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Suzuki's influence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-D.T._Suzuki's_influence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Buddhist_psychoanalytic_dialogue_and_integration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Buddhist_psychoanalytic_dialogue_and_integration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.2 Buddhist psychoanalytic dialogue and integration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Buddhist_psychoanalytic_dialogue_and_integration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-David_Brazier" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#David_Brazier"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.3 David Brazier </div> </a> <ul id="toc-David_Brazier-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gestalt_therapy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gestalt_therapy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Gestalt therapy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gestalt_therapy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Existential_and_Humanistic_psychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Existential_and_Humanistic_psychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Existential and Humanistic psychology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Existential_and_Humanistic_psychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Positive_psychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Positive_psychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Positive psychology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Positive_psychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Naropa_University" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Naropa_University"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 Naropa University </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Naropa_University-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mind_and_life_institute" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mind_and_life_institute"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8 Mind and life institute </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mind_and_life_institute-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Buddhist_techniques_in_clinical_settings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Buddhist_techniques_in_clinical_settings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Buddhist techniques in clinical settings </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Buddhist_techniques_in_clinical_settings-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Buddhist techniques in clinical settings subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Buddhist_techniques_in_clinical_settings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mindfulness_practices" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mindfulness_practices"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Mindfulness practices </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mindfulness_practices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mindfulness_Based_Stress_Reduction_(MBSR)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mindfulness_Based_Stress_Reduction_(MBSR)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.1 Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mindfulness_Based_Stress_Reduction_(MBSR)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mindfulness-based_pain_management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mindfulness-based_pain_management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.2 Mindfulness-based pain management </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mindfulness-based_pain_management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dialectical_Behavioral_Therapy_(DBT)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dialectical_Behavioral_Therapy_(DBT)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.3 Dialectical Behavioral Therapy (DBT) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dialectical_Behavioral_Therapy_(DBT)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Acceptance_and_Commitment_Therapy_(ACT)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Acceptance_and_Commitment_Therapy_(ACT)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.4 Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Acceptance_and_Commitment_Therapy_(ACT)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adaptation_Practice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adaptation_Practice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.5 Adaptation Practice </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adaptation_Practice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Existential_Therapy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a 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id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources_and_bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources_and_bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Sources and bibliography </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sources_and_bibliography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Sources and bibliography subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Sources_and_bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Related_texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Related_texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Related texts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Related_texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 External links </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-External_links-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle External links subsection </button> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_scholarship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_scholarship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Early scholarship </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_scholarship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mainstream_teachers_and_popularizers_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mainstream_teachers_and_popularizers_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.2 Mainstream teachers and popularizers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mainstream_teachers_and_popularizers_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Caveats_and_criticisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Caveats_and_criticisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.3 Caveats and criticisms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Caveats_and_criticisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Psychotherapy_and_Buddhism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Psychotherapy_and_Buddhism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.4 Psychotherapy and Buddhism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Psychotherapy_and_Buddhism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> 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(July 2016)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Barry_Kerzin_meditating_with_EEG_for_neuroscience_research.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Barry_Kerzin_meditating_with_EEG_for_neuroscience_research.jpg/265px-Barry_Kerzin_meditating_with_EEG_for_neuroscience_research.jpg" decoding="async" width="265" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Barry_Kerzin_meditating_with_EEG_for_neuroscience_research.jpg/398px-Barry_Kerzin_meditating_with_EEG_for_neuroscience_research.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Barry_Kerzin_meditating_with_EEG_for_neuroscience_research.jpg/530px-Barry_Kerzin_meditating_with_EEG_for_neuroscience_research.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1340" /></a><figcaption>Buddhist monk <a href="/wiki/Barry_Kerzin" title="Barry Kerzin">Barry Kerzin</a> participating in <a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">neuropsychology</a> <a href="/wiki/Research_on_meditation" class="mw-redirect" title="Research on meditation">meditation research</a> with EEG</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Lotus_position.svg/60px-Lotus_position.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Lotus_position.svg/90px-Lotus_position.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Lotus_position.svg/120px-Lotus_position.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="410" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-bottom:0; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Buddhism</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_meditation" title="Buddhist meditation">Buddhist meditation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sati_(Buddhism)" title="Sati (Buddhism)">Sati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anussati" title="Anussati">Anussati</a></li> <li><a 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href="/wiki/Mindfulness-based_cognitive_therapy" title="Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy">Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mindfulness-based_pain_management" title="Mindfulness-based pain management">Mindfulness-based pain management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acceptance_and_commitment_therapy" title="Acceptance and commitment therapy">Acceptance and commitment therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialectical_behavior_therapy" title="Dialectical behavior therapy">Dialectical behavior therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mode_deactivation_therapy" title="Mode deactivation therapy">Mode deactivation therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morita_therapy" title="Morita therapy">Morita therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hakomi" title="Hakomi">Hakomi therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mindfulness_(journal)" title="Mindfulness (journal)">Mindfulness (journal)</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-bottom:0; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Other</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Buddhism and psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mindful_Yoga" title="Mindful Yoga">Mindful Yoga</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-bottom:0; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Similar concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wakefulness" title="Wakefulness">Wakefulness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attention" title="Attention">Attention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alertness" title="Alertness">Alertness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prudence" title="Prudence">Prudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscientiousness" title="Conscientiousness">Conscientiousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemplation" title="Contemplation">Contemplation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epoch%C3%A9" title="Epoché">Epoché</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awareness" title="Awareness">Awareness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">Observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choiceless_awareness" title="Choiceless awareness">Choiceless awareness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isolation_tank" title="Isolation tank">Isolation tank</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below plainlist"> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Mindfulness" title="Category:Mindfulness">Category</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Mindfulness" title="Template:Mindfulness"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Mindfulness" title="Template talk:Mindfulness"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Mindfulness" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Mindfulness"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> includes an analysis of human psychology, emotion, <a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">cognition</a>, behavior and <a href="/wiki/Motivation" title="Motivation">motivation</a> along with <a href="/wiki/Therapeutic" class="mw-redirect" title="Therapeutic">therapeutic</a> practices. Buddhist psychology is embedded within the greater <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Buddhist ethical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">philosophical system</a>, and its psychological terminology is colored by ethical overtones.<a href="#cite_note-DeSilva4th-1">[1]</a>: 3  Buddhist psychology has two therapeutic goals: the healthy and virtuous life of a <a href="/wiki/Householder_(Buddhism)" title="Householder (Buddhism)">householder</a> (samacariya, "harmonious living") and the ultimate goal of <a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">nirvana</a>, the total cessation of dissatisfaction and suffering (<a href="/wiki/Dukkha" class="mw-redirect" title="Dukkha">dukkha</a>).<a href="#cite_note-DeSilva4th-1">[1]</a>: 107  Buddhism and the modern discipline of <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a> have multiple parallels and points of overlap. This includes a descriptive <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(psychology)" title="Phenomenology (psychology)">phenomenology</a> of mental states, emotions and behaviors as well as theories of <a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perception</a> and <a href="/wiki/Unconscious_mind" title="Unconscious mind">unconscious</a> mental factors. Psychotherapists such as <a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Erich Fromm</a> have found in Buddhist <a href="/wiki/Bodhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Bodhi">enlightenment</a> experiences (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Kensho" class="mw-redirect" title="Kensho">kensho</a>) the potential for transformation, healing and finding existential meaning. Some contemporary mental-health practitioners such as <a href="/wiki/Jon_Kabat-Zinn" title="Jon Kabat-Zinn">Jon Kabat-Zinn</a> find ancient Buddhist practices (such as the development of <a href="/wiki/Mindfulness_(psychology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mindfulness (psychology)">mindfulness</a>) of empirically therapeutic value,<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> while Buddhist teachers such as <a href="/wiki/Jack_Kornfield" title="Jack Kornfield">Jack Kornfield</a> see Western psychology as providing complementary practices for Buddhists. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Interaction">Interaction</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_and_psychology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Interaction">edit</a>]</div> The establishment of <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> predates the field of <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a> by over two millennia; thus, any assessment of Buddhism in terms of psychology is necessarily a modern invention.<a href="#cite_note-3">[a]</a> One of the first such assessments occurred when British Indologists started translating Buddhist texts from <a href="/wiki/Pali" title="Pali">Pali</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>. The modern growth of <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_West" title="Buddhism in the West">Buddhism in the West</a> and particularly the development of <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_modernism" title="Buddhist modernism">Buddhist modernism</a> worldwide has led to the comparing and contrasting of European psychology and psychiatry with Buddhist theory and practice. According to Austrian psychologist Gerald Virtbauer,<a href="#cite_note-4">[3]</a> the contact of Buddhism and European Psychology has generally followed three main approaches:<a href="#cite_note-5">[4]</a> <ol><li>The presentation and exploration of parts of Buddhist teachings as a Psychology and psychological method for analyzing and modifying human experience.</li> <li>The integration of parts of the Buddhist teachings in already existing psychological or psychotherapeutic lines of thought (such as in <a href="/wiki/Mindfulness-based_cognitive_therapy" title="Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy">mindfulness-based cognitive therapy</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Acceptance_and_commitment_therapy" title="Acceptance and commitment therapy">acceptance and commitment therapy</a>).</li> <li>Buddhist integration of Western psychological and social science knowledge into the Buddhist system (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_modernism" title="Buddhist modernism">Buddhist modernism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vipassana_movement" title="Vipassana movement">Vipassana movement</a>)</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Psychology_in_the_Tripitaka">Psychology in the Tripitaka</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_and_psychology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Psychology in the Tripitaka">edit</a>]</div> The earliest Buddhist writings are preserved in three-part collections called <a href="/wiki/Tipitaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Tipitaka">Tipitaka</a> (Pali; Skt. <a href="/wiki/Tripitaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Tripitaka">Tripitaka</a>). The first part, the <a href="/wiki/Sutta_Pitaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Sutta Pitaka">Sutta Pitaka</a> contains a series of discourses attributed to the Buddha containing much psychological material. A central feature of Buddhist psychology is its <a href="/wiki/Methodology" title="Methodology">methodology</a> which is based on personal experience through <a href="/wiki/Introspection" title="Introspection">introspection</a> and phenomenological self observation.<a href="#cite_note-DeSilva4th-1">[1]</a>: 13  According to the Buddha while initially unreliable, one's mind can be trained, calmed and cultivated so as to make introspection a refined and reliable method. This methodology is the foundation for the personal insight into the nature of the mind the Buddha is said to have achieved. While introspection is a key aspect of the Buddhist method; observation of a person's behavior is also important.<a href="#cite_note-DeSilva4th-1">[1]</a>: 15  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Perception_and_the_self">Perception and the self</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_and_psychology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Perception and the self">edit</a>]</div> <table style="float:right; clear: right; margin:0.2em 0 0.2em 1em; background:Azure; border:1px solid DarkGray; font-size:100%; text-align:center;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2"> <tbody><tr> <td colspan="16" style="border-bottom:1px solid DarkGray; background:WhiteSmoke; text-align:center; color:RoyalBlue; font-size:110%">Figure 1: The <a href="/wiki/Pali_Canon" title="Pali Canon">Pali Canon</a>'s Six Sextets: </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="16">  </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">  </td> <td style="background:Yellow" colspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Ayatana" class="mw-redirect" title="Ayatana">sense bases</a> </td> <td rowspan="7">    → </td> <td style="background:Orange" rowspan="7">  </td> <td style="background:Orange" rowspan="7"><a href="/wiki/Vedan%C4%81" title="Vedanā">f e e l i n g</a> </td> <td style="background:Orange" rowspan="7">  </td> <td rowspan="7">    → </td> <td style="background:OrangeRed" rowspan="7">  </td> <td style="background:OrangeRed" rowspan="7"><a href="/wiki/Ta%E1%B9%87h%C4%81" title="Taṇhā">c r a v i n g</a> </td> <td style="background:OrangeRed" rowspan="7">  </td> <td rowspan="7">  </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:Yellow">  </td> <td style="background:White; border:1px solid Gray; color:DimGray">"internal" sense organs </td> <td style="background:Yellow"><–> </td> <td style="background:White; border:1px solid Gray; color:DimGray">"external" sense objects </td> <td style="background:Yellow">  </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:Yellow" colspan="5">  </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3">↓ </td> <td colspan="3">↓ </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3">↓ </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:Gold"><a href="/wiki/Spar%C5%9Ba" title="Sparśa">contact</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3">↓ </td> <td colspan="3">↑ </td></tr> <tr> <td>  </td> <td style="background:#B0C4DE; color:black" colspan="5">  <a href="/wiki/Vij%C3%B1%C4%81na" title="Vijñāna">consciousness</a>   </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="16">  </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="16" style="border-top:1px solid DarkGray; background:Ivory; text-align:left; color:RoyalBlue; font-size:87%"> <ol><li>The six internal <a href="/wiki/Ayatana" class="mw-redirect" title="Ayatana">sense bases</a> are the eye, ear, nose, tongue, body & mind.