as modern conspiracism is often without any kind of theory behind it.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Walker's_five_kinds">Walker's five kinds</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Jesse_Walker" title="Jesse Walker">Jesse Walker</a> (2013) has identified five kinds of conspiracy theories:<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> <ul><li>The "Enemy Outside" refers to theories based on figures alleged to be scheming against a community from without.</li> <li>The "Enemy Within" finds the conspirators lurking inside the nation, indistinguishable from ordinary citizens.</li> <li>The "Enemy Above" involves powerful people manipulating events for their own gain.</li> <li>The "Enemy Below" features the lower classes working to overturn the social order.</li> <li>The "Benevolent Conspiracies" are angelic forces that work behind the scenes to improve the world and help people.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Barkun's_three_types">Barkun's three types</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Michael_Barkun" title="Michael Barkun">Michael Barkun</a> has identified three classifications of conspiracy theory:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarkun20036-78">[78]</a> <ul><li>Event conspiracy theories. This refers to limited and well-defined events. Examples may include such conspiracies theories as those concerning the <a href="/wiki/Kennedy_assassination_conspiracies" class="mw-redirect" title="Kennedy assassination conspiracies">Kennedy assassination</a>, <a href="/wiki/9/11" class="mw-redirect" title="9/11">9/11</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Discredited_AIDS_origins_theories" class="mw-redirect" title="Discredited AIDS origins theories">spread of AIDS</a>.</li> <li>Systemic conspiracy theories. The conspiracy is believed to have broad goals, usually conceived as securing control of a country, a region, or even the entire world. The goals are sweeping, whilst the conspiratorial machinery is generally simple: a single, evil organization implements a plan to infiltrate and subvert existing institutions. This is a common scenario in conspiracy theories that focus on the alleged machinations of <a href="/wiki/International_Jewish_conspiracy" title="International Jewish conspiracy">Jews</a>, <a href="/wiki/Masonic_conspiracy_theories" title="Masonic conspiracy theories">Freemasons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Red_Scare" title="Red Scare">Communism</a>, or the <a href="/wiki/Vatican_conspiracy_theories" title="Vatican conspiracy theories">Catholic Church</a>.</li> <li>Superconspiracy theories. For Barkun, such theories link multiple alleged conspiracies together hierarchically. At the summit is a distant but all-powerful evil force. His cited examples are the ideas of <a href="/wiki/David_Icke" title="David Icke">David Icke</a> and <a href="/wiki/Milton_William_Cooper" title="Milton William Cooper">Milton William Cooper</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rothbard:_shallow_vs._deep">Rothbard: shallow vs. deep</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Murray Rothbard</a> argues in favor of a model that contrasts "deep" conspiracy theories to "shallow" ones. According to Rothbard, a "shallow" theorist observes an event and asks <a href="/wiki/Cui_bono" class="mw-redirect" title="Cui bono">Cui bono</a>? ("Who benefits?"), jumping to the conclusion that a posited beneficiary is responsible for covertly influencing events. On the other hand, the "deep" conspiracy theorist begins with a hunch and then seeks out evidence. Rothbard describes this latter activity as a matter of confirming with certain facts one's initial paranoia.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Lack_of_evidence">Lack of evidence</h2></div> Belief in conspiracy theories is generally based not on evidence, but in the faith of the believer.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarkun20037-80">[80]</a> <a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a> contrasts conspiracy theory to <a href="/wiki/Institutional_analysis" title="Institutional analysis">institutional analysis</a> which focuses mostly on the public, long-term behavior of publicly known institutions, as recorded in, for example, scholarly documents or <a href="/wiki/Mainstream_media" title="Mainstream media">mainstream media</a> reports.<a href="#cite_note-WintonickQuébec)1994-81">[81]</a> Conspiracy theory conversely posits the existence of secretive coalitions of individuals and speculates on their alleged activities.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> Belief in conspiracy theories is associated with biases in reasoning, such as the <a href="/wiki/Conjunction_fallacy" title="Conjunction fallacy">conjunction fallacy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-BrothertonFrench2014-84">[84]</a> Clare Birchall at <a href="/wiki/King%27s_College_London" title="King's College London">King's College London</a> describes conspiracy theory as a "form of popular knowledge or interpretation".<a href="#cite_note-86">[a]</a> The use of the word 'knowledge' here suggests ways in which conspiracy theory may be considered in relation to legitimate modes of knowing.<a href="#cite_note-87">[b]</a> The relationship between legitimate and illegitimate knowledge, Birchall claims, is closer than common dismissals of conspiracy theory contend.<a href="#cite_note-88">[86]</a> Theories involving multiple conspirators that are proven to be correct, such as the <a href="/wiki/Watergate_scandal" title="Watergate scandal">Watergate scandal</a>, are usually referred to as <a href="/wiki/Investigative_journalism" title="Investigative journalism">investigative journalism</a> or <a href="/wiki/Historical_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical analysis">historical analysis</a> rather than conspiracy theory.<a href="#cite_note-knight-2003-89">[87]</a> Bjerg (2016) writes: "the way we normally use the term conspiracy theory excludes instances where the theory has been generally accepted as true. The Watergate scandal serves as the standard reference."<a href="#cite_note-bjerg1-90">[88]</a> By contrast, the term "Watergate conspiracy theory" is used to refer to a variety of hypotheses in which those convicted in the conspiracy were in fact the victims of a deeper conspiracy.<a href="#cite_note-91">[89]</a> There are also attempts to analyze the theory of conspiracy theories (conspiracy theory theory) to ensure that the term "conspiracy theory" is used to refer to narratives that have been debunked by experts, rather than as a generalized dismissal.<a href="#cite_note-92">[90]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rhetoric">Rhetoric</h2></div> Conspiracy theory rhetoric exploits several important <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias" title="Cognitive bias">cognitive biases</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Proportionality_bias" title="Proportionality bias">proportionality bias</a>, <a href="/wiki/Attribution_bias" title="Attribution bias">attribution bias</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Confirmation_bias" title="Confirmation bias">confirmation bias</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Thresher-Andrews2013-33">[33]</a> Their arguments often take the form of asking reasonable questions, but without providing an answer based on strong evidence.<a href="#cite_note-93">[91]</a> Conspiracy theories are most successful when proponents can gather followers from the general public, such as in politics, religion and journalism. These proponents may not necessarily believe the conspiracy theory; instead, they may just use it in an attempt to gain public approval. Conspiratorial claims can act as a successful rhetorical strategy to convince a portion of the public via <a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_emotion" title="Appeal to emotion">appeal to emotion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Goertzel2010-29">[29]</a> Conspiracy theories typically justify themselves by focusing on gaps or ambiguities in knowledge, and then arguing that the true explanation for this <a href="/wiki/Argument_from_ignorance" title="Argument from ignorance">must be a conspiracy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Brotherton2013-63">[63]</a> In contrast, any evidence that directly supports their claims is generally of low quality. For example, conspiracy theories are often dependent on <a href="/wiki/Eyewitness_testimony" title="Eyewitness testimony">eyewitness testimony</a>, despite its unreliability, while disregarding objective analyses of the evidence.<a href="#cite_note-Brotherton2013-63">[63]</a> Conspiracy theories are not able to be <a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">falsified</a> and are reinforced by <a href="/wiki/Fallacious_arguments" class="mw-redirect" title="Fallacious arguments">fallacious arguments</a>. In particular, the logical fallacy <a href="/wiki/Circular_reasoning" title="Circular reasoning">circular reasoning</a> is used by conspiracy theorists: both evidence against the conspiracy and an absence of evidence for it are re-interpreted as evidence of its truth,<a href="#cite_note-Byford-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Keeley1999-14">[14]</a> whereby the conspiracy becomes a matter of faith rather than something that can be proved or disproved.<a href="#cite_note-Barkun2003-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Barkun2011-16">[16]</a> The epistemic strategy of conspiracy theories has been called "cascade logic": each time new evidence becomes available, a conspiracy theory is able to dismiss it by claiming that even more people must be part of the cover-up.<a href="#cite_note-Goertzel2010-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brotherton2013-63">[63]</a> Any information that contradicts the conspiracy theory is suggested to be disinformation by the alleged conspiracy.<a href="#cite_note-Douglas_538–542-42">[42]</a> Similarly, the continued lack of evidence directly supporting conspiracist claims is portrayed as confirming the existence of a conspiracy of silence; the fact that other people have not found or exposed any conspiracy is taken as evidence that those people are part of the plot, rather than considering that it may be because no conspiracy exists.<a href="#cite_note-Thresher-Andrews2013-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brotherton2013-63">[63]</a> This strategy lets conspiracy theories insulate themselves from neutral analyses of the evidence, and makes them resistant to questioning or correction, which is called "epistemic self-insulation".<a href="#cite_note-Thresher-Andrews2013-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brotherton2013-63">[63]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:False_balance_in_climate_science.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/False_balance_in_climate_science.png/290px-False_balance_in_climate_science.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/False_balance_in_climate_science.png/435px-False_balance_in_climate_science.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/False_balance_in_climate_science.png/580px-False_balance_in_climate_science.png 2x" data-file-width="1202" data-file-height="752" /></a><figcaption>In 2013, 97% of peer-reviewed climate science papers that took a position on the cause of global warming said that humans are responsible, 3% said they were not. Among <a href="/wiki/Fox_News" title="Fox News">Fox News</a> guests the same year, this was presented as a false balance between the two viewpoints, with 31% of invited guests believing it was happening and 69% not.<a href="#cite_note-94">[92]</a></figcaption></figure> Conspiracy theorists often take advantage of <a href="/wiki/False_balance" title="False balance">false balance</a> in the media. They may claim to be presenting a legitimate alternative viewpoint that deserves equal time to argue its case; for example, this strategy has been used by the <a href="/wiki/Teach_the_Controversy" title="Teach the Controversy">Teach the Controversy</a> campaign to promote <a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">intelligent design</a>, which often claims that there is a conspiracy of scientists suppressing their views. If they successfully find a platform to present their views in a debate format, they focus on using rhetorical <a href="/wiki/Ad_hominem" title="Ad hominem">ad hominems</a> and attacking perceived flaws in the mainstream account, while avoiding any discussion of the shortcomings in their own position.<a href="#cite_note-Goertzel2010-29">[29]</a> The typical approach of conspiracy theories is to challenge any action or statement from authorities, using even the most tenuous justifications. Responses are then assessed using a double standard, where failing to provide an immediate response to the satisfaction of the conspiracy theorist will be claimed to prove a conspiracy. Any minor errors in the response are heavily emphasized, while deficiencies in the arguments of other proponents are generally excused.<a href="#cite_note-Goertzel2010-29">[29]</a> In science, conspiracists may suggest that a <a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">scientific theory</a> can be disproven by a single perceived deficiency, even though such events are extremely rare. In addition, both disregarding the claims and attempting to address them will be interpreted as proof of a conspiracy.<a href="#cite_note-Goertzel2010-29">[29]</a> Other conspiracist arguments may not be scientific; for example, in response to the <a href="/wiki/IPCC_Second_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Second Assessment Report">IPCC Second Assessment Report</a> in 1996, much of the opposition centered on promoting a procedural objection to the report's creation. Specifically, it was claimed that part of the procedure reflected a conspiracy to silence dissenters, which served as motivation for opponents of the report and successfully redirected a significant amount of the public discussion away from the science.<a href="#cite_note-Goertzel2010-29">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Consequences">Consequences</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Das_j%C3%BCdische_Komplott_Parole_der_Woche_December_1941_crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Das_j%C3%BCdische_Komplott_Parole_der_Woche_December_1941_crop.jpg/220px-Das_j%C3%BCdische_Komplott_Parole_der_Woche_December_1941_crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Das_j%C3%BCdische_Komplott_Parole_der_Woche_December_1941_crop.jpg/330px-Das_j%C3%BCdische_Komplott_Parole_der_Woche_December_1941_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Das_j%C3%BCdische_Komplott_Parole_der_Woche_December_1941_crop.jpg/440px-Das_j%C3%BCdische_Komplott_Parole_der_Woche_December_1941_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="464" data-file-height="368" /></a><figcaption>Third Reich Nazi anti-Semitic propaganda poster entitled Das jüdische Komplott ("The Jewish Conspiracy")</figcaption></figure> Historically, conspiracy theories have been closely linked to <a href="/wiki/Prejudice" title="Prejudice">prejudice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Witch_hunt" title="Witch hunt">witch hunts</a>, <a href="/wiki/War" title="War">wars</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocides</a>.<a href="#cite_note-DouglasUscinski2019-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-Goertzel2010-29">[29]</a> They are often strongly believed by the perpetrators of <a href="/wiki/Terrorist" class="mw-redirect" title="Terrorist">terrorist</a> attacks, and were used as justification by <a href="/wiki/Timothy_McVeigh" title="Timothy McVeigh">Timothy McVeigh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anders_Breivik" class="mw-redirect" title="Anders Breivik">Anders Breivik</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brenton_Tarrant" class="mw-redirect" title="Brenton Tarrant">Brenton Tarrant</a>, as well as by governments such as <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>.<a href="#cite_note-DouglasUscinski2019-28">[28]</a> <a href="/wiki/AIDS_denialism" class="mw-redirect" title="AIDS denialism">AIDS denialism</a> by the government of <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>, motivated by conspiracy theories, caused an estimated 330,000 deaths from AIDS,<a href="#cite_note-Thresher-Andrews2013-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-SimelelaVenter2015-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-BurtonGiddy2015-35">[35]</a> while belief in <a href="/wiki/GMO_conspiracy_theories" title="GMO conspiracy theories">conspiracy theories about genetically modified foods</a> led the government of <a href="/wiki/Zambia" title="Zambia">Zambia</a> to reject food aid during a <a href="/wiki/Famine" title="Famine">famine</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Goertzel2010-29">[29]</a> at a time when 3 million people in the country were suffering from <a href="/wiki/Hunger" title="Hunger">hunger</a>.<a href="#cite_note-BrossardShanahan2007-39">[39]</a> Conspiracy theories are a significant obstacle to improvements in <a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">public health</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Goertzel2010-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-GlickBooth2014-40">[40]</a> People who believe in health-related conspiracy theories are less likely to follow <a href="/wiki/Medical_advice" title="Medical advice">medical advice</a>, and more likely to use <a href="/wiki/Alternative_medicine" title="Alternative medicine">alternative medicine</a> instead.<a href="#cite_note-DouglasUscinski2019-28">[28]</a> Conspiratorial <a href="/wiki/Anti-vaccination" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-vaccination">anti-vaccination</a> beliefs, such as <a href="/wiki/Big_Pharma_conspiracy_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Big Pharma conspiracy theory">conspiracy theories about pharmaceutical companies</a>, can result in reduced vaccination rates and have been linked to outbreaks of <a href="/wiki/Vaccine-preventable_disease" title="Vaccine-preventable disease">vaccine-preventable diseases</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Thresher-Andrews2013-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-Goertzel2010-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-PrematungeCorace2012-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-GlickBooth2014-40">[40]</a> Health-related conspiracy theories often inspire resistance to <a href="/wiki/Water_fluoridation" title="Water fluoridation">water fluoridation</a>, and contributed to the impact of the <a href="/wiki/Lancet_MMR_autism_fraud" title="Lancet MMR autism fraud">Lancet MMR autism fraud</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Goertzel2010-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-GlickBooth2014-40">[40]</a> Conspiracy theories are a fundamental component of a wide range of radicalized and extremist groups, where they may play an important role in reinforcing the ideology and psychology of their members as well as further radicalizing their beliefs.<a href="#cite_note-DouglasUscinski2019-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brotherton2015-2-43">[43]</a> These conspiracy theories often share common themes, even among groups that would otherwise be fundamentally opposed, such as the <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">antisemitic</a> conspiracy theories found among political extremists on both the <a href="/wiki/Far_right" class="mw-redirect" title="Far right">far right</a> and <a href="/wiki/Far_left" class="mw-redirect" title="Far left">far left</a>.<a href="#cite_note-DouglasUscinski2019-28">[28]</a> More generally, belief in conspiracy theories is associated with holding extreme and uncompromising viewpoints, and may help people in maintaining those viewpoints.<a href="#cite_note-Douglas_538–542-42">[42]</a> While conspiracy theories are not always present in extremist groups, and do not always lead to violence when they are, they can make the group more extreme, provide an enemy to direct hatred towards, and isolate members from the rest of society. Conspiracy theories are most likely to inspire violence when they call for urgent action, appeal to prejudices, or demonize and scapegoat enemies.<a href="#cite_note-Brotherton2015-2-43">[43]</a> Conspiracy theorizing in the workplace can also have economic consequences. For example, it leads to lower job satisfaction and lower commitment, resulting in workers being more likely to leave their jobs.<a href="#cite_note-DouglasUscinski2019-28">[28]</a> Comparisons have also been made with the effects of workplace rumors, which share some characteristics with conspiracy theories and result in both decreased productivity and increased stress. Subsequent effects on managers include reduced profits, reduced trust from employees, and damage to the company's image.<a href="#cite_note-DouglasUscinski2019-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-DiFonzoBordia1994-95">[93]</a> Conspiracy theories can divert attention from important social, political, and scientific issues.<a href="#cite_note-Jolley2013-96">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-SciAm2013-97">[95]</a> In addition, they have been used to discredit scientific evidence to the general public or in a legal context. Conspiratorial strategies also share characteristics with those used by lawyers who are attempting to discredit expert testimony, such as claiming that the experts have ulterior motives in testifying, or attempting to find someone who will provide statements to imply that expert opinion is more divided than it actually is.<a href="#cite_note-Goertzel2010-29">[29]</a> It is possible that conspiracy theories may also produce some compensatory benefits to society in certain situations. For example, they may help people identify governmental deceptions, particularly in repressive societies, and encourage <a href="/wiki/Government_transparency" class="mw-redirect" title="Government transparency">government transparency</a>.<a href="#cite_note-SunsteinVermeule2009-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jolley2013-96">[94]</a> However, real conspiracies are normally revealed by people working within the system, such as <a href="/wiki/Whistleblower" class="mw-redirect" title="Whistleblower">whistleblowers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Journalist" title="Journalist">journalists</a>, and most of the effort spent by conspiracy theorists is inherently misdirected.<a href="#cite_note-Brotherton2015-2-43">[43]</a> The most dangerous conspiracy theories are likely to be those that incite violence, scapegoat disadvantaged groups, or spread <a href="/wiki/Misinformation" title="Misinformation">misinformation</a> about important societal issues.<a href="#cite_note-Brotherton2015-e-98">[96]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Interventions">Interventions</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Misinformation#Countering_misinformation" title="Misinformation">Misinformation § Countering misinformation</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Target_audience">Target audience</h3></div> Strategies to address conspiracy theories have been divided into two categories based on whether the target audience is the conspiracy theorists or the general public.<a href="#cite_note-LewandowskyCook2020-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-SunsteinVermeule2009-49">[49]</a> These strategies have been described as reducing <a href="/wiki/Supply_and_demand" title="Supply and demand">either the supply or the demand</a> for conspiracy theories.<a href="#cite_note-SunsteinVermeule2009-49">[49]</a> Both approaches can be used at the same time, although there may be issues of limited resources, or if arguments are used which may appeal to one audience at the expense of the other.<a href="#cite_note-SunsteinVermeule2009-49">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="General_public">General public</h4></div> People who feel <a href="/wiki/Empowerment" title="Empowerment">empowered</a> are more resistant to conspiracy theories. Methods to promote empowerment include encouraging people to use <a href="/wiki/Analytical_thinking" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytical thinking">analytical thinking</a>, <a href="/wiki/Priming_(psychology)" title="Priming (psychology)">priming</a> people to think of situations where they are in control, and ensuring that decisions by society and government are seen to follow procedural fairness (the use of fair decision-making procedures).<a href="#cite_note-LewandowskyCook2020-51">[51]</a> Methods of refutation which have shown effectiveness in various circumstances include: providing facts that demonstrate the conspiracy theory is false, attempting to discredit the source, explaining how the logic is invalid or misleading, and providing links to fact-checking websites.<a href="#cite_note-LewandowskyCook2020-51">[51]</a> It can also be effective to use these strategies in advance, informing people that they could encounter misleading information in the future, and why the information should be rejected (also called inoculation or prebunking).<a href="#cite_note-LewandowskyCook2020-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-ConnollyUscinski2019-99">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-LazicZezelj2021-100">[98]</a> While it has been suggested that discussing conspiracy theories can raise their profile and make them seem more legitimate to the public, the discussion can put people on guard instead as long as it is sufficiently persuasive.<a href="#cite_note-Andrade2020-9">[9]</a> Other approaches to reduce the appeal of conspiracy theories in general among the public may be based in the emotional and social nature of conspiratorial beliefs. For example, interventions that promote <a href="/wiki/Analytical_thinking" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytical thinking">analytical thinking</a> in the general public are likely to be effective. Another approach is to intervene in ways that decrease <a href="/wiki/Negative_emotion" class="mw-redirect" title="Negative emotion">negative emotions</a>, and specifically to improve feelings of personal hope and empowerment.<a href="#cite_note-van_ProoijenDouglas2018-48">[48]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Conspiracy_theorists">Conspiracy theorists</h4></div> It is much more difficult to convince people who already believe in conspiracy theories.<a href="#cite_note-SunsteinVermeule2009-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-LewandowskyCook2020-51">[51]</a> Conspiracist belief systems are not based on external evidence, but instead use <a href="/wiki/Circular_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Circular logic">circular logic</a> where every belief is supported by other conspiracist beliefs.<a href="#cite_note-LewandowskyCook2020-51">[51]</a> In addition, conspiracy theories have a "self-sealing" nature, in which the types of arguments used to support them make them resistant to questioning from others.<a href="#cite_note-SunsteinVermeule2009-49">[49]</a> Characteristics of successful strategies for reaching conspiracy theorists have been divided into several broad categories: 1) Arguments can be presented by "trusted messengers", such as people who were formerly members of an extremist group. 2) Since conspiracy theorists think of themselves as people who value critical thinking, this can be affirmed and then redirected to encourage being more critical when analyzing the conspiracy theory. 3) Approaches demonstrate empathy, and are based on building understanding together, which is supported by modeling open-mindedness in order to encourage the conspiracy theorists to do likewise. 4) The conspiracy theories are not attacked with ridicule or aggressive deconstruction, and interactions are not treated like an argument to be won; this approach can work with the general public, but among conspiracy theorists it may simply be rejected.<a href="#cite_note-LewandowskyCook2020-51">[51]</a> Interventions that reduce feelings of uncertainty, anxiety, or powerlessness result in a reduction in conspiracy beliefs.<a href="#cite_note-Douglas_538–542-42">[42]</a> Other possible strategies to mitigate the effect of conspiracy theories include education, media literacy, and increasing governmental openness and transparency.<a href="#cite_note-ConnollyUscinski2019-99">[97]</a> Due to the relationship between conspiracy theories and political extremism, the academic literature on <a href="/wiki/Deradicalization" title="Deradicalization">deradicalization</a> is also important.<a href="#cite_note-LewandowskyCook2020-51">[51]</a> One approach describes conspiracy theories as resulting from a "crippled epistemology", in which a person encounters or accepts very few relevant sources of information.<a href="#cite_note-SunsteinVermeule2009-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hardin2002-101">[99]</a> A conspiracy theory is more likely to appear justified to people with a limited "informational environment" who only encounter misleading information. These people may be "<a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemologically</a> isolated" in <a href="/wiki/Filter_bubble" title="Filter bubble">self-enclosed networks</a>. From the perspective of people within these networks, disconnected from the information available to the rest of society, believing in conspiracy theories may appear to be justified.<a href="#cite_note-SunsteinVermeule2009-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hardin2002-101">[99]</a> In these cases, the solution would be to break the group's informational isolation.<a href="#cite_note-SunsteinVermeule2009-49">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reducing_transmission">Reducing transmission</h3></div> Public exposure to conspiracy theories can be reduced by interventions that reduce their ability to spread, such as by encouraging people to reflect before sharing a news story.<a href="#cite_note-LewandowskyCook2020-51">[51]</a> Researchers Carlos Diaz Ruiz and Tomas Nilsson have proposed technical and rhetorical interventions to counter the spread of conspiracy theories on social media.<a href="#cite_note-:0-102">[100]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Interventions to counter the spread of conspiracy theories on social media<a href="#cite_note-:0-102">[100]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Type of intervention </th> <th>Intervention </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">Technical </td> <td>Expose sources that insert and circulate conspiracy theories on social media (flagging). </td></tr> <tr> <td>Diminish the source's capacity to monetize conspiracies (demonetization). </td></tr> <tr> <td>Slow down the circulation of conspiracy theories (algorithm) </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="5">Rhetorical </td> <td>Issue authoritative corrections (fact-checking). </td></tr> <tr> <td>Authority-based corrections and fact-checking may backfire because personal worldviews cannot be proved wrong. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Enlist spokespeople that can be perceived as allies and insiders. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Rebuttals must spring from an epistemology that participants are already familiar with. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Give believers of conspiracies an "exit ramp" to dis-invest themselves without facing ridicule. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Government_policies">Government policies</h3></div> The primary defense against conspiracy theories is to maintain an <a href="/wiki/Open_society" title="Open society">open society</a>, in which many sources of reliable information are available, and government sources are known to be credible rather than propaganda. Additionally, independent nongovernmental organizations are able to correct misinformation without requiring people to trust the government.<a href="#cite_note-SunsteinVermeule2009-49">[49]</a> The absence of <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil rights">civil rights</a> and <a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">civil liberties</a> reduces the number of information sources available to the population, which may lead people to support conspiracy theories.<a href="#cite_note-SunsteinVermeule2009-49">[49]</a> Since the credibility of conspiracy theories can be increased if governments act dishonestly or otherwise engage in objectionable actions, avoiding such actions is also a relevant strategy.<a href="#cite_note-ConnollyUscinski2019-99">[97]</a> Joseph Pierre has said that mistrust in authoritative institutions is the core component underlying many conspiracy theories and that this mistrust creates an epistemic vacuum and makes individuals searching for answers vulnerable to misinformation. Therefore, one possible solution is offering consumers a seat at the table to mend their mistrust in institutions.<a href="#cite_note-103">[101]</a> Regarding the challenges of this approach, Pierre has said, "The challenge with acknowledging areas of uncertainty within a public sphere is that doing so can be weaponized to reinforce a post-truth view of the world in which everything is debatable, and any counter-position is just as valid. Although I like to think of myself as a middle of the road kind of individual, it is important to keep in mind that the truth does not always lie in the middle of a debate, whether we are talking about climate change, vaccines, or antipsychotic medications."<a href="#cite_note-104">[102]</a> Researchers have recommended that public policies should take into account the possibility of conspiracy theories relating to any policy or policy area, and prepare to combat them in advance.<a href="#cite_note-ConnollyUscinski2019-99">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-Andrade2020-9">[9]</a> Conspiracy theories have suddenly arisen in the context of policy issues as disparate as land-use laws and bicycle-sharing programs.<a href="#cite_note-ConnollyUscinski2019-99">[97]</a> In the case of public communications by government officials, factors that improve the effectiveness of communication include using clear and simple messages, and using messengers which are trusted by the target population. Government information about conspiracy theories is more likely to be believed if the messenger is perceived as being part of someone's <a href="/wiki/In-group" class="mw-redirect" title="In-group">in-group</a>. Official representatives may be more effective if they share characteristics with the target groups, such as ethnicity.<a href="#cite_note-ConnollyUscinski2019-99">[97]</a> In addition, when the government communicates with citizens to combat conspiracy theories, online methods are more efficient compared to other methods such as print publications. This also promotes transparency, can improve a message's perceived trustworthiness, and is more effective at reaching underrepresented demographics. However, as of 2019<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Conspiracy_theory&action=edit">[update]</a>, many governmental websites do not take full advantage of the available information-sharing opportunities. Similarly, social media accounts need to be used effectively in order to achieve meaningful communication with the public, such as by responding to requests that citizens send to those accounts. Other steps include adapting messages to the communication styles used on the social media platform in question, and promoting a culture of openness. Since mixed messaging can support conspiracy theories, it is also important to avoid conflicting accounts, such as by ensuring the accuracy of messages on the social media accounts of individual members of the organization.