</li> <li>The six external sense bases are <a href="/wiki/R%C5%ABpa" title="Rūpa">visible forms</a>, sound, odor, flavors, touch & <a href="/wiki/Dharma_(Buddhism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dharma (Buddhism)">mental objects</a>.</li> <li>Sense-specific <a href="/wiki/Vinnana" class="mw-redirect" title="Vinnana">consciousness</a> arises dependent on an internal & an external sense base.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phassa" class="mw-redirect" title="Phassa">Contact</a> is the meeting of an internal sense base, external sense base & consciousness.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedana" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedana">Feeling</a> is dependent on contact.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ta%E1%B9%87h%C4%81" title="Taṇhā">Craving</a> is dependent on feeling.</li></ol> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="16" style="background:WhiteSmoke; text-align:center; color:RoyalBlue"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.148.than.html">Source: MN 148 (Thanissaro, 1998)</a>  <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style>  <a href="/wiki/Template:Chachakka" title="Template:Chachakka">diagram details</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <table style="float:right; clear: right; margin:0.1em 0 0.1em 1em; background:Azure; border:1px solid DarkGray; font-size:85%; text-align:center;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tbody><tr> <td colspan="5" style="border-bottom:1px solid DarkGray; background:WhiteSmoke; text-align:center; color:RoyalBlue"> The <a href="/wiki/Skandha" title="Skandha">Five Aggregates</a> (pañca khandha) according to the <a href="/wiki/Pali_Canon" title="Pali Canon">Pali Canon</a>.</td> </tr><tr> <td colspan="5"> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1"> </td> <td> <table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2"> <tbody><tr> <td colspan="4" style="background:Lime"><a href="/wiki/R%C5%ABpa" title="Rūpa">form (rūpa)</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="1" style="background:Lime"> </td> <td colspan="2" style="background:white; border:1px dotted Blue"><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81bh%C5%ABta" title="Mahābhūta">4 elements (mahābhūta)</a></td> <td colspan="1" style="background:Lime"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="4" style="background:Lime"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="1" style="background:Azure"> </td> <td colspan="1" style="background:Azure; border-left:1px solid Green"> </td> <td colspan="2" style="background:Azure; color:LimeGreen">↓</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="1" style="background:Azure"> </td> <td colspan="1" style="background:Azure; border-left:1px solid Green"> </td> <td colspan="2" style="background:White; border:1px dotted Gainsboro"><a href="/wiki/Spar%C5%9Ba" title="Sparśa">contact (phassa)</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="background:Azure; color:Green; text-align:left">    ↓</td> <td colspan="2" style="background:Azure; color:LightSkyBlue">↑</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="4" style="background:LightSkyBlue">  <a href="/wiki/Vijnana" class="mw-redirect" title="Vijnana">consciousness (viññāna)</a>  </td> </tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td>        → ←       ←</td> <td> <table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" style="background:white"> <tbody><tr> <td rowspan="8" style="border-left:1px dotted Red; border-top:1px dotted Red; border-bottom:1px dotted Red"> </td> <td style="color:RoyalBlue; border-top:1px dotted Red"><a href="/wiki/Mental_factors_(Buddhism)" title="Mental factors (Buddhism)">mental factors (cetasika)</a></td> <td rowspan="8" style="border-right:1px dotted Red; border-top:1px dotted Red; border-bottom:1px dotted Red"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background:Orange">  <a href="/wiki/Vedana" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedana">feeling (vedanā)</a>  </td> </tr> <tr><td> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:OrangeRed">  <a href="/wiki/Samjna" class="mw-redirect" title="Samjna">perception (sañña)</a>  </td> </tr> <tr><td> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:Red">  <a href="/wiki/Sankhara" class="mw-redirect" title="Sankhara">formation (saṅkhāra)</a>  </td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="3" style="border-bottom:1px dotted Red"> </td> </tr></tbody></table> </td> <td rowspan="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="5"> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="5" style="border-top:1px solid DarkGray; background:Ivory; text-align:left; color:RoyalBlue"> <dl><dd><ul><li><a href="/wiki/R%C5%ABpa" title="Rūpa">Form</a> is derived from the <a href="/wiki/Mahabhuta" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahabhuta">Four Great Elements</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinnana" class="mw-redirect" title="Vinnana">Consciousness</a> arises from <a href="/wiki/Namarupa" title="Namarupa">other aggregates</a>.</li> <li>Mental Factors arise from the <a href="/wiki/Phassa" class="mw-redirect" title="Phassa">Contact</a> of <a href="/wiki/Vinnana" class="mw-redirect" title="Vinnana">Consciousness</a> and <a href="/wiki/Namarupa" title="Namarupa">other aggregates</a>.</li></ul></dd></dl></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="5" style="background:WhiteSmoke; text-align:left; color:RoyalBlue">  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.109.than.html">Source: MN 109 (Thanissaro, 2001)</a>  |  <a href="/wiki/Template:PancaKhandha" title="Template:PancaKhandha">diagram details</a></td></tr> </tbody></table> The early Buddhist texts outline a theory of <a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perception</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">cognition</a> based on the <a href="/wiki/Ayatanas" class="mw-redirect" title="Ayatanas">ayatanas</a> (sense bases, sense media, sense spheres) which are categorized into <a href="/wiki/Sense_organs" class="mw-redirect" title="Sense organs">sense organs</a>, sense objects and awareness. The contact between these bases leads to a perceptual event as explained in Buddhist texts: "when the eye that is internal is intact and external visible forms come within its range and when there is an appropriate act of attention on the part of the mind, there is the emergence of perceptual consciousness."<a href="#cite_note-DeSilva4th-1">[1]</a>: 22  The usual process of sense cognition is entangled with what the Buddha terms "<a href="/wiki/Papa%C3%B1ca" class="mw-redirect" title="Papañca">papañca</a>" (conceptual proliferation), a distortion and elaboration in the cognitive process of the raw sensation or feeling (<a href="/wiki/Vedana" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedana">vedana</a>).<a href="#cite_note-DeSilva4th-1">[1]</a>: 236–254  This process of <a href="/wiki/Confabulation" title="Confabulation">confabulation</a> feeds back into the perceptual process itself. Therefore, perception for the Buddhists is not just based on the senses but also on our desires, interests and concepts and hence it is in a way unrealistic and misleading.<a href="#cite_note-DeSilva4th-1">[1]</a>: 21  The goal of Buddhist practice is then to remove these distractions and gain knowledge of things as they are (yatha-bhuta ñānadassanam). This psycho-physical process is further linked with psychological craving, <a href="/wiki/Manas_(early_Buddhism)" title="Manas (early Buddhism)">manas</a> (conceit) and <a href="/wiki/View_(Buddhism)" title="View (Buddhism)">ditthi</a> (dogmas, views). One of the most problematic views according to the Buddha, is the notion of a permanent and solid <a href="/wiki/Self" title="Self">Self</a> or 'pure ego'. This is because in early Buddhist psychology, <a href="/wiki/Anatta" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatta">there is no fixed self</a> (atta; Sanskrit <a href="/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Buddhism)" title="Ātman (Buddhism)">atman</a>) but the delusion of self and clinging to a <a href="/wiki/Self_concept" class="mw-redirect" title="Self concept">self concept</a> affects all one's behaviors and leads to suffering.<a href="#cite_note-DeSilva4th-1">[1]</a>: 236–254  For the Buddha there is nothing uniform or substantial about a person, only a constantly changing stream of events or processes categorized under five categories called <a href="/wiki/Skandhas" class="mw-redirect" title="Skandhas">skandhas</a> (heaps, aggregates), which includes the <a href="/wiki/Stream_of_consciousness_(psychology)" title="Stream of consciousness (psychology)">stream of consciousness</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vij%C3%B1%C4%81na" title="Vijñāna">Vijñāna</a>-sotam). False belief and attachment to an abiding ego-entity is at the root of most negative emotions. The psychologist <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Goleman" title="Daniel Goleman">Daniel Goleman</a> states: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">The notion of an "empty self" posits that there is no "CEO of the mind," but rather something like committees constantly vying for power. In this view, the "self" is not a stable, enduring entity in control, but rather a mirage of the mind—not actually real, but merely seemingly so. While that notion seems contrary to our own everyday experience, it actually describes the deconstruction of self that cognitive neuroscience finds as it dissects the mind (most famously, <a href="/wiki/Marvin_Minsky" title="Marvin Minsky">Marvin Minsky</a>'s "society of mind"). So the Buddhist model of the self may turn out to fit the data far better than the notions that have dominated Psychological thinking for the last century.<a href="#cite_note-6">[5]</a></blockquote> The Buddha saw the human mind as a psycho-physical complex, a dynamic continuum called <a href="/wiki/Namarupa" title="Namarupa">namarupa</a>. Nama refers to the non-physical elements and rupa to the physical components. According to Padmasiri de Silva, "The mental and physical constitutents form one complex, and there is a mutual dependency of the mind on the body and of the body on the mind."<a href="#cite_note-DeSilva4th-1">[1]</a>: 16  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Motivation_and_emotion">Motivation and emotion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_and_psychology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Motivation and emotion">edit</a>]</div> Buddha's theory of human <a href="/wiki/Motivation" title="Motivation">motivation</a> is based on certain key factors shared by all human beings and is primarily concerned with the nature of human dissatisfaction (<a href="/wiki/Dukkha" class="mw-redirect" title="Dukkha">dukkha</a>) and how to dispel it. In the suttas, human beings are said to be motivated by craving (<a href="/wiki/Ta%E1%B9%87h%C4%81" title="Taṇhā">tanha</a>, literally 'thirst') of three types:<a href="#cite_note-DeSilva4th-1">[1]</a>: 236–254  <ul><li>Kama tanha - craving for sensory gratification, sex, novel stimuli, and pleasure.</li> <li>Bhava tanha - craving for survival or continued existence, also includes hunger and sleep as well as desire for power, wealth and fame.</li> <li>Vibhava tanha - craving for annihilation, non-existence, also associated with aggression and violence towards oneself and others<a href="#cite_note-DeSilva4th-1">[1]</a>: 37 </li></ul> These three basic drives have been compared to the Freudian <a href="/wiki/Drive_theory" title="Drive theory">drive theory</a> of libido, ego, and thanatos respectively (de Silva, 1973). The arousal of these three cravings is derived from pleasant or unpleasant feelings (<a href="/wiki/Vedana" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedana">vedana</a>), reactions to sense impressions with positive or negative <a href="/wiki/Hedonic_tone" class="mw-redirect" title="Hedonic tone">hedonic tone</a>. Cravings condition clinging or obsession (upadana) to sense impressions, leading to a vicious cycle of further craving and striving, which is ultimately unsatisfactory and stressful. The suttas also enumerate three "unwholesome roots" (<a href="/wiki/Three_poisons" title="Three poisons">akusala mulas</a>) of suffering, negative emotions and behavior: raga (passion or lust); dosa (hatred or malice); and moha (delusion, or false belief).<a href="#cite_note-DeSilva4th-1">[1]</a>: 236–254  These are opposed by three wholesome roots: liberality, kindness and wisdom. Feeling or affective reaction (vedana) is also at the source of the emotions and it is categorized in various ways; as physical or mental, as pleasant, unpleasant or neutral; and as rooted in the different senses.<a href="#cite_note-DeSilva4th-1">[1]</a>: 41  The Buddha also makes a distinction between worldly and unworldly or spiritual feelings, seeing spiritual feelings as superior. Out of these basic immediate reactions as well as our situational context, conceptualization and personal history arise more complex <a href="/wiki/Emotions" class="mw-redirect" title="Emotions">emotions</a>, such as fear, hatred, hope or despair. The Buddhist theory of emotions also highlights the ethical and spiritual importance of positive emotions such as compassion and friendliness as antidotes for negative emotions and as vehicles for self development. According to Padmasiri de Silva, in the early Buddhist texts emotions can be divided into four groups: "those which obstruct the ideal of the virtuous life sought by the layman, emotions that interfere with the recluse seeking the path of perfection, emotions enhancing the layman's ideal of the virtuous life and emotions developed by the recluse seeking the path of perfection."<a href="#cite_note-DeSilva4th-1">[1]</a>: 46  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Unconscious">The Unconscious</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_and_psychology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: The Unconscious">edit</a>]</div> The early Buddhist texts such as the <a href="/wiki/Pali_Canon" title="Pali Canon">Pali Canon</a> present a theory about latent mental tendencies (Anusaya, "latent bias", "predisposition", "latent disposition") which are pre-conscious or non-conscious<a href="#cite_note-DeSilva4th-1">[1]</a>: 236–254 <a href="#cite_note-dharmafarer.org-7">[6]</a> These habitual patterns are later termed "<a href="/wiki/V%C4%81san%C4%81" title="Vāsanā">Vāsanā</a>" (impression) by the later Yogacara Buddhists and were held to reside in an unconscious mental layer. The term "<a href="/wiki/Fetter_(Buddhism)" title="Fetter (Buddhism)">fetter</a>" is also associated with the latent tendencies. A later Theravada text, the <a href="/wiki/Abhidhammattha-sangaha" title="Abhidhammattha-sangaha">Abhidhammattha-sangaha</a> (11th-12th century) says: "The latent dispositions are defilements which 'lie along with' the mental process to which they belong, rising to the surface as obsessions whenever they meet with suitable conditions" (Abhs 7.9).<a href="#cite_note-dharmafarer.org-7">[6]</a> The Theravada school also holds that there is a subconscious stream of awareness termed the <a href="/wiki/Bhavanga" title="Bhavanga">Bhavanga</a>. Another set of unconscious mental factors responsible for influencing one's behavior include the <a href="/wiki/Asava" title="Asava">asavas</a> (Sanskrit asrava, "influx, canker, inflows"). These factors are said to "intoxicate" and "befuddle" the mind. The Buddha taught that one had to remove them from the mind through practice in order to reach liberation. The asavas are said to arise from different factors: sensuality, aggression, cruelty, body, and individuality are some of the factors given.<a href="#cite_note-DeSilva4th-1">[1]</a>: 236–254  The <a href="/wiki/Yogacara" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogacara">Yogacara</a> school of <a href="/wiki/Mahayana_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahayana Buddhism">Mahayana Buddhism</a> (starting from the 3rd to 5th century CE) extended these ideas into what has been called a Buddhist theory of the <a href="/wiki/Unconscious_mind" title="Unconscious mind">Unconscious mind</a>.<a href="#cite_note-8">[7]</a> This concept was termed the ālaya-vijñāna (the foundation consciousness) which stores karmic seeds (bija) and undergoes rebirth. This theory was incorporated into a wider Yogacara theory of the <a href="/wiki/Eight_Consciousnesses" title="Eight Consciousnesses">Eight Consciousnesses</a> and is also held in <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Self_development_and_cognitive_behavioral_practices">Self development and cognitive behavioral practices</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_and_psychology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Self development and cognitive behavioral practices">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Buddhist_monk_in_Khao_Luang-Sukhothai.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Buddhist_monk_in_Khao_Luang-Sukhothai.JPG/220px-Buddhist_monk_in_Khao_Luang-Sukhothai.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="333" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Buddhist_monk_in_Khao_Luang-Sukhothai.JPG/330px-Buddhist_monk_in_Khao_Luang-Sukhothai.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Buddhist_monk_in_Khao_Luang-Sukhothai.JPG/440px-Buddhist_monk_in_Khao_Luang-Sukhothai.JPG 2x" data-file-width="777" data-file-height="1175" /></a><figcaption>Meditating Buddhist monk in <a href="/wiki/Khao_Luang" title="Khao Luang">Khao Luang</a>.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_meditation" title="Buddhist meditation">Buddhist meditation</a></div> According to Padmal de Silva "Buddhist strategies represent a therapeutic model which treats the person as his/her agent of change, rather than as the recipient of externally imposed interventions."<a href="#cite_note-enlight.lib.ntu.edu.tw-9">[8]</a> Silva argues that the Buddha saw each person responsible for their own personal development and considers this as being similar to the <a href="/wiki/Humanistic_psychology" title="Humanistic psychology">humanistic</a> approach to psychology. Humanistic psychotherapy places much emphasis on helping the client achieve self-actualization and personal growth (e.g. Maslow).<a href="#cite_note-enlight.lib.ntu.edu.tw-9">[8]</a> Since Buddhist practice also encompasses practical wisdom, spiritual virtues and morality, it cannot be seen exclusively as another form of psychotherapy. It is more accurate to see it as a way of life or a way of being (<a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a>). <a href="/wiki/Personal_development" title="Personal development">Personal development</a> in Buddhism is based upon the <a href="/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path" title="Noble Eightfold Path">Noble Eightfold Path</a> which integrates <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">ethics</a>, wisdom or understanding (<a href="/wiki/Pa%C3%B1%C3%B1a" class="mw-redirect" title="Pañña">pañña</a>) and psychological practices such as <a href="/wiki/Meditation" title="Meditation">meditation</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bhavana" title="Bhavana">bhavana</a>, cultivation, development).<a href="#cite_note-10">[9]</a> <a href="/wiki/Self-actualization" title="Self-actualization">Self-actualization</a> in traditional Buddhism is based on the ideas of <a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">Nirvana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddhahood</a>. The highest state a human can achieve (an <a href="/wiki/Arahant" class="mw-redirect" title="Arahant">Arahant</a> or a Buddha) is seen as being completely free from any kind of dissatisfaction or suffering, all negative mental tendencies, roots and influxes have been eliminated and there are only positive emotions like <a href="/wiki/Compassion" title="Compassion">compassion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maitr%C4%AB" title="Maitrī">loving-kindness</a> present.<a href="#cite_note-DeSilva4th-1">[1]</a>: 236–254  Buddhist meditation is of two main types: <a href="/wiki/Samatha" class="mw-redirect" title="Samatha">Samatha</a> is meant to calm and relax the mind, as well as develop focus and concentration by training <a href="/wiki/Attention" title="Attention">attention</a> on a single object; <a href="/wiki/Vipassana" class="mw-redirect" title="Vipassana">Vipassana</a> is a means to gain insight or understanding into the nature of the mental processes and their <a href="/wiki/Three_marks_of_existence" title="Three marks of existence">impermanent, stressful and self-less qualities</a> through the application of continuous and stable <a href="/wiki/Mindfulness" title="Mindfulness">mindfulness</a> and comprehension (<a href="/wiki/Sampaja%C3%B1%C3%B1a" title="Sampajañña">Sampajañña</a>).<a href="#cite_note-DeSilva4th-1">[1]</a>: 236–254  Though the ultimate goal of these practices are <a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">nirvana</a>, the Buddha stated that they also bring mundane benefits such as relaxation, good sleep and pain reduction.<a href="#cite_note-DeSilva4th-1">[1]</a>: 236–254  Buddhist texts also contain mental strategies of thought modification which are similar to <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_behavioral_therapy" title="Cognitive behavioral therapy">cognitive behavioral therapy</a> techniques.<a href="#cite_note-11">[10]</a> A comparison of these systems of cognitive behavioral modification has been discussed by professor William Mikulas<a href="#cite_note-12">[11]</a> and Padmal de Silva.<a href="#cite_note-13">[12]</a> According to Padmal de Silva these similarities include: "fear reduction by graded exposure and reciprocal inhibition; using rewards for promoting desirable behavior; modelling for inducing behavioral change; the use of stimulus control to eliminate undesirable behavior; the use of aversion to eliminate undesirable behavior; training in social skills; self-monitoring; control of intrusive thoughts by distraction, switching/stopping, incompatible thoughts, and by prolonged exposure to them; intense, covert, focusing on the unpleasant aspects of a stimulus or the unpleasant consequences of a response, to reduce attachment to the former and eliminate the latter; graded approach to the development of positive feelings towards others: use of external cues in behavior control; use of response cost to aid elimination of undesirable behavior; use of family members for carrying out behavior change programs; and cognitive-behavioral methods—for example, for grief."<a href="#cite_note-DeSilva4th-1">[1]</a>: 236–254  An important early text for these cognitive therapeutic methods is the <a href="/wiki/Vitakkasanthana_Sutta" class="mw-redirect" title="Vitakkasanthana Sutta">Vitakkasanthana Sutta</a> (MN 20) (The Removal of Distracting Thoughts) and its commentary, the Papancasudani. For removing negative or <a href="/wiki/Intrusive_thoughts" class="mw-redirect" title="Intrusive thoughts">intrusive thoughts</a>, the Buddha recommended five methods in this sutta: <ol><li>Focus on an opposite or incompatible thought or object.</li> <li>Ponder on the perils and disadvantages of the thought, its harmful consequences.</li> <li>Ignore the thought and distract yourself from it through some other activity.</li> <li>Reflect on the removal or stopping of the causes of the target thought.</li> <li>Make a forceful mental effort.</li></ol> Another recommended technique is from the <a href="/wiki/Satipatthana_Sutta" title="Satipatthana Sutta">Satipatthana Sutta</a>, which outlines the practice of <a href="/wiki/Mindfulness" title="Mindfulness">mindfulness</a>, which is not just a formal meditation, but a skill of attentive awareness and self monitoring. In developing mindfulness, one is advised to be aware of all thoughts and sensations that arise, even unwanted or unpleasant ones and continuously attend to such thoughts. Eventually, through <a href="/wiki/Habituation" title="Habituation">habituation</a> and exposure, the intensity and unpleasantness of such thoughts will disappear.<a href="#cite_note-DeSilva4th-1">[1]</a>: 236–254  Buddhist texts also promote the training of positive emotions such as <a href="/wiki/Maitr%C4%AB" title="Maitrī">loving-kindness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karu%E1%B9%87%C4%81" title="Karuṇā">compassion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mudita" title="Mudita">empathetic joy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Upekkha" class="mw-redirect" title="Upekkha">equanimity</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abnormal_psychology">Abnormal psychology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_and_psychology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Abnormal psychology">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Pali_Canon" title="Pali Canon">Pali Canon</a> records that the Buddha distinguished between two kinds of illness (rogo): physical illness (kāyiko rogo) and mental illness (cetasiko rogo). The Buddha attributed mental illness to the arising of mental defilements (<a href="/wiki/Kleshas_(Buddhism)" title="Kleshas (Buddhism)">Kleshas</a>) which are ultimately based on the unwholesome roots (<a href="/wiki/Three_poisons" title="Three poisons">three poisons</a>) of greed, hatred and confusion.<a href="#cite_note-14">[13]</a> From the perspective of the Buddha, mental illness is a matter of degree, and ultimately, everyone who is not an awakened being is in some sense mentally ill. As the Buddha in the Pali canon states: "those beings are hard to find in the world who can admit freedom from mental disease even for one moment, save only those in whom the asavas are destroyed."<a href="#cite_note-15">[14]</a> Another set of negative qualities outlined by the Buddha are the <a href="/wiki/Five_hindrances" title="Five hindrances">five hindrances</a>, which are said to prevent proper mental cultivation, these are: sense desire, hostility, sloth-torpor, restlessness-worry and doubt. According to Edwina Pio, Buddhist texts see mental illness as being mainly <a href="/wiki/Psychogenic_disease" title="Psychogenic disease">psychogenic</a> in nature (rooted mainly in "environmental stress and inappropriate learning").<a href="#cite_note-Pio-16">[15]</a>: 127  The Pali canon also describes Buddhist monks (epitomized by the monk Gagga) with symptoms of what would today be called <a href="/wiki/Mental_illness" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental illness">mental illness</a>. An act which is against the monk's code of discipline (Vinaya) committed by someone who was "ummatta" - "out of his mind" was said by the Buddha to be pardonable. This was termed the madmans leave (ummattakasammuti)<a href="#cite_note-17">[16]</a> The texts also assume that this 'madness' can be cured or recovered from, or is at least an impermanent phenomenon, after which, during confession, the monk is considered sane by the sangha once more.<a href="#cite_note-Pio-16">[15]</a>: 127  There are also stories of lay folk who show abnormal behavior due to the loss of their loved ones.<a href="#cite_note-Pio-16">[15]</a>: 128  Other Buddhist sources such as the <a href="/wiki/Milinda_Panha" title="Milinda Panha">Milinda Panha</a> echo the theory that madness is caused mainly by personal and environmental circumstances.<a href="#cite_note-Pio-16">[15]</a>: 128  Other abnormal behaviors described by the early sources include <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_disability" title="Intellectual disability">Intellectual disability</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epilepsy" title="Epilepsy">epilepsy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alcoholism" title="Alcoholism">alcoholism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Suicide" title="Suicide">suicide</a>. <a href="/wiki/Buddhagosa" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhagosa">Buddhagosa</a> posits that the cause of suicide is mental illness based on factors such as loss of personal relations and physical illness.<a href="#cite_note-Pio-16">[15]</a>: 148  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abhidhamma_psychology">Abhidhamma psychology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_and_psychology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Abhidhamma psychology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></div> The third part (or pitaka, literally "basket") of the Tripitaka is known as the <a href="/wiki/Abhidhamma" class="mw-redirect" title="Abhidhamma">Abhidhamma</a> (Pali; Skt. Abhidharma). The Abhidhamma works are historically later than the two other collections of the Tipitaka (3rd century BCE and later) and focus on <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(psychology)" title="Phenomenology (psychology)">phenomenological psychology</a>. The Buddhist Abhidhamma works analyze the mind into elementary factors of experience called dharmas (Pali: dhammas). Dhammas are phenomenal factors or "psycho-physical events" whose interrelations and connections make up all streams of human experience. There are four categories of dharmas in the <a href="/wiki/Therav%C4%81da_Abhidhamma" class="mw-redirect" title="Theravāda Abhidhamma">Theravada Abhidhamma</a>: <a href="/wiki/Citta" class="mw-redirect" title="Citta">Citta</a> (awareness), <a href="/wiki/Mental_factors_(Buddhism)" title="Mental factors (Buddhism)">Cetasika</a> (mental factors), <a href="/wiki/R%C5%ABpa" title="Rūpa">Rūpa</a> (physical occurrences, material form) and <a href="/wiki/Nirvana_(Buddhism)" title="Nirvana (Buddhism)">Nibbāna</a> (cessation).<a href="#cite_note-18">[17]</a> Abhidhamma texts are then an attempt to list all possible factors of experience and all possible relationships between them. Among the achievements of the Abhidhamma psychologists was the outlining of a theory of <a href="/wiki/Emotions" class="mw-redirect" title="Emotions">emotions</a>, a theory of <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_personality_types" title="Buddhist personality types">personality types</a>, and a <a href="/wiki/Behavioral_ethics" title="Behavioral ethics">psychology of ethical behavior</a>. Ven. <a href="/wiki/Bhikkhu_Bodhi" title="Bhikkhu Bodhi">Bhikkhu Bodhi</a>, president of the <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_Publication_Society" title="Buddhist Publication Society">Buddhist Publication Society</a>, has synopsized the Abhidhamma as follows: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The system that the Abhidhamma Pitaka articulates is simultaneously a philosophy, a psychology, and an ethics, all integrated into the framework of a program for liberation ... The Abhidhamma's attempt to comprehend the nature of reality, contrary to that of classical science in the West, does not proceed from the standpoint of a neutral observer looking outwards towards the external world. The primary concern of the Abhidhamma is to understand the nature of experience, and thus the reality on which it focuses is conscious reality ... For this reason the philosophical enterprise of the Abhidhamma shades off into a phenomenological psychology. To facilitate the understanding of experienced reality, the Abhidhamma embarks upon an elaborate analysis of the mind as it presents itself to introspective meditation. It classifies consciousness into a variety of types, specifies the factors and functions of each type, correlates them with their objects and physiological bases, and shows how the different types of consciousness link up with each other and with material phenomena to constitute the ongoing process of experience.<a href="#cite_note-19">[18]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Buddhism_and_psychology">Buddhism and psychology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_and_psychology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Buddhism and psychology">edit</a>]</div> Buddhism and psychology overlap in theory and in practice. Since the beginning of the 20th century, four strands of interplay have evolved: <ul><li>descriptive phenomenology: scholars<a href="#cite_note-20">[19]</a> have found in Buddhist teachings a detailed introspective <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenological</a> psychology (particularly in the <a href="/wiki/Abhidhamma" class="mw-redirect" title="Abhidhamma">Abhidhamma</a> which outlines various traits, emotions and <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_personality_types" title="Buddhist personality types">personality types</a>).</li> <li>psychotherapeutic meaning: <a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">humanistic</a> psychotherapists have found in Buddhism's <a href="/wiki/Nonduality_(spirituality)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonduality (spirituality)">non-dualistic</a> approach and <a href="/wiki/Bodhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Bodhi">enlightenment</a> experiences (such as in Zen <a href="/wiki/Kensho" class="mw-redirect" title="Kensho">kensho</a>) the potential for transformation, healing and finding existential meaning. This connection was explained by a modification of <a href="/wiki/Piaget%27s_theory_of_cognitive_development" title="Piaget's theory of cognitive development">Piaget's theory of cognitive development</a> introducing the process of initiation.<a href="#cite_note-21">[20]</a></li> <li>clinical utility: some contemporary mental-health practitioners increasingly find ancient Buddhist practices (such as the development of <a href="/wiki/Mindfulness_(psychology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mindfulness (psychology)">mindfulness</a>) of empirically proven therapeutic value.<a href="#cite_note-22">[21]</a></li> <li>popular psychology and spirituality: psychology has been popularized,<a href="#cite_note-23">[22]</a> and has become blended with <a href="/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">spirituality</a> in some forms of <a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">modern spirituality</a>. Buddhist notions form an important ingredient of this modern mix.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychology">Psychology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_and_psychology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Psychology">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CAFRD.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/CAFRD.jpg/220px-CAFRD.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/CAFRD.jpg/330px-CAFRD.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/CAFRD.jpg/440px-CAFRD.jpg 2x" data-file-width="652" data-file-height="793" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Caroline_Augusta_Foley_Rhys_Davids" class="mw-redirect" title="Caroline Augusta Foley Rhys Davids">Caroline A. F. Rhys Davids</a> was one of the first modern Psychologists to conceptualize canonical Buddhist writings in terms of psychology.</figcaption></figure> The contact between Buddhism and Psychology began with the work of the <a href="/wiki/Pali_Text_Society" title="Pali Text Society">Pali Text Society</a> scholars, whose main work was translating the Buddhist <a href="/wiki/Pali_Canon" title="Pali Canon">Pali Canon</a>. In 1900, Indologist <a href="/wiki/Caroline_Augusta_Foley_Rhys_Davids" class="mw-redirect" title="Caroline Augusta Foley Rhys Davids">Caroline A. F. Rhys Davids</a> published through the Pali Text Society a translation of the <a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a> <a href="/wiki/Abhidhamma" class="mw-redirect" title="Abhidhamma">Abhidhamma</a>'s first book, the <a href="/wiki/Dhamma_Sangani" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhamma Sangani">Dhamma Sangani</a>, and entitled the translation, "Buddhist Manual of Psychological Ethics".<a href="#cite_note-24">[23]</a> In the introduction to this seminal work, Rhys Davids praised the sophistication of the Buddhist psychological system based on "a complex continuum of subjective phenomena" (dhammas) and the relationships and laws of causation that bound them (Rhys Davids, 1900, pp. xvi-xvii.).<a href="#cite_note-25">[b]</a> Buddhism's psychological orientation is a theme Rhys Davids pursued for decades as evidenced by her further publications, Buddhist Psychology: An Inquiry into the Analysis and Theory of Mind in Pali Literature (1914) and The Birth of Indian Psychology and its Development in Buddhism (1936). An important event in the interchange of East and West occurred when American psychologist <a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a> invited the Sri Lankan Buddhist <a href="/wiki/Anagarika_Dharmapala" title="Anagarika Dharmapala">Anagarika Dharmapala</a> to lecture in his classes at <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a> in December 1903. After Dharmapala lectured on Buddhism, James remarked, "This is the psychology everybody will be studying 25 years from now."<a href="#cite_note-Kato2016-26">[24]</a> Later scholars such as <a href="/wiki/David_Kalupahana" title="David Kalupahana">David Kalupahana</a> (The principles of Buddhist psychology, 1987), Padmal de Silva (Buddhism and behaviour modification, 1984), Edwina Pio<a href="#cite_note-Pio-16">[15]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hubert_Benoit_(psychotherapist)" title="Hubert Benoit (psychotherapist)">Hubert Benoit</a> (Zen and the Psychology of Transformation, 1990) wrote about and compared Buddhism and Psychology directly. Writers in the field of <a href="/wiki/Transpersonal_psychology" title="Transpersonal psychology">transpersonal psychology</a> (which deals with <a href="/wiki/Religious_experience" title="Religious experience">religious experience</a>, <a href="/wiki/Altered_states_of_consciousness" class="mw-redirect" title="Altered states of consciousness">altered states of consciousness</a> and similar topics) such as <a href="/wiki/Ken_Wilber" title="Ken Wilber">Ken Wilber</a> also integrated Buddhist thought and practice into their work. The 1960s and 1970s saw the <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_West#Emerging_mainstream_western_Buddhism" title="Buddhism in the West">rapid growth of Western Buddhism</a>, especially in the United States. In the 1970s, psychotherapeutic techniques using "mindfulness" were developed such as <a href="/wiki/Hakomi" title="Hakomi">Hakomi</a> therapy by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ron_Kurtz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ron Kurtz (page does not exist)">Ron Kurtz</a> (1934–2011), possibly the first mindfulness based therapy.<a href="#cite_note-Kato2016-26">[24]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jon_Kabat-Zinn" title="Jon Kabat-Zinn">Jon Kabat-Zinn</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Mindfulness-based_stress_reduction" title="Mindfulness-based stress reduction">mindfulness-based stress reduction</a> (MBSR) was a very influential development, introducing the term into Western cognitive behavioral therapy practice. Kabat-Zinn's students Zindel V. Segal, J. Mark G. Williams and John D. Teasdale later developed <a href="/wiki/Mindfulness-based_cognitive_therapy" title="Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy">mindfulness-based cognitive therapy</a> (MBCT) in 1987.