<a href="#cite_note-ConnollyUscinski2019-99">[97]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_health_campaigns">Public health campaigns</h3></div> Successful methods for dispelling conspiracy theories have been studied in the context of <a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">public health</a> campaigns. A key characteristic of communication strategies to address medical conspiracy theories is the use of techniques that rely less on emotional appeals. It is more effective to use methods that encourage people to process information rationally. The use of visual aids is also an essential part of these strategies. Since conspiracy theories are based on intuitive thinking, and visual information processing relies on intuition, visual aids are able to compete directly for the public's attention.<a href="#cite_note-Andrade2020-9">[9]</a> In public health campaigns, information retention by the public is highest for loss-framed messages that include more extreme outcomes. However, excessively appealing to catastrophic scenarios (e.g. low vaccination rates causing an epidemic) may provoke anxiety, which is associated with conspiracism and could increase belief in conspiracy theories instead. <a href="/wiki/Scare_tactics" class="mw-redirect" title="Scare tactics">Scare tactics</a> have sometimes had mixed results, but are generally considered ineffective. An example of this is the use of images that showcase disturbing health outcomes, such as the impact of smoking on dental health. One possible explanation is that information processed via the fear response is typically not evaluated rationally, which may prevent the message from being linked to the desired behaviors.<a href="#cite_note-Andrade2020-9">[9]</a> A particularly important technique is the use of <a href="/wiki/Focus_group" title="Focus group">focus groups</a> to understand exactly what people believe, and the reasons they give for those beliefs. This allows messaging to focus on the specific concerns that people identify, and on topics that are easily misinterpreted by the public, since these are factors which conspiracy theories can take advantage of. In addition, discussions with focus groups and observations of the group dynamics can indicate which anti-conspiracist ideas are most likely to spread.<a href="#cite_note-Andrade2020-9">[9]</a> Interventions that address medical conspiracy theories by reducing powerlessness include emphasizing the principle of <a href="/wiki/Informed_consent" title="Informed consent">informed consent</a>, giving patients all the relevant information without imposing decisions on them, to ensure that they have a sense of control. Improving access to healthcare also reduces medical conspiracism. However, doing so by political efforts can also fuel additional conspiracy theories, which occurred with the <a href="/wiki/Affordable_Care_Act" title="Affordable Care Act">Affordable Care Act</a> (Obamacare) in the United States. Another successful strategy is to require people to watch a short video when they fulfil requirements such as registration for school or a drivers' license, which has been demonstrated to improve vaccination rates and signups for organ donation.<a href="#cite_note-Andrade2020-9">[9]</a> Another approach is based on viewing conspiracy theories as narratives which express personal and cultural values, making them less susceptible to straightforward factual corrections, and more effectively addressed by counter-narratives.<a href="#cite_note-LazicZezelj2021-100">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-Adornetti2023-105">[103]</a> Counter-narratives can be more engaging and memorable than simple corrections, and can be adapted to the specific values held by individuals and cultures. These narratives may depict personal experiences, or alternatively they can be cultural narratives. In the context of vaccination, examples of cultural narratives include stories about scientific breakthroughs, about the world before vaccinations, or about heroic and altruistic researchers. The themes to be addressed would be those that could be exploited by conspiracy theories to increase <a href="/wiki/Vaccine_hesitancy" title="Vaccine hesitancy">vaccine hesitancy</a>, such as perceptions of vaccine risk, lack of patient empowerment, and lack of trust in medical authorities.<a href="#cite_note-LazicZezelj2021-100">[98]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Backfire_effects">Backfire effects</h3></div> It has been suggested that directly countering <a href="/wiki/Misinformation" title="Misinformation">misinformation</a> can be counterproductive. For example, since conspiracy theories can reinterpret disconfirming information as part of their narrative, refuting a claim can result in accidentally reinforcing it,<a href="#cite_note-Brotherton2013-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-SciAm2019-106">[104]</a> which is referred to as a "backfire effect".<a href="#cite_note-Swire-Thompson2020-107">[105]</a> In addition, publishing criticism of conspiracy theories can result in legitimizing them.<a href="#cite_note-Jolley2013-96">[94]</a> In this context, possible interventions include carefully selecting which conspiracy theories to refute, requesting additional analyses from independent observers, and introducing cognitive diversity into conspiratorial communities by undermining their poor epistemology.<a href="#cite_note-Jolley2013-96">[94]</a> Any legitimization effect might also be reduced by responding to more conspiracy theories rather than fewer.<a href="#cite_note-SunsteinVermeule2009-49">[49]</a> There are psychological mechanisms by which backfire effects could potentially occur, but the evidence on this topic is mixed, and backfire effects are very rare in practice.<a href="#cite_note-LazicZezelj2021-100">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-Swire-Thompson2020-107">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nyhan2021-108">[106]</a> A 2020 review of the scientific literature on backfire effects found that there have been widespread <a href="/wiki/Replication_crisis" title="Replication crisis">failures to replicate</a> their existence, even under conditions that would be theoretically favorable to observing them.<a href="#cite_note-Swire-Thompson2020-107">[105]</a> Due to the lack of <a href="/wiki/Reproducibility" title="Reproducibility">reproducibility</a>, as of 2020<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Conspiracy_theory&action=edit">[update]</a> most researchers believe that backfire effects are either unlikely to occur on the broader population level, or they only occur in very specific circumstances, or they do not exist.<a href="#cite_note-Swire-Thompson2020-107">[105]</a> Brendan Nyhan, one of the researchers who initially proposed the occurrence of backfire effects, wrote in 2021 that the persistence of misinformation is most likely due to other factors.<a href="#cite_note-Nyhan2021-108">[106]</a> In general, people do reject conspiracy theories when they learn about their contradictions and lack of evidence.<a href="#cite_note-Andrade2020-9">[9]</a> For most people, corrections and fact-checking are very unlikely to have a negative impact, and there is no specific group of people in which backfire effects have been consistently observed.<a href="#cite_note-Swire-Thompson2020-107">[105]</a> Presenting people with factual corrections, or highlighting the logical contradictions in conspiracy theories, has been demonstrated to have a positive effect in many circumstances.<a href="#cite_note-van_ProoijenDouglas2018-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-SciAm2019-106">[104]</a> For example, this has been studied in the case of informing believers in <a href="/wiki/9/11_conspiracy_theories" title="9/11 conspiracy theories">9/11 conspiracy theories</a> about statements by actual experts and witnesses.<a href="#cite_note-van_ProoijenDouglas2018-48">[48]</a> One possibility is that criticism is most likely to backfire if it challenges someone's worldview or identity. This suggests that an effective approach may be to provide criticism while avoiding such challenges.<a href="#cite_note-SciAm2019-106">[104]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Psychology">Psychology</h2></div> The widespread belief in conspiracy theories has become a topic of interest for sociologists, psychologists, and experts in folklore since at least the 1960s, when <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_assassination_conspiracy_theories" title="John F. Kennedy assassination conspiracy theories">a number of conspiracy theories</a> arose regarding <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_assassination" class="mw-redirect" title="John F. Kennedy assassination">the assassination</a> of U.S. President <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sociologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociologist">Sociologist</a> Türkay Salim Nefes underlines the political nature of conspiracy theories. He suggests that one of the most important characteristics of these accounts is their attempt to unveil the "real but hidden" power relations in social groups.<a href="#cite_note-Turkay_Nefes-109">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nefes-110">[108]</a> The term "conspiracism" was popularized by academic Frank P. Mintz in the 1980s. According to Mintz, conspiracism denotes "belief in the primacy of conspiracies in the unfolding of history":<a href="#cite_note-Mintz1985-111">[109]</a>: 4  <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Conspiracism serves the needs of diverse political and social groups in America and elsewhere. It identifies elites, blames them for economic and social catastrophes, and assumes that things will be better once popular action can remove them from positions of power. As such, conspiracy theories do not typify a particular epoch or ideology.<a href="#cite_note-Mintz1985-111">[109]</a>: 199 </blockquote> Research suggests, on a psychological level, conspiracist ideation—belief in conspiracy theories—can be harmful or pathological,<a href="#cite_note-Freeman_595–604-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-Barron_156–159-21">[21]</a> and is highly correlated with <a href="/wiki/Psychological_projection" title="Psychological projection">psychological projection</a>, as well as with <a href="/wiki/Paranoia" title="Paranoia">paranoia</a>, which is predicted by the degree of a person's <a href="/wiki/Machiavellianism_(psychology)" title="Machiavellianism (psychology)">Machiavellianism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-112">[110]</a> The propensity to believe in conspiracy theories is strongly associated with the mental health disorder of <a href="/wiki/Schizotypy" title="Schizotypy">schizotypy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-113">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-117">[115]</a> Conspiracy theories once limited to fringe audiences have become commonplace in <a href="/wiki/Mass_media" title="Mass media">mass media</a>, emerging as a <a href="/wiki/Cultural_phenomenon" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural phenomenon">cultural phenomenon</a> of the late 20th and early 21st centuries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarkun200358-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-Camp_1997-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-Goldberg_2001-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fenster_2008-47">[47]</a> Exposure to conspiracy theories in news media and popular entertainment increases receptiveness to conspiratorial ideas, and has also increased the social acceptability of fringe beliefs.<a href="#cite_note-DouglasUscinski2019-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-StojanovHalberstadt2020-118">[116]</a> Conspiracy theories often make use of complicated and detailed arguments, including ones which appear to be analytical or scientific. However, belief in conspiracy theories is primarily driven by emotion.<a href="#cite_note-van_ProoijenDouglas2018-48">[48]</a> One of the most widely confirmed facts about conspiracy theories is that belief in a single conspiracy theory tends be correlated with belief in other conspiracy theories.<a href="#cite_note-Thresher-Andrews2013-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-SuttonDouglas2020-119">[117]</a> This even applies when the conspiracy theories directly contradict each other, e.g. believing that <a href="/wiki/Osama_bin_Laden" title="Osama bin Laden">Osama bin Laden</a> was already dead before his compound in Pakistan was attacked makes the same person more likely to believe that he is still alive. One conclusion from this finding is that the content of a conspiracist belief is less important than the idea of a coverup by the authorities.<a href="#cite_note-Thresher-Andrews2013-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-SciAm2013-97">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-BilewiczCichocka2015-120">[118]</a> <a href="/wiki/Analytical_thinking" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytical thinking">Analytical thinking</a> aids in reducing belief in conspiracy theories, in part because it emphasizes rational and critical cognition.<a href="#cite_note-Douglas_538–542-42">[42]</a> Some psychological scientists assert that explanations related to conspiracy theories can be, and often are "internally consistent" with strong beliefs that had previously been held prior to the event that sparked the conspiracy.<a href="#cite_note-Douglas_538–542-42">[42]</a> People who believe in conspiracy theories tend to believe in other unsubstantiated claims – including <a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">pseudoscience</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paranormal" title="Paranormal">paranormal</a> phenomena.<a href="#cite_note-121">[119]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Attractions">Attractions</h3></div> Psychological motives for believing in conspiracy theories can be categorized as epistemic, existential, or social. These motives are particularly acute in vulnerable and disadvantaged populations. However, it does not appear that the beliefs help to address these motives; in fact, they may be self-defeating, acting to make the situation worse instead.<a href="#cite_note-Douglas_538–542-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-SciAm2019-106">[104]</a> For example, while conspiratorial beliefs can result from a perceived sense of <a href="/wiki/Empowerment" title="Empowerment">powerlessness</a>, exposure to conspiracy theories immediately suppresses personal feelings of autonomy and control. Furthermore, they also make people less likely to take actions that could improve their circumstances.<a href="#cite_note-Douglas_538–542-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-SciAm2019-106">[104]</a> This is additionally supported by the fact that conspiracy theories have a number of disadvantageous attributes.<a href="#cite_note-Douglas_538–542-42">[42]</a> For example, they promote a negative and distrustful view of other people and groups, who are allegedly acting based on antisocial and cynical motivations. This is expected to lead to increased <a href="/wiki/Social_alienation" title="Social alienation">alienation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anomie" title="Anomie">anomie</a>, and reduced <a href="/wiki/Social_capital" title="Social capital">social capital</a>. Similarly, they depict the public as ignorant and powerless against the alleged conspirators, with important aspects of society determined by malevolent forces, a viewpoint which is likely to be disempowering.<a href="#cite_note-Douglas_538–542-42">[42]</a> Each person may endorse conspiracy theories for one of many different reasons.<a href="#cite_note-GoreisVoracek2019-122">[120]</a> The most consistently demonstrated characteristics of people who find conspiracy theories appealing are a feeling of <a href="/wiki/Social_alienation" title="Social alienation">alienation</a>, unhappiness or dissatisfaction with their situation, an unconventional worldview, and a feeling of <a href="/wiki/Disempowerment" class="mw-redirect" title="Disempowerment">disempowerment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-GoreisVoracek2019-122">[120]</a> While various aspects of personality affect susceptibility to conspiracy theories, none of the <a href="/wiki/Big_Five_personality_traits" title="Big Five personality traits">Big Five personality traits</a> are associated with conspiracy beliefs.<a href="#cite_note-GoreisVoracek2019-122">[120]</a> The political scientist <a href="/wiki/Michael_Barkun" title="Michael Barkun">Michael Barkun</a>, discussing the usage of "conspiracy theory" in contemporary American culture, holds that this term is used for a belief that explains an event as the result of a secret plot by exceptionally powerful and cunning conspirators to achieve a malevolent end.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarkun20033-123">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-New_Internationalist_1_2004-124">[122]</a> According to Barkun, the appeal of conspiracism is threefold: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"> <ul><li>First, conspiracy theories claim to explain what <a href="/wiki/Institutional_analysis" title="Institutional analysis">institutional analysis</a> cannot. They appear to make sense out of a world that is otherwise confusing.</li> <li>Second, they do so in an appealingly simple way, by dividing the world sharply between <a href="/wiki/Manichaeism" title="Manichaeism">the forces of light, and the forces of darkness</a>. They trace all evil back to a single source, the conspirators and their agents.</li> <li>Third, conspiracy theories are often presented as special, <a href="/wiki/Esotericism" class="mw-redirect" title="Esotericism">secret knowledge</a> unknown or unappreciated by others. For conspiracy theorists, the masses are a <a href="/wiki/Sheeple" class="mw-redirect" title="Sheeple">brainwashed herd</a>, while the conspiracy theorists in the know can congratulate themselves on penetrating the plotters' deceptions.<a href="#cite_note-New_Internationalist_1_2004-124">[122]</a></li></ul></blockquote> This third point is supported by research of Roland Imhoff, professor of <a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">social psychology</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg_University_Mainz" class="mw-redirect" title="Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz">Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz</a>. The research suggests that the smaller the minority believing in a specific theory, the more attractive it is to conspiracy theorists.<a href="#cite_note-125">[123]</a> <a href="/wiki/Humanistic_psychology" title="Humanistic psychology">Humanistic psychologists</a> argue that even if a posited cabal behind an alleged conspiracy is almost always perceived as hostile, there often remains an element of reassurance for theorists. This is because it is a consolation to imagine that difficulties in human affairs are created by humans, and remain within human control. If a cabal can be implicated, there may be a hope of breaking its power or of joining it. Belief in the power of a cabal is an implicit assertion of human dignity—an unconscious affirmation that man is responsible for his own destiny.<a href="#cite_note-Baigent,_Leigh_&_Lincoln_1987-126">[124]</a> People formulate conspiracy theories to explain, for example, power relations in social groups and the perceived existence of evil forces.<a href="#cite_note-127">[c]</a><a href="#cite_note-New_Internationalist_1_2004-124">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-Turkay_Nefes-109">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nefes-110">[108]</a> Proposed psychological origins of conspiracy theorising include projection; the personal need to explain "a significant event [with] a significant cause;" and the product of various kinds and stages of thought disorder, such as paranoid disposition, ranging in severity to diagnosable mental illnesses. Some people prefer socio-political explanations over the insecurity of encountering <a href="/wiki/Randomness" title="Randomness">random</a>, unpredictable, or otherwise inexplicable events.<a href="#cite_note-business.time.com-128">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-Goertzel_1994_733–744-129">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-Douglas_2008_210–222-130">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-harpers=1964-131">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hodapp_2008-132">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cohen-133">[130]</a> According to Berlet and Lyons, "Conspiracism is a particular narrative form of scapegoating that frames demonized enemies as part of a vast insidious plot against the common good, while it valorizes the scapegoater as a hero for sounding the alarm".<a href="#cite_note-134">[131]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Causes">Causes</h3></div> Some psychologists believe that a search for meaning is common in conspiracism. Once cognized, <a href="/wiki/Confirmation_bias" title="Confirmation bias">confirmation bias</a> and avoidance of <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance" title="Cognitive dissonance">cognitive dissonance</a> may reinforce the belief. In a context where a conspiracy theory has become embedded within a social group, <a href="/wiki/Communal_reinforcement" title="Communal reinforcement">communal reinforcement</a> may also play a part.<a href="#cite_note-135">[132]</a> Inquiry into possible motives behind the accepting of irrational conspiracy theories has linked<a href="#cite_note-136">[133]</a> these beliefs to distress resulting from an event that occurred, such as the <a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">events of 9/11.</a> Additional research suggests that "delusional ideation" is the trait most likely to indicate a stronger belief in conspiracy theories.<a href="#cite_note-137">[134]</a> Research also shows an increased attachment to these irrational beliefs leads to a decreased desire for civic engagement.<a href="#cite_note-BrothertonFrench2014-84">[84]</a> Belief in conspiracy theories is correlated with low intelligence, lower analytical thinking, <a href="/wiki/Anxiety_disorder" title="Anxiety disorder">anxiety disorders</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paranoia" title="Paranoia">paranoia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Authoritarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Authoritarian">authoritarian</a> beliefs.<a href="#cite_note-138">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-139">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-140">[137]</a> Professor <a href="/wiki/Quassim_Cassam" title="Quassim Cassam">Quassim Cassam</a> argues that conspiracy theorists hold their beliefs due to flaws in their thinking and more precisely, their intellectual character. He cites philosopher <a href="/wiki/Linda_Trinkaus_Zagzebski" class="mw-redirect" title="Linda Trinkaus Zagzebski">Linda Trinkaus Zagzebski</a> and her book Virtues of the Mind in outlining intellectual virtues (such as humility, caution and carefulness) and intellectual vices (such as gullibility, carelessness and closed-mindedness). Whereas intellectual virtues help in reaching sound examination, intellectual vices "impede effective and responsible inquiry", meaning that those who are prone to believing in conspiracy theories possess certain vices while lacking necessary virtues.<a href="#cite_note-141">[138]</a> Some researchers have suggested that conspiracy theories could be partially caused by psychological mechanisms the human brain possesses for detecting dangerous coalitions. Such a mechanism could have been useful in the small-scale environment humanity evolved in but are mismatched in a modern, complex society and thus "misfire", perceiving conspiracies where none exist.<a href="#cite_note-142">[139]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Projection">Projection</h4></div> Some historians have argued that <a href="/wiki/Psychological_projection" title="Psychological projection">psychological projection</a> is prevalent amongst conspiracy theorists. This projection, according to the argument, is manifested in the form of attribution of undesirable characteristics of the self to the conspirators. Historian Richard Hofstadter stated that: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">This enemy seems on many counts a projection of the self; both the ideal and the unacceptable aspects of the self are attributed to him. A fundamental paradox of the paranoid style is the imitation of the enemy. The enemy, for example, may be the cosmopolitan intellectual, but the paranoid will outdo him in the apparatus of scholarship, even of pedantry. ... The Ku Klux Klan imitated Catholicism to the point of donning priestly vestments, developing an elaborate ritual and an equally elaborate hierarchy. The <a href="/wiki/John_Birch_Society" title="John Birch Society">John Birch Society</a> emulates Communist cells and quasi-secret operation through "front" groups, and preaches a ruthless prosecution of the ideological war along lines very similar to those it finds in the Communist enemy. Spokesmen of the various fundamentalist anti-Communist "crusades" openly express their admiration for the dedication, discipline, and strategic ingenuity the Communist cause calls forth.<a href="#cite_note-harpers=1964-131">[128]</a></blockquote> Hofstadter also noted that "sexual freedom" is a vice frequently attributed to the conspiracist's target group, noting that "very often the fantasies of true believers reveal strong sadomasochistic outlets, vividly expressed, for example, in the delight of anti-Masons with the cruelty of Masonic punishments".<a href="#cite_note-harpers=1964-131">[128]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Physiology">Physiology</h4></div> <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Danesi" title="Marcel Danesi">Marcel Danesi</a> suggests that people who believe conspiracy theories have difficulty rethinking situations. Exposure to those theories has caused neural pathways which are more rigid and less subject to change. Initial susceptibility to believing the lies, dehumanizing language, and metaphors of these theories leads to the acceptance of larger and more extensive theories because the hardened neural pathways are already present. Repetition of the "facts" of conspiracy theories and their connected lies simply reinforces the rigidity of those pathways. Thus, conspiracy theories and dehumanizing lies are not mere hyperbole, they can actually change the way people think: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Unfortunately, research into this brain wiring also shows that once people begin to believe lies, they are unlikely to change their minds even when confronted with evidence that contradicts their beliefs. It is a form of brainwashing. Once the brain has carved out a well-worn path of believing deceit, it is even harder to step out of that path — which is how fanatics are born. Instead, these people will seek out information that confirms their beliefs, avoid anything that is in conflict with them, or even turn the contrasting information on its head, so as to make it fit their beliefs.<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>People with strong convictions will have a hard time changing their minds, given how embedded a lie becomes in the mind. In fact, there are scientists and scholars still studying the best tools and tricks to combat lies with some combination of brain training and linguistic awareness.<a href="#cite_note-143">[140]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sociology">Sociology</h2></div> In addition to psychological factors such as conspiracist ideation, sociological factors also help account for who believes in which conspiracy theories. Such theories tend to get more traction among election losers in society, for example, and the emphasis of conspiracy theories by elites and leaders tends to increase belief among followers who have higher levels of conspiracy thinking.<a href="#cite_note-144">[141]</a> <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Hitchens" title="Christopher Hitchens">Christopher Hitchens</a> described conspiracy theories as the "exhaust fumes of democracy":<a href="#cite_note-Hodapp_2008-132">[129]</a> the unavoidable result of a large amount of information circulating among a large number of people. Conspiracy theories may be emotionally satisfying, by assigning blame to a group to which the theorist does not belong and so absolving the theorist of moral or political responsibility in society.<a href="#cite_note-145">[142]</a> Likewise, <a href="/wiki/Roger_Cohen" title="Roger Cohen">Roger Cohen</a> writing for <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a> has said that, "captive minds; ... resort to conspiracy theory because it is the ultimate refuge of the powerless. If you cannot change your own life, it must be that some greater force controls the world."<a href="#cite_note-Cohen-133">[130]</a> Sociological historian Holger Herwig found in studying German explanations for the origins of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, "Those events that are most important are hardest to understand because they attract the greatest attention from myth makers and charlatans."<a href="#cite_note-146">[143]</a> <a href="/wiki/Justin_Fox" title="Justin Fox">Justin Fox</a> of <a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a> magazine argues that Wall Street traders are among the most conspiracy-minded group of people, and ascribes this to the reality of some financial market conspiracies, and to the ability of conspiracy theories to provide necessary orientation in the market's day-to-day movements.<a href="#cite_note-business.time.com-128">[125]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Influence_of_critical_theory">Influence of critical theory</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Bruno_Latour" title="Bruno Latour">Bruno Latour</a> notes that the language and intellectual tactics of <a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">critical theory</a> have been appropriated by those he describes as conspiracy theorists, including <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_denial" title="Climate change denial">climate-change denialists</a> and the <a href="/wiki/9/11_Truth_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="9/11 Truth movement">9/11 Truth movement</a>: "Maybe I am taking conspiracy theories too seriously, but I am worried to detect, in those mad mixtures of knee-jerk disbelief, punctilious demands for proofs, and free use of powerful explanation from the social neverland, many of the weapons of social critique."<a href="#cite_note-critiquesteam-147">[144]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fusion_paranoia">Fusion paranoia</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Michael_Kelly_(editor)" title="Michael Kelly (editor)">Michael Kelly</a>, a <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">Washington Post</a> journalist and critic of <a href="/wiki/Anti-war" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-war">anti-war</a> movements on both the left and right, coined the term "fusion paranoia" to refer to a political convergence of left-wing and right-wing activists around anti-war issues and <a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">civil liberties</a>, which he said were motivated by a shared belief in conspiracism or shared <a href="/wiki/Anti-statism" title="Anti-statism">anti-government</a> views.<a href="#cite_note-148">[145]</a> Barkun has adopted this term to refer to how the synthesis of paranoid conspiracy theories, which were once limited to American fringe audiences, has given them mass appeal and enabled them to become commonplace in <a href="/wiki/Mass_media" title="Mass media">mass media</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarkun2003230-149">[146]</a> thereby inaugurating an unrivaled period of people actively preparing for <a href="/wiki/Apocalypticism" title="Apocalypticism">apocalyptic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Millenarianism" title="Millenarianism">millenarian</a> scenarios in the United States of the late 20th and early 21st centuries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarkun2003207,_210,_211-150">[147]</a> Barkun notes the occurrence of lone-wolf conflicts with law enforcement acting as proxy for threatening the established political powers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarkun2003193,_197-151">[148]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Viability">Viability</h2></div> As evidence that undermines an alleged conspiracy grows, the number of alleged conspirators also grows in the minds of conspiracy theorists. This is because of an assumption that the alleged conspirators often have competing interests. For example, if Republican President <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> is allegedly responsible for the 9/11 terrorist attacks, and the Democratic party did not pursue exposing this alleged plot, that must mean that both the Democratic and Republican parties are conspirators in the alleged plot. It also assumes that the alleged conspirators are so competent that they can fool the entire world, but so incompetent that even the unskilled conspiracy theorists can find mistakes they make that prove the fraud. At some point, the number of alleged conspirators, combined with the contradictions within the alleged conspirators' interests and competence, becomes so great that maintaining the theory becomes an obvious exercise in absurdity.<a href="#cite_note-152">[149]</a> The physicist <a href="/wiki/David_Robert_Grimes" title="David Robert Grimes">David Robert Grimes</a> estimated the time it would take for a conspiracy to be exposed based on the number of people involved.<a href="#cite_note-pbs_plos_one-153">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-Grimes_PLOS_ONE-154">[151]</a> His calculations used data from the <a href="/wiki/PRISM_(surveillance_program)" class="mw-redirect" title="PRISM (surveillance program)">PRISM surveillance program</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_syphilis_experiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuskegee syphilis experiment">Tuskegee syphilis experiment</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/FBI_Laboratory#Controversy" title="FBI Laboratory">FBI forensic scandal</a>. Grimes estimated that: <ul><li>A <a href="/wiki/Moon_landing_conspiracy_theories" title="Moon landing conspiracy theories">Moon landing hoax</a> would require the involvement of 411,000 people and would be exposed within 3.68 years;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_warming_conspiracy_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming conspiracy theory">Climate-change fraud</a> would require a minimum of 29,083 people (published climate scientists only) and would be exposed within 26.77 years, or up to 405,000 people, in which case it would be exposed within 3.70 years;</li> <li>A vaccination conspiracy would require a minimum of 22,000 people (without drug companies) and would be exposed within at least 3.15 years and at most 34.78 years depending on the number involved;</li> <li>A conspiracy to <a href="/wiki/Big_Pharma_conspiracy_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Big Pharma conspiracy theory">suppress a cure for cancer</a> would require 714,000 people and would be exposed within 3.17 years.</li></ul> Grimes's study did not consider exposure by sources outside of the alleged conspiracy. It only considered exposure from within the alleged conspiracy through whistleblowers or through incompetence.