<a href="#cite_note-Kato2016-26">[24]</a> In the early 2000s <a href="/wiki/Vidyamala_Burch" title="Vidyamala Burch">Vidyamala Burch</a> and her organization <a href="/wiki/Breathworks" title="Breathworks">Breathworks</a> developed <a href="/wiki/Mindfulness-based_pain_management" title="Mindfulness-based pain management">mindfulness-based pain management</a> (MBPM). <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cortical_Areas_Thicker_in_Meditators_.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Cortical_Areas_Thicker_in_Meditators_.jpg/220px-Cortical_Areas_Thicker_in_Meditators_.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Cortical_Areas_Thicker_in_Meditators_.jpg/330px-Cortical_Areas_Thicker_in_Meditators_.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Cortical_Areas_Thicker_in_Meditators_.jpg/440px-Cortical_Areas_Thicker_in_Meditators_.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="478" /></a><figcaption>Research by Sarah Lazar et al. (2005) found brain areas that are thicker in practitioners of Insight meditation than control subjects who do not meditate.<a href="#cite_note-27">[25]</a></figcaption></figure> More recent work has focused on clinical research of particular practices derived from Buddhism such as mindfulness meditation and compassion development (ex. the work of <a href="/wiki/Jon_Kabat-Zinn" title="Jon Kabat-Zinn">Jon Kabat-Zinn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Goleman" title="Daniel Goleman">Daniel Goleman</a>) and on psycho-therapeutic practices which integrate meditative practices derived from Buddhism. From the perspective of Buddhism, various modern Buddhist teachers such as <a href="/wiki/Jack_Kornfield" title="Jack Kornfield">Jack Kornfield</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tara_Brach" title="Tara Brach">Tara Brach</a> have academic degrees in <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>. Applying the tools of modern <a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">neuropsychology</a> (EEG, fMRI) to study <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_meditation" title="Buddhist meditation">Buddhist meditation</a> is also an area of integration. One of the first figures in this area was neurologist <a href="/wiki/James_H._Austin" title="James H. Austin">James H. Austin</a>, who wrote <a href="/wiki/Zen_and_the_Brain" title="Zen and the Brain">Zen and the Brain</a> (1998). Others who have studied and written about this type of research include <a href="/wiki/Richard_Davidson" title="Richard Davidson">Richard Davidson</a>, <a href="/wiki/B._Alan_Wallace" title="B. Alan Wallace">B. Alan Wallace</a>, Rick Hanson (Buddha's Brain, 2009) and Zoran Josipovic.<a href="#cite_note-28">[26]</a> A recent review of the literature on the <a href="/wiki/Neural_mechanisms_of_mindfulness_meditation" class="mw-redirect" title="Neural mechanisms of mindfulness meditation">Neural mechanisms of mindfulness meditation</a> concludes that the practice "exerts beneficial effects on physical and mental health, and cognitive performance" but that "the underlying neural mechanisms remain unclear."<a href="#cite_note-29">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Japanese_psychology">Japanese psychology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_and_psychology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Japanese psychology">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dc_morita.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Dc_morita.jpg/220px-Dc_morita.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/Dc_morita.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>Dr. Shoma Morita (1874–1938)</figcaption></figure> In <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>, a different strand of comparative thought developed, beginning with the publication, "Psychology of Zen Sect" (1893) and "Buddhist psychology" (1897), by <a href="/wiki/Inoue_Enry%C5%8D" title="Inoue Enryō">Inoue Enryō</a> (1858–1919).<a href="#cite_note-Kato2005-30">[28]</a> In 1920, Tomosada Iritani (1887–1957) administered a questionnaire to 43 persons dealing with Zen practice, in what was probably the first empirical psychological study of Zen.<a href="#cite_note-Kato2005-30">[28]</a> In the field of psychotherapy, <a href="/wiki/Morita_therapy" title="Morita therapy">Morita therapy</a> was developed by <a href="/wiki/Shoma_Morita" title="Shoma Morita">Shoma Morita</a> (1874-1938) who was influenced by <a href="/wiki/Zen_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Zen Buddhism">Zen Buddhism</a>. Koji Sato (1905–1971) began the publication of the journal, Psychologia: An International Journal of Psychology in the Orient in 1957 with the aim of providing a comparative psychological dialogue between East and West (with contributions from Bruner, Fromm, and Jung). In the 1960s, Kasamatsu and Hirai used <a href="/wiki/Electroencephalography" title="Electroencephalography">Electroencephalography</a> to monitor the brains of Zen meditators. This led to the promotion of various studies covering psychiatry, physiology, and psychology of Zen by the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Education,_Culture,_Sports,_Science_and_Technology" title="Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology">Japanese ministry of education</a> which were carried out in various laboratories.<a href="#cite_note-Kato2005-30">[28]</a> Another important researcher in this field, Prof. Yoshiharu Akishige, promoted Zen Psychology, the idea that the insights of Zen should not just be studied but that they should inform psychological practice. Research in this field continues with the work of Japanese psychologists such as Akira Onda and Osamu Ando.<a href="#cite_note-Kato2005-30">[28]</a> In Japan, a popular psychotherapy based on Buddhism is <a href="/wiki/Naikan" title="Naikan">Naikan</a> therapy, developed from <a href="/wiki/J%C5%8Ddo_Shinsh%C5%AB" title="Jōdo Shinshū">Jōdo Shinshū</a> Buddhist introspection by Ishin Yoshimoto (1916–1988). Naikan therapy is used in correctional institutions, education, to treat alcohol dependence as well as by individuals seeking self development.<a href="#cite_note-Kato2016-26">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Buddhism_and_psychoanalysis">Buddhism and psychoanalysis</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_and_psychology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Buddhism and psychoanalysis">edit</a>]</div> Buddhism has some views which are comparable to <a href="/wiki/Psychoanalytic_theory" title="Psychoanalytic theory">psychoanalytic theory</a>. These include a view of the <a href="/wiki/Unconscious_mind" title="Unconscious mind">unconscious mind</a> and unconscious thought processes, the view that unwholesome unconscious forces cause much of human suffering and the idea that one may gain insight into these thought processes through various practices, including what Freud called "evenly suspended attention." A variety of teachers, clinicians and writers such as <a href="/wiki/D.T._Suzuki" class="mw-redirect" title="D.T. Suzuki">D.T. Suzuki</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carl_Jung" title="Carl Jung">Carl Jung</a>, <a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Erich Fromm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alan_Watts" title="Alan Watts">Alan Watts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tara_Brach" title="Tara Brach">Tara Brach</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jack_Kornfield" title="Jack Kornfield">Jack Kornfield</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sharon_Salzberg" title="Sharon Salzberg">Sharon Salzberg</a> have attempted to bridge and integrate psycho-analysis and Buddhism. British barrister <a href="/wiki/Christmas_Humphreys" title="Christmas Humphreys">Christmas Humphreys</a> has referred to mid-twentieth century collaborations between psychoanalysts and Buddhist scholars as a meeting between: "Two of the most powerful forces operating in the Western mind today."<a href="#cite_note-31">[c]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="D.T._Suzuki's_influence">D.T. Suzuki's influence</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_and_psychology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: D.T. Suzuki's influence">edit</a>]</div> One of the most important influences on the spread of Buddhism in the west was <a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a> scholar <a href="/wiki/D.T._Suzuki" class="mw-redirect" title="D.T. Suzuki">D.T. Suzuki</a>. He collaborated with psycho-analysts <a href="/wiki/Carl_Jung" title="Carl Jung">Carl Jung</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karen_Horney" title="Karen Horney">Karen Horney</a> and <a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Erich Fromm</a>. <a href="/wiki/Carl_Jung" title="Carl Jung">Carl Jung</a> wrote the foreword to Suzuki's Introduction to Zen Buddhism, first published together in 1948.<a href="#cite_note-32">[d]</a> In his foreword, Jung highlights the enlightenment experience of <a href="/wiki/Satori" title="Satori">satori</a> as the "unsurpassed transformation to wholeness" for Zen practitioners. And while acknowledging the inadequacy of Psychologist attempts to comprehend <a href="/wiki/Satori" title="Satori">satori</a> through the lens of intellectualism,<a href="#cite_note-33">[e]</a> Jung nonetheless contends that due to their shared goal of self transformation: "The only movement within our culture which partly has, and partly should have, some understanding of these aspirations [for such enlightenment] is psychotherapy."<a href="#cite_note-34">[29]</a> Referencing Jung and Suzuki's collaboration as well as the efforts of others, <a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">humanistic philosopher</a> and <a href="/wiki/Psychoanalysis" title="Psychoanalysis">psychoanalyst</a> <a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Erich Fromm</a> noted that: "There is an unmistakable and increasing interest in Zen Buddhism among psychoanalysts". One influential psychoanalyst who explored Zen was <a href="/wiki/Karen_Horney" title="Karen Horney">Karen Horney</a>, who traveled to Japan in 1952 to meet with Suzuki and who advised her colleagues to listen to their clients with a "Zen-like concentration and non attachment".<a href="#cite_note-35">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[f]</a> Suzuki, Fromm and other psychoanalysts collaborated at a 1957 workshop on "Zen Buddhism and Psychoanalysis" in Cuernavaca, Mexico.<a href="#cite_note-38">[g]</a> Fromm contends that, at the turn of the twentieth century, most psychotherapeutic patients sought treatment due to medical-like symptoms that hindered their social functioning. However, by mid-century, the majority of psychoanalytic patients lacked overt symptoms and functioned well but instead suffered from an "inner deadness" and an "alienation from oneself".<a href="#cite_note-39">[32]</a> Paraphrasing Suzuki broadly, Fromm continues: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Zen is the art of seeing into the nature of one's being; it is a way from bondage to freedom; it liberates our natural energies; ... and it impels us to express our faculty for happiness and love.<a href="#cite_note-40">[33]</a> ... What can be said with more certainty is that the knowledge of Zen, and a concern with it, can have a most fertile and clarifying influence on the theory and technique of psychoanalysis. Zen, different as it is in its method from psychoanalysis, can sharpen the focus, throw new light on the nature of insight, and heighten the sense of what it is to see, what it is to be creative, what it is to overcome the affective contaminations and false intellectualizations which are the necessary results of experience based on the subject-object split"<a href="#cite_note-41">[34]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Buddhist_psychoanalytic_dialogue_and_integration">Buddhist psychoanalytic dialogue and integration</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_and_psychology&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Buddhist psychoanalytic dialogue and integration">edit</a>]</div> The dialogue between Buddhism and psychoanalysis has continued with the work of psychiatrists such as <a href="/wiki/Mark_Epstein" title="Mark Epstein">Mark Epstein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nina_Coltart" title="Nina Coltart">Nina Coltart</a>, Jack Engler, Axel Hoffer, Jeremy D. Safran, David Brazier, and Jeffrey B. Rubin. <a href="/wiki/Nina_Coltart" title="Nina Coltart">Nina Coltart</a> (1927-1997) was the Director of the London Clinic of Psychoanalysis, a <a href="/wiki/Neo-Freudian" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Freudian">neo-Freudian</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhist</a>. She theorized that there are distinct similarities in the transformation of the self that occurs in both <a href="/wiki/Psychoanalysis" title="Psychoanalysis">psychoanalysis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-42">[35]</a> She believed that the practice of Buddhism and Psychoanalysis are "mutually reinforcing and clarifying" (Coltart, The practice of psychoanalysis and Buddhism). <a href="/wiki/Mark_Epstein" title="Mark Epstein">Mark Epstein</a> is an American psychiatrist who practiced Buddhism in Thailand under <a href="/wiki/Ajahn_Chah" title="Ajahn Chah">Ajahn Chah</a> and has since written several books on psychoanalysis and Buddhism (Thoughts Without a Thinker 1995, Psychotherapy Without the Self, 2008).<a href="#cite_note-43">[36]</a> Epstein relates the Buddhist Four Noble Truths to primary <a href="/wiki/Narcissism" title="Narcissism">narcissism</a> as described by <a href="/wiki/Donald_Winnicott" title="Donald Winnicott">Donald Winnicott</a> in his theory on the <a href="/wiki/True_self_and_false_self" title="True self and false self">true self and false self</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEpstein2004-44">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[38]</a> The first truth highlights the inevitability of humiliation in our lives of our narcissistic self-esteem. The second truth speaks of the primal thirst that makes such humiliation inevitable. The third truth promises release by developing a realistic self-image, and the fourth truth spells out the means of accomplishing that.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEpstein200442-46">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[40]</a> Jeffrey B. Rubin has also written on the integration of these two practices in Psychotherapy and Buddhism, Toward an Integration (1996). In this text, he criticizes the Buddhist idea of enlightenment as a total purification of mind: "From the psychoanalytic perspective, a static, conflict-free sphere-a psychological "safehouse" -beyond the vicissitudes of conflict and conditioning where mind is immune to various aspects of affective life such as self-interest, egocentricity, fear, lust, greed, and suffering is quixotic. Since conflict and suffering seem to be inevitable aspects of human life, the ideal of Enlightenment may be asymptotic, that is, an unreachable ideal."<a href="#cite_note-Rubin1996-48">[41]</a>: 90  He points to <a href="/wiki/Zen_in_the_United_States#1980s_-_Scandals" title="Zen in the United States">scandals and abuses by American Buddhist teachers</a> as examples. Rubin also outlines a case study of the psychoanalytic treatment of a Buddhist meditator and notes that meditation has been largely ignored and devalued by psychoanalysts.<a href="#cite_note-Rubin1996-48">[41]</a>: 117  He argues that Buddhist meditation can provide an important contribution to the practice of psychoanalytic listening by improving an analyst's capacity for attention and recommends meditation for psychoanalysts.<a href="#cite_note-Rubin1996-48">[41]</a>: 124  Axel Hoffer has contributed to this area as editor of Freud and the Buddha, which collects several essays by psychoanalysts and a Buddhist scholar, Andrew Olendzki. Olendzki outlines an important problematic between the two systems, the Freudian practice of <a href="/wiki/Free_association_(psychology)" title="Free association (psychology)">free association</a>, which from the Buddhist perspective is based on: "The reflexive tendency of the mind to incessantly make a narrative of everything that arises in experience is itself the cause of much of our suffering, and meditation offers a refreshing refuge from mapping every datum of sensory input to the macro-construction of a meaningful self."<a href="#cite_note-49">[42]</a> Olendzki also argues that for the Buddhist, the psychoanalytic focus on linguistic narrativity distracts us from immediate experience. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="David_Brazier">David Brazier</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_and_psychology&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: David Brazier">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Four_Noble_Truths#David_Brazier:_existence_is_imperfect" title="Four Noble Truths">Four Noble Truths § David Brazier: existence is imperfect</a></div> David Brazier is a psychotherapist who combines psychotherapy and Buddhism (Zen therapy, 1995). Brazier points to various possible translations of the Pali terms of the <a href="/wiki/Four_Noble_Truths" title="Four Noble Truths">Four Noble Truths</a>, which give a new insight into these truths. The traditional translations of samudhaya and nirodha are "origin" and "cessation". Coupled with the translation of dukkha as "suffering", this gives rise to a causal explanation of suffering, and the impression that suffering can be totally terminated. The translation given by David Brazier<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrazier2001-50">[43]</a> gives a different interpretation to the Four Noble Truths. <ol><li>Dukkha: existence is imperfect, it is like a wheel that is not straight into the axis;</li> <li>Samudhaya: simultaneously with the experience of dukkha there arises <a href="/wiki/Ta%E1%B9%87h%C4%81" title="Taṇhā">tanha</a>, thirst: the dissatisfaction with what is and the yearning that life should be different from what it is. We keep imprisoned in this yearning when we do not see reality as it is, namely imperfect and ever-changing;</li> <li>Nirodha: we can confine this yearning (that reality is different from what it is), and perceive reality as it is, whereby our suffering from the imperfectness becomes confined;</li> <li>Marga: this confinement is possible by following the <a href="/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path" title="Noble Eightfold Path">Eightfold Path</a>.</li></ol> In this translation, samudhaya means that the uneasiness that is inherent to life <a href="/wiki/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da" title="Pratītyasamutpāda">arises together with</a> the craving that life's event would be different. The translation of nirodha as confinement means that this craving is a natural reaction, which cannot be totally escaped or ceased, but can be limited, which gives us freedom.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrazier2001-50">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gestalt_therapy">Gestalt therapy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_and_psychology&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Gestalt therapy">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Gestalt_Therapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Gestalt Therapy">Gestalt Therapy</a>, an approach created by <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Perls" title="Fritz Perls">Fritz Perls</a>, was based on phenomenology, existentialism and also <a href="/wiki/Zen_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Zen Buddhism">Zen Buddhism</a> and Taoism.<a href="#cite_note-Gestalt_Therapy_pp._65-80-51">[44]</a> Perls spent some time in Japanese Zen monasteries and his therapeutic techniques include mindfulness practices and focusing on the present moment.<a href="#cite_note-Buddha_philosophy_and_western_psych-52">[45]</a> Practices outlined by Perls himself in Ego, Hunger and Aggression (1969), such as "concentration on eating" ("we have to be fully aware of the fact that we are eating") and "awareness continuum" are strikingly similar to Buddhist mindfulness training.<a href="#cite_note-53">[46]</a> Other authors in Gestalt Therapy who were influenced by Buddhism are <a href="/wiki/Barry_Stevens_(therapist)" title="Barry Stevens (therapist)">Barry Stevens (therapist)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dick_Price" title="Dick Price">Dick Price</a> (who developed <a href="/wiki/Gestalt_Practice" class="mw-redirect" title="Gestalt Practice">Gestalt Practice</a> by including <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_meditation" title="Buddhist meditation">Buddhist meditation</a>). According to Crocker, an important Buddhist element of Gestalt is that a "person is simply allowing what-is in the present moment to reveal itself to him and out of that receptivity is responding with '<a href="/wiki/Mushin_(mental_state)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mushin (mental state)">no-mind</a>'".<a href="#cite_note-Gestalt_Therapy_pp._65-80-51">[44]</a> More recently, <a href="/wiki/Claudio_Naranjo" title="Claudio Naranjo">Claudio Naranjo</a> has written about the practice of Gestalt and Tibetan Buddhism. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Existential_and_Humanistic_psychology">Existential and Humanistic psychology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_and_psychology&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Existential and Humanistic psychology">edit</a>]</div> Both <a href="/wiki/Existential_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Existential psychology">existential</a> and <a href="/wiki/Humanistic_psychology" title="Humanistic psychology">humanistic</a> models of human psychology stress the importance of personal responsibility and freedom of choice, ideas which are central to <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Buddhist ethics</a> and psychology.<a href="#cite_note-DeSilva4th-1">[1]</a>: 109  Humanistic psychology's focus on developing the 'fully functioning person' (Carl Rogers) and <a href="/wiki/Self_actualization" class="mw-redirect" title="Self actualization">self actualization</a> (Maslow) is similar to the Buddhist attitude of self development as an ultimate human end. The idea of <a href="/wiki/Person-centered_therapy" title="Person-centered therapy">person-centered therapy</a> can also be compared to the Buddhist view that the individual is ultimately responsible for their own development, that a Buddhist teacher is just a guide and that the patient can be "a light unto themselves".<a href="#cite_note-Buddha_philosophy_and_western_psych-52">[45]</a> <a href="/wiki/Carl_Rogers" title="Carl Rogers">Carl Rogers</a>'s idea of "unconditional positive regard" and his stress on the importance of <a href="/wiki/Empathy" title="Empathy">empathy</a> has been compared to Buddhist conceptions of compassion (<a href="/wiki/Karu%E1%B9%87%C4%81" title="Karuṇā">Karuṇā</a>).<a href="#cite_note-54">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[48]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mindfulness" title="Mindfulness">Mindfulness</a> meditation has been seen as a way to aid the practice of person centered psychotherapy. Person centered therapist Manu Buzzano has written that "It seemed clear that regular meditation practice did help me in offering congruence, empathy and unconditional positive regard."<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-56">[49]</a> He subsequently interviewed other person centered therapists who practiced meditation and found that it enhanced their empathy, nonjudgmental openness and quality of the relationship with their clients.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-56">[49]</a> A comparison has also been made between <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Rosenberg" title="Marshall Rosenberg">Marshall Rosenberg</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Nonviolent_Communication" title="Nonviolent Communication">Nonviolent Communication</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhist</a> ideals of <a href="/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path#Right_speech" title="Noble Eightfold Path">right speech</a>, both in theory and in manifesting Buddhist ideals in practice.<a href="#cite_note-57">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-LasaterSay-59">[52]</a> Padmasiri de Silva sees the focus of existential psychology on the "tragic sense of life" just a different expression of the Buddhist concept of <a href="/wiki/Dukkha" class="mw-redirect" title="Dukkha">dukkha</a>. The existential concept of anxiety or angst as a response to the human condition also resonates with the Buddhist analysis of fear and despair.<a href="#cite_note-DeSilva4th-1">[1]</a>: 109  The Buddhist monk <a href="/wiki/Nanavira_Thera" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanavira Thera">Nanavira Thera</a> in the preface to his "Notes on Dhamma" wrote that the work of the existential philosophers offered a way to approach the Buddhist texts, as they ask the type of questions about feelings of anxiety and the nature of existence with which the Buddha begins his analysis. Nanavira also states that those who have understood the Buddha's message have gone beyond the existentialists and no longer see their questions as valid. <a href="/wiki/Edward_Conze" title="Edward Conze">Edward Conze</a> likewise sees the parallel between the Buddhists and Existentialists only preliminary: "In terms of the Four Truths, the existentialists have only the first, which teaches that everything is ill. Of the second, which assigns the origin of ill to craving, they have only a very imperfect grasp. As for the third and fourth, they are quite unheard of... Knowing no way out, they are manufacturers of their own woes."<a href="#cite_note-60">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Positive_psychology">Positive psychology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_and_psychology&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Positive psychology">edit</a>]</div> The growing field of <a href="/wiki/Positive_psychology" title="Positive psychology">positive psychology</a> shares with Buddhism a focus on developing a positive emotions and personal <a href="/wiki/Character_Strengths_and_Virtues" class="mw-redirect" title="Character Strengths and Virtues">strengths and virtues</a> with the goal of improving human <a href="/wiki/Well-being" title="Well-being">well-being</a>. Positive psychology also describes the futility of the "<a href="/wiki/Hedonic_treadmill" title="Hedonic treadmill">hedonic treadmill</a>", the chasing of ephemeral pleasures and gains in search of lasting happiness. Buddhism holds that this very same striving is at the very root of human unhappiness.<a href="#cite_note-61">[54]</a> The Buddhist concept and practice of mindfulness meditation has been adopted by psychologists such as Rick Hanson (Buddha's Brain, 2009), T.B. Kashdan & J. Ciarrochi (Mindfulness, acceptance, and positive psychology, 2013) and Itai Ivtzan (Mindfulness in Positive Psychology, 2016). Kirk W. Brown and Richard M. Ryan of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania" title="University of Pennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania</a> have developed a 15-item "Mindful attention awareness scale" to measure dispositional mindfulness.<a href="#cite_note-62">[55]</a> The concept of <a href="/wiki/Flow_(psychology)" title="Flow (psychology)">Flow</a> studied by <a href="/wiki/Mihaly_Csikszentmihalyi" title="Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi">Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi</a> has been compared to Buddhist meditative states such as <a href="/wiki/Samadhi" title="Samadhi">samadhi</a> and mindfulness. Ronald Siegel describes flow as "mindfulness while accomplishing something."<a href="#cite_note-63">[56]</a> Nobo Komagata and Sachiko Komagata, however, are critical of characterizing the notion of "flow" as a special case of mindfulness, noting that the connection is more complicated.<a href="#cite_note-64">[57]</a> Zen Buddhism has a concept called <a href="/wiki/Mushin_(mental_state)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mushin (mental state)">Mushin</a> (無心, no mind) which is also similar to flow. Christopher K. Germer, clinical instructor in psychology at <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Medical_School" title="Harvard Medical School">Harvard Medical School</a> and a founding member of the Institute for Meditation and Psychotherapy, has stated: "Positive psychology, which focuses on human flourishing rather than mental illness, is also learning a lot from Buddhism, particularly how mindfulness and compassion can enhance wellbeing. This has been the domain of Buddhism for the past two millennia and we're just adding a scientific perspective."<a href="#cite_note-65">[58]</a> <a href="/wiki/Martin_Seligman" title="Martin Seligman">Martin Seligman</a> and Buddhist monk <a href="/wiki/Thanissaro_Bhikkhu" class="mw-redirect" title="Thanissaro Bhikkhu">Thanissaro Bhikkhu</a> have pointed out that the framework of Positive psychology is ethically neutral, and hence within that framework, you could argue that "a serial killer leads a pleasant life, a skilled Mafia hit man leads a good life, and a fanatical terrorist leads a meaningful life."<a href="#cite_note-dhammatalks.org-66">[59]</a> Thanissaro argues that Positive psychology should also look into the ethical dimensions of the good life. Regarding the example of flow states he writes: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">A common assumption is that what you do to induce a sense of flow is purely a personal issue, and ultimately what you do doesn't really matter. What matters is the fact of psychological flow. You're most likely to experience flow wherever you have the skill, and you're most likely to develop skill wherever you have the aptitude, whether it's in music, sport, hunting, meditating, etc. From the Buddha's point of view, however, it really does matter what you do to gain gratification, for some skills are more conducive to stable, long-term happiness than others, due to their long-term consequences.<a href="#cite_note-dhammatalks.org-66">[59]</a></blockquote> The skills that Thanissaro argues are more conductive to happiness include Buddhist virtues like harmlessness, generosity, moral restraint, and the development of good will as well as mindfulness, concentration, discernment. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Naropa_University">Naropa University</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_and_psychology&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Naropa University">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:15em; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> "Buddhism will come to the West as a psychology." </blockquote> <cite class="left-aligned" style="">- Chogyam Trungpa, 1974<a href="#cite_note-67">[h]</a></cite> </div> In his introduction to his 1975 book, Glimpses of the Abhidharma, <a href="/wiki/Chogyam_Trungpa" class="mw-redirect" title="Chogyam Trungpa">Chogyam Trungpa</a> Rinpoche wrote: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Many modern psychologists have found that the discoveries and explanations of the <a href="/wiki/Abhidhamma" class="mw-redirect" title="Abhidhamma">abhidharma</a> coincide with their own recent discoveries and new ideas; as though the Abhidharma, which was taught 2,500 years ago, had been redeveloped in the modern idiom.<a href="#cite_note-68">[60]</a></blockquote> Trungpa Rinpoche's book goes on to describe the nanosecond phenomenological sequence by which a sensation becomes conscious using the Buddhist concepts of the "<a href="/wiki/Skandha" title="Skandha">five aggregates</a>". In 1974, Trungpa Rinpoche founded the Naropa Institute, now called <a href="/wiki/Naropa_University" title="Naropa University">Naropa University</a>. Since 1975, this accredited university has offered degrees in "contemplative psychology".<a href="#cite_note-69">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[i]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mind_and_life_institute">Mind and life institute</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_and_psychology&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Mind and life institute">edit</a>]</div> Every two years, since 1987, the <a href="/wiki/Tenzin_Gyatso,_14th_Dalai_Lama" class="mw-redirect" title="Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama">Dalai Lama</a> has convened <a href="/wiki/Mind_and_Life_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Mind and Life Institute">"Mind and Life"</a> gatherings of Buddhists and scientists.<a href="#cite_note-71">[j]</a> Reflecting on one Mind and Life session in March 2000, psychologist <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Goleman" title="Daniel Goleman">Daniel Goleman</a> notes: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Since the time of <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Gautama Buddha</a> in the fifth century BC, an analysis of the mind and its workings has been central to the practices of his followers. This analysis was codified during the first millennium after his death within the system called, in the Pali language of Buddha's day, <a href="/wiki/Abhidhamma" class="mw-redirect" title="Abhidhamma">Abhidhamma</a> (or Abhidharma in Sanskrit), which means 'ultimate doctrine' ... Every branch of Buddhism today has a version of these basic psychological teachings on the mind, as well as its own refinements.<a href="#cite_note-72">[62]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Buddhist_techniques_in_clinical_settings">Buddhist techniques in clinical settings</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_and_psychology&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Buddhist techniques in clinical settings">edit</a>]</div> For over a millennium, throughout the world, Buddhist practices have been used for non-Buddhist ends.<a href="#cite_note-73">[k]</a> More recently, clinical psychologists, theorists and researchers have incorporated Buddhist practices in widespread formalized psychotherapies. Buddhist <a href="/wiki/Mindfulness_(Buddhism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mindfulness (Buddhism)">mindfulness</a> practices have been explicitly incorporated into a variety of psychological treatments.<a href="#cite_note-74">[63]</a> More tangentially, psychotherapies dealing with <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_restructuring" title="Cognitive restructuring">cognitive restructuring</a> share core principles with ancient Buddhist antidotes to personal suffering. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mindfulness_practices">Mindfulness practices</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_and_psychology&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Mindfulness practices">edit</a>]</div> Fromm <a href="#cite_note-75">[64]</a> distinguishes between two types of meditative techniques that have been used in psychotherapy: <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Auto-suggestion" class="mw-redirect" title="Auto-suggestion">auto-suggestion</a> used to induce relaxation;</li> <li>meditation "to achieve a higher degree of non-attachment, of non-greed, and of non-illusion; briefly, those that serve to reach a higher level of being" (p. 50).</li></ol> Fromm attributes techniques associated with the latter to Buddhist mindfulness practices.<a href="#cite_note-76">[l]</a> Two increasingly popular therapeutic practices using Buddhist mindfulness techniques are <a href="/wiki/Jon_Kabat-Zinn" title="Jon Kabat-Zinn">Jon Kabat-Zinn</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Mindfulness-Based_Stress_Reduction" class="mw-redirect" title="Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction">Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction</a> (MBSR) and <a href="/wiki/Marsha_M._Linehan" title="Marsha M. Linehan">Marsha M. Linehan</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Dialectical_behavioral_therapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialectical behavioral therapy">dialectical behavioral therapy</a> (DBT). Other prominent therapies that use mindfulness include <a href="/wiki/Steven_C._Hayes" title="Steven C. Hayes">Steven C. Hayes</a>' <a href="/wiki/Acceptance_and_Commitment_Therapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Acceptance and Commitment Therapy">Acceptance and Commitment Therapy</a> (ACT), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Adaptation_Practice&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Adaptation Practice (page does not exist)">Adaptation Practice</a> founded in 1978 by the British psychiatrist and Zen Buddhist <a href="/wiki/Clive_Sherlock" title="Clive Sherlock">Clive Sherlock</a> and, based on MBSR, <a href="/wiki/Mindfulness-based_Cognitive_Therapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mindfulness-based Cognitive Therapy">Mindfulness-based Cognitive Therapy</a> (MBCT) (Segal et al., 2002). <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mahayanabuddha.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Mahayanabuddha.jpg/220px-Mahayanabuddha.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Mahayanabuddha.jpg/330px-Mahayanabuddha.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Mahayanabuddha.jpg/440px-Mahayanabuddha.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1199" data-file-height="1347" /></a><figcaption>Clinical researchers have found Buddhist mindfulness practices to help alleviate anxiety, depression and certain personality disorders.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mindfulness_Based_Stress_Reduction_(MBSR)">Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction (MBSR)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_and_psychology&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction (MBSR)">edit</a>]</div> Kabat-Zinn developed the eight-week <a href="/wiki/MBSR" class="mw-redirect" title="MBSR">MBSR</a> program over a ten-year period with over four thousand patients at the University of Massachusetts Medical Center.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKabat-Zinn19901-77">[65]</a> Describing the MBSR program, Kabat-Zinn writes: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">This 'work' involves above all the regular, disciplined practice of moment-to-moment awareness or mindfulness, the complete 'owning' of each moment of your experience, good, bad, or ugly. This is the essence of full catastrophe living.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKabat-Zinn199011-78">[66]</a></blockquote> According to Kabat-Zinn, a one-time <a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a> practitioner,<a href="#cite_note-80">[m]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Although at this time mindfulness meditation is most commonly taught and practiced within the context of Buddhism, its essence is universal ... Yet it is no accident that mindfulness comes out of Buddhism, which has as its overriding concerns the relief of suffering and the dispelling of illusions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKabat-Zinn200512–13-81">[68]</a></blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">It would be based on relatively intensive training in Buddhist meditation without the Buddhism (as I liked to put it), and yoga.<a href="#cite_note-82">[69]</a></blockquote>Kabat-Zinn describes the MBSR program, as well as its scientific basis and the evidence for its clinical effectiveness, in his 1990 book <a href="/wiki/Full_Catastrophe_Living" title="Full Catastrophe Living">Full Catastrophe Living</a>, which was revised and reissued in 2013.