<a href="#cite_note-155">[152]</a> Subsequent comments on the <a href="/wiki/PubPeer" title="PubPeer">PubPeer</a> website<a href="#cite_note-156">[153]</a> point out that these calculations must exclude successful conspiracies since, by definition, we don't know about them, and are wrong by an order of magnitude about <a href="/wiki/Bletchley_Park" title="Bletchley Park">Bletchley Park</a>, which remained a secret far longer than Grimes' calculations predicted. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2></div> The term "truth seeker" is adopted by some conspiracy theorists when describing themselves on social media.<a href="#cite_note-157">[154]</a> Conspiracy theorists are often referred to derogatorily as "<a href="/wiki/Cooker_(slang)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cooker (slang)">cookers</a>" in Australia.<a href="#cite_note-158">[155]</a> The term "cooker" is also loosely associated with the <a href="/wiki/Far-right_politics_in_Australia" title="Far-right politics in Australia">far right</a>.<a href="#cite_note-159">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[157]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Politics">Politics</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:911worldopinionpoll_Sep2008.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/911worldopinionpoll_Sep2008.png/390px-911worldopinionpoll_Sep2008.png" decoding="async" width="390" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/911worldopinionpoll_Sep2008.png/585px-911worldopinionpoll_Sep2008.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/911worldopinionpoll_Sep2008.png/780px-911worldopinionpoll_Sep2008.png 2x" data-file-width="950" data-file-height="570" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Opinion_polls_about_9/11_conspiracy_theories" title="Opinion polls about 9/11 conspiracy theories">2008 poll</a> found that majorities in only 9 of 17 countries believed that <a href="/wiki/Al-Qaeda" title="Al-Qaeda">al-Qaeda</a> carried out the <a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">9/11 attacks</a>.<a href="#cite_note-161">[158]</a></figcaption></figure> The philosopher <a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a> described the central problem of conspiracy theories as a form of <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_attribution_error" title="Fundamental attribution error">fundamental attribution error</a>, where every event is generally perceived as being intentional and planned, greatly underestimating the effects of randomness and unintended consequences.<a href="#cite_note-SciAm2013-97">[95]</a> In his book <a href="/wiki/The_Open_Society_and_Its_Enemies" title="The Open Society and Its Enemies">The Open Society and Its Enemies</a>, he used the term "the conspiracy theory of society" to denote the idea that social phenomena such as "war, unemployment, poverty, shortages ... [are] the result of direct design by some powerful individuals and groups".<a href="#cite_note-162">[159]</a> Popper argued that <a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">totalitarianism</a> was founded on conspiracy theories which drew on imaginary plots which were driven by paranoid scenarios predicated on <a href="/wiki/Tribalism" title="Tribalism">tribalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chauvinism" title="Chauvinism">chauvinism</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">racism</a>. He also noted that conspirators very rarely achieved their goal.<a href="#cite_note-dohloo-163">[160]</a> Historically, real conspiracies have usually had little effect on history and have had <a href="/wiki/Unforeseen_consequence" class="mw-redirect" title="Unforeseen consequence">unforeseen consequences</a> for the conspirators, in contrast to conspiracy theories which often posit grand, sinister organizations, or world-changing events, the evidence for which has been erased or obscured.<a href="#cite_note-Cumings1999-164">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-SciAmShermer-165">[162]</a> As described by <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Cumings" title="Bruce Cumings">Bruce Cumings</a>, history is instead "moved by the broad forces and large structures of human collectivities".<a href="#cite_note-Cumings1999-164">[161]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arab_world">Arab world</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theories_in_the_Arab_world" title="Conspiracy theories in the Arab world">Conspiracy theories in the Arab world</a></div> Conspiracy theories are a prevalent feature of <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arab</a> culture and politics.<a href="#cite_note-Gray-166">[163]</a> Variants include conspiracies involving colonialism, <a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a>, superpowers, oil, and the <a href="/wiki/War_on_terrorism" class="mw-redirect" title="War on terrorism">war on terrorism</a>, which is often referred to in Arab media as a "<a href="/wiki/War_against_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="War against Islam">war against Islam</a>".<a href="#cite_note-Gray-166">[163]</a> For example, <a href="/wiki/The_Protocols_of_the_Elders_of_Zion" title="The Protocols of the Elders of Zion">The Protocols of the Elders of Zion</a>, an infamous <a href="/wiki/Hoax" title="Hoax">hoax</a> document purporting to be a Jewish plan for world domination, is commonly read and promoted in the Muslim world.<a href="#cite_note-167">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-168">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-169">[166]</a> <a href="/wiki/Roger_Cohen" title="Roger Cohen">Roger Cohen</a> has suggested that the popularity of conspiracy theories in the Arab world is "the ultimate refuge of the powerless".<a href="#cite_note-Cohen-133">[130]</a> Al-Mumin Said has noted the danger of such theories, for they "keep us not only from the truth but also from confronting our faults and problems".<a href="#cite_note-170">[167]</a> <a href="/wiki/Osama_bin_Laden" title="Osama bin Laden">Osama bin Laden</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ayman_al-Zawahiri" title="Ayman al-Zawahiri">Ayman al-Zawahiri</a> used conspiracy theories about the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> to gain support for <a href="/wiki/Al-Qaeda" title="Al-Qaeda">al-Qaeda</a> in the Arab world, and as rhetoric to distinguish themselves from similar groups, although they may not have believed the conspiratorial claims themselves.<a href="#cite_note-Gray158-159-171">[168]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Turkey">Turkey</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theories_in_Turkey" title="Conspiracy theories in Turkey">Conspiracy theories in Turkey</a></div> Conspiracy theories are a prevalent feature of culture and politics in <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>. Conspiracism is an important phenomenon in understanding Turkish politics.<a href="#cite_note-tinfoil-172">[169]</a> This is explained by a desire to "make up for our lost <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a> grandeur",<a href="#cite_note-tinfoil-172">[169]</a> the humiliation of perceiving Turkey as part of "the malfunctioning half" of the world,<a href="#cite_note-173">[170]</a> and a "low level of media literacy among the Turkish population."<a href="#cite_note-174">[171]</a> There are a wide variety of conspiracy theories including the <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Masonic_conspiracy_theory" title="Judeo-Masonic conspiracy theory">Judeo-Masonic conspiracy theory</a>,<a href="#cite_note-175">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-176">[173]</a> the <a href="/wiki/International_Jewish_conspiracy#Turkey" title="International Jewish conspiracy">international Jewish conspiracy theory</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/War_against_Islam_conspiracy_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="War against Islam conspiracy theory">war against Islam conspiracy theory</a>. For example, <a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamists</a>, dissatisfied with the <a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">modernist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">secularist</a> reforms that took place throughout the history of the Ottoman Empire and the Turkish Republic, have put forward many conspiracy theories to defame the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Lausanne" title="Treaty of Lausanne">Treaty of Lausanne</a>, an important peace treaty for the country, and the republic's founder <a href="/wiki/Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk" title="Mustafa Kemal Atatürk">Kemal Atatürk</a>.<a href="#cite_note-177">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-178">[175]</a> Another example is the <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A8vres_syndrome" title="Sèvres syndrome">Sèvres syndrome</a>, a reference to the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_S%C3%A8vres" title="Treaty of Sèvres">Treaty of Sèvres</a> of 1920, a popular belief in Turkey that dangerous internal and external enemies, especially <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">the West</a>, are "conspiring to weaken and carve up the Turkish Republic".<a href="#cite_note-179">[176]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theories_in_United_States_politics" title="Conspiracy theories in United States politics">Conspiracy theories in United States politics</a></div> The historian <a href="/wiki/Richard_Hofstadter" title="Richard Hofstadter">Richard Hofstadter</a> addressed the role of <a href="/wiki/Paranoia" title="Paranoia">paranoia</a> and conspiracism throughout <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States" title="History of the United States">U.S. history</a> in his 1964 essay "<a href="/wiki/The_Paranoid_Style_in_American_Politics" title="The Paranoid Style in American Politics">The Paranoid Style in American Politics</a>". <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Bailyn" title="Bernard Bailyn">Bernard Bailyn</a>'s classic <a href="/wiki/The_Ideological_Origins_of_the_American_Revolution" title="The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution">The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution</a> (1967) notes that a similar phenomenon could be found in North America during the time preceding the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a>. Conspiracism labels people's attitudes as well as the type of conspiracy theories that are more global and historical in proportion.<a href="#cite_note-180">[177]</a> Harry G. West and others have noted that while conspiracy theorists may often be dismissed as a fringe minority, certain evidence suggests that a wide range of the U.S. maintains a belief in conspiracy theories. West also compares those theories to <a href="/wiki/Hypernationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypernationalism">hypernationalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Religious_fundamentalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious fundamentalism">religious fundamentalism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-181">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-182">[179]</a> Theologian Robert Jewett and philosopher <a href="/wiki/John_Shelton_Lawrence" title="John Shelton Lawrence">John Shelton Lawrence</a> attribute the enduring popularity of conspiracy theories in the U.S. to the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, <a href="/wiki/McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Counterculture_of_the_1960s" title="Counterculture of the 1960s">counterculture</a> rejection of authority. They state that among both the left-wing and right-wing, there remains a willingness to use real events, such as Soviet plots, inconsistencies in the <a href="/wiki/Warren_Commission" title="Warren Commission">Warren Report</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">9/11</a> attacks, to support the existence of unverified and ongoing large-scale conspiracies.<a href="#cite_note-183">[180]</a> In his studies of "American political demonology", historian <a href="/wiki/Michael_Paul_Rogin" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Paul Rogin">Michael Paul Rogin</a> too analyzed this paranoid style of politics that has occurred throughout American history. Conspiracy theories frequently identify an imaginary subversive group that is supposedly attacking the nation and requires the government and allied forces to engage in harsh extra-legal repression of those threatening subversives. Rogin cites examples from the Red Scares of 1919, to McCarthy's anti-communist campaign in the 1950s and more recently fears of immigrant hordes invading the US. Unlike Hofstadter, Rogin saw these "countersubversive" fears as frequently coming from those in power and dominant groups, instead of from the dispossessed. Unlike Robert Jewett, Rogin blamed not the counterculture, but America's dominant culture of liberal individualism and the fears it stimulated to explain the periodic eruption of irrational conspiracy theories.<a href="#cite_note-184">[181]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Watergate_scandal" title="Watergate scandal">Watergate scandal</a> has also been used to bestow legitimacy to other conspiracy theories, with <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> himself commenting that it served as a "<a href="/wiki/Rorschach_test" title="Rorschach test">Rorschach ink blot</a>" which invited others to fill in the underlying pattern.<a href="#cite_note-knight-2003-89">[87]</a> Historian Kathryn S. Olmsted cites three reasons why Americans are prone to believing in government conspiracies theories: <ol><li>Genuine government overreach and secrecy during the Cold War, such as <a href="/wiki/Watergate" class="mw-redirect" title="Watergate">Watergate</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_syphilis_experiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuskegee syphilis experiment">Tuskegee syphilis experiment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Project_MKUltra" class="mw-redirect" title="Project MKUltra">Project MKUltra</a>, and the CIA's <a href="/wiki/Assassination_attempts_on_Fidel_Castro" class="mw-redirect" title="Assassination attempts on Fidel Castro">assassination attempts on Fidel Castro</a> in collaboration with mobsters.</li> <li>Precedent set by official government-sanctioned conspiracy theories for propaganda, such as claims of German infiltration of the U.S. during World War II or the debunked claim that <a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein_and_al-Qaeda_link_allegations" title="Saddam Hussein and al-Qaeda link allegations">Saddam Hussein played a role in the 9/11 attacks</a>.</li> <li>Distrust fostered by the government's spying on and harassment of dissenters, such as the <a href="/wiki/Sedition_Act_of_1918" title="Sedition Act of 1918">Sedition Act of 1918</a>, <a href="/wiki/COINTELPRO" title="COINTELPRO">COINTELPRO</a>, and as part of various <a href="/wiki/Red_Scare" title="Red Scare">Red Scares</a>.<a href="#cite_note-185">[182]</a></li></ol> <a href="/wiki/Alex_Jones" title="Alex Jones">Alex Jones</a> referenced numerous conspiracy theories for convincing his supporters to endorse <a href="/wiki/Ron_Paul" title="Ron Paul">Ron Paul</a> over <a href="/wiki/Mitt_Romney" title="Mitt Romney">Mitt Romney</a> in the <a href="/wiki/2012_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="2012 Republican Party presidential primaries">2012 Republican Party presidential primaries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a> over <a href="/wiki/Hillary_Clinton" title="Hillary Clinton">Hillary Clinton</a> in the <a href="/wiki/2016_United_States_presidential_election" title="2016 United States presidential election">2016 United States presidential election</a>.<a href="#cite_note-186">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-187">[184]</a> Into the 2020s, the <a href="/wiki/QAnon_conspiracy_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="QAnon conspiracy theory">QAnon conspiracy theory</a> alleges that Trump is fighting against a <a href="/wiki/Deep_state_in_the_United_States" title="Deep state in the United States">deep-state</a> <a href="/wiki/Cabal" title="Cabal">cabal</a> of child sex-abusing and Satan-worshipping <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democrats</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Nature_2021-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-Crossley_2021-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-188">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-189">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-190">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-191">[188]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 35em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_lie" title="Big lie">Big lie</a> – Propaganda technique</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brainwashing" title="Brainwashing">Brainwashing</a> – Concept that the human mind can be altered or controlled</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherry_picking" title="Cherry picking">Cherry picking</a> – Fallacy of incomplete evidence</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_fiction" title="Conspiracy fiction">Conspiracy fiction</a> – Subgenre of thriller fiction</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fake_news" title="Fake news">Fake news</a> – False or misleading information presented as real</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fringe_theory" title="Fringe theory">Fringe theory</a> – Idea which departs from accepted scholarship in the field</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Furtive_fallacy" title="Furtive fallacy">Furtive fallacy</a> – Informal fallacy of emphasis</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanlon%27s_razor" title="Hanlon's razor">Hanlon's razor</a> – Adage to assume stupidity over malice</li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_the_%22Influencing_Machine%22_in_Schizophrenia" title="On the Origin of the "Influencing Machine" in Schizophrenia">Influencing machine</a> – 1919 article in psychoanalysis</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conspiracy_theories" title="List of conspiracy theories">List of conspiracy theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fallacies" title="List of fallacies">List of fallacies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience" title="List of topics characterized as pseudoscience">List of topics characterized as pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">Occam's razor</a> – Philosophical problem-solving principle</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_conspiracy_theories" title="Philosophy of conspiracy theories">Philosophy of conspiracy theories</a> – Branch of academic study</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a> – Communication used to influence opinion</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudohistory" title="Pseudohistory">Pseudohistory</a> – Pseudoscholarship that attempts to distort historical record</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a> – Unscientific claims wrongly presented as scientific</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superstition" title="Superstition">Superstition</a> – Belief or behavior that is considered irrational or supernatural</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> Informational notes <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> Birchall 2006: "[W]e can appreciate conspiracy theory as a unique form of popular knowledge or interpretation, and address what this might mean for any knowledge we produce about it or how we interpret it."<a href="#cite_note-Birchall2006-85">[85]</a>: 66  </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> Birchall 2006: "What we quickly discover ... is that it becomes impossible to map conspiracy theory and academic discourse onto a clear illegitimate/legitimate divide."<a href="#cite_note-Birchall2006-85">[85]</a>: 72  </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Michael_Barkun" title="Michael Barkun">Barkun</a> 2003: "The essence of conspiracy beliefs lies in attempts to delineate and explain evil. At their broadest, conspiracy theories 'view history as controlled by massive, demonic forces.' ... For our purposes, a conspiracy belief is the belief that an organization made up of individuals or groups was or is acting covertly to achieve a malevolent end."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarkun20033-123">[121]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> Citations <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Barkun2003-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Barkun2003_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Barkun2003_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Barkun2003_1-2">c</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBarkun2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Barkun" title="Michael Barkun">Barkun, Michael</a> (2003). <a href="/wiki/A_Culture_of_Conspiracy" title="A Culture of Conspiracy">A Culture of Conspiracy: Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America</a>. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 3–4.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Culture+of+Conspiracy%3A+Apocalyptic+Visions+in+Contemporary+America&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pages=3-4&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Barkun&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIssittMain2014" class="citation book cs1">Issitt, Micah; Main, Carlyn (2014). Hidden Religion: The Greatest Mysteries and Symbols of the World's Religious Beliefs. ABC-CLIO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61069-478-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61069-478-0"><bdi>978-1-61069-478-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hidden+Religion%3A+The+Greatest+Mysteries+and+Symbols+of+the+World%27s+Religious+Beliefs&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-61069-478-0&rft.aulast=Issitt&rft.aufirst=Micah&rft.au=Main%2C+Carlyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Harambam-Aupers_2021-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Harambam-Aupers_2021_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harambam-Aupers_2021_3-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarambamAupers2021" class="citation journal cs1">Harambam, Jaron; Aupers, Stef (August 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1367549419886045">"From the unbelievable to the undeniable: Epistemological pluralism, or how conspiracy theorists legitimate their extraordinary truth claims"</a>. <a href="/wiki/European_Journal_of_Cultural_Studies" title="European Journal of Cultural Studies">European Journal of Cultural Studies</a>. 24 (4). <a href="/wiki/SAGE_Publications" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE Publications">SAGE Publications</a>: 990–1008. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1367549419886045">10.1177/1367549419886045</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11245.1%2F7716b88d-4e3f-49ee-8093-253ccb344090">11245.1/7716b88d-4e3f-49ee-8093-253ccb344090</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1460-3551">1460-3551</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+Cultural+Studies&rft.atitle=From+the+unbelievable+to+the+undeniable%3A+Epistemological+pluralism%2C+or+how+conspiracy+theorists+legitimate+their+extraordinary+truth+claims&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=990-1008&rft.date=2021-08&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11245.1%2F7716b88d-4e3f-49ee-8093-253ccb344090&rft.issn=1460-3551&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1367549419886045&rft.aulast=Harambam&rft.aufirst=Jaron&rft.au=Aupers%2C+Stef&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1177%252F1367549419886045&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoertzel1994" class="citation journal cs1">Goertzel, Ted (December 1994). "Belief in conspiracy theories". <a href="/wiki/Political_Psychology" title="Political Psychology">Political Psychology</a>. 15 (4). <a href="/wiki/Wiley_(publisher)" title="Wiley (publisher)">Wiley</a> on behalf of the <a href="/wiki/International_Society_of_Political_Psychology" title="International Society of Political Psychology">International Society of Political Psychology</a>: 731–742. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3791630">10.2307/3791630</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1467-9221">1467-9221</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3791630">3791630</a>. <q>explanations for important events that involve secret plots by powerful and malevolent groups</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Political+Psychology&rft.atitle=Belief+in+conspiracy+theories&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=731-742&rft.date=1994-12&rft.issn=1467-9221&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3791630%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3791630&rft.aulast=Goertzel&rft.aufirst=Ted&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReference-OED-conspiracy_theory" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?q=conspiracy+theory">"conspiracy theory"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a> (Online ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=conspiracy+theory&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.edition=Online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oed.com%2Fsearch%2Fdictionary%2F%3Fq%3Dconspiracy%2Btheory&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"> (Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/public/login/loggingin#withyourlibrary">participating institution membership</a> required.) "the theory that an event or phenomenon occurs as a result of a conspiracy between interested parties; spec. a belief that some covert but influential agency (typically political in motivation and oppressive in intent) is responsible for an unexplained event" </li> <li id="cite_note-BrothertonFrench2013-6"><a href="#cite_ref-BrothertonFrench2013_6-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrothertonFrenchPickering2013" class="citation journal cs1">Brotherton, Robert; French, Christopher C.; Pickering, Alan D. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3659314">"Measuring Belief in Conspiracy Theories: The Generic Conspiracist Beliefs Scale"</a>. Frontiers in Psychology. 4: 279. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffpsyg.2013.00279">10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00279</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1664-1078">1664-1078</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3659314">3659314</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23734136">23734136</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16685781">16685781</a>. <q>A conspiracist belief can be described as 'the unnecessary assumption of conspiracy when other explanations are more probable'.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Psychology&rft.atitle=Measuring+Belief+in+Conspiracy+Theories%3A+The+Generic+Conspiracist+Beliefs+Scale&rft.volume=4&rft.pages=279&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3659314%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A16685781%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffpsyg.2013.00279&rft.issn=1664-1078&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23734136&rft.aulast=Brotherton&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=French%2C+Christopher+C.&rft.au=Pickering%2C+Alan+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3659314&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-probability-7"><a href="#cite_ref-probability_7-0">^</a> Additional sources: <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAaronovitch2009" class="citation book cs1">Aaronovitch, David (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=icxkMJK-WmgC">Voodoo Histories: The Role of the Conspiracy Theory in Shaping Modern History</a>. Jonathan Cape. p. 253. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780224074704" title="Special:BookSources/9780224074704"><bdi>9780224074704</bdi></a>. Retrieved 17 August 2019. <q>It is a contention of this book that conspiracy theorists fail to apply the principle of Occam's razor to their arguments.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Voodoo+Histories%3A+The+Role+of+the+Conspiracy+Theory+in+Shaping+Modern+History&rft.pages=253&rft.pub=Jonathan+Cape&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780224074704&rft.aulast=Aaronovitch&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DicxkMJK-WmgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrothertonFrench2014" class="citation journal cs1">Brotherton, Robert; French, Christopher C. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Facp.2995">"Belief in Conspiracy Theories and Susceptibility to the Conjunction Fallacy"</a>. Applied Cognitive Psychology. 28 (2): 238–248. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Facp.2995">10.1002/acp.2995</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0888-4080">0888-4080</a>. <q>A conspiracy theory can be defined as an unverified and relatively implausible allegation of conspiracy, claiming that significant events are the result of a secret plot carried out by a preternaturally sinister and powerful group of people.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Applied+Cognitive+Psychology&rft.atitle=Belief+in+Conspiracy+Theories+and+Susceptibility+to+the+Conjunction+Fallacy&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=238-248&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Facp.2995&rft.issn=0888-4080&rft.aulast=Brotherton&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=French%2C+Christopher+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1002%252Facp.2995&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJonasonMarchSpringer2019" class="citation journal cs1">Jonason, Peter Karl; March, Evita; Springer, Jordan (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6890261">"Belief in conspiracy theories: The predictive role of schizotypy, Machiavellianism, and primary psychopathy"</a>. PLOS ONE. 14 (12): e0225964. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019PLoSO..1425964M">2019PLoSO..1425964M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0225964">10.1371/journal.pone.0225964</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1932-6203">1932-6203</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6890261">6890261</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31794581">31794581</a>. <q>Conspiracy theories are a subset of false beliefs, and generally implicate a malevolent force (e.g., a government body or secret society) involved in orchestrating major events or providing misinformation regarding the details of events to an unwitting public, in part of a plot towards achieving a sinister goal.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=Belief+in+conspiracy+theories%3A+The+predictive+role+of+schizotypy%2C+Machiavellianism%2C+and+primary+psychopathy&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=e0225964&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6890261%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019PLoSO..1425964M&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31794581&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0225964&rft.issn=1932-6203&rft.aulast=Jonason&rft.aufirst=Peter+Karl&rft.au=March%2C+Evita&rft.au=Springer%2C+Jordan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6890261&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThresher-Andrews2013" class="citation journal cs1">Thresher-Andrews, Christopher (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.psypag.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Issue-88.pdf">"An introduction into the world of conspiracy"</a> (PDF). PsyPAG Quarterly. 1 (88): 5–8. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.53841%2Fbpspag.2013.1.88.5">10.53841/bpspag.2013.1.88.5</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1746-6016">1746-6016</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:255932379">255932379</a>. <q>Conspiracy theories are unsubstantiated, less plausible alternatives to the mainstream explanation of the event; they assume everything is intended, with malignity. Crucially, they are also epistemically self-insulating in their construction and arguments.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PsyPAG+Quarterly&rft.atitle=An+introduction+into+the+world+of+conspiracy&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=88&rft.pages=5-8&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A255932379%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1746-6016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.53841%2Fbpspag.2013.1.88.5&rft.aulast=Thresher-Andrews&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.psypag.co.uk%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2013%2F09%2FIssue-88.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-Byford-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Byford_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Byford_8-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Byford_8-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFByford2011" class="citation book cs1">Byford, Jovan (2011). Conspiracy theories : a critical introduction. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: <a href="/wiki/Palgrave_Macmillan" title="Palgrave Macmillan">Palgrave Macmillan</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780230349216" title="Special:BookSources/9780230349216"><bdi>9780230349216</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/802867724">802867724</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conspiracy+theories+%3A+a+critical+introduction&rft.place=Houndmills%2C+Basingstoke%2C+Hampshire&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F802867724&rft.isbn=9780230349216&rft.aulast=Byford&rft.aufirst=Jovan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Andrade2020-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Andrade2020_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Andrade2020_9-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Andrade2020_9-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Andrade2020_9-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Andrade2020_9-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Andrade2020_9-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Andrade2020_9-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Andrade2020_9-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Andrade2020_9-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Andrade2020_9-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Andrade2020_9-10">k</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrade2020" class="citation journal cs1">Andrade, Gabriel (April 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11019-020-09951-6.pdf">"Medical conspiracy theories: Cognitive science and implications for ethics"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Medicine,_Health_Care_and_Philosophy" title="Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy">Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy</a>. 23 (3). <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">Springer</a> on behalf of the <a href="/wiki/European_Society_for_Philosophy_of_Medicine_and_Healthcare" title="European Society for Philosophy of Medicine and Healthcare">European Society for Philosophy of Medicine and Healthcare</a>: 505–518. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11019-020-09951-6">10.1007/s11019-020-09951-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1572-8633">1572-8633</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7161434">7161434</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32301040">32301040</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:215787658">215787658</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200508193924/https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11019-020-09951-6.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 8 May 2020. Retrieved 7 October 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medicine%2C+Health+Care+and+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Medical+conspiracy+theories%3A+Cognitive+science+and+implications+for+ethics&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=505-518&rft.date=2020-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7161434%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A215787658%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11019-020-09951-6&rft.issn=1572-8633&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32301040&rft.aulast=Andrade&rft.aufirst=Gabriel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Fcontent%2Fpdf%2F10.1007%2Fs11019-020-09951-6.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Barkun2016-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Barkun2016_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Barkun2016_10-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Barkun2016_10-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Barkun2016_10-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Barkun2016_10-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarkun2016" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Barkun" title="Michael Barkun">Barkun, Michael</a> (October 2016). Campion-Vincent, Véronique; Renard, Jean-Bruno (eds.). 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PsyPAG Quarterly. 1 (88): 9–14. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.53841%2Fbpspag.2013.1.88.9">10.53841/bpspag.2013.1.88.9</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:141788005">141788005</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.psypag.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Issue-88.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 7 October 2013. <q>A conspiracy theory is not merely one candidate explanation among other equally plausible alternatives. Rather, the label refers to a claim which runs counter to a more plausible and widely accepted account...[Conspiratorial beliefs are] invariably at odds with the mainstream consensus among scientists, historians, or other legitimate judges of the claim's veracity.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PsyPAG+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Towards+a+definition+of+%27conspiracy+theory%27&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=88&rft.pages=9-14&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.53841%2Fbpspag.2013.1.88.9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A141788005%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Brotherton&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.psypag.co.uk%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2013%2F09%2FIssue-88.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-annurev-psych-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-annurev-psych_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-annurev-psych_12-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-annurev-psych_12-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-annurev-psych_12-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDouglasSutton2023" class="citation journal cs1">Douglas, Karen M.; Sutton, Robbie M. 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Retrieved 8 May 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=British+Journal+of+Social+Psychology&rft.atitle=Does+it+take+one+to+know+one%3F+Endorsement+of+conspiracy+theories+is+influenced+by+personal+willingness+to+conspire&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=544-552&rft.date=2011-04-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A7318352%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.2044-8309.2010.02018.x&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F475047529&rft.issn=2044-8309&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F81642357&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21486312&rft.aulast=Douglas&rft.aufirst=Karen+M.&rft.au=Sutton%2C+Robbie+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fkar.kent.ac.uk%2F26187%2F1%2FDouglas%2520%2526%2520Sutton%25202011%2520BJSP.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Keeley1999-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Keeley1999_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Keeley1999_14-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeeley1999" class="citation journal cs1">Keeley, Brian L. 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Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-09000-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-09000-0"><bdi>978-0-300-09000-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191217045836/https://archive.org/details/enemieswithincul00gold_0">Archived</a> from the original on 17 December 2019. Retrieved 6 August 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Enemies+Within%3A+The+Culture+of+Conspiracy+in+Modern+America&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-300-09000-0&rft.au=Goldberg%2C+Robert+Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fenemieswithincul00gold_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fenster_2008-47">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fenster_2008_47-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fenster_2008_47-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fenster_2008_47-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFenster,_Mark2008" class="citation book cs1">Fenster, Mark (2008). Conspiracy Theories: Secrecy and Power in American Culture. University of Minnesota Press; 2nd edition. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8166-5494-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8166-5494-9"><bdi>978-0-8166-5494-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conspiracy+Theories%3A+Secrecy+and+Power+in+American+Culture&rft.pub=University+of+Minnesota+Press%3B+2nd+edition&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-8166-5494-9&rft.au=Fenster%2C+Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-van_ProoijenDouglas2018-48">^ <a href="#cite_ref-van_ProoijenDouglas2018_48-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-van_ProoijenDouglas2018_48-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-van_ProoijenDouglas2018_48-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-van_ProoijenDouglas2018_48-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-van_ProoijenDouglas2018_48-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-van_ProoijenDouglas2018_48-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-van_ProoijenDouglas2018_48-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-van_ProoijenDouglas2018_48-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-van_ProoijenDouglas2018_48-8">i</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_ProoijenDouglas2018" class="citation journal cs1">van Prooijen, Jan-Willem; Douglas, Karen M. (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6282974">"Belief in conspiracy theories: Basic principles of an emerging research domain"</a>. European Journal of Social Psychology. 48 (7): 897–908. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fejsp.2530">10.1002/ejsp.2530</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0046-2772">0046-2772</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6282974">6282974</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30555188">30555188</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+Social+Psychology&rft.atitle=Belief+in+conspiracy+theories%3A+Basic+principles+of+an+emerging+research+domain&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=897-908&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6282974%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0046-2772&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30555188&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fejsp.2530&rft.aulast=van+Prooijen&rft.aufirst=Jan-Willem&rft.au=Douglas%2C+Karen+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6282974&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-SunsteinVermeule2009-49">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SunsteinVermeule2009_49-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SunsteinVermeule2009_49-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SunsteinVermeule2009_49-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SunsteinVermeule2009_49-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SunsteinVermeule2009_49-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SunsteinVermeule2009_49-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SunsteinVermeule2009_49-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SunsteinVermeule2009_49-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SunsteinVermeule2009_49-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SunsteinVermeule2009_49-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SunsteinVermeule2009_49-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SunsteinVermeule2009_49-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SunsteinVermeule2009_49-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SunsteinVermeule2009_49-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SunsteinVermeule2009_49-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SunsteinVermeule2009_49-15">p</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSunsteinVermeule2009" class="citation journal cs1">Sunstein, Cass R.; Vermeule, Adrian (2009). "Conspiracy Theories: Causes and Cures". Journal of Political Philosophy. 17 (2): 202–227. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-9760.2008.00325.x">10.1111/j.1467-9760.2008.00325.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0963-8016">0963-8016</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:48880069">48880069</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Political+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Conspiracy+Theories%3A+Causes+and+Cures&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=202-227&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A48880069%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0963-8016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-9760.2008.00325.x&rft.aulast=Sunstein&rft.aufirst=Cass+R.&rft.au=Vermeule%2C+Adrian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brotherton2015-i-50">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brotherton2015-i_50-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brotherton2015-i_50-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_Brotherton2015" class="citation book cs1">Robert Brotherton (19 November 2015). "Introduction". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=awrcCQAAQBAJ">Suspicious Minds: Why We Believe Conspiracy Theories</a>. Bloomsbury Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4729-1564-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4729-1564-1"><bdi>978-1-4729-1564-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Suspicious+Minds%3A+Why+We+Believe+Conspiracy+Theories&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2015-11-19&rft.isbn=978-1-4729-1564-1&rft.au=Robert+Brotherton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DawrcCQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-LewandowskyCook2020-51">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LewandowskyCook2020_51-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LewandowskyCook2020_51-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LewandowskyCook2020_51-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LewandowskyCook2020_51-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LewandowskyCook2020_51-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LewandowskyCook2020_51-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LewandowskyCook2020_51-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LewandowskyCook2020_51-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LewandowskyCook2020_51-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LewandowskyCook2020_51-9">j</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewandowskyCook2020" class="citation book cs1">Lewandowsky, S.; Cook, J. (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BCGxzQEACAAJ">The Conspiracy Theory Handbook</a>. John Cook, Center for Climate Change Communication, George Mason University. Retrieved 17 November 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Conspiracy+Theory+Handbook&rft.pub=John+Cook%2C+Center+for+Climate+Change+Communication%2C+George+Mason+University&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Lewandowsky&rft.aufirst=S.&rft.au=Cook%2C+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBCGxzQEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> Oxford English Dictionary Second Edition on CD-ROM (v. 4.0), Oxford University Press, 2009, s.v. 4 </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson1909" class="citation journal cs1">Johnson, Allen (July 1909). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/missouricomp00rayprich">"Reviewed Work: The Repeal of the Missouri Compromise: Its Origin and Authorship by P. Orman Ray"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_American_Historical_Review" title="The American Historical Review">The American Historical Review</a>. 14 (4): 835–836. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1837085">10.2307/1837085</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Floc.ark%3A%2F13960%2Ft27948c87">2027/loc.ark:/13960/t27948c87</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1837085">1837085</a>. <q>The claim that [David R.] Atchison was the originator of the [Missouri Compromise] repeal may be termed a recrudescence of the conspiracy theory first asserted by Colonel John A. Parker of Virginia in 1880.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Reviewed+Work%3A+The+Repeal+of+the+Missouri+Compromise%3A+Its+Origin+and+Authorship+by+P.+Orman+Ray&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=835-836&rft.date=1909-07&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027%2Floc.ark%3A%2F13960%2Ft27948c87&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1837085%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1837085&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Allen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmissouricomp00rayprich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-JoMS-1870-54"><a href="#cite_ref-JoMS-1870_54-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobertsonAssociation_of_Medical_Officers_of_Asylums_and_Hospitals_for_the_Insane_(London,_England)Medico-psychological_Association_of_Great_Britain_and_IrelandRoyal_Medico-psychological_Association1870" class="citation journal cs1">Robertson, Lockhart; Association of Medical Officers of Asylums and Hospitals for the Insane (London, England); Medico-psychological Association of Great Britain and Ireland; Royal Medico-psychological Association (April 1870). Maudsley, Henry; Sibbald, John (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VsRMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA141">"The Report of a Quarterly Meeting of the Medico-Psychological Association, held in London at the Royal Medico-Chirurgical Society, by permission of the President and Council, on the 27th January, 1870. [in Part IV. Psychological News.]"</a>. The Journal of Mental Science. XVI (73). London: <a href="/wiki/Longman,_Green,_Longman,_%26_Roberts" class="mw-redirect" title="Longman, Green, Longman, & Roberts">Longman, Green, Longman, & Roberts</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0368-315X">0368-315X</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/4642826321">4642826321</a>. <q>The theory of Dr. Sankey as to the manner in which these injuries to the chest occurred in asylums deserved our careful attention. It was at least more plausible that the conspiracy theory of Mr. Charles Reade, and the precautionary measure suggested by Dr. Sankey of using a padded waistcoat in recent cases of mania with general paralysis—in which mental condition nearly all these cases under discussion were—seemed to him of practical value.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Mental+Science&rft.atitle=The+Report+of+a+Quarterly+Meeting+of+the+Medico-Psychological+Association%2C+held+in+London+at+the+Royal+Medico-Chirurgical+Society%2C+by+permission+of+the+President+and+Council%2C+on+the+27th+January%2C+1870.+%5Bin+Part+IV.+Psychological+News.%5D&rft.volume=XVI&rft.issue=73&rft.date=1870-04&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F4642826321&rft.issn=0368-315X&rft.aulast=Robertson&rft.aufirst=Lockhart&rft.au=Association+of+Medical+Officers+of+Asylums+and+Hospitals+for+the+Insane+%28London%2C+England%29&rft.au=Medico-psychological+Association+of+Great+Britain+and+Ireland&rft.au=Royal+Medico-psychological+Association&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVsRMAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA141&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nyt-55">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nyt_55-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nyt_55-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBristed1863" class="citation news cs1">Bristed, C. 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Retrieved 2 March 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=English+Insincerity+on+the+Slavery+Question.&rft.pages=3&rft.date=1863-01-11&rft.aulast=Bristed&rft.aufirst=C.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newspapers.com%2Fclip%2F96772461%2Ffirst-use-of-conspiracy-theory-by%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStarcevicBrakoulias2021" class="citation journal cs1">Starcevic, Vladan; Brakoulias, Vlasios (14 April 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F10398562211008182">"'Things are not what they seem to be': A proposal for the spectrum approach to conspiracy beliefs"</a>. Australasian Psychiatry. 29 (5): 535–539. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F10398562211008182">10.1177/10398562211008182</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33852369">33852369</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:233242206">233242206</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Australasian+Psychiatry&rft.atitle=%27Things+are+not+what+they+seem+to+be%27%3A+A+proposal+for+the+spectrum+approach+to+conspiracy+beliefs&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=535-539&rft.date=2021-04-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A233242206%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33852369&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F10398562211008182&rft.aulast=Starcevic&rft.aufirst=Vladan&rft.au=Brakoulias%2C+Vlasios&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1177%252F10398562211008182&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CSICOP-57"><a href="#cite_ref-CSICOP_57-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlaskiewicz2013" class="citation web cs1">Blaskiewicz, Robert (8 August 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.csicop.org/specialarticles/show/nope_it_was_always_already_wrong">"Nope, It Was Always Already Wrong"</a>. 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New York: Oxford University Press. </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMonbiot2024" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Monbiot" title="George Monbiot">Monbiot, George</a> (4 May 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2024/may/04/youre-going-to-call-me-a-holocaust-denier-now-are-you-george-monbiot-comes-face-to-face-with-his-local-conspiracy-theorist">"'You're going to call me a Holocaust denier now, are you?': George Monbiot comes face to face with his local conspiracy theorist"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077">0261-3077</a>. 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Bloomsbury Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4729-1564-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4729-1564-1"><bdi>978-1-4729-1564-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+4&rft.btitle=Suspicious+Minds%3A+Why+We+Believe+Conspiracy+Theories&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2015-11-19&rft.isbn=978-1-4729-1564-1&rft.au=Robert+Brotherton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DawrcCQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFdeHaven-Smith2013" class="citation book cs1">deHaven-Smith, Lance (15 April 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TilCeCKDujQC">Conspiracy Theory in America</a>. University of Texas Press. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780292743793" title="Special:BookSources/9780292743793"><bdi>9780292743793</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160906032935/https://books.google.com/books?id=TilCeCKDujQC&printsec=frontcover">Archived</a> from the original on 6 September 2016. Retrieved 27 January 2016. <q>The term 'conspiracy theory' did not exist as a phrase in everyday American conversation before 1964. ... 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Retrieved 23 April 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Republicans+Ride+Theories+of+the+Fringe&rft.date=2011-04-03&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Hunt&rft.aufirst=Albert+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2011%2F04%2F04%2Fus%2F04iht-letter04.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/2020/12/30/951095644/even-if-its-bonkers-poll-finds-many-believe-qanon-and-other-conspiracy-theories">"Even If It's 'Bonkers,' Poll Finds Many Believe QAnon And Other Conspiracy Theories"</a>. <a href="/wiki/NPR" title="NPR">NPR</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NPR&rft.atitle=Even+If+It%27s+%27Bonkers%2C%27+Poll+Finds+Many+Believe+QAnon+And+Other+Conspiracy+Theories&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2F2020%2F12%2F30%2F951095644%2Feven-if-its-bonkers-poll-finds-many-believe-qanon-and-other-conspiracy-theories&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMuirheadRosenblum2021" class="citation journal cs1">Muirhead, Russell; Rosenblum, Nancy L. (1 February 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Ffor-2020-2016">"Will Reality Bite Back: Conspiratorial Fictions and the Assault on Democracy"</a>. The Forum. 18 (3): 415–433. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Ffor-2020-2016">10.1515/for-2020-2016</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1540-8884">1540-8884</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Forum&rft.atitle=Will+Reality+Bite+Back%3A+Conspiratorial+Fictions+and+the+Assault+on+Democracy&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=415-433&rft.date=2021-02-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Ffor-2020-2016&rft.issn=1540-8884&rft.aulast=Muirhead&rft.aufirst=Russell&rft.au=Rosenblum%2C+Nancy+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1515%252Ffor-2020-2016&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMuirheadRosenblum2019" class="citation book cs1">Muirhead, Russell; Rosenblum, Nancy L. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv941trn">A Lot of People Are Saying: The New Conspiracism and the Assault on Democracy</a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctv941trn">10.2307/j.ctv941trn</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-18883-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-18883-6"><bdi>978-0-691-18883-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv941trn">j.ctv941trn</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159357706">159357706</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Lot+of+People+Are+Saying%3A+The+New+Conspiracism+and+the+Assault+on+Democracy&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2Fj.ctv941trn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159357706%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctv941trn%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-0-691-18883-6&rft.aulast=Muirhead&rft.aufirst=Russell&rft.au=Rosenblum%2C+Nancy+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctv941trn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Jesse_Walker" title="Jesse Walker">Jesse Walker</a>, The United States of Paranoia: A Conspiracy Theory (2013) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0062135554">excerpt and text search</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512054322/https://www.amazon.com/United-States-Paranoia-Conspiracy-Theory/dp/0062135554">Archived</a> 12 May 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarkun20036-78"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarkun20036_78-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBarkun2003">Barkun 2003</a>, p. 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarcus2006" class="citation journal cs1">Marcus, B.K. 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Black Rose Books Ltd. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/manufacturingcon00achb/page/131">131</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55164-002-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55164-002-0"><bdi>978-1-55164-002-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Manufacturing+Consent%3A+Noam+Chomsky+and+the+Media&rft.pages=131&rft.pub=Black+Rose+Books+Ltd.&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-1-55164-002-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmanufacturingcon00achb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJack_Z._Bratich2008" class="citation book cs1">Jack Z. 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ABC-CLIO. pp. 730–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57607-812-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57607-812-9"><bdi>978-1-57607-812-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160906162011/https://books.google.com/books?id=qMIDrggs8TsC&pg=PA730">Archived</a> from the original on 6 September 2016. 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Theory, Culture & Society. 34 (1): 7–8. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0263276416657880">10.1177/0263276416657880</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10398%2F815ad149-79b0-4000-9d07-327893a24ee6">10398/815ad149-79b0-4000-9d07-327893a24ee6</a>. Retrieved 24 April 2024. <q>It also seems to be the case that the way we normally use the term conspiracy theory excludes instances where the theory has been generally accepted as true...Just as the Watergate scandal is now part of the official account of the Nixon administration, the NSA monitoring practices are arguably also part of our present understanding of the way that US intelligence works and neither thus qualify as 'conspiracy theories' anymore. 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Frontiers in Psychology. 10: 205. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffpsyg.2019.00205">10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00205</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1664-1078">1664-1078</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6396711">6396711</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30853921">30853921</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Psychology&rft.atitle=A+Systematic+Review+and+Meta-Analysis+of+Psychological+Research+on+Conspiracy+Beliefs%3A+Field+Characteristics%2C+Measurement+Instruments%2C+and+Associations+With+Personality+Traits&rft.volume=10&rft.pages=205&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6396711%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1664-1078&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30853921&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffpsyg.2019.00205&rft.aulast=Goreis&rft.aufirst=Andreas&rft.au=Voracek%2C+Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6396711&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarkun20033-123">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarkun20033_123-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarkun20033_123-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBarkun2003">Barkun 2003</a>, p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-New_Internationalist_1_2004-124">^ <a href="#cite_ref-New_Internationalist_1_2004_124-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-New_Internationalist_1_2004_124-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-New_Internationalist_1_2004_124-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerlet,_Chip2004" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Chip_Berlet" title="Chip Berlet">Berlet, Chip</a> (September 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.publiceye.org/antisemitism/nw_barkun.html">"Interview: Michael Barkun"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090402214330/http://www.publiceye.org/antisemitism/nw_barkun.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2 April 2009. Retrieved 1 October 2009. <q>The issue of conspiracism versus rational criticism is a tough one, and some people (Jodi Dean, for example) argue that the former is simply a variety of the latter. I don't accept this, although I certainly acknowledge that there have been conspiracies. They simply don't have the attributes of almost superhuman power and cunning that conspiracists attribute to them.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Interview%3A+Michael+Barkun&rft.date=2004-09&rft.au=Berlet%2C+Chip&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.publiceye.org%2Fantisemitism%2Fnw_barkun.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFImhoff2018" class="citation web cs1">Imhoff, Roland (17 April 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://motherboard.vice.com/en_us/article/9kg8j3/conspiracy-theorists-just-want-to-feel-special">"Conspiracy Theorists Just Want to Feel Special"</a>. motherboard.vice.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190428135251/https://motherboard.vice.com/en_us/article/9kg8j3/conspiracy-theorists-just-want-to-feel-special">Archived</a> from the original on 28 April 2019. Retrieved 6 July 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=motherboard.vice.com&rft.atitle=Conspiracy+Theorists+Just+Want+to+Feel+Special&rft.date=2018-04-17&rft.aulast=Imhoff&rft.aufirst=Roland&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmotherboard.vice.com%2Fen_us%2Farticle%2F9kg8j3%2Fconspiracy-theorists-just-want-to-feel-special&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Baigent,_Leigh_&_Lincoln_1987-126"><a href="#cite_ref-Baigent,_Leigh_&_Lincoln_1987_126-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaigent,_MichaelLeigh,_RichardLincoln,_Henry1987" class="citation book cs1">Baigent, Michael; Leigh, Richard; Lincoln, Henry (1987). The Messianic Legacy. Henry Holt & Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-0568-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-0568-4"><bdi>978-0-8050-0568-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Messianic+Legacy&rft.pub=Henry+Holt+%26+Co&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-8050-0568-4&rft.au=Baigent%2C+Michael&rft.au=Leigh%2C+Richard&rft.au=Lincoln%2C+Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-business.time.com-128">^ <a href="#cite_ref-business.time.com_128-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-business.time.com_128-1">b</a> Justin Fox: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://business.time.com/2009/10/01/wall-streeters-like-conspiracy-theories-always-have/">"Wall Streeters like conspiracy theories. Always have"</a> , Time, 1 October 2009. </li> <li id="cite_note-Goertzel_1994_733–744-129"><a href="#cite_ref-Goertzel_1994_733–744_129-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoertzel1994" class="citation journal cs1">Goertzel (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crab.rutgers.edu/~goertzel/conspire.doc">"Belief in Conspiracy Theories"</a>. Political Psychology. 15 (4): 731–742. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3791630">10.2307/3791630</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3791630">3791630</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060831210103/http://crab.rutgers.edu/~goertzel/CONSPIRE.doc">Archived</a> from the original on 31 August 2006. Retrieved 7 August 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Political+Psychology&rft.atitle=Belief+in+Conspiracy+Theories&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=731-742&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3791630&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3791630%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Goertzel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.crab.rutgers.edu%2F~goertzel%2Fconspire.doc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Douglas_2008_210–222-130"><a href="#cite_ref-Douglas_2008_210–222_130-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDouglasSutton2008" class="citation journal cs1">Douglas, Karen; Sutton, Robbie (2008). "The hidden impact of conspiracy theories: Perceived and actual influence of theories surrounding the death of Princess Diana". Journal of Social Psychology. 148 (2): 210–22. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3200%2FSOCP.148.2.210-222">10.3200/SOCP.148.2.210-222</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18512419">18512419</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8717161">8717161</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Social+Psychology&rft.atitle=The+hidden+impact+of+conspiracy+theories%3A+Perceived+and+actual+influence+of+theories+surrounding+the+death+of+Princess+Diana&rft.volume=148&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=210-22&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A8717161%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18512419&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3200%2FSOCP.148.2.210-222&rft.aulast=Douglas&rft.aufirst=Karen&rft.au=Sutton%2C+Robbie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-harpers=1964-131">^ <a href="#cite_ref-harpers=1964_131-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-harpers=1964_131-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-harpers=1964_131-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHofstadter,_Richard1965" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Hofstadter" title="Richard Hofstadter">Hofstadter, Richard</a> (1965). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XcLSoljnmBcC&q=0674654617">The Paranoid Style in American Politics and Other Essays</a>. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 32–33. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-65461-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-65461-7"><bdi>978-0-674-65461-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190418133817/https://books.google.com/books?id=XcLSoljnmBcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=0674654617#v=onepage&q=This%20enemy%20seems%20to%20be%20on%20many%20counts%20a%20projection">Archived</a> from the original on 18 April 2019. Retrieved 27 October 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Paranoid+Style+in+American+Politics+and+Other+Essays&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=32-33&rft.pub=Alfred+A.