<a href="#cite_note-:3-83">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mindfulness-based_pain_management">Mindfulness-based pain management</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_and_psychology&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Mindfulness-based pain management">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Mindfulness-based_pain_management" title="Mindfulness-based pain management">Mindfulness-based pain management</a> (MBPM) is a mindfulness-based intervention (MBI) providing specific applications for people living with chronic pain and illness.<a href="#cite_note-:5-84">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-85">[72]</a> Adapting the core concepts and practices of <a href="/wiki/Mindfulness-based_stress_reduction" title="Mindfulness-based stress reduction">mindfulness-based stress reduction</a> (MBSR) and <a href="/wiki/Mindfulness-based_cognitive_therapy" title="Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy">mindfulness-based cognitive therapy</a> (MBCT), MBPM includes a distinctive emphasis on the practice of '<a href="/wiki/Maitr%C4%AB" title="Maitrī">loving-kindness</a>', and has been seen as sensitive to concerns about removing mindfulness teaching from its original ethical framework within <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:5-84">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-:8-86">[73]</a> It was developed by <a href="/wiki/Vidyamala_Burch" title="Vidyamala Burch">Vidyamala Burch</a> and is delivered through the programs of <a href="/wiki/Breathworks" title="Breathworks">Breathworks</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:5-84">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-85">[72]</a> It has been subject to a range of clinical studies demonstrating its effectiveness.<a href="#cite_note-:6-87">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-:16-88">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-:17-89">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-:13-90">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-:14-91">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-:15-92">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-93">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-:5-84">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dialectical_Behavioral_Therapy_(DBT)">Dialectical Behavioral Therapy (DBT)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_and_psychology&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Dialectical Behavioral Therapy (DBT)">edit</a>]</div> In writing about DBT, Zen practitioner<a href="#cite_note-95">[n]</a> Linehan <a href="#cite_note-96">[82]</a> states: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">As its name suggests, its overriding characteristic is an emphasis on 'dialectics' – that is, the reconciliation of opposites in a continual process of synthesis ... This emphasis on acceptance as a balance to change flows directly from the integration of a perspective drawn from Eastern (Zen) practice with Western psychological practice.<a href="#cite_note-97">[o]</a></blockquote> Similarly, Linehan <a href="#cite_note-98">[83]</a> writes: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Mindfulness skills are central to DBT ... They are the first skills taught and are [reviewed] ... every week ... The skills are psychological and behavioral versions of meditation practices from Eastern spiritual training. I have drawn most heavily from the practice of Zen</blockquote> Controlled clinical studies have demonstrated DBT's effectiveness for people with <a href="/wiki/Borderline_personality_disorder" title="Borderline personality disorder">borderline personality disorder</a>.<a href="#cite_note-99">[p]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Acceptance_and_Commitment_Therapy_(ACT)">Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_and_psychology&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT)">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Acceptance_and_Commitment_Therapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Acceptance and Commitment Therapy">ACT</a> did not explicitly emerge from Buddhism, but its concepts often parallel ideas from Buddhist and mystical traditions.<a href="#cite_note-100">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[85]</a> ACT has been defined by its originators as a method that "uses acceptance and mindfulness processes, and commitment and behavioral activation processes to produce psychological flexibility."<a href="#cite_note-HayesStrosahlWilson-102">[86]</a> Mindfulness in ACT is defined to be a combination of four aspects of the <a href="/wiki/Psychological_flexibility" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychological flexibility">psychological flexibility</a> model, which is ACT's applied theory: <ol><li>Acceptance (openness to and engagement with present experience);</li> <li>Cognitive defusion (attending to the ongoing process of thought instead of automatically interacting with events as structured by prediction, judgment, and interpretation);</li> <li>Contact with the present moment (attention to the present external and internal world in a manner that is flexible, fluid, and voluntary);</li> <li>A transcendent sense of self or "self as context" (an interconnected sense of consciousness that maintains contact with the "I/Here/Nowness" of awareness and its interconnection with "You/There/Then").<a href="#cite_note-HayesStrosahlWilson-102">[86]</a></li></ol> These four aspects of mindfulness in ACT are argued to stem from <a href="/wiki/Relational_Frame_Theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Relational Frame Theory">Relational Frame Theory</a>, the research program on language and cognition that underlies ACT at the basic level. For example, "self as context" is argued to emerge from deictic verbal relations such as I/You, or Here/There, which RFT laboratories have shown to help establish perspective taking skills and interconnection with others.<a href="#cite_note-103">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-104">[88]</a> Most ACT self-help books (e.g.,<a href="#cite_note-105">[89]</a>) and many tested ACT protocols teach formal contemplative practice skills, but by this definition of mindfulness, such defusion skills as word repetition (taking a difficult thought, distilling it to a single word, and saying it repeatedly out loud for 30 seconds) are also viewed as mindfulness methods. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Adaptation_Practice">Adaptation Practice</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_and_psychology&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Adaptation Practice">edit</a>]</div> The British psychiatrist <a href="/wiki/Clive_Sherlock" title="Clive Sherlock">Clive Sherlock</a>, who trained in the traditional Rinzai School of <a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a>, developed <a href="/w/index.php?title=Adaptation_Practice&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Adaptation Practice (page does not exist)">Adaptation Practice</a>, the foundation of mindfulness, in 1977 based on the profound mindfulness/awareness training of Zen daily-life practice and meditation. Adaptation Practice is used for long-term relief of depression, anxiety, anger, stress and other emotional problems. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Existential_Therapy">Existential Therapy</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_and_psychology&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Existential Therapy">edit</a>]</div> Originated from the philosophical school of <a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">existentialism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Existential_therapy" title="Existential therapy">existential therapy</a> seeks to revise the fundamental nature of human beings. Before commencing the treatment, they first ask the following question: what does it mean to be human? <a href="#cite_note-DeSilva4th-1">[1]</a> This then makes existential therapy distinct from other therapeutic techniques, which emphasise more on specific techniques with limited critical evaluation of their effectiveness on the subject. <a href="#cite_note-106">[90]</a> This sheds light on the role Buddhism plays on psychotherapy. P. de Silva holds that Buddhist psychology is ‘’therapy oriented’’, since it not only provides an explanation for our mental ill-health and suffering, but it also offers effective treatments to them. For example, Buddhism may diagnose our anxiety, depression, and other symptoms of mental illness as stemming from greed and aversion, while encouraging us to treat them by taking the <a href="/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path" title="Noble Eightfold Path">Noble Eightfold Path</a>, developing tranquillity and insight, through the meditative practices of <a href="/wiki/Samatha-vipassana" class="mw-redirect" title="Samatha-vipassana">samatha and vipassana</a>. <a href="#cite_note-DeSilva4th-1">[1]</a> Moreover, <a href="/wiki/S._N._Goenka" title="S. N. Goenka">S. N. Goenka</a> acknowledges that, the ultimate objective of undertaking Buddha’s teaching is to purify the mind, as expounded in <a href="/wiki/Dhammapada" title="Dhammapada">Dhammapada</a> 183:  <blockquote>Abstain from unwholesome deeds, perform wholesome deeds; purify your own mind-   this is the teaching of the Buddhas. <a href="#cite_note-107">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[92]</a></blockquote>If so, then one shall understand that while symptoms of mental illness are often indirectly treated by practicing Buddha’s teaching, these objectives are only highly cursory and are not the main focus of the practice. <a href="#cite_note-109">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-110">[94]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cognitive_restructuring">Cognitive restructuring</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_and_psychology&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Cognitive restructuring">edit</a>]</div> Dr. <a href="/wiki/Albert_Ellis_(psychologist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Albert Ellis (psychologist)">Albert Ellis</a>, considered the "grandfather of <a href="/wiki/Cognitive-behavioral_therapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive-behavioral therapy">cognitive-behavioral therapy</a>" (CBT), has written: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Many of the principles incorporated in the theory of <a href="/wiki/Rational_emotive_behavior_therapy" title="Rational emotive behavior therapy">rational-emotive psychotherapy</a> are not new; some of them, in fact, were originally stated several thousands of years ago, especially by the Greek and Roman Stoic philosophers (such as <a href="/wiki/Epictetus" title="Epictetus">Epictetus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a>) and by some of the ancient Taoist and Buddhist thinkers (see Suzuki, 1956, and Watts, 1959, 1960).<a href="#cite_note-111">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-112">[q]</a></blockquote> To give but one example, Buddhism identifies anger and ill-will as basic hindrances to spiritual development (see, for instance, the <a href="/wiki/Five_Hindrances" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Hindrances">Five Hindrances</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ten_Fetters" class="mw-redirect" title="Ten Fetters">Ten Fetters</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kilesa" class="mw-redirect" title="Kilesa">kilesas</a>). A common Buddhist <a href="/w/index.php?title=Antidote_(Buddhism)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Antidote (Buddhism) (page does not exist)">antidote</a> for anger is the use of active contemplation of loving thoughts (see, for instance, <a href="/wiki/Maitr%C4%AB" title="Maitrī">metta</a>). This is similar to using a CBT technique known as "emotional training" which Ellis <a href="#cite_note-113">[96]</a> describes in the following manner: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Think of an intensely pleasant experience you have had with the person with whom you now feel angry. When you have fantasized such a pleasant experience and have actually given yourself unusually good, intensely warm feelings toward that person as a result of this remembrance, continue the process. Recall pleasant experiences and good feelings, and try to make these feelings paramount over your feelings of hostility.<a href="#cite_note-114">[r]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reaction_from_Buddhist_traditionalists">Reaction from Buddhist traditionalists</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_and_psychology&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Reaction from Buddhist traditionalists">edit</a>]</div> Some Buddhist practitioners have expressed concern that attempts to view Buddhism through the lens of psychology diminishes the Buddha's liberating message. Patrick Kearney has written that the effort to integrate the teachings of the Buddha by interpreting it through the view of psychologies has led to "a growing confusion about the nature of Buddhist teachings and a willingness to distort and dilute these teachings".<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-115">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[98]</a> He is critical of Jack Kornfield and Mark Epstein for holding that psychological techniques are a necessity for some Buddhists and of Jeffrey Rubin for writing that enlightenment might not be possible. Kearney writes: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Epstein and Rubin want to rewrite Buddhism on their own terms, taking the ocean of the Buddha's wisdom and reducing it to a puddle small enough to accommodate the views of Freud and his successors.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-115">[97]</a></blockquote> <table class="wikitable" style="background:#fff; float:right; clear:right; margin-left:1em"> <tbody><tr> <td style="background:#fff; border-color:#fff #aaa #aaa #fff"> </td> <th>Romantic / humanistic psychology </th> <th>early Buddhism </th></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:left; font-weight:normal; font-style:italic">spiritual illness </th> <td>divided self </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Upadana" class="mw-redirect" title="Upadana">clinging</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:left; font-weight:normal; font-style:italic">ultimate experience </th> <td>feeling of oneness </td> <td>knowledge of <a href="/wiki/Bodhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Bodhi">Awakening</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:left; font-weight:normal; font-style:italic">cure </th> <td>on-going personal integration</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bodhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Bodhi">Awakening</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> American <a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a> monk <a href="/wiki/Thanissaro_Bhikkhu" class="mw-redirect" title="Thanissaro Bhikkhu">Thanissaro Bhikkhu</a><a href="#cite_note-Thanissaro_Bikkhu_2012-117">[99]</a> has also criticized the interpretation of Buddhism through Psychology, which has different values and goals, derived from roots such as European <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a> and Protestant Christianity. He also identifies broad commonalities between "Romantic/humanistic psychology" and early Buddhism: beliefs in human (versus divine) intervention with an approach that is experiential, pragmatic and therapeutic. Thanissaro Bhikkhu traces the roots of modern spiritual ideals from German Romantic Era philosopher <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> through American psychologist and philosopher <a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a>, Jung and humanistic psychologist <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Maslow" title="Abraham Maslow">Abraham Maslow</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceC-118">[100]</a> Thanissaro sees their view as centered on the idea of healing the 'divided self', an idea which is alien to Buddhism.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceC-118">[100]</a> Thanissaro asserts that there are also core differences between Romantic/humanistic psychology and Buddhism. These are summarized in the adjacent table. Thanissaro implicitly deems those who impose Romantic/humanistic goals on the Buddha's message as "Buddhist Romantics". The same similarities have been recognized by David McMahan when describing <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_modernism" title="Buddhist modernism">Buddhist modernism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcMahan2008-119">[101]</a> Recognizing the widespread alienation and social fragmentation of modern life, Thanissaro Bhikkhu writes: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">When Buddhist Romanticism speaks to these needs, it opens the gate to areas of <a href="/wiki/Dharma_(Buddhism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dharma (Buddhism)">dharma</a> [the Buddha's teachings] that can help many people find the solace they're looking for. In doing so, it augments the work of psychotherapy ... However, Buddhist Romanticism also helps close the gate to areas of the dharma that would challenge people in their hope for an ultimate happiness based on interconnectedness. Traditional dharma calls for renunciation and sacrifice, on the grounds that all interconnectedness is essentially unstable, and any happiness based on this instability is an invitation to suffering. True happiness has to go beyond interdependence and interconnectedness to the unconditioned ... The gate [of Buddhist Romanticism] closes off radical areas of the dharma designed to address levels of suffering remaining even when a sense of wholeness has been mastered."<a href="#cite_note-Thanissaro_Bikkhu_2012-117">[99]</a></blockquote> Another Theravada monk, <a href="/wiki/Bhikkhu_Bodhi" title="Bhikkhu Bodhi">Bhikkhu Bodhi</a> has also criticized the presentation of certain Buddhist teachings mixed with psychological and Humanistic views as being authentic Buddhism. This risks losing the essence of the liberating and radical message of the Buddha, which is focused on attaining <a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">nirvana</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">What I am concerned about is the trend, common among present-day Buddhist teachers, of recasting the core principles of the Buddha's teachings into largely psychological terms and then saying, "This is Dhamma." When this is done we may never get to see that the real purpose of the teaching, in its own framework, is not to induce "healing" or "wholeness" or "self-acceptance," but to propel the mind in the direction of deliverance – and to do so by attenuating, and finally extricating, all those mental factors responsible for our bondage and suffering. We should remember that the Buddha did not teach the Dhamma as an "art of living" – though it includes that – but above all as a path to deliverance, a path to final liberation and enlightenment. And what the Buddha means by enlightenment is not a celebration of the limitations of the human condition, not a passive submission to our frailties, but an overcoming of those limitations by making a radical, revolutionary breakthrough to an altogether different dimension of being.<a href="#cite_note-120">[102]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Popular_psychology_and_spirituality">Popular psychology and spirituality</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_and_psychology&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Popular psychology and spirituality">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mainstream_teachers_and_popularizers">Mainstream teachers and popularizers</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_and_psychology&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Mainstream teachers and popularizers">edit</a>]</div> In 1961, philosopher and professor <a href="/wiki/Alan_Watts" title="Alan Watts">Alan Watts</a> wrote: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">If we look deeply into such ways of life as Buddhism and <a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">Yoga</a>, we do not find either philosophy or religion as these are understood in the West. We find something more nearly resembling psychotherapy ... The main resemblance between these Eastern ways of life and Psychotherapy is in the concern of both with bringing about changes of consciousness, changes in our ways of feeling our own existence and our relation to human society and the natural world. The psychotherapist has, for the most part, been interested in changing the consciousness of peculiarly disturbed individuals. The disciplines of Buddhism and Taoism are, however, concerned with changing the consciousness of normal, socially adjusted people.