+Knopf&rft.date=1965&rft.isbn=978-0-674-65461-7&rft.au=Hofstadter%2C+Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXcLSoljnmBcC%26q%3D0674654617&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hodapp_2008-132">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hodapp_2008_132-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hodapp_2008_132-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHodappAlice_Von_Kannon2008" class="citation book cs1">Hodapp, Christopher; Alice Von Kannon (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780470184080">Conspiracy Theories & Secret Societies For Dummies</a>. <a href="/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="John Wiley & Sons">John Wiley & Sons</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-18408-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-18408-0"><bdi>978-0-470-18408-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conspiracy+Theories+%26+Secret+Societies+For+Dummies&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-470-18408-0&rft.aulast=Hodapp&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft.au=Alice+Von+Kannon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780470184080&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cohen-133">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen_133-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen_133-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen_133-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen2010" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Cohen" title="Roger Cohen">Cohen, Roger</a> (20 December 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/21/opinion/21iht-edcohen21.html">"The Captive Arab Mind"</a>. The New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170625080138/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/21/opinion/21iht-edcohen21.html">Archived</a> from the original on 25 June 2017. Retrieved 18 February 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=The+Captive+Arab+Mind&rft.date=2010-12-20&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2010%2F12%2F21%2Fopinion%2F21iht-edcohen21.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerletLyons,_Matthew_N.2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Chip_Berlet" title="Chip Berlet">Berlet, Chip</a>; Lyons, Matthew N. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/rightwingpopulis00berlrich">Right-Wing Populism in America: Too Close for Comfort</a>. New York: Guilford Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57230-562-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57230-562-5"><bdi>978-1-57230-562-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191216201705/https://archive.org/details/rightwingpopulis00berlrich">Archived</a> from the original on 16 December 2019. Retrieved 9 November 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Right-Wing+Populism+in+America%3A+Too+Close+for+Comfort&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Guilford+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-57230-562-5&rft.aulast=Berlet&rft.aufirst=Chip&rft.au=Lyons%2C+Matthew+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frightwingpopulis00berlrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwamiColesStiegerPietschnig2011" class="citation journal cs1">Swami, Viren; Coles, Rebecca; Stieger, Stefan; Pietschnig, Jakob; Furnham, Adrian; Rehim, Sherry; Voracek, Martin (2011). "Conspiracist ideation in Britain and Austria: Evidence of a monological belief system and associations between individual psychological differences and real-world and fictitious conspiracy theories". 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The Skeptic. 29 March 2023. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.skeptic.org.uk/2023/03/in-turkey-conspiracy-theories-about-the-peace-treaty-of-lausanne-run-riot/">the original</a> on 2 July 2023. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://yalansavar.org/2023/07/25/lozan-antlasmasinin-100-yilinda-komplo-teorileri-ve-gizli-maddelerin-izinde/">the original</a> on 6 August 2023. Retrieved 17 May 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Yalansavar&rft.atitle=Lozan+Antla%C5%9Fmas%C4%B1%27n%C4%B1n+100.+Y%C4%B1l%C4%B1nda+Komplo+Teorileri+ve+Gizli+Maddelerin+%C4%B0zinde&rft.date=2023-07-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fyalansavar.org%2F2023%2F07%2F25%2Flozan-antlasmasinin-100-yilinda-komplo-teorileri-ve-gizli-maddelerin-izinde%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGöçek2011" class="citation book cs1">Göçek, Fatma Müge (2011). 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Print. </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> Jewett, Robert; John Shelton Lawrence (2004) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VE2k18ScPnQC&q=%22conspiracy%20theories%22">Captain America and the Crusade Against Evil: The Dilemma of Zealous Nationalism</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190418133818/https://books.google.com/books?id=VE2k18ScPnQC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=%22conspiracy%20theories%22">Archived</a> 18 April 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing p. 206. </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRogin1988" class="citation book cs1">Rogin, Michael Paul (1988). Ronald Reagan, the Movie and Other Episodes in Political Demonology. 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(2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=u7Sd5vyOOtEC&pg=PA8">Real Enemies: Conspiracy Theories and American Democracy, World War I to 9/11</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190418133815/https://books.google.com/books?id=u7Sd5vyOOtEC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA8">Archived</a> 18 April 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Oxford University Press, p. 8. </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedersdorf2011" class="citation news cs1">Friedersdorf, Conor (29 October 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2011/12/ron-paul-conspiracy-theories-and-the-right/250638/">"Ron Paul, Conspiracy Theories, and the Right"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Atlantic" title="The Atlantic">The Atlantic</a>. Retrieved 30 August 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&rft.atitle=Ron+Paul%2C+Conspiracy+Theories%2C+and+the+Right&rft.date=2011-10-29&rft.aulast=Friedersdorf&rft.aufirst=Conor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fpolitics%2Farchive%2F2011%2F12%2Fron-paul-conspiracy-theories-and-the-right%2F250638%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> Stack, Liam (October 3, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/14/us/politics/alex-jones.html">"He Calls Hillary Clinton a 'Demon.' Who Is Alex Jones?"</a> <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBracewell2021" class="citation journal cs1">Bracewell, Lorna (21 January 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8022489">"Gender, Populism, and the QAnon Conspiracy Movement"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Frontiers_in_Sociology" class="mw-redirect" title="Frontiers in Sociology">Frontiers in Sociology</a>. 5. <a href="/wiki/Frontiers_Media" title="Frontiers Media">Frontiers Media</a>: 615727. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffsoc.2020.615727">10.3389/fsoc.2020.615727</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2297-7775">2297-7775</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8022489">8022489</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33869533">33869533</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:231654586">231654586</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Sociology&rft.atitle=Gender%2C+Populism%2C+and+the+QAnon+Conspiracy+Movement&rft.volume=5&rft.pages=615727&rft.date=2021-01-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8022489%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A231654586%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffsoc.2020.615727&rft.issn=2297-7775&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33869533&rft.aulast=Bracewell&rft.aufirst=Lorna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8022489&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Donnell2020" class="citation journal cs1">O'Donnell, Jonathon (September 2020). <a href="/wiki/Michael_Stausberg" title="Michael Stausberg">Stausberg, Michael</a>; <a href="/wiki/Steven_Engler" title="Steven Engler">Engler, Steven</a> (eds.). "The deliverance of the administrative state: Deep state conspiracism, charismatic demonology, and the post-truth politics of American Christian nationalism". <a href="/wiki/Religion_(journal)" title="Religion (journal)">Religion</a>. 50 (4). <a href="/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>: 696–719. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0048721X.2020.1810817">10.1080/0048721X.2020.1810817</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1096-1151">1096-1151</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:222094116">222094116</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Religion&rft.atitle=The+deliverance+of+the+administrative+state%3A+Deep+state+conspiracism%2C+charismatic+demonology%2C+and+the+post-truth+politics+of+American+Christian+nationalism&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=696-719&rft.date=2020-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A222094116%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1096-1151&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F0048721X.2020.1810817&rft.aulast=O%27Donnell&rft.aufirst=Jonathon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoose2021" class="citation news cs1">Roose, Kevin (3 September 2021) [4 March 2021]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/article/what-is-qanon.html">"What Is QAnon, the Viral Pro-Trump Conspiracy Theory?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210919060514/https://www.nytimes.com/article/what-is-qanon.html">Archived</a> from the original on 19 September 2021. Retrieved 25 September 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=What+Is+QAnon%2C+the+Viral+Pro-Trump+Conspiracy+Theory%3F&rft.date=2021-09-03&rft.aulast=Roose&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2Farticle%2Fwhat-is-qanon.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowman2021" class="citation news cs1">Bowman, Emma (4 February 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/2021/02/04/963861418/why-qanon-survives-after-trump">"Why QAnon Survives After Trump"</a>. <a href="/wiki/NPR.org" class="mw-redirect" title="NPR.org">NPR.org</a>. <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210905103408/https://www.npr.org/2021/02/04/963861418/why-qanon-survives-after-trump">Archived</a> from the original on 5 September 2021. Retrieved 25 September 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NPR.org&rft.atitle=Why+QAnon+Survives+After+Trump&rft.date=2021-02-04&rft.aulast=Bowman&rft.aufirst=Emma&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2F2021%2F02%2F04%2F963861418%2Fwhy-qanon-survives-after-trump&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAaronovitch2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Aaronovitch" title="David Aaronovitch">Aaronovitch, David</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/voodoohistoriesr0000aaro">Voodoo Histories: The Role of the Conspiracy Theory in Shaping Modern History</a>. Riverhead. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59448-895-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59448-895-5"><bdi>978-1-59448-895-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Voodoo+Histories%3A+The+Role+of+the+Conspiracy+Theory+in+Shaping+Modern+History&rft.pub=Riverhead&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-59448-895-5&rft.aulast=Aaronovitch&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fvoodoohistoriesr0000aaro&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArnold,_Gordon_B.2008" class="citation book cs1">Arnold, Gordon B., ed. (2008). Conspiracy Theory in Film, Television, and Politics. <a href="/wiki/Praeger_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Praeger Publishers">Praeger Publishers</a>. p. 200. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-99462-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-99462-4"><bdi>978-0-275-99462-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conspiracy+Theory+in+Film%2C+Television%2C+and+Politics&rft.pages=200&rft.pub=Praeger+Publishers&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-275-99462-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Burnett, Thom. <a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_Encyclopedia:_The_Encyclopedia_of_Conspiracy_Theories" class="mw-redirect" title="Conspiracy Encyclopedia: The Encyclopedia of Conspiracy Theories">Conspiracy Encyclopedia: The Encyclopedia of Conspiracy Theories</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFButterPeter_Knight2015" class="citation journal cs1">Butter, Michael; Peter Knight (November 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0392192116669289">"Bridging the Great Divide: Conspiracy Theory Research for the 21st Century"</a>. Diogenes. 62 (3–4: Conspiracy Theories Today): 17–29. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0392192116669289">10.1177/0392192116669289</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:152067265">152067265</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Diogenes&rft.atitle=Bridging+the+Great+Divide%3A+Conspiracy+Theory+Research+for+the+21st+Century&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=3%E2%80%934%3A+Conspiracy+Theories+Today&rft.pages=17-29&rft.date=2015-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0392192116669289&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A152067265%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Butter&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Peter+Knight&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sagepub.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1177%2F0392192116669289&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChase,_Alston2003" class="citation book cs1">Chase, Alston (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/harvardunabomber00chas">Harvard and the Unabomber: The Education of an American Terrorist</a>. New York: W. W. Norton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-02002-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-02002-1"><bdi>978-0-393-02002-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Harvard+and+the+Unabomber%3A+The+Education+of+an+American+Terrorist&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-393-02002-1&rft.au=Chase%2C+Alston&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fharvardunabomber00chas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoward,_Barry2004" class="citation book cs1">Coward, Barry, ed. (2004). Conspiracies and Conspiracy Theory in Early Modern Europe: From the Waldensians to the French Revolution. <a href="/wiki/Ashgate_Publishing" title="Ashgate Publishing">Ashgate Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-3564-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-3564-2"><bdi>978-0-7546-3564-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conspiracies+and+Conspiracy+Theory+in+Early+Modern+Europe%3A+From+the+Waldensians+to+the+French+Revolution&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-7546-3564-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.maxwell.syr.edu/uploadedFiles/news/Conspiracy%20Theories.pdf">"Conspiracy Theories"</a> (PDF). CQ Researcher. 19 (37): 885–908. 23 October 2009. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1056-2036">1056-2036</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.maxwell.syr.edu/uploadedFiles/news/Conspiracy%20Theories.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CQ+Researcher&rft.atitle=Conspiracy+Theories&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=37&rft.pages=885-908&rft.date=2009-10-23&rft.issn=1056-2036&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.maxwell.syr.edu%2FuploadedFiles%2Fnews%2FConspiracy%2520Theories.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCziescheJürgen_DahlkampUlrich_FichtnerUlrich_Jaeger2003" class="citation news cs1">Cziesche, Dominik; Jürgen Dahlkamp; Ulrich Fichtner; Ulrich Jaeger; Gunther Latsch; Gisela Leske; Max F. Ruppert (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.spiegel.de/international/spiegel/cover-story-panoply-of-the-absurd-a-265160.html">"Panoply of the Absurd"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Der_Spiegel" title="Der Spiegel">Der Spiegel</a>. Retrieved 28 November 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Der+Spiegel&rft.atitle=Panoply+of+the+Absurd&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Cziesche&rft.aufirst=Dominik&rft.au=J%C3%BCrgen+Dahlkamp&rft.au=Ulrich+Fichtner&rft.au=Ulrich+Jaeger&rft.au=Gunther+Latsch&rft.au=Gisela+Leske&rft.au=Max+F.+Ruppert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.spiegel.de%2Finternational%2Fspiegel%2Fcover-story-panoply-of-the-absurd-a-265160.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"></li> <li>De Graaf, Beatrice and Zwierlein, Cornel (eds.) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gesis.org/en/hsr/full-text-archive/2013/381-security-and-conspiracy/">"Security and Conspiracy in History, 16th to 21st Century"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Historical_Social_Research" title="Historical Social Research">Historical Social Research</a> 38, Special Issue, 2013</li> <li>Fleming, Chris and Emma A. Jane. Modern Conspiracy: The Importance of Being Paranoid. New York and London: Bloomsbury, 2014. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-62356-091-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-62356-091-1">978-1-62356-091-1</a>.</li> <li>Goertzel, Ted. "Belief in conspiracy theories". Political Psychology (1994): 731–742. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crab.rutgers.edu/~goertzel/CONSPIRE.doc">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060831210103/http://crab.rutgers.edu/~goertzel/CONSPIRE.doc">Archived</a> 31 August 2006 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraff2023" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Garrett_Graff" title="Garrett Graff">Graff, Garrett</a> (2023). UFO: The Inside Story of the US Government's Search for Alien Life Here—and Out There. New York: Avid Reader Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781982196776" title="Special:BookSources/9781982196776"><bdi>9781982196776</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1407420009">1407420009</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=UFO%3A+The+Inside+Story+of+the+US+Government%27s+Search+for+Alien+Life+Here%E2%80%94and+Out+There&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Avid+Reader+Press&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1407420009&rft.isbn=9781982196776&rft.aulast=Graff&rft.aufirst=Garrett&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Harris, Lee. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130114231139/http://american.com/archive/2013/january/the-trouble-with-conspiracy-theories">"The Trouble with Conspiracy Theories"</a>. The American, 12 January 2013.</li> <li>Hofstadter, Richard. The Paranoid Style in American Politics (1954). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170116220729/http://www.fuminyang.com/michelle/Paranoid%20Style.pdf">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson,_George1983" class="citation book cs1">Johnson, George (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/architectsoffear00john">Architects of Fear: Conspiracy Theories and Paranoia in American Politics</a>. Los Angeles: Jeremy P. Tarcher. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87477-275-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87477-275-3"><bdi>978-0-87477-275-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Architects+of+Fear%3A+Conspiracy+Theories+and+Paranoia+in+American+Politics&rft.place=Los+Angeles&rft.pub=Jeremy+P.+Tarcher&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-87477-275-3&rft.au=Johnson%2C+George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Farchitectsoffear00john&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcConnachie,_JamesTudge,_Robin2005" class="citation book cs1">McConnachie, James; Tudge, Robin (2005). The Rough Guide to Conspiracy Theories. 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Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-8606-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-8606-7"><bdi>978-0-8014-8606-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empire+of+Conspiracy%3A+The+Culture+of+Paranoia+in+Postwar+America&rft.place=Ithaca%2C+New+York&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-8606-7&rft.au=Melley%2C+Timothy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeigs2006" class="citation web cs1">Meigs, James B. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061024062122/http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/research/4199607.html">"The Conspiracy Industry"</a>. Popular Mechanics. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/research/4199607.html">the original</a> on 24 October 2006. Retrieved 13 October 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Popular+Mechanics&rft.atitle=The+Conspiracy+Industry&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Meigs&rft.aufirst=James+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.popularmechanics.com%2Fscience%2Fresearch%2F4199607.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNefes2012" class="citation journal cs1">Nefes, Türkay Salim (2012). "The history of the social constructions of Dönmes". Journal of Historical Sociology. 25 (3): 413–39. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-6443.2012.01434.x">10.1111/j.1467-6443.2012.01434.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Historical+Sociology&rft.atitle=The+history+of+the+social+constructions+of+D%C3%B6nmes&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=413-39&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-6443.2012.01434.x&rft.aulast=Nefes&rft.aufirst=T%C3%BCrkay+Salim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNefes2013" class="citation journal cs1">Nefes, Türkay Salim (2013). "Political parties' perceptions and uses of anti-Semitic conspiracy theories in Turkey". The Sociological Review. 61 (2): 247–64. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1467-954X.12016">10.1111/1467-954X.12016</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145632390">145632390</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Sociological+Review&rft.atitle=Political+parties%27+perceptions+and+uses+of+anti-Semitic+conspiracy+theories+in+Turkey&rft.volume=61&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=247-64&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F1467-954X.12016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145632390%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Nefes&rft.aufirst=T%C3%BCrkay+Salim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Oliver, J. Eric, and Thomas J. Wood. "Conspiracy theories and the paranoid style(s) of mass opinion". American Journal of Political Science 58.4 (2014): 952–966.<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hon3397p.wp.txstate.edu/files/2015/08/OliverWood.pdf">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParsons2001" class="citation news cs1">Parsons, Charlotte (24 September 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/1561199.stm">"Why we need conspiracy theories"</a>. Americas. <a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a>. Retrieved 26 June 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Why+we+need+conspiracy+theories&rft.date=2001-09-24&rft.aulast=Parsons&rft.aufirst=Charlotte&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F1%2Fhi%2Fworld%2Famericas%2F1561199.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPipes,_Daniel1998" class="citation book cs1">Pipes, Daniel (1998). <a href="/wiki/The_Hidden_Hand:_Middle_East_Fears_of_Conspiracy" title="The Hidden Hand: Middle East Fears of Conspiracy">The Hidden Hand: Middle East Fears of Conspiracy</a>. 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New York: The Free Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-87111-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-87111-0"><bdi>978-0-684-87111-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conspiracy%3A+How+the+Paranoid+Style+Flourishes+and+Where+It+Comes+From&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=The+Free+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-684-87111-0&rft.au=Pipes%2C+Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPigden1995" class="citation journal cs1">Pigden, Charles (1995). "Popper Revisited, or What Is Wrong with Conspiracy Theories?". Philosophy of the Social Sciences. 25 (1): 3–34. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.964.4190">10.1.1.964.4190</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F004839319502500101">10.1177/004839319502500101</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143602969">143602969</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy+of+the+Social+Sciences&rft.atitle=Popper+Revisited%2C+or+What+Is+Wrong+with+Conspiracy+Theories%3F&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=3-34&rft.date=1995&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.964.4190%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143602969%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F004839319502500101&rft.aulast=Pigden&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSagan,_Carl1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Carl_Sagan" title="Carl Sagan">Sagan, Carl</a> (1996). The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark. New York: The Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-394-53512-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-394-53512-8"><bdi>978-0-394-53512-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Demon-Haunted+World%3A+Science+as+a+Candle+in+the+Dark&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=The+Random+House&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-394-53512-8&rft.au=Sagan%2C+Carl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Slosson, W. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/unpopularreview07newy#page/394/mode/2up">"The 'Conspiracy' Superstition"</a>. The Unpopular Review, Vol. VII, No. 14, 1917.</li> <li>Sunstein, Cass R., and Adrian Vermeule. "Conspiracy theories: Causes and cures". Journal of Political Philosophy 17.2 (2009): 202–227. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ask-force.org/web/Discourse/Sunstein-Conspiracy-Theories-2009.pdf">online</a></li> <li>Uscinski, Joseph E. and Joseph M. Parent, American Conspiracy Theories (2014) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0199351813/">excerpt</a></li> <li>Uscinski, Joseph E. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2016/08/conspiracy-theories-2016-donald-trump-hillary-clinton-214183">"The 5 Most Dangerous Conspiracy Theories of 2016"</a>. Politico Magazine (Aug 22, 2016)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVankin,_JonathanJohn_Whalen2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Vankin" title="Jonathan Vankin">Vankin, Jonathan</a>; John Whalen (2004). The 80 Greatest Conspiracies of All Time. New York: Citadel Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8065-2531-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8065-2531-0"><bdi>978-0-8065-2531-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+80+Greatest+Conspiracies+of+All+Time&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Citadel+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-8065-2531-0&rft.au=Vankin%2C+Jonathan&rft.au=John+Whalen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConspiracy+theory" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Wood, Gordon S. "Conspiracy and the paranoid style: causality and deceit in the eighteenth century". William and Mary Quarterly (1982): 402–441. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1919580">1919580</a>.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output 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id="Conspiracy_theories" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Conspiracy theories</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/List_of_conspiracy_theories" title="List of conspiracy theories">List of conspiracy theories</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Overview" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Overview</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Core topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiscience" title="Antiscience">Antiscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabal" title="Cabal">Cabals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep_state" title="Deep state">deep state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89minence_grise" title="Éminence grise">éminence grise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_behind_the_throne" title="Power behind the throne">power behind the throne</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_conspiracy" title="Civil conspiracy">Civil</a> / <a href="/wiki/Criminal_conspiracy" title="Criminal conspiracy">Criminal</a> / <a href="/wiki/List_of_political_conspiracies" title="List of political conspiracies">Political conspiracies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy" title="Conspiracy">Conspiracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_actor" title="Crisis actor">Crisis actors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deception" title="Deception">Deception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dystopia" title="Dystopia">Dystopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Espionage" title="Espionage">Espionage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_catastrophe_scenarios" title="Global catastrophe scenarios">Global catastrophe scenarios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hidden_message" title="Hidden message">Hidden message</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudohistory" title="Pseudohistory">Pseudohistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secrecy" title="Secrecy">Secrecy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secret_society" title="Secret society">Secret societies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_legends_and_myths" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban legends and myths">Urban legends and myths</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Psychology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Group_polarization#Attitude_polarization" title="Group polarization">Attitude polarization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance" title="Cognitive dissonance">Cognitive dissonance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communal_reinforcement" title="Communal reinforcement">Communal reinforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_bias" title="Confirmation bias">Confirmation bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denialism" title="Denialism">Denialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locus_of_control" title="Locus of control">Locus of control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manipulation_(psychology)" title="Manipulation (psychology)">Manipulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_psychogenic_illness" title="Mass psychogenic illness">Mass psychogenic illness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_panic" title="Moral panic">moral panics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paranoia" title="Paranoia">Paranoia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_projection" title="Psychological projection">Psychological projection</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Astronomy_and_outer_space" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Astronomy and outer space</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2012_phenomenon" title="2012 phenomenon">2012 phenomenon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nibiru_cataclysm" title="Nibiru cataclysm">Nibiru cataclysm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_astronauts" title="Ancient astronauts">Ancient astronauts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moon_landing_conspiracy_theories" title="Moon landing conspiracy theories">Apollo Moon landings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_flat_Earth_beliefs" title="Modern flat Earth beliefs">Flat Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hollow_Earth" title="Hollow Earth">Hollow Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hollow_Moon" title="Hollow Moon">Hollow Moon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reptilian_conspiracy_theory" title="Reptilian conspiracy theory">Reptilians</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="UFOs" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/UFO_conspiracy_theories" title="UFO conspiracy theories">UFOs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alien_abduction" title="Alien abduction">Alien abduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Area_51" title="Area 51">Area 51</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Knight_satellite_conspiracy_theory" title="Black Knight satellite conspiracy theory">Black Knight satellite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mac_Tonnies#Cryptoterrestrial_hypothesis" title="Mac Tonnies">Cryptoterrestrial</a> / <a href="/wiki/Extraterrestrial_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Extraterrestrial hypothesis">Extraterrestrial</a> / <a href="/wiki/Interdimensional_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Interdimensional hypothesis">Interdimensional hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dulce_Base" title="Dulce Base">Dulce Base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Sign" title="Project Sign">Estimate of the Situation</a> (1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Michigan_Triangle" title="Lake Michigan Triangle">Lake Michigan Triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majestic_12" title="Majestic 12">MJ-12</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Men_in_black" title="Men in black">Men in black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_UFOs" title="Nazi UFOs">Nazi UFOs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Die_Glocke_(conspiracy_theory)" title="Die Glocke (conspiracy theory)">Die Glocke</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_objects_proposed_in_religion,_astrology,_ufology_and_pseudoscience#Serpo" title="Planetary objects proposed in religion, astrology, ufology and pseudoscience">Project Serpo</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Hoaxes" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_UFO-related_hoaxes" title="List of UFO-related hoaxes">Hoaxes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dundy_County_UFO_hoax" title="Dundy County UFO hoax">Dundy County</a> (1884)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maury_Island_incident" title="Maury Island incident">Maury Island</a> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roswell_incident#Roswell_in_UFO_conspiracy_theories_(1978–present)" title="Roswell incident">Roswell</a> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twin_Falls_saucer_hoax" title="Twin Falls saucer hoax">Twin Falls</a> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec,_New_Mexico_crashed_saucer_hoax" title="Aztec, New Mexico crashed saucer hoax">Aztec, New Mexico</a> (1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1967_British_flying_saucer_hoax" title="1967 British flying saucer hoax">Southern England</a> (1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_UFO-related_hoaxes#Photograph_of_"an_alien"_taken_at_Ilkley_Moor_(1987)" title="List of UFO-related hoaxes">Ilkley Moor</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Breeze_UFO_incident" title="Gulf Breeze UFO incident">Gulf Breeze</a> (1987–88)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alien_Autopsy_(1995_film)" title="Alien Autopsy (1995 film)">Alien autopsy</a> (1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morristown_UFO_hoax" title="Morristown UFO hoax">Morristown</a> (2009)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Deaths_and_disappearances" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Deaths and disappearances</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Assassination" title="Assassination">Assassination</a> / <a href="/wiki/Suicide" title="Suicide">suicide</a> theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zachary_Taylor#Assassination_theories" title="Zachary Taylor">Zachary Taylor</a> (1850)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Le_Prince#Disappearance" title="Louis Le Prince">Louis Le Prince</a> (1890)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Kitchener,_1st_Earl_Kitchener#Death" title="Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener">Lord Kitchener</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_and_legacy_of_Tom_Thomson#Alternative_theories" title="Death and legacy of Tom Thomson">Tom Thomson</a> (1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Sikorski%27s_death_controversy" title="Władysław Sikorski's death controversy">Władysław Sikorski</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Benito_Mussolini#Post-war_controversy" title="Death of Benito Mussolini">Benito Mussolini</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theories_about_Adolf_Hitler%27s_death" title="Conspiracy theories about Adolf Hitler's death">Adolf Hitler</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Subhas_Chandra_Bose" title="Death of Subhas Chandra Bose">Subhas Chandra Bose</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Johnny_Stompanato#Legacy_and_conspiracy_theories" title="Killing of Johnny Stompanato">Johnny Stompanato</a> (1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Marilyn_Monroe#Conspiracy_theories" title="Death of Marilyn Monroe">Marilyn Monroe</a> (1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_assassination_conspiracy_theories" title="John F. Kennedy assassination conspiracy theories">John F. Kennedy</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Harvey_Oswald#Foreign_involvement_in_his_murder" title="Lee Harvey Oswald">Lee Harvey Oswald</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lal_Bahadur_Shastri#Death" title="Lal Bahadur Shastri">Lal Bahadur Shastri</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disappearance_of_Harold_Holt#Conspiracy_theories" title="Disappearance of Harold Holt">Harold Holt</a> (1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._assassination_conspiracy_theories" title="Martin Luther King Jr. assassination conspiracy theories">Martin Luther King Jr.</a> (1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Kennedy_assassination_conspiracy_theories" title="Robert F. Kennedy assassination conspiracy theories">Robert F. Kennedy</a> (1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Salvador_Allende" title="Death of Salvador Allende">Salvador Allende</a> (1973)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theories_about_the_kidnapping_and_murder_of_Aldo_Moro" title="Conspiracy theories about the kidnapping and murder of Aldo Moro">Aldo Moro</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renny_Ottolina#Death_and_legacy" title="Renny Ottolina">Renny Ottolina</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_I_conspiracy_theories" title="Pope John Paul I conspiracy theories">Pope John Paul I</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airey_Neave#Conspiracy_theories" title="Airey Neave">Airey Neave</a> (1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Olof_Palme#Murder_theories" title="Assassination of Olof Palme">Olof Palme</a> (1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Muhammad_Zia-ul-Haq#Theories" class="mw-redirect" title="Death and state funeral of Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq">Zia-ul-Haq</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/GEC-Marconi_scientist_deaths_conspiracy_theory" title="GEC-Marconi scientist deaths conspiracy theory">GEC-Marconi scientists</a> (1980s–90s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turgut_%C3%96zal#Death_and_exhumation" title="Turgut Özal">Turgut Özal</a> (1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_of_Vince_Foster" title="Suicide of Vince Foster">Vince Foster</a> (1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_of_Kurt_Cobain" title="Suicide of Kurt Cobain">Kurt Cobain</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yitzhak_Rabin_assassination_conspiracy_theories" title="Yitzhak Rabin assassination conspiracy theories">Yitzhak Rabin</a> (1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theories_about_the_death_of_Diana,_Princess_of_Wales" title="Conspiracy theories about the death of Diana, Princess of Wales">Diana, Princess of Wales</a> (1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alois_Estermann" title="Alois Estermann">Alois Estermann</a> (1998)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepalese_royal_massacre#Conspiracy_theories" title="Nepalese royal massacre">Nepalese royal family</a> (2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cause_of_Yasser_Arafat%27s_death#Theories_about_the_cause_of_death" class="mw-redirect" title="Cause of Yasser Arafat's death">Yasser Arafat</a> (2004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Benazir_Bhutto#United_Nations_inquiry" title="Assassination of Benazir Bhutto">Benazir Bhutto</a> (2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osama_bin_Laden_death_conspiracy_theories" title="Osama bin Laden death conspiracy theories">Osama bin Laden</a> (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Hugo_Ch%C3%A1vez" title="Death of Hugo Chávez">Hugo Chávez</a> (2013)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Seth_Rich" title="Murder of Seth Rich">Seth Rich</a> (2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alejandro_Castro_(activist)" title="Alejandro Castro (activist)">Alejandro Castro</a> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Jeffrey_Epstein#Homicide_suspicions_and_conspiracy_theories" title="Death of Jeffrey Epstein">Jeffrey Epstein</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Chan_Yin-lam" title="Death of Chan Yin-lam">Chan Yin-lam</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Sushant_Singh_Rajput#Public_reactions" title="Death of Sushant Singh Rajput">Sushant Singh Rajput</a> (2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McAfee#Death" title="John McAfee">John McAfee</a> (2021)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Accidents / disasters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Celeste#Myths_and_false_histories" title="Mary Celeste">Mary Celeste</a> (1872)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titanic_conspiracy_theories" title="Titanic conspiracy theories">RMS Titanic</a> (1912)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1923_Great_Kant%C5%8D_earthquake#Ensuing_violence" title="1923 Great Kantō earthquake">Great Kantō earthquake</a> (1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynmouth_Flood#Conspiracy_theory" title="Lynmouth Flood">Lynmouth Flood</a> (1952)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dyatlov_Pass_incident" title="Dyatlov Pass incident">Dyatlov Pass</a> (1959)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lost_Cosmonauts" title="Lost Cosmonauts">Lost Cosmonauts</a> (1950s–60s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/JAT_Flight_367#Shootdown_conspiracy_theory" title="JAT Flight 367">JAT Flight 367</a> (1972)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Air_Lines_Flight_553#Conspiracy_theories" title="United Air Lines Flight 553">United Air Lines Flight 553</a> (1972)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Airways_Flight_295#Theories_regarding_the_cause_of_the_fire" title="South African Airways Flight 295">South African Airways Flight 295</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khamar-Daban_incident" title="Khamar-Daban incident">Khamar-Daban</a> (1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinking_of_the_MS_Estonia" title="Sinking of the MS Estonia">MS Estonia</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/TWA_Flight_800_conspiracy_theories" title="TWA Flight 800 conspiracy theories">TWA Flight 800</a> (1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/EgyptAir_Flight_990#Media_coverage" title="EgyptAir Flight 990">EgyptAir Flight 990</a> (1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysia_Airlines_Flight_370_disappearance_theories" title="Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 disappearance theories">Malaysia Airlines Flight 370</a> (2014)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other cases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_historical_interpretations_of_Joan_of_Arc" title="Alternative historical interpretations of Joan of Arc">Joan of Arc</a> (1431)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Children_Affair" title="Yemenite Children Affair">Yemenite children</a> (1948–54)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elvis_sightings" title="Elvis sightings">Elvis Presley</a> (1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonestown#Conspiracy_theories" title="Jonestown">Jonestown</a> (1978)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Body double hoax</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paul_is_dead" title="Paul is dead">Paul McCartney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avril_Lavigne_replacement_conspiracy_theory" title="Avril Lavigne replacement conspiracy theory">Avril Lavigne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theory_about_Vladimir_Putin%27s_body_doubles" class="mw-redirect" title="Conspiracy theory about Vladimir Putin's body doubles">Vladimir Putin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melania_Trump_replacement_conspiracy_theory" title="Melania Trump replacement conspiracy theory">Melania Trump</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Energy,_environment" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Energy, environment</div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agenda_21#Opposition" title="Agenda 21">Agenda 21</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_drought_manipulation_conspiracy_theory" title="California drought manipulation conspiracy theory"></a></li></ul><a href="/wiki/California_drought_manipulation_conspiracy_theory" title="California drought manipulation conspiracy theory"> </a><a href="/wiki/California_drought_manipulation_conspiracy_theory" title="California drought manipulation conspiracy theory">California drought manipulation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_denial" title="Climate change denial">Climate change denial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_conspiracy_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change conspiracy theory">false theories</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_energy_suppression_conspiracy_theory" title="Free energy suppression conspiracy theory">Free energy suppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Frequency_Active_Auroral_Research_Program#Conspiracy_theories" class="mw-redirect" title="High Frequency Active Auroral Research Program">HAARP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_mercury" title="Red mercury">Red mercury</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="False_flag_allegations" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/False_flag" title="False flag">False flag</a> allegations</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/USS_Maine_(1889)#False_flag_operation_conspiracy_theories" title="USS Maine (1889)">USS Maine</a> (1898)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/RMS_Lusitania#Controversies" title="RMS Lusitania">RMS Lusitania</a> (1915)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reichstag_fire#Dispute_about_Van_der_Lubbe's_role" title="Reichstag fire">Reichstag fire</a> (1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pearl_Harbor_advance-knowledge_conspiracy_theory" title="Pearl Harbor advance-knowledge conspiracy theory">Pearl Harbor</a> (1941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Liberty_incident#Ongoing_controversy_and_unresolved_questions" title="USS Liberty incident">USS Liberty</a> (1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lufthansa_Flight_615#Allegations_of_West_German_government_involvement" title="Lufthansa Flight 615">Lufthansa Flight 615</a> (1972)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wider%C3%B8e_Flight_933" title="Widerøe Flight 933">Widerøe Flight 933</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Air_Lines_Flight_007_alternative_theories" title="Korean Air Lines Flight 007 alternative theories">KAL Flight 007</a> (1983)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1986_Mozambican_Tupolev_Tu-134_crash" title="1986 Mozambican Tupolev Tu-134 crash">Mozambican presidential jet</a> (1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan_Am_Flight_103_conspiracy_theories" title="Pan Am Flight 103 conspiracy theories">Pan Am Flight 103</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_City_bombing_conspiracy_theories" title="Oklahoma City bombing conspiracy theories">Oklahoma City bombing</a> (1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/9/11_conspiracy_theories" title="9/11 conspiracy theories">9/11 attacks</a> (2001) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks_advance-knowledge_conspiracy_theories" title="September 11 attacks advance-knowledge conspiracy theories">advance knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Trade_Center_controlled_demolition_conspiracy_theories" title="World Trade Center controlled demolition conspiracy theories">WTC collapse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Controversies_about_the_2004_Madrid_train_bombings" title="Controversies about the 2004 Madrid train bombings">Madrid train bombing</a> (2004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/7_July_2005_London_bombings#Conspiracy_theories" title="7 July 2005 London bombings">London bombings</a> (2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smolensk_air_disaster" title="Smolensk air disaster">Smolensk air disaster</a> (2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysia_Airlines_Flight_17#Russian_media_coverage" title="Malaysia Airlines Flight 17">Malaysia Airlines Flight 17</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denial_of_the_7_October_attacks" class="mw-redirect" title="Denial of the 7 October attacks">Denial of the 7 October attacks</a> (2023)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Gender_and_sexuality" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Gender and sexuality</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpha_and_beta_male" title="Alpha and beta male">Alpha / beta males</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-LGBTQ_rhetoric" title="Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric">Anti-LGBTQ</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-gender_movement" title="Anti-gender movement">anti-gender movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_chemicals_conspiracy_theory" title="LGBT chemicals conspiracy theory">Chemicals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drag_panic" title="Drag panic">drag panic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_agenda" title="Gay agenda">gay agenda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_Nazis_myth" title="Gay Nazis myth">gay Nazis myth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_HIV/AIDS#1981–1982:_From_GRID_to_AIDS" title="History of HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS stigma</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_the_United_States#Public_perception" title="HIV/AIDS in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-LGBT_rhetoric#Homintern" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-LGBT rhetoric">Homintern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lavender_scare" class="mw-redirect" title="Lavender scare">Lavender scare</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-LGBT_rhetoric#Recruitment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-LGBT rhetoric">Recruitment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_grooming_conspiracy_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT grooming conspiracy theory">Grooming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litter_boxes_in_schools_hoax" title="Litter boxes in schools hoax">litter box hoax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transvestigation" title="Transvestigation">Transvestigation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finger_pinching_conspiracy_theory" title="Finger pinching conspiracy theory">Finger pinching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamergate_(harassment_campaign)" title="Gamergate (harassment campaign)">GamerGate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incel#Ideology_present_in_incel_communities" title="Incel">Ideology in incel communities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larries" title="Larries">Larries</a> / <a href="/wiki/Swifties#Gaylor" title="Swifties">Gaylors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satanic_panic" title="Satanic panic">Satanic panic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soy_boy" title="Soy boy">Soy and masculinity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Health" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Health</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/5G_misinformation" title="5G misinformation">5G misinformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-vaccine_activism" title="Anti-vaccine activism">Anti-vaccination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vaccines_and_autism" title="Vaccines and autism">autism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/MMR_vaccine_and_autism" title="MMR vaccine and autism">MMR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiomersal_and_vaccines" title="Thiomersal and vaccines">Thiomersal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-vaccinationism_in_chiropractic" title="Anti-vaccinationism in chiropractic">in chiropractic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine_misinformation" title="Vaccine misinformation">misinformation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aspartame_controversy" title="Aspartame controversy">Aspartame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Pharma_conspiracy_theories" title="Big Pharma conspiracy theories">Big Pharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemtrail_conspiracy_theory" title="Chemtrail conspiracy theory">Chemtrails</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation" title="COVID-19 misinformation">COVID-19</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ivermectin_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic" title="Ivermectin during the COVID-19 pandemic">Ivermectin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_lab_leak_theory" title="COVID-19 lab leak theory">lab leak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_misinformation_and_hesitancy" title="COVID-19 vaccine misinformation and hesitancy">vaccines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turbo_cancer" title="Turbo cancer">turbo cancer</a></li> <li>in <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation_in_Canada" title="COVID-19 misinformation in Canada">Canada</a> / <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation_in_the_Philippines" title="COVID-19 misinformation in the Philippines">Philippines</a> / <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation_by_the_United_States" title="COVID-19 misinformation by the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebola_misinformation" title="Ebola misinformation">Ebola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_harassment" title="Electronic harassment">Electronic harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_denialism" title="Germ theory denialism">Germ theory denialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GMO_conspiracy_theories" title="GMO conspiracy theories">GMOs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism" title="HIV/AIDS denialism">HIV/AIDS denialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discredited_HIV/AIDS_origins_theories" title="Discredited HIV/AIDS origins theories">origins theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_polio_vaccine_AIDS_hypothesis" title="Oral polio vaccine AIDS hypothesis">oral polio AIDS hypothesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1321_lepers%27_plot" title="1321 lepers' plot">Lepers' plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medbed" title="Medbed">Medbeds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SARS_conspiracy_theory" title="SARS conspiracy theory">SARS</a> (2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_fluoridation_controversy" title="Water fluoridation controversy">Water fluoridation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1951_Pont-Saint-Esprit_mass_poisoning" title="1951 Pont-Saint-Esprit mass poisoning">Pont-Saint-Esprit mass poisoning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Race,_religion_and/or_ethnicity" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Race, religion and/or ethnicity</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhagwa_Love_Trap_conspiracy_theory" title="Bhagwa Love Trap conspiracy theory">Bhagwa Love Trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CERN_ritual_hoax" title="CERN ritual hoax">CERN ritual hoax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia_and_racism_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic" title="Xenophobia and racism related to the COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 and xenophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masonic_conspiracy_theories" title="Masonic conspiracy theories">Freemasons</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Masonic_conspiracy_theories_in_the_French_Revolution&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Masonic conspiracy theories in the French Revolution (page does not exist)">French Revolution</a> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A9ories_du_complot_ma%C3%A7onnique_dans_la_R%C3%A9volution_fran%C3%A7aise" class="extiw" title="fr:Théories du complot maçonnique dans la Révolution française">fr</a>]</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_concentration_camp#Discredited_extermination_camp_story" title="Warsaw concentration camp">Gas chambers for Poles in Warsaw</a> (1940s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Other_Losses" title="Other Losses">German POWs post-WWII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priory_of_Sion" title="Priory of Sion">Priory of Sion</a></li> <li>Product labeling <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Halal_conspiracy_theories" title="Halal conspiracy theories">Halal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosher_tax_conspiracy_theory" title="Kosher tax conspiracy theory">Kosher</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tartarian_Empire_(conspiracy_theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tartarian Empire (conspiracy theory)">Tartarian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_Islam_controversy" title="War on Islam controversy">War against Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_genocide_conspiracy_theory" title="White genocide conspiracy theory">White genocide</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Antisemitic_trope" title="Antisemitic trope">Antisemitic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andinia_Plan" title="Andinia Plan">Andinia Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_libel" title="Blood libel">Blood libel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cohen_Plan" title="Cohen Plan">Cohen Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctors%27_plot" title="Doctors' plot">Doctors' plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews_during_the_Black_Death" title="Persecution of Jews during the Black Death">during the Black Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epsilon_Team" title="Epsilon Team">Epsilon Team</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Soros_conspiracy_theories" title="George Soros conspiracy theories">George Soros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_denial" title="Holocaust denial">Holocaust denial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_trivialization" title="Holocaust trivialization">Trivialization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Jewish_conspiracy" title="International Jewish conspiracy">International Jewish conspiracy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_300" title="Committee of 300">Committee of 300</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Bolshevism" title="Cultural Bolshevism">Cultural Bolshevism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Bolshevism" title="Jewish Bolshevism">Jewish Bolshevism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C5%BBydokomuna" title="Żydokomuna">Żydokomuna</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Masonic_conspiracy_theory" title="Judeo-Masonic conspiracy theory">Judeo-Masonic plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Protocols_of_the_Elders_of_Zion" title="The Protocols of the Elders of Zion">The Protocols of the Elders of Zion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_war_conspiracy_theory" title="Jewish war conspiracy theory">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionist_Occupation_Government_conspiracy_theory" title="Zionist Occupation Government conspiracy theory">Z.O.G.</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeopolonia" title="Judeopolonia">Judeopolonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_deicide" title="Jewish deicide">Killing of Jesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalergi_Plan" title="Kalergi Plan">Kalergi Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_World_Order_(conspiracy_theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="New World Order (conspiracy theory)">New World Order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rothschild_family#Conspiracy_theories" title="Rothschild family">Rothschilds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stab-in-the-back_myth" title="Stab-in-the-back myth">Stab-in-the-back myth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Christian / <a href="/wiki/Anti-Christian_sentiment" title="Anti-Christian sentiment">Anti-Christian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conspiracy_theories#Anti-Catholic_conspiracy_theories" title="List of conspiracy theories">Anti-Catholic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesuit_conspiracy_theories" title="Jesuit conspiracy theories">Jesuits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popish_Plot" title="Popish Plot">Popish Plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vatican_conspiracy_theories" title="Vatican conspiracy theories">Vatican</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bible_conspiracy_theory" title="Bible conspiracy theory">Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_election_of_Giuseppe_Siri_theory" title="Papal election of Giuseppe Siri theory">Giuseppe Siri</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islamophobic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counter-jihad" title="Counter-jihad">Counter-jihad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OpIndia#Bihar_human_sacrifice_claims" title="OpIndia">Bihar human sacrifice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurabia_conspiracy_theory" title="Eurabia conspiracy theory">Eurabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Replacement" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Replacement">Great Replacement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Love_jihad_conspiracy_theory" title="Love jihad conspiracy theory">Love jihad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamo-leftism#2021_proposed_Vidal_inquiry" title="Islamo-leftism">Proposed "Islamo-leftism" inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trojan_Horse_scandal" title="Trojan Horse scandal">Trojan Horse scandal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Genocide_denial" title="Genocide denial">Genocide denial</a> / <a href="/wiki/Template:Denial_of_mass_killings" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Denial of mass killings">Denial of mass killings</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide_denial" title="Armenian genocide denial">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh_genocide#Views_in_Pakistan" title="Bangladesh genocide">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_genocide_denial" title="Bosnian genocide denial">Bosnian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_genocide_denial" title="Cambodian genocide denial">Cambodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_denial" title="Holocaust denial">The Holocaust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holodomor_denial" title="Holodomor denial">Holodomor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Massacre_denial" title="Nanjing Massacre denial">Nanjing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_genocide_denial" title="Rwandan genocide denial">Rwandan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayfo#Denial_and_justification" title="Sayfo">Sayfo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denial_of_the_genocide_of_Serbs_in_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="Denial of the genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia">Serbs during WWII</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Regional" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Regional</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>India <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cow_vigilante_violence_in_India" title="Cow vigilante violence in India">Cow vigilante violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Bangladesh" title="Greater Bangladesh">Greater Bangladesh</a></li></ul></li> <li>Pakistan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jinnahpur" title="Jinnahpur">Jinnahpur</a></li></ul></li> <li>Philippines <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tallano_gold" title="Tallano gold">Tallano gold</a></li></ul></li> <li>South Korea <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Finger-pinching_conspiracy_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Finger-pinching conspiracy theory">Finger-pinching</a></li></ul></li> <li>Thailand <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Finland_Plot" title="Finland Plot">Finland Plot</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas (outside the United States)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Argentina <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andinia_Plan" title="Andinia Plan">Andinia Plan</a></li></ul></li> <li>Canada <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avro_Canada_CF-105_Arrow#Cancellation" title="Avro Canada CF-105 Arrow">Avro Arrow cancellation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leuchter_report" title="Leuchter report">Leuchter report</a></li></ul></li> <li>Peru <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Casa_Matusita" title="Casa Matusita">Casa Matusita</a></li></ul></li> <li>Venezuela <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Daktari_Ranch_affair" title="Daktari Ranch affair">Daktari Ranch affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golpe_Azul" title="Golpe Azul">Golpe Azul</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle East / North Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theories_in_the_Arab_world" title="Conspiracy theories in the Arab world">In the Arab world</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/10_agorot_controversy" title="10 agorot controversy">10 agorot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cairo_fire#Conspiracy_theories" title="Cairo fire">Cairo fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kissinger_Plan_in_Lebanon" title="Kissinger Plan in Lebanon">Kissinger Plan in Lebanon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel-related_animal_conspiracy_theories" title="Israel-related animal conspiracy theories">Israel-related animal theories</a></li> <li>Iran <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theories_about_the_overthrow_of_Mohammad_Reza_Pahlavi" class="mw-redirect" title="Conspiracy theories about the overthrow of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi">Western-backed Iranian Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li>Israel <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pallywood" title="Pallywood">Pallywood</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Russia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_payment_conspiracy" title="Alaska payment conspiracy">Alaska payment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dulles%27_Plan" title="Dulles' Plan">Dulles' Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_billion" title="Golden billion">Golden billion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagantsev_conspiracy" title="Tagantsev conspiracy">Petrograd Military Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grigori_Rasputin" title="Grigori Rasputin">Rasputin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukraine_bioweapons_conspiracy_theory" title="Ukraine bioweapons conspiracy theory">Ukraine bioweapons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theories_in_Turkey" title="Conspiracy theories in Turkey">Turkey</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2016_Turkish_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempt#Staged_coup_reports" class="mw-redirect" title="2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt">2016 coup attempt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ergenekon_(organization)" title="Ergenekon (organization)">Ergenekon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sledgehammer_(alleged_coup_plan)" title="Sledgehammer (alleged coup plan)">Operation Sledgehammer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gezi_Park_protests#Conspiracy_claims" title="Gezi Park protests">Gezi Park protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A8vres_syndrome" title="Sèvres syndrome">Sèvres syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conspiracy_theories#Üst_akıl" title="List of conspiracy theories">Üst akıl</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other European</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Euromyth" title="Euromyth">Euromyth</a></li> <li>Georgia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_War_Party" title="Global War Party">Global War Party</a></li></ul></li> <li>Ireland <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Plot_(Ireland)" title="German Plot (Ireland)">German Plot</a></li></ul></li> <li>Italy <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Itavia_Flight_870" title="Itavia Flight 870">Itavia Flight 870</a></li></ul></li> <li>Lithuania <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statesmen_(conspiracy_theory)" title="Statesmen (conspiracy theory)">Statesmen</a></li></ul></li> <li>Roman Republic <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Catilinarian_conspiracy" title="First Catilinarian conspiracy">First Catilinarian conspiracy</a></li></ul></li> <li>Spain <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mano_Negra_affair" title="Mano Negra affair">Mano Negra affair</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sweden <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lilla_Saltsj%C3%B6badsavtalet" title="Lilla Saltsjöbadsavtalet">Lilla Saltsjöbadsavtalet</a></li></ul></li> <li>UK <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clockwork_Orange_(plot)" title="Clockwork Orange (plot)">Clockwork Orange plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elm_Guest_House_hoax" title="Elm Guest House hoax">Elm Guest House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Wilson_plot_allegations" title="Harold Wilson plot allegations">Harold Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_pencil_conspiracy_theory" title="Voting pencil conspiracy theory">Voting pencil</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theories_in_United_States_politics" title="Conspiracy theories in United States politics">United States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Barack Obama <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama_citizenship_conspiracy_theories" title="Barack Obama citizenship conspiracy theories">citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama_religion_conspiracy_theories" title="Barack Obama religion conspiracy theories">religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dreams_from_My_Real_Father" title="Dreams from My Real Father">parentage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allegations_of_Barack_Obama_spying_on_Donald_Trump" title="Allegations of Barack Obama spying on Donald Trump">"Obamagate"</a> / <a href="/wiki/Spygate_(conspiracy_theory)" title="Spygate (conspiracy theory)">Spygate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biden%E2%80%93Ukraine_conspiracy_theory" title="Biden–Ukraine conspiracy theory">Biden–Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_helicopter" title="Black helicopter">Black helicopters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CIA_Kennedy_assassination_conspiracy_theory" title="CIA Kennedy assassination conspiracy theory">CIA and JFK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allegations_of_CIA_assistance_to_Osama_bin_Laden" title="Allegations of CIA assistance to Osama bin Laden">CIA assistance to bin Laden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinton_body_count_conspiracy_theory" title="Clinton body count conspiracy theory">Clinton body count</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Marxism_conspiracy_theory" title="Cultural Marxism conspiracy theory">Cultural Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_denial_movement_in_the_United_States" title="Election denial movement in the United States">Election denial movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FBI_secret_society_conspiracy_theory" title="FBI secret society conspiracy theory">FBI secret society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FEMA_camps_conspiracy_theory" title="FEMA camps conspiracy theory">FEMA camps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgia_Guidestones#Conspiracy_theories" title="Georgia Guidestones">Georgia Guidestones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jade_Helm_15_conspiracy_theories" title="Jade Helm 15 conspiracy theories">Jade Helm 15</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montauk_Project" title="Montauk Project">Montauk Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philadelphia_Experiment" title="Philadelphia Experiment">Philadelphia Experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pizzagate_conspiracy_theory" title="Pizzagate conspiracy theory">Pizzagate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Plan_(Washington,_D.C.)" title="The Plan (Washington, D.C.)">The Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Azorian" title="Project Azorian">Project Azorian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QAnon" title="QAnon">QAnon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pastel_QAnon" title="Pastel QAnon">Pastel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_incidents_involving_QAnon" title="Timeline of incidents involving QAnon">incidents</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saddam%E2%80%93al-Qaeda_conspiracy_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Saddam–al-Qaeda conspiracy theory">Saddam–al-Qaeda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandy_Hook_Elementary_School_shooting_conspiracy_theories" title="Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting conspiracy theories">Sandy Hook</a> (2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Springfield_pet-eating_hoax" title="Springfield pet-eating hoax">Springfield pet-eating hoax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theories_related_to_the_Trump%E2%80%93Ukraine_scandal" title="Conspiracy theories related to the Trump–Ukraine scandal">Trump–Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vast_right-wing_conspiracy_(term)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vast right-wing conspiracy (term)">"Vast right-wing conspiracy"</a></li> <li>Vietnam War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War_POW/MIA_issue" title="Vietnam War POW/MIA issue">POW/MIA issue</a> / <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_stab-in-the-back_myth" title="Vietnam stab-in-the-back myth">Stab-in-the-back myth</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="2020_election" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Attempts_to_overturn_the_2020_United_States_presidential_election#Conspiracy_allegations" title="Attempts to overturn the 2020 United States presidential election">2020 election</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italygate" title="Italygate">Italygate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attempts_to_overturn_the_2020_United_States_presidential_election#Pence_Card" title="Attempts to overturn the 2020 United States presidential election">"Pence Card"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_Maricopa_County_presidential_ballot_audit" title="2021 Maricopa County presidential ballot audit">Maricopa County ballot audit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attempts_to_overturn_the_2020_United_States_presidential_election#Stop_the_Steal" title="Attempts to overturn the 2020 United States presidential election">Stop the Steal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Other" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Other</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dead_Internet_theory" title="Dead Internet theory">Dead Internet theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NESARA" title="NESARA">NESARA/GESARA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Coke#Conspiracy_theories" title="New Coke">New Coke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phantom_time_conspiracy_theory" title="Phantom time conspiracy theory">Phantom time</a> / <a href="/wiki/New_chronology_(Fomenko)" title="New chronology (Fomenko)">New chronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shadow_government_(conspiracy_theory)" title="Shadow government (conspiracy theory)">Shadow government claims</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bilderberg_Meeting#Conspiracy_theories" title="Bilderberg Meeting">Bilderberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminati" title="Illuminati">Illuminati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synarchism" title="Synarchism">synarchism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shakespeare_authorship_question" title="Shakespeare authorship question">Shakespearean authorship</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pseudolaw" title="Pseudolaw">Pseudolaw</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Admiralty_law#Conspiracy_theory" title="Admiralty law">Admiralty law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freeman_on_the_land_movement" title="Freeman on the land movement">Freeman on the land movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redemption_movement" title="Redemption movement">Redemption movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereign_citizen_movement" title="Sovereign citizen movement">Sovereign citizens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strawman_theory" title="Strawman theory">Strawman theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_protester_conspiracy_arguments" title="Tax protester conspiracy arguments">Tax protesters</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Satirical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acre_conspiracy" title="Acre conspiracy">Acre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bielefeld_conspiracy" title="Bielefeld conspiracy">Bielefeld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birds_Aren%27t_Real" title="Birds Aren't Real">Birds Aren't Real</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li%27s_field" title="Li's field">Li's field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ted_Cruz%E2%80%93Zodiac_Killer_meme" title="Ted Cruz–Zodiac Killer meme">Ted Cruz–Zodiac Killer meme</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="See_also" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">See also</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_ignorance" title="Argument from ignorance">Argument from ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_Encyclopedia" title="Conspiracy Encyclopedia">Conspiracy Encyclopedia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_fiction" title="Conspiracy fiction">Conspiracy fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspirituality" title="Conspirituality">Conspirituality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogma" title="Dogma">Dogma</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoskepticism" title="Pseudoskepticism">pseudoskepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fringe_science" title="Fringe science">Fringe science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_negationism" title="Historical negationism">Historical negationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Online_youth_radicalization" title="Online youth radicalization">Online youth radicalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paranormal" title="Paranormal">Paranormal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prejudice" title="Prejudice">Prejudice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech" title="Hate speech">hate speech</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radicalization" title="Radicalization">Radicalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_by_press_conference" title="Science by press conference">Science by press conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superstition" title="Superstition">Superstition</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Pseudoscience" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pseudoscience" title="Template:Pseudoscience"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pseudoscience" title="Template talk:Pseudoscience"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pseudoscience" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pseudoscience"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Pseudoscience" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience" title="List of topics characterized as pseudoscience">List of topics characterized as pseudoscience</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terminology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cargo_cult_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Cargo cult science">Cargo cult science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlatan" title="Charlatan">Charlatan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crank_(person)" title="Crank (person)">Crank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fringe_theory" title="Fringe theory">Fringe theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fringe_science" title="Fringe science">Fringe science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoarchaeology" title="Pseudoarchaeology">Pseudoarchaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudohistory" title="Pseudohistory">Pseudohistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudomathematics" title="Pseudomathematics">Pseudomathematics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Junk_science" title="Junk science">Junk science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paranormal" title="Paranormal">Paranormal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathological_science" title="Pathological science">Pathological science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quackery" title="Quackery">Quackery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snake_oil" title="Snake oil">Snake oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superseded_theories_in_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Superseded theories in science">Superseded scientific theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/True-believer_syndrome" title="True-believer syndrome">True-believer syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voodoo_Science" title="Voodoo Science">Voodoo Science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience" title="List of topics characterized as pseudoscience">Topics characterized as pseudoscience</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medicine</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acupuncture" title="Acupuncture">Acupuncture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aromatherapy" title="Aromatherapy">Aromatherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrenal_fatigue" title="Adrenal fatigue">Adrenal fatigue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_medicine" title="Alternative medicine">Alternative medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthroposophic_medicine" title="Anthroposophic medicine">Anthroposophic medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_kinesiology" title="Applied kinesiology">Applied kinesiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayurveda" title="Ayurveda">Ayurveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bates_method" title="Bates method">Bates method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biorhythm_(pseudoscience)" title="Biorhythm (pseudoscience)">Biorhythms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bloodletting" title="Bloodletting">Bloodletting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_memory" title="Body memory">Body memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiropractic" title="Chiropractic">Chiropractic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromotherapy" title="Chromotherapy">Chromotherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correactology" title="Correactology">Correactology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryonics" title="Cryonics">Cryonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystal_healing" title="Crystal healing">Crystal healing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cupping_therapy" title="Cupping therapy">Cupping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detoxification_(alternative_medicine)" title="Detoxification (alternative medicine)">Detoxification</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colon_cleansing" title="Colon cleansing">Colon cleansing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_signatures" title="Doctrine of signatures">Doctrine of signatures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doktor_Koster%27s_Antigaspills" title="Doktor Koster's Antigaspills">Doktor Koster's Antigaspills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ear_candling" title="Ear candling">Ear candling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_hypersensitivity" title="Electromagnetic hypersensitivity">Electromagnetic hypersensitivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_medicine" title="Energy medicine">Energy medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fad_diet" title="Fad diet">Fad diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FasciaBlaster" title="FasciaBlaster">FasciaBlaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_denialism" title="Germ theory denialism">Germ theory denialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism" title="HIV/AIDS denialism">HIV/AIDS denialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeopathy" title="Homeopathy">Homeopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humorism" title="Humorism">Humorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iridology" title="Iridology">Iridology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaky_gut_syndrome" title="Leaky gut syndrome">Leaky gut syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_effect" title="Lunar effect">Lunar effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobiotic_diet" title="Macrobiotic diet">Macrobiotic diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnet_therapy" title="Magnet therapy">Magnet therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracle_Mineral_Supplement" title="Miracle Mineral Supplement">Miracle Mineral Supplement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturopathy" title="Naturopathy">Naturopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmistry" title="Palmistry">Palmistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panchagavya" title="Panchagavya">Panchagavya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patent_medicine" title="Patent medicine">Patent medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrenology" title="Phrenology">Phrenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primal_therapy" title="Primal therapy">Primal therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radionics" title="Radionics">Radionics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reiki" title="Reiki">Reiki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_medicine" title="Traditional medicine">Traditional medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine" title="Traditional Chinese medicine">Traditional Chinese medicine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trepanning" title="Trepanning">Trepanning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertebral_subluxation" title="Vertebral subluxation">Vertebral subluxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_turbine_syndrome" title="Wind turbine syndrome">Wind turbine syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_blood_transfusion" title="Young blood transfusion">Young blood transfusion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2012_phenomenon" title="2012 phenomenon">2012 phenomenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_astronauts" title="Ancient astronauts">Ancient astronauts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamal_Salibi#Arabian_Judah_theory" title="Kamal Salibi">Arabian Judah theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">Catastrophism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Conspiracy theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/5G#Misinformation_and_controversy" title="5G">5G conspiracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/9/11_conspiracy_theories" title="9/11 conspiracy theories">9/11 conspiracy theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemtrail_conspiracy_theory" title="Chemtrail conspiracy theory">Chemtrail conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_denial" title="Climate change denial">Climate change denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation" title="COVID-19 misinformation">COVID-19 misinformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moon_landing_conspiracy_theories" title="Moon landing conspiracy theories">Moon landing conspiracy theories</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversion_therapy" title="Conversion therapy">Conversion therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generation#Generational_theory" title="Generation">Generational theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Generationism" title="Generationism">Generationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strauss%E2%80%93Howe_generational_theory" title="Strauss–Howe generational theory">Strauss–Howe generational theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hollow_Earth" title="Hollow Earth">Hollow Earth theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigo_children" title="Indigo children">Indigo children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japhetic_theory" title="Japhetic theory">Japhetic theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediumship" title="Mediumship">Mediumship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_archaeology" title="Nazi archaeology">Nazi archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nibiru_cataclysm" title="Nibiru cataclysm">Nibiru cataclysm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parapsychology" title="Parapsychology">Parapsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoarchaeology" title="Pseudoarchaeology">Pseudoarchaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudohistory" title="Pseudohistory">Pseudohistory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_denial" title="Genocide denial">Genocide denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_negationism" title="Historical negationism">Historical negationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_denial" title="Holocaust denial">Holocaust denial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudolaw" title="Pseudolaw">Pseudolaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recovered-memory_therapy" title="Recovered-memory therapy">Recovered-memory therapy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Past_life_regression" title="Past life regression">Past life regression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">Scientific racism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aryan_race" title="Aryan race">Aryan race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanin_theory" title="Melanin theory">Melanin theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myers%E2%80%93Briggs_Type_Indicator" title="Myers–Briggs Type Indicator">Myers–Briggs Type Indicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enneagram_of_Personality" title="Enneagram of Personality">Enneagram of Personality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Physics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-gravity" title="Anti-gravity">Anti-gravity‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_fusion" title="Cold fusion">Cold fusion‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faster-than-light" title="Faster-than-light">Faster-than-light travel</a>‎</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_motion" title="Perpetual motion">Perpetual motion</a>‎</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_mysticism" title="Quantum mysticism">Quantum mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactionless_drive" title="Reactionless drive">Reactionless drive</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dean_drive" title="Dean drive">Dean drive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EmDrive" title="EmDrive">EMDrive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleportation" title="Teleportation">Teleportation‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tractor_beam" title="Tractor beam">Tractor beam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water-fueled_car" class="mw-redirect" title="Water-fueled car">Water-fueled car</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">Alchemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_ape_hypothesis" title="Aquatic ape hypothesis">Aquatic ape hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">Astrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodynamic_agriculture" title="Biodynamic agriculture">Biodynamic agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_transmutation" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological transmutation">Biological transmutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creation_science" title="Creation science">Creation science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptozoology" title="Cryptozoology">Cryptozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dianetics" title="Dianetics">Dianetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auditing_(Scientology)" title="Auditing (Scientology)">Auditing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dowsing" title="Dowsing">Dowsing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_voice_phenomenon" title="Electronic voice phenomenon">Electronic voice phenomenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facilitated_communication" title="Facilitated communication">Facilitated communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feng_shui" title="Feng shui">Feng shui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flat_Earth" title="Flat Earth">Flat Earth theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphology" title="Graphology">Graphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">Intelligent design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laundry_ball" title="Laundry ball">Laundry ball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_attraction_(New_Thought)" title="Law of attraction (New Thought)">Law of attraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levitation_(paranormal)" title="Levitation (paranormal)">Levitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysenkoism" title="Lysenkoism">Lysenkoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerology" title="Numerology">Numerology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orgone" title="Orgone">Orgone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygraph" title="Polygraph">Polygraph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscientific_metrology" title="Pseudoscientific metrology">Pseudoscientific metrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapid_prompting_method" title="Rapid prompting method">Rapid prompting method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statement_analysis" title="Statement analysis">Statement analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ufology" title="Ufology">Ufology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voice_stress_analysis" title="Voice stress analysis">Voice stress analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_memory" title="Water memory">Water memory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Promoters of pseudoscience</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sucharit_Bhakdi" title="Sucharit Bhakdi">Sucharit Bhakdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Del_Bigtree" title="Del Bigtree">Del Bigtree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igor_and_Grichka_Bogdanoff" title="Igor and Grichka Bogdanoff">Igor and Grichka Bogdanoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brigitte_Boisselier" title="Brigitte Boisselier">Brigitte Boisselier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhonda_Byrne" title="Rhonda Byrne">Rhonda Byrne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Charroux" title="Robert Charroux">Robert Charroux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deepak_Chopra" title="Deepak Chopra">Deepak Chopra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clonaid" title="Clonaid">Clonaid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Coleman" title="Vernon Coleman">Vernon Coleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignatius_L._Donnelly" title="Ignatius L. Donnelly">Ignatius L. Donnelly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaia,_Inc." title="Gaia, Inc.">Gaia, Inc.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Gerson" title="Max Gerson">Max Gerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Gonzalez_(physician)" title="Nicholas Gonzalez (physician)">Nicholas Gonzalez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goop_(company)" title="Goop (company)">Goop (company)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graham_Hancock" title="Graham Hancock">Graham Hancock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Icke" title="David Icke">David Icke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Donald_Kelley" title="William Donald Kelley">William Donald Kelley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Kennedy_Jr." title="Robert F. Kennedy Jr.">Robert F. Kennedy Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corentin_Louis_Kervran" title="Corentin Louis Kervran">Corentin Louis Kervran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Light_(newspaper)" title="The Light (newspaper)">The Light (newspaper)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mike_Lindell" title="Mike Lindell">Mike Lindell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jenny_McCarthy" title="Jenny McCarthy">Jenny McCarthy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Mercola" title="Joseph Mercola">Joseph Mercola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judy_Mikovits" title="Judy Mikovits">Judy Mikovits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Ayush" title="Ministry of Ayush">Ministry of Ayush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_Morell" title="Theodor Morell">Theodor Morell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Alfred_Nieper" title="Hans Alfred Nieper">Hans Alfred Nieper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mehmet_Oz" title="Mehmet Oz">Mehmet Oz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ra%C3%ABl" title="Raël">Raël</a> (<a href="/wiki/Claude_Vorilhon" class="mw-redirect" title="Claude Vorilhon">Claude Vorilhon</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robby_Starbuck" title="Robby Starbuck">Robby Starbuck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randolph_Stone" title="Randolph Stone">Randolph Stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Joseph_Watson" title="Paul Joseph Watson">Paul Joseph Watson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Wakefield" title="Andrew Wakefield">Andrew Wakefield</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bogdanov_affair" title="Bogdanov affair">Bogdanov affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bourgeois_pseudoscience" title="Bourgeois pseudoscience">Bourgeois pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suppressed_research_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Suppressed research in the Soviet Union">Suppressed research in the Soviet Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Resources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Committee_for_Skeptical_Inquiry" title="Committee for Skeptical Inquiry">Committee for Skeptical Inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cults_of_Unreason" title="Cults of Unreason">Cults of Unreason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_Encyclopedia_of_Claims,_Frauds,_and_Hoaxes_of_the_Occult_and_Supernatural" title="An Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and Supernatural">An Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and Supernatural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fads_and_Fallacies_in_the_Name_of_Science" title="Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science">Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortean_Times" title="Fortean Times">Fortean Times</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Randi_Educational_Foundation" title="James Randi Educational Foundation">James Randi Educational Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quackwatch" title="Quackwatch">Quackwatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skeptical_Inquirer" title="Skeptical Inquirer">Skeptical Inquirer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Demon-Haunted_World" title="The Demon-Haunted World">The Demon-Haunted World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Natural_History_of_Quackery" class="mw-redirect" title="The Natural History of Quackery">The Natural History of Quackery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Psychology_of_the_Occult" title="The Psychology of the Occult">The Psychology of the Occult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Ragged_Edge_of_Science" title="The Ragged Edge of Science">The Ragged Edge of Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Skeptic_Encyclopedia_of_Pseudoscience" title="The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience">The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Skeptic%27s_Dictionary" title="The Skeptic's Dictionary">The Skeptic's Dictionary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Disinformation_and_misinformation" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Misinformation" title="Template:Misinformation"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Misinformation" title="Template talk:Misinformation"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Misinformation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Misinformation"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Disinformation_and_misinformation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Disinformation" title="Disinformation">Disinformation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Misinformation" title="Misinformation">misinformation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Types" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Types</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algorithmic_radicalization" title="Algorithmic radicalization">Algorithmic radicalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_facts" title="Alternative facts">Alternative facts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_lie" title="Big lie">Big lie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherry_picking" title="Cherry picking">Cherry picking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circular_reporting" title="Circular reporting">Circular reporting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias" title="Cognitive bias">Cognitive bias</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases" title="List of cognitive biases">List of cognitive biases</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Conspiracy theory</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_conspiracy_theories" title="List of conspiracy theories">list</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deception" title="Deception">Deception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denialism" title="Denialism">Denialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinformation_attack" title="Disinformation attack">Disinformation attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doublespeak" title="Doublespeak">Doublespeak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euphemistic_misspeaking" class="mw-redirect" title="Euphemistic misspeaking">Euphemistic misspeaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Factoid" title="Factoid">Factoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fake_news" title="Fake news">Fake news</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fake_news_website" title="Fake news website">online</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fake_news_websites" title="List of fake news websites">list of websites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lying_press" title="Lying press">Lying press</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy" title="Fallacy">Fallacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fallacies" title="List of fallacies">List of fallacies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_accusation" title="False accusation">False accusation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_dilemma" title="False dilemma">False dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_flag" title="False flag">False flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear,_uncertainty,_and_doubt" title="Fear, uncertainty, and doubt">Fear, uncertainty, and doubt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firehose_of_falsehood" title="Firehose of falsehood">Firehose of falsehood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forgery_as_covert_operation" title="Forgery as covert operation">Forgery as covert operation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaslighting" title="Gaslighting">Gaslighting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Half-truth" title="Half-truth">Half-truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_negationism" title="Historical negationism">Historical negationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoax" title="Hoax">Hoax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infodemic" title="Infodemic">Infodemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_manipulation" title="Internet manipulation">Internet manipulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manipulation_(psychology)" title="Manipulation (psychology)">Manipulation (psychology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_culture" title="Media culture">Media culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_manipulation" title="Media manipulation">Media manipulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potemkin_village" title="Potemkin village">Potemkin village</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-truth_politics" title="Post-truth politics">Post-truth politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_warfare" title="Psychological warfare">Psychological warfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memetic_warfare" title="Memetic warfare">Memetic warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_deception" title="Military deception">Military deception</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_propaganda" title="Black propaganda">black propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterpropaganda" title="Counterpropaganda">counterpropaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-sponsored_Internet_propaganda" title="State-sponsored Internet propaganda">State-sponsored Internet propaganda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quoting_out_of_context" title="Quoting out of context">Quote mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabrication_(science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fabrication (science)">Scientific fabrication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smear_campaign" title="Smear campaign">Smearing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_bot" title="Social bot">Social bot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spin_(propaganda)" title="Spin (propaganda)">Spin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truthiness" title="Truthiness">Truthiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_legends_and_myths" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban legends and myths">Urban legend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whataboutism" title="Whataboutism">Whataboutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_journalism" title="Yellow journalism">Yellow journalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Books_and_documentaries" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Books and documentaries</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disinformation_(book)" title="Disinformation (book)">Disinformation by Ion Mihai Pacepa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dezinformatsia_(book)" title="Dezinformatsia (book)">Dezinformatsia: Active Measures in Soviet Strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_KGB_and_Soviet_Disinformation" title="The KGB and Soviet Disinformation">The KGB and Soviet Disinformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Who%27s_Who_in_the_CIA" title="Who's Who in the CIA">Who's Who in the CIA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merchants_of_Doubt" title="Merchants of Doubt">Merchants of Doubt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/After_Truth:_Disinformation_and_the_Cost_of_Fake_News" title="After Truth: Disinformation and the Cost of Fake News">After Truth: Disinformation and the Cost of Fake News</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Examples" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Examples</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bermuda_Triangle" title="Bermuda Triangle">Bermuda Triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congo_Free_State_propaganda_war" title="Congo Free State propaganda war">Congo Free State propaganda war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_denial" title="Climate change denial">Climate change denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_energy_suppression_conspiracy_theory" title="Free energy suppression conspiracy theory">Free energy suppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_denial" title="Genocide denial">Genocide denial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_denial" title="Holocaust denial">Holocaust denial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminati" title="Illuminati">Illuminati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Jewish_conspiracy" title="International Jewish conspiracy">International Jewish conspiracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misinformation_in_the_Israel%E2%80%93Hamas_war" title="Misinformation in the Israel–Hamas war">Misinformation in the Israel–Hamas war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinformation_in_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Disinformation in the Russian invasion of Ukraine">Disinformation in the Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_World_Order_(conspiracy_theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="New World Order (conspiracy theory)">New World Order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_mercury" title="Red mercury">Red mercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reptilian_conspiracy_theory" title="Reptilian conspiracy theory">Reptilians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rothschild_family#Conspiracy_theories" title="Rothschild family">Rothschilds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategy_of_tension" title="Strategy of tension">Strategy of tension</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Health" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Health</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Misinformation_related_to_5G_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Misinformation related to 5G technology">5G</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation" title="COVID-19 misinformation">COVID-19 misinformation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation_by_governments" title="COVID-19 misinformation by governments">by governments</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebola_misinformation" title="Ebola misinformation">Ebola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism" title="HIV/AIDS denialism">HIV/AIDS denialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_illness_denial" title="Mental illness denial">Mental illness denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misinformation_related_to_abortion" title="Misinformation related to abortion">Misinformation related to abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine_misinformation" title="Vaccine misinformation">Vaccines</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-vaccine_activism" title="Anti-vaccine activism">anti-vaccination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccines_and_autism" title="Vaccines and autism">autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_misinformation_and_hesitancy" title="COVID-19 vaccine misinformation and hesitancy">COVID-19</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_fluoridation_controversy" title="Water fluoridation controversy">Water fluoridation controversy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Operations_and_events_by_country" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Operations and events by country</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Canada</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Jihadunspun.com" title="Jihadunspun.com">Jihadunspun.com</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">China</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_information_operations_and_information_warfare" title="Chinese information operations and information warfare">Chinese information operations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/50_Cent_Party" title="50 Cent Party">50 Cent Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare_by_China" title="Cyberwarfare by China">cyberwarfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Pink" title="Little Pink">Little Pink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_Water_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet Water Army">Internet Water Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PLA_Unit_61398" title="PLA Unit 61398">PLA Unit 61398</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spamouflage" title="Spamouflage">Spamouflage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation_by_China" title="COVID-19 misinformation by China">COVID-19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Times" title="Global Times">Global Times</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Czechoslovakia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Operation_Neptune_(espionage)" title="Operation Neptune (espionage)">Operation Neptune</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Germany</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Funkspiel" title="Funkspiel">Funkspiel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Propaganda in Nazi Germany">Propaganda in Nazi Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myth_of_the_clean_Wehrmacht" title="Myth of the clean Wehrmacht">Myth of the clean Wehrmacht</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">India</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fake_news_in_India" title="Fake news in India">Fake news in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Godi-media" class="mw-redirect" title="Godi-media">Godi-media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paid_news_in_India" title="Paid news in India">Paid news in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OpIndia" title="OpIndia">OpIndia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Israel</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Team_Jorge" title="Team Jorge">Team Jorge</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Korea</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Voluntary_Agency_Network_of_Korea" title="Voluntary Agency Network of Korea">Voluntary Agency Network of Korea</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Kuwait</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Fintas_Group" title="Fintas Group">Fintas Group</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mexico</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Pe%C3%B1abot" title="Peñabot">Peñabots</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philippines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation_in_the_Philippines" title="COVID-19 misinformation in the Philippines">COVID-19 misinformation in the Philippines</a> (<a href="/wiki/ChinaAngVirus_disinformation_campaign" title="ChinaAngVirus disinformation campaign">ChinaAngVirus disinformation campaign</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fake_news_in_the_Philippines" title="Fake news in the Philippines">Fake news in the Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_distortion_regarding_Ferdinand_Marcos" title="Historical distortion regarding Ferdinand Marcos">Historical distortion regarding Ferdinand Marcos</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Russian_disinformation" title="Russian disinformation">Russia</a> / Soviet Union</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Soviet_disinformation" title="Soviet disinformation">Soviet era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_measures" title="Active measures">Active Measures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-1000_battleship" title="K-1000 battleship">K-1000 battleship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_INFEKTION" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation INFEKTION">Operation INFEKTION</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Toucan_(KGB)" title="Operation Toucan (KGB)">Operation Toucan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seat_12" title="Seat 12">Seat 12</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_influence_on_the_peace_movement" title="Soviet influence on the peace movement">Soviet influence on the peace movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._Army_Field_Manual_30-31B" title="U.S. Army Field Manual 30-31B">U.S. Army Field Manual 30-31B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Useful_idiot" title="Useful idiot">Useful idiot</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Russian_disinformation_in_the_post-Soviet_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian disinformation in the post-Soviet era">Post-Soviet era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare_by_Russia" title="Cyberwarfare by Russia">Cyberwarfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2007_cyberattacks_on_Estonia" title="2007 cyberattacks on Estonia">on Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberattacks_during_the_Russo-Georgian_War" title="Cyberattacks during the Russo-Georgian War">during the Russo-Georgian War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_information_war_against_Ukraine" title="Russian information war against Ukraine">Information war against Ukraine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disinformation_in_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Disinformation in the Russian invasion of Ukraine">Disinformation in the Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li></ul></li> <li>On US elections <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_interference_in_the_2016_United_States_elections" title="Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections">2016</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_interference_in_the_2018_United_States_elections" title="Russian interference in the 2018 United States elections">2018</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_interference_in_the_2020_United_States_elections" title="Russian interference in the 2020 United States elections">2020</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_interference_in_the_2016_Brexit_referendum" title="Russian interference in the 2016 Brexit referendum">2016 Brexit referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Institute_for_Strategic_Studies" title="Russian Institute for Strategic Studies">Russian Institute for Strategic Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_Research_Agency" title="Internet Research Agency">Trolls from Olgino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_web_brigades" title="Russian web brigades">Web brigades</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism_in_South_Africa" title="HIV/AIDS denialism in South Africa">HIV/AIDS denialism</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Turkey</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theories_in_Turkey" title="Conspiracy theories in Turkey">Conspiracy theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_censorship_and_disinformation_during_the_Gezi_Park_protests" title="Media censorship and disinformation during the Gezi Park protests">Media censorship and disinformation during the Gezi Park protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AK_Trolls" title="AK Trolls">AK Trolls</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">United Kingdom</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bell_Pottinger" title="Bell Pottinger">Bell Pottinger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double-Cross_System" title="Double-Cross System">Double-Cross System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clockwork_Orange_(plot)" title="Clockwork Orange (plot)">Clockwork Orange plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euromyth" title="Euromyth">Euromyth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lancet_MMR_autism_fraud" title="Lancet MMR autism fraud">Lancet MMR autism fraud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Mass_Appeal" title="Operation Mass Appeal">Operation Mass Appeal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_Warfare_Division" title="Psychological Warfare Division">Psychological Warfare Division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinoviev_letter" title="Zinoviev letter">Zinoviev letter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">United States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1995_CIA_disinformation_controversy" title="1995 CIA disinformation controversy">1995 CIA disinformation controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attempts_to_overturn_the_2020_United_States_presidential_election" title="Attempts to overturn the 2020 United States presidential election">Attempts to overturn the 2020 election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theories_in_United_States_politics" title="Conspiracy theories in United States politics">Conspiracy theories</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/9/11_conspiracy_theories" title="9/11 conspiracy theories">9/11 conspiracy theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CIA_Kennedy_assassination_conspiracy_theory" title="CIA Kennedy assassination conspiracy theory">CIA Kennedy assassination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QAnon" title="QAnon">QAnon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandy_Hook_Elementary_School_shooting_conspiracy_theories" title="Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting conspiracy theories">Sandy Hook</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation_by_the_United_States" title="COVID-19 misinformation by the United States">COVID-19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fake_news_in_the_United_States" title="Fake news in the United States">Fake news</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fake_news_websites_in_the_United_States" title="Fake news websites in the United States">online</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_denial_movement_in_the_United_States" title="Election denial movement in the United States">Election denial movement in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Freedom_Fighter%27s_Manual" title="The Freedom Fighter's Manual">The Freedom Fighter's Manual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habbush_letter" title="Habbush letter">Habbush letter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_Operations_Roadmap" title="Information Operations Roadmap">Information Operations Roadmap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litter_boxes_in_schools_hoax" title="Litter boxes in schools hoax">Litter boxes in schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Atta%27s_alleged_Prague_connection" title="Mohamed Atta's alleged Prague connection">Mohamed Atta's alleged Prague connection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niger_uranium_forgeries" title="Niger uranium forgeries">Niger uranium forgeries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobacco_industry_playbook" title="Tobacco industry playbook">Tobacco industry playbook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Shocker" title="Operation Shocker">Operation Shocker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_rain" title="Yellow rain">Yellow rain</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Venezuela</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Bolivarian_Army_of_Trolls" title="Bolivarian Army of Trolls">Bolivarian Army of Trolls</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Vietnam</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_opinion_brigades" title="Public opinion brigades">Public opinion brigades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Force_47" class="mw-redirect" title="Force 47">Force 47</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Opposition" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Opposition</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fact-checking" title="Fact-checking">Fact-checking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fact-checking_website" class="mw-redirect" title="Fact-checking website">Fact-checking website</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Active_Measures_Working_Group" title="Active Measures Working Group">Active Measures Working Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter_disinformation_unit" title="Counter disinformation unit">Counter disinformation unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter_Misinformation_Team" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter Misinformation Team">Counter Misinformation Team</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Countering_Foreign_Propaganda_and_Disinformation_Act" title="Countering Foreign Propaganda and Disinformation Act">Countering Foreign Propaganda and Disinformation Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Disinformation_Project" title="The Disinformation Project">The Disinformation Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_StratCom_Task_Force" title="East StratCom Task Force">East StratCom Task Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FactCheck.org" title="FactCheck.org">FactCheck.org</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full_Fact" title="Full Fact">Full Fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logically_(company)" title="Logically (company)">Logically</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NewsGuard" title="NewsGuard">NewsGuard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PolitiFact" title="PolitiFact">PolitiFact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snopes" title="Snopes">Snopes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/StopFake" title="StopFake">StopFake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Information_Agency" title="United States Information Agency">United States Information Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USAFacts" title="USAFacts">USAFacts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q159535#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q159535#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q159535#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1748943/">FAST</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4138784-3">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh2009007844">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb16605351z">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb16605351z">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph355364&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007552205605171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" 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[\"CITEREFBarronMorganTowellAltemeyer2014\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFBensleyLilienfeldRowanMasciocchi2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBerlet,_Chip2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBerletLyons,_Matthew_N.2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBigliardi2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBirchall2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBirchall2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBjerg2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlaskiewicz2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBolton2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBowman2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBracewell2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBristed1863\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrotherton2013\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFBrothertonFrench2014\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFBrothertonFrenchPickering2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrüneBasilowskiBömmerJuckel2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBullockLenz2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurtonGiddyStinson2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFButter2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFButterPeter_Knight2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFByford2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCamp,_Gregory_S.1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCassam2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChase,_Alston2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCohen2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConnollyUscinskiKlofstadWest2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoward,_Barry2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrossley2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCumings1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCziescheJürgen_DahlkampUlrich_FichtnerUlrich_Jaeger2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDALKd2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDagnallDrinkwaterParkerDenovan2015\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFDarwinNeaveHolmes2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDean2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDiFonzoBordiaRosnow1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDiaz_RuizNilsson2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDominique_BrossardJames_ShanahanT._Clint_Nesbitt2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDouglasSutton2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDouglasSutton2011\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFDouglasSutton2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDouglasSuttonCichocka2017\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFDouglasUscinskiSuttonCichocka2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEndersSmallpageLupton2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEvans2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFenster,_Mark2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrankfurter2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFreemanBentall2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFriedersdorf2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGlickBooth2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoertzel1994\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFGoertzel2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldberg,_Robert_Alan2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoreisVoracek2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGraff2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrimes2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGöknar2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGöçek2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarambamAupers2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHardin2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarry_G._West\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHodappAlice_Von_Kannon2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHofstadter,_Richard1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHughesMachan2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHunt2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFImhoff2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIssittMain2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJ._Byford2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJack_Z._Bratich2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnson,_George1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnson1909\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJolley2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJolleyDouglas2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJonasonMarchSpringer2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJovan_Byford2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKahn2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeeley1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKelly1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLamprou2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLatour2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLazićŽeželj2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewandowskyCook2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewandowskyGignacOberauer2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLinden2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarc_David_Baer2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarcus2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarin_Lessenski2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatthew_Gray2010\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMcConnachie,_JamesTudge,_Robin2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeigs2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMelley,_Timothy1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichal_BilewiczAleksandra_CichockaWiktor_Soral2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMintz1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMonbiot2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoyer2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMuirheadRosenblum2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMuirheadRosenblum2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMustafa_Akyol2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNefes2012\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFNefes2013\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFNefes2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNuccitelli2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNyhan_B2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Donnell2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParsons2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeter_Knight2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPierre2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPigden1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPipes,_Daniel1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPipes,_Daniel1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPopper1945\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrematungeCoraceMcCarthyNair2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRadnitz2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobert_Brotherton2015\"] = 4,\n [\"CITEREFRobertsonAssociation_of_Medical_Officers_of_Asylums_and_Hospitals_for_the_Insane_(London,_England)Medico-psychological_Association_of_Great_Britain_and_IrelandRoyal_Medico-psychological_Association1870\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRogin1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRon_Rosenbaum2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoose2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSagan,_Carl1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSelim_Koru2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShermer2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimelelaVenterPillayBarron2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSloat2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStarcevicBrakoulias2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSteven_Stalinsky2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStojanovHalberstadt2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSunsteinVermeule2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSuttonDouglas2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSwami2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSwamiColesStiegerPietschnig2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSweek2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSwire-Thompson_B,_DeGutis_J,_Lazer_D2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThresher-Andrews2013\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFTiffany2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTollefson2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUscinski2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVankin,_JonathanJohn_Whalen2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVedantam2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWakin2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWestSanders2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilson1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWithers2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWood,_M.2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFdeHaven-Smith2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_ProoijenDouglas2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_ProoijenDouglas2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_ProoijenJostmann2012\"] = 1,\n [\"Origins\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Also\"] = 1,\n [\"Anchor\"] = 1,\n [\"Annotated link\"] = 18,\n [\"As of\"] = 2,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 6,\n [\"Citation\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite OED\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 52,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 87,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 18,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 26,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Conspiracy theories\"] = 1,\n [\"Creative Commons text attribution notice\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Conspiracy Theory\"] = 1,\n [\"Disinformation\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 3,\n [\"Further\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 1,\n [\"JSTOR\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 3,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Other uses\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 3,\n [\"Pb\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp\"] = 1,\n [\"Pseudoscience\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Right\"] = 10,\n [\"Rp\"] = 6,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 10,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sic\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 5,\n [\"Wikiquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Wiktionary\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","300","17.2"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","220","12.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","160","9.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","120","6.9"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","100","5.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","80","4.6"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","80","4.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::anchorEncode","80","4.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","80","4.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getEntityStatements","60","3.4"],["[others]","460","26.4"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-697b7966c5-hkxgj","timestamp":"20241126195556","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Conspiracy theory","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Conspiracy_theory#Conspiracism","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q159535","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q159535","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-11-12T19:13:18Z","dateModified":"2024-11-22T10:48:55Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/3\/3d\/Dollarnote_siegel_hq.jpg","headline":"explanation that invokes a conspiracy"}</script> </body> </html>