<a href="#cite_note-121">[103]</a></blockquote> Since Watts's early observations and musings, there have been many other important contributors to the contemporary popularization of the integration of <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_meditation" title="Buddhist meditation">Buddhist meditation</a> with psychology including <a href="/wiki/Jack_Kornfield" title="Jack Kornfield">Kornfield</a> (1993), <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Goldstein_(writer)" title="Joseph Goldstein (writer)">Joseph Goldstein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tara_Brach" title="Tara Brach">Tara Brach</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mark_Epstein" title="Mark Epstein">Epstein</a> (1995) and <a href="/wiki/Thich_Nhat_Hanh" class="mw-redirect" title="Thich Nhat Hanh">Nhat Hanh</a> (1998). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_and_psychology&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 27em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhavacakra" title="Bhavacakra">Bhavacakra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_science" title="Buddhism and science">Buddhism and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Western_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhism and Western Philosophy">Buddhism and Western Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassion_focused_therapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Compassion focused therapy">Compassion focused therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy_and_clinical_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern philosophy and clinical psychology">Eastern philosophy and clinical psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_applications_and_clinical_studies_of_meditation" class="mw-redirect" title="Health applications and clinical studies of meditation">Health applications and clinical studies of meditation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_psychology" title="Indian psychology">Indian psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naropa_University" title="Naropa University">Naropa University</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_and_psychology&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-alpha" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> Buddhist doctrine was first articulated by <a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">the Buddha</a> (traditionally ca. 563 BCE to ca. 483 BCE; historically probably ca. 480 BCE to ca. 400 BCE [cf. Bechert, 2004]). The establishment of a self-conscious field of psychology as the empirical assessment of human mental activities and behavior is often identified with the work of <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Wundt" title="Wilhelm Wundt">Wilhelm Wundt</a> (August 16, 1832 – August 31, 1920). </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> The notion that consciousness is a sequence of states, like cells in a film strip, while not explicitly contrary to notions of consciousness found in the <a href="/wiki/Pali" title="Pali">Pali</a> <a href="/wiki/Nikayas" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikayas">nikayas</a>, is found explicitly in the Pali <a href="/wiki/Abhidhamma" class="mw-redirect" title="Abhidhamma">Abhidhamma</a> (see Bodhi, 2000, p. 29). </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> Fromm et al., (1960), back cover. Explicitly, in regards to the book associated with the 1957 Cuernavaca, Mexico conference mentioned below, Humphries wrote: "This is the first major attempt to bring together two of the most powerful forces operating in the Western mind today." </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> Both Fromm (1960) and Ellis (1962) cite this text as influential. </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> In particular, Jung quotes <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Otto" title="Rudolf Otto">Rudolf Otto</a>'s stating, "Zen is neither psychology nor philosophy" (Suzuki & Jung, 1948, p. 11, n. 1). </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> To support this statement, Fromm (1960, p. 78, n. 1) refers to Jung's foreword to Suzuki (1949), Benoit (1955), and Sato (1958). Fromm et al. (1960, p. 78) also refers to <a href="/wiki/Karen_Horney" title="Karen Horney">Karen Horney</a> who "was intensely interested in Zen Buddhism during the last years of her life." </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> Fromm et al. (1960, p. vii). Selected presentations from this conference are included in Fromm et al. (1960). Fromm's interest in Buddhism extended to multiple <a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Buddhism" title="Schools of Buddhism">Buddhist schools</a> as evidenced by his writing the foreword for Nyanaponika et al. (1986). </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> Cited in Goleman, 2004, p. 72. Goleman, who was teaching psychology at Harvard University at the time, goes on to write: "The very idea that Buddhism had anything to do with psychology was at the time for most of us in the field patently absurd. But that attitude reflected more our own naivete than anything to do with Buddhism. It was news that Buddhism — like many of the world's great spiritual traditions — harbored a theory of mind and its workings" (p. 72). </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> Naropa University has also been a training ground and meeting place for many of today's most prolific popularizers of a Buddhism-informed psychology such as <a href="/wiki/Jack_Kornfield" title="Jack Kornfield">Jack Kornfield</a> and a psychologically savvy Buddhism such as <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Goldstein_(writer)" title="Joseph Goldstein (writer)">Joseph Goldstein</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> Books that have documented these meetings include Begley (2007), Davidson & Harrington (2002), Goleman (1997), Goleman (2004), Harrington & Zajonc (2006), Haywood & Varela (2001), Houshmand et al. (1999), Varela (1997), and Zajonc & Houshmand (2004). </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> For instance, ninth-century Chinese Patriarch <a href="/wiki/Zongmi" class="mw-redirect" title="Zongmi">Zongmi</a> referred to non-Buddhist uses of Buddhist meditation practices as bonpu meditation. For more information, see <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_meditation#Zongmi's_"Five_Types_of_Zen"" title="Buddhist meditation">Zongmi's "Five Types of Zen"</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> For an authoritative source regarding Buddhist mindfulness meditation, Fromm (2002) references Nyanaponika (1996). Fromm (2002, pp. 52-53) goes on to write: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">There are two core doctrines acceptable to many who, like myself, are not Buddhists, yet are deeply impressed by the core of Buddhist teaching. I refer first of all to the doctrine that the goal of life is to overcome greed, hate, and ignorance. In this respect Buddhism does not basically differ from Jewish and Christian ethical norms. More important, and different from the Jewish and Christian tradition, is another element of Buddhist thinking: the demand for optimal awareness of the processes inside and outside oneself.</blockquote> For an overview of Buddhist mindfulness practices, see <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_meditation" title="Buddhist meditation">Buddhist meditation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Satipatthana_Sutta" title="Satipatthana Sutta">Satipatthana Sutta</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> In Kabat-Zinn,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKabat-Zinn200526-79">[67]</a> for instance, he writes: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">"Because I practice and teach mindfulness, I have the recurring experience that people frequently make the assumption that I am a Buddhist. When asked, I usually respond that I am not a Buddhist (although there was a period in my life when I did think of myself in that way, and trained and continue to train in and have huge respect and love for different Buddhist traditions and practices), but I am a student of Buddhist meditation, and a devoted one, not because I am devoted to Buddhism per se, but because I have found its teachings and its practices to be so profound and so universally applicable, revealing and healing."</blockquote> He goes on to write: </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> According to Kabat-Zinn:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKabat-Zinn2005431-94">[81]</a> "Marsha [Linehan] herself is a long-time practitioner of Zen, and DBT incorporates the spirit and principles of mindfulness and whatever degree of formal practice is possible." </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> The parenthetical "(Zen)" is included in Linehan's actual text. </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> Regarding DBT's empirical effectiveness, Linehan (1993b, p. 1) cites Linehan et al. (1991), Linehan & Heard (1993), and Linehan et al. (in press). Clinical experience has shown DBT to be effective for people with borderline personality disorder as well as other Axis II <a href="/wiki/Personality_disorder#List_of_personality_disorders_defined_in_the_DSM" title="Personality disorder">Cluster B disorder</a>[<a href="/wiki/MOS:BROKENSECTIONLINKS" class="mw-redirect" title="MOS:BROKENSECTIONLINKS">broken anchor</a>]s. </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> Elsewhere in Ellis (1991, pp. 336-37), in response to concerns voiced by Watts (1960) regarding overly rationalistic psychotherapy, Ellis expresses a caveat specifically regarding Zen-like spiritual pursuits. Ellis notes that "perhaps the main goal" of a patient of rational-emotive therapy "is that of commitment, risk-taking, joy of being; and sensory experiencing, as long as it does not merely consist of short-range self-defeating hedonism of a childish variety ..." Ellis then adds: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">"Even some of the Zen Buddhist strivings after extreme sensation, or <a href="/wiki/Satori" title="Satori">satori</a>, would not be thoroughly incompatible with some of the goals a devotee of rational-emotive living might seek for himself — as long as he did not seek this mode of sensing as an escape from facing some of his fundamental anxieties or hostilities."</blockquote> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> In the example cited from Ellis (1997), a person attempts to replace their hostile feelings with pleasant feelings associated with the same individual. In general, with Buddhist metta practice, one elicits feelings of loving kindness by contemplating on a benefactor and one then uses these self-elicited warm feelings to then permeate the experiencing of a perceived "enemy." Moreover, Buddhist metta practice directs loving kindness towards all beings, near or far, kind or brutal, human or non-human. </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_and_psychology&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-DeSilva4th-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DeSilva4th_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DeSilva4th_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DeSilva4th_1-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DeSilva4th_1-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DeSilva4th_1-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DeSilva4th_1-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DeSilva4th_1-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DeSilva4th_1-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DeSilva4th_1-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DeSilva4th_1-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DeSilva4th_1-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DeSilva4th_1-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DeSilva4th_1-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DeSilva4th_1-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DeSilva4th_1-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DeSilva4th_1-15">p</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DeSilva4th_1-16">q</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DeSilva4th_1-17">r</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DeSilva4th_1-18">s</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DeSilva4th_1-19">t</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DeSilva4th_1-20">u</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DeSilva4th_1-21">v</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DeSilva4th_1-22">w</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DeSilva4th_1-23">x</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DeSilva4th_1-24">y</a> De Silva, Padmasiri; An Introduction to Buddhist Psychology, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFDeAngelis2014" class="citation web cs1">DeAngelis, Tori (February 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.apa.org/monitor/2014/02/buddhism-psychology.aspx">"A blend of Buddhism and psychology"</a>. 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Retrieved 2023-03-19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.vridhamma.org&rft.atitle=Compassionate+Goodwill+%7C+Vipassana+Research+Institute&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vridhamma.org%2Fnode%2F2428&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism+and+psychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://deerpark.app/reader/N0009">法句經</a> (in Chinese (Taiwan)).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E6%B3%95%E5%8F%A5%E7%B6%93&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdeerpark.app%2Freader%2FN0009&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism+and+psychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHart1987" class="citation book cs1">Hart, William (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/778448192">The art of living : Vipassana meditation as taught by S.N. Goenka</a> (1st ed.). San Francisco: Harper & Row. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-928706-73-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-928706-73-1"><bdi>978-1-928706-73-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/778448192">778448192</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+art+of+living+%3A+Vipassana+meditation+as+taught+by+S.N.+Goenka&rft.place=San+Francisco&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Row&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F778448192&rft.isbn=978-1-928706-73-1&rft.aulast=Hart&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F778448192&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism+and+psychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dhamma.org/en/about/qanda">"Vipassana Meditation"</a>. www.dhamma.org. Retrieved 2023-03-19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.dhamma.org&rft.atitle=Vipassana+Meditation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dhamma.org%2Fen%2Fabout%2Fqanda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism+and+psychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> Ellis, 1991, p. 35. </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> Ellis 1997, pp. 86–87 </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceB-115">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_115-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_115-1">b</a> Kearney, Patrick, Still Crazy after all these Years:Why Meditation isn't Psychotherapy </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKearney" class="citation web cs1">Kearney, Patrick. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.buddhanet.net/crazy.htm">"Still Crazy after all these Years: Why Meditation isn't Psychotherapy"</a>. BuddhaNet. Buddha Dharma Education Association Inc. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20010210211409/http://www.buddhanet.net:80/crazy.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2001-02-10. Retrieved 14 November 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BuddhaNet&rft.atitle=Still+Crazy+after+all+these+Years%3A+Why+Meditation+isn%27t+Psychotherapy&rft.aulast=Kearney&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.buddhanet.net%2Fcrazy.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism+and+psychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thanissaro_Bikkhu_2012-117">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Thanissaro_Bikkhu_2012_117-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Thanissaro_Bikkhu_2012_117-1">b</a> Thanissaro Bikkhu (2012) </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceC-118">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceC_118-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceC_118-1">b</a> Thanissaro Bhikkhu, The Roots of Buddhist Romanticism </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcMahan2008-119"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcMahan2008_119-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcMahan2008">McMahan 2008</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> Climbing to the Top of the Mountain, An interview with Bhikkhu Bodhi; Reprinted with permission from Insight Journal, Barre Center for Buddhist Studies Volume 19, Fall 2002; <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://obo.genaud.net/backmatter/gallery/bhk_bodhi.htm">http://obo.genaud.net/backmatter/gallery/bhk_bodhi.htm</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> Watts, 1975, pp. 3-4. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources_and_bibliography">Sources and bibliography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_and_psychology&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Sources and bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Psychiatric_Association" title="American Psychiatric Association">American Psychiatric Association</a> (1994). <a href="/wiki/Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders" title="Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders">Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders</a>: DSM-IV — 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89042-062-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-89042-062-9">0-89042-062-9</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBechert2004" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Heinz_Bechert" title="Heinz Bechert">Bechert, Heinz</a> (2004). "Buddha, Life of the". In <a href="/wiki/Robert_Buswell_Jr." title="Robert Buswell Jr.">Buswell, R. E. Jr.</a> (ed.). Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Vol. 1. <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a>: <a href="/wiki/Macmillan_Reference_USA" class="mw-redirect" title="Macmillan Reference USA">Macmillan Reference USA</a>. pp. 82–88.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Buddha%2C+Life+of+the&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Buddhism&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=82-88&rft.pub=Macmillan+Reference+USA&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Bechert&rft.aufirst=Heinz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism+and+psychology" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Benoit, Hubert (1955, 1995). The Supreme Doctrine. Portland, OR: Sussex Academic Press. Cited in Fromm et al. (1960). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-898723-14-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-898723-14-1">1-898723-14-1</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerkhin_&_Hartelius2011" class="citation journal cs1">Berkhin, Igor; Hartelius, Glenn (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.24972%2Fijts.2011.30.1-2.63">"Why Altered States Are Not Enough: A Perspective from Buddhism"</a>. International Journal of Transpersonal Studies. 30 (1–2): 63–68. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.24972%2Fijts.2011.30.1-2.63">10.24972/ijts.2011.30.1-2.63</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1321-0122">1321-0122</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Transpersonal+Studies&rft.atitle=Why+Altered+States+Are+Not+Enough%3A+A+Perspective+from+Buddhism&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=63-68&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.24972%2Fijts.2011.30.1-2.63&rft.issn=1321-0122&rft.aulast=Berkhin&rft.aufirst=Igor&rft.au=Hartelius%2C+Glenn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.24972%252Fijts.2011.30.1-2.63&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism+and+psychology" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Berman, A. E., & Stevens, L. (2015). EEG manifestations of nondual experiences in meditators. Consciousness and Cognition, 31, 1–11.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhikkhu_Bodhi" title="Bhikkhu Bodhi">Bodhi, Bhikkhu</a> (ed.) (2000). A Comprehensive Manual of Abhidhamma: The Abhidhammattha Sangaha of Ācariya Anuruddha. Seattle, WA: BPS Pariyatti Editions. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-928706-02-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-928706-02-9">1-928706-02-9</a>. - also online: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/bodhi/abhiman.html">http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/bodhi/abhiman.html</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrazier2001" class="citation cs2">Brazier, David (2001), The Feeling Buddha, Robinson Publishing</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Feeling+Buddha&rft.pub=Robinson+Publishing&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Brazier&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism+and+psychology" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Curtis, C. (2016). The Experience of Self/No-Self in Aikido. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 23(1-2), 58–68.</li> <li>Davidson, Richard J. & Anne Harrington (eds.) (2002). Visions of Compassion: Western Scientists and Tibetan Buddhists Examine Human Nature. NY: Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-513043-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-513043-X">0-19-513043-X</a>.</li> <li>Dockett, K. H., Dudley-Grant, G. R., & Bankart, C. P. (2003). Psychology and Buddhism: From individual to global community: Springer Science & Business Media.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Ellis_(psychologist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Albert Ellis (psychologist)">Ellis, Albert</a> (1962, 1991). Reason and Emotion in Psychotherapy. NY: Carol Publishing Group. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8065-0909-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8065-0909-0">0-8065-0909-0</a>.</li> <li>Ellis, Albert (1977, 1997). Anger: How to Live with and without It. Secaucus, NJ: Carol Publishing Group. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8065-0937-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8065-0937-6">0-8065-0937-6</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEpstein2004" class="citation cs2">Epstein, Mark (2004), Thoughts Without A Thinker: Psychotherapy from a Buddhist Perspective, Basic Books, Kindle Edition</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thoughts+Without+A+Thinker%3A+Psychotherapy+from+a+Buddhist+Perspective&rft.pub=Basic+Books%2C+Kindle+Edition&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Epstein&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism+and+psychology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Epstein" title="Mark Epstein">Epstein, Mark</a> (1995). Thoughts without a Thinker: Psychotherapy from a Buddhist Perspective. NY: Basic Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-465-08585-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-465-08585-7">0-465-08585-7</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm, Erich</a>, <a href="/wiki/D._T._Suzuki" title="D. T. Suzuki">D. T. Suzuki</a> & Richard De Martino (1960). Zen Buddhism and Psychoanalysis. NY: Harper & Row. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-090175-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-090175-6">0-06-090175-6</a>.</li> <li>Fromm, Erich (1989, 2002). The Art of Being. NY: Continuum. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8264-0673-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8264-0673-4">0-8264-0673-4</a>.</li> <li>Gaskins, R. W. (1999). " Adding legs to a snake": A reanalysis of motivation and the pursuit of happiness from a Zen Buddhist perspective. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91(2), 204–215.</li> <li>Goleman, D., & Thurman, Robert A. F (Eds.) (1991). MindScience: An East-West dialogue : proceedings of a symposium sponsored by the Mind/Body Medical Institute of Harvard Medical School & New England Deaconess Hospital and Tibet House New York. Boston: Wisdom Publications.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Goleman" title="Daniel Goleman">Goleman, Daniel</a> (ed.) (1997). Healing Emotions: Conversations With the Dalai Lama on Mindfulness, Emotions, and Health. Boston: Shambhala Publications. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57062-212-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-57062-212-4">1-57062-212-4</a>.</li> <li>Goleman, Daniel (2004). Destructive Emotions: A Scientific Dialogue with the Dalai Lama. NY: Bantam Dell. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-553-38105-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-553-38105-9">0-553-38105-9</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alison_Gopnik" title="Alison Gopnik">Gopnik, Alison</a> (2009). Could David Hume Have Known about Buddhism?: Charles François Dolu, the Royal College of La Flèche, and the Global Jesuit Intellectual Network. Hume Studies, 35(1), 5–28.</li> <li>Grabovac, A. D., Lau, M. A., & Willett, B. R. (2011). Mechanisms of mindfulness: A Buddhist psychological model. Mindfulness, 2(3), 154–166.</li> <li>Gyatso, Geshe Kelsang (2nd. ed., 1997) Understanding the Mind: The Nature and Power of the Mind. <a href="/wiki/Tharpa_Publications" title="Tharpa Publications">Tharpa Publications</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-948006-78-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-948006-78-4">978-0-948006-78-4</a></li> <li>Harrington, Anne & Arthur Zajonc (2006). The Dalai Lama at MIT. Harvard University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-02319-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-02319-6">0-674-02319-6</a>.</li> <li>Hayward, Jeremy W. & <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Varela" title="Francisco Varela">Francisco J. Varela</a> (eds.) (1992, 2001). Gentle Bridges: Conversations with the Dalai Lama on the Sciences of Mind. Boston: Shambhala Publications. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57062-893-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-57062-893-9">1-57062-893-9</a>.</li> <li>Houshmand, Zara, Robert B. Livingston & B. Alan Wallace (eds.) (1999). Consciousness at the Crossroads: Conversations with the Dalai Lama on Brain Science and Buddhism. Ithaca: Snow Lion Publications. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55939-127-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-55939-127-8">1-55939-127-8</a>.</li> <li>Josipovic, Z. (2010). Duality and nonduality in meditation research. Consciousness and Cognition, 19(4), 1119–1121.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKabat-Zinn1990" class="citation book cs1">Kabat-Zinn, Jon (1990). Full catastrophe living: using the wisdom of your body and mind to face stress, pain, and illness. New York, NY: <a href="/wiki/Dell_Publishing" title="Dell Publishing">Dell Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-385-30312-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-385-30312-2"><bdi>0-385-30312-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/24097980">24097980</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Full+catastrophe+living%3A+using+the+wisdom+of+your+body+and+mind+to+face+stress%2C+pain%2C+and+illness&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=Dell+Publishing&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F24097980&rft.isbn=0-385-30312-2&rft.aulast=Kabat-Zinn&rft.aufirst=Jon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism+and+psychology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKabat-Zinn2005" class="citation book cs1">Kabat-Zinn, Jon (2005). Coming to our senses: healing ourselves and the world through mindfulness. New York: <a href="/wiki/Hyperion_(publisher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyperion (publisher)">Hyperion</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7868-8654-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-7868-8654-4"><bdi>0-7868-8654-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/57254284">57254284</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Coming+to+our+senses%3A+healing+ourselves+and+the+world+through+mindfulness&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Hyperion&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F57254284&rft.isbn=0-7868-8654-4&rft.aulast=Kabat-Zinn&rft.aufirst=Jon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism+and+psychology" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Kalupahana, David J. (1992), The Principles of Buddhist Psychology, Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications.</li> <li>Kang, C., & Whittingham, K. (2010). Mindfulness: A dialogue between Buddhism and clinical psychology. Mindfulness, 1(3), 161–173.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Kornfield" title="Jack Kornfield">Kornfield, Jack</a> (1993). A Path with Heart: A Guide through the Perils and Promises of Spiritual Life. NY: Bantam Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-553-37211-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-553-37211-4">0-553-37211-4</a>.</li> <li>Kudesia, R. S., & Nyima, V. T. (2015). Mindfulness contextualized: An integration of Buddhist and neuropsychological approaches to cognition. Mindfulness, 6(4), 910–925.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsha_M._Linehan" title="Marsha M. Linehan">Linehan, Marsha M.</a> (1993a). Cognitive-Behavioral Treatment of Borderline Personality Disorder. NY: Guilford Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89862-183-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-89862-183-6">0-89862-183-6</a>.</li> <li>Linehan, Marsha M. (1993b). Skills Training Manual for Treating Borderline Personality Disorder. NY: Guilford Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89862-034-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-89862-034-1">0-89862-034-1</a>.</li> <li>Linehan, M. M., H. E. Armstrong, A. Suarez, D. Allmon & H. L. Heard (1991). "Cognitive-behavioral treatment of chronically parasuicidal borderline patients." Archives of General Psychiatry, 48, 100–1064. Cited in Linehan (1993b).</li> <li>Linehan, M. M., & H. L. Heard (1993). "Impact of treatment accessibility on clinical course of parasuicidal patients." In reply to R.E. Hoffman [Letter to the editor]. Archives of General Psychiatry, 50, 157–158. Cited in Linehan (1993b).</li> <li>Linehan, M. M., H. L. Heard, & H. E. Armstrong (in press). "Naturalistic follow-up of a behavioral treatment for chronically suicidal borderline patients. Archives of General Psychiatry. Cited in Linehan (1993b).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcMahan2008" class="citation book cs1">McMahan, David L. (October 2008). The Making of Buddhist Modernism. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518327-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518327-6"><bdi>978-0-19-518327-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+Buddhist+Modernism&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008-10&rft.isbn=978-0-19-518327-6&rft.aulast=McMahan&rft.aufirst=David+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism+and+psychology" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Ñanamoli Thera (trans.) (1993). Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta: Setting Rolling the Wheel of Truth (<a href="/wiki/Samyutta_Nikaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Samyutta Nikaya">SN</a> 56.11). Available on-line at <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn56/sn56.011.nymo.html">http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn56/sn56.011.nymo.html</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thich_Nhat_Hanh" class="mw-redirect" title="Thich Nhat Hanh">Nhat Hanh, Thich</a> (1998). Mindfulness and Psychotherapy (audio). Louisville, CO: <a href="/wiki/Sounds_True" title="Sounds True">Sounds True</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56455-632-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-56455-632-8">1-56455-632-8</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyanaponika_Thera" title="Nyanaponika Thera">Nyanaponika Thera</a> (1954, 1996). The Heart of Buddhist Meditation: A Handbook of Mental Training based on the Buddha's Way of Mindfulness. York Beach, ME: Samuel Weiser. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87728-073-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-87728-073-8">0-87728-073-8</a>.</li> <li>Nyanaponika Thera, Bhikkhu Bodhi (ed.) & Erich Fromm (fwd.) (1986). Visions of Dhamma: Buddhist Writings of Nyanaponika Thera. York Beach, ME: Weiser Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87728-669-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-87728-669-8">0-87728-669-8</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caroline_Augusta_Foley_Rhys_Davids" class="mw-redirect" title="Caroline Augusta Foley Rhys Davids">Rhys Davids, Caroline A. F.</a> ([1900], 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ABuddhistManualOfPhychologicalEthicsOfTheFourthCenturyBCBuddhist">Manual of Psychological Ethics, of the Fourth Century B.C.</a>, being a Translation, now made for the First Time, from the Original Pāli, of the First Book of the Abhidhamma-Piṭaka, entitled Dhamma-Saṅgaṇi (Compendium of States or Phenomena). Whitefish, MT: Kessinger Publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7661-4702-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-7661-4702-9">0-7661-4702-9</a>.</li> <li>Rhys Davids, Caroline A. F. (1914). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924022982072">Buddhist Psychology: An Inquiry into the Analysis and Theory of Mind in Pali Literature</a>, London: Bell and sons.</li> <li>Rhys Davids, Caroline A. F. (1936). Birth of Indian Psychology and its Development in Buddhism.</li> <li>Sato, Koji (1958). "Psychotherapeutic Implications of Zen" in Psychologia, An International Journal of Psychology in the Orient. Vol. I, No. 4 (1958). Cited in Fromm et al. (1960).</li> <li>Schwartz, Tony (1996). What Really Matters: Searching for Wisdom in America. NY: Bantam Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-553-37492-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-553-37492-3">0-553-37492-3</a>.</li> <li>Segal, Zindel V., J. Mark G. Williams, & John D. Teasdale (2002). Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy for Depression: A New Approach to Preventing Relapse. NY: Guilford Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57230-706-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-57230-706-4">1-57230-706-4</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daisetz_Teitaro_Suzuki" class="mw-redirect" title="Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki">Suzuki, D.T.</a> & <a href="/wiki/Carl_Jung" title="Carl Jung">Carl G. Jung</a> (fwd.) (1948, 1964, 1991). An Introduction to Zen Buddhism. NY: Grove Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8021-3055-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8021-3055-0">0-8021-3055-0</a>.</li> <li>Suzuki, D.T. (1949, 1956). Zen Buddhism. NY: Doubleday Anchor Books. Cited in Ellis (1991) and Fromm (1960).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thanissaro_Bhikkhu" class="mw-redirect" title="Thanissaro Bhikkhu">Thanissaro Bhikkhu</a> (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/rootsofbuddhistromanticism.html">The Roots of Buddhist Romanticism</a>.</li> <li>Varela, F. J., Thompson, E., & Rosch, E. (1991). The embodied mind: Cognitive science and human experience. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Varela" title="Francisco Varela">Varela, Francisco J.</a> (ed.) (1997). Sleeping, Dreaming, and Dying: An Exploration of Consciousness with the Dalai Lama. Somerville, MA: Wisdom Publications. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86171-123-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-86171-123-8">0-86171-123-8</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVirtbauer2012" class="citation journal cs1">Virtbauer, Gerald (March 2012). "The Western reception of Buddhism as a psychological and ethical system: developments, dialogues, and perspectives". Mental Health, Religion & Culture. 15 (3): 251–263. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13674676.2011.569928">10.1080/13674676.2011.569928</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145760146">145760146</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mental+Health%2C+Religion+%26+Culture&rft.atitle=The+Western+reception+of+Buddhism+as+a+psychological+and+ethical+system%3A+developments%2C+dialogues%2C+and+perspectives&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=251-263&rft.date=2012-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F13674676.2011.569928&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145760146%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Virtbauer&rft.aufirst=Gerald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism+and+psychology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVirtbauer2014" class="citation journal cs1">Virtbauer, Gerald (1 April 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.sfu.ac.at/index.php/sfufb/article/view/4">"Characteristics of Buddhist Psychology"</a>. SFU Forschungsbulletin: 1–9. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.15135%2F2014.2.1.1-9">10.15135/2014.2.1.1-9</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=SFU+Forschungsbulletin&rft.atitle=Characteristics+of+Buddhist+Psychology&rft.pages=1-9&rft.date=2014-04-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.15135%2F2014.2.1.1-9&rft.aulast=Virtbauer&rft.aufirst=Gerald&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sfu.ac.at%2Findex.php%2Fsfufb%2Farticle%2Fview%2F4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism+and+psychology" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Wallace, B. A., & Shapiro, S. L. (2006). Mental balance and well-being: building bridges between Buddhism and Western psychology. American psychologist, 61(7), 690.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Watts" title="Alan Watts">Watts, Alan W.</a> (1959). The Way of Zen. NY: New American Library. Cited in Ellis (1991).</li> <li>Watts, Alan W. (1960). Nature, Man and Sex. NY: New American Library. Cited in Ellis (1991).</li> <li>Watts, Alan W. (1961, 1975). Psychotherapy East and West. NY: Random House. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-71610-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-394-71610-8">0-394-71610-8</a>.</li> <li>Zajonc, Arthur (ed.) with Zara Houshmand (2004). The New Physics and Cosmology: Dialogues with the Dalai Lama. NY: Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-515994-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-515994-2">0-19-515994-2</a>.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Related_texts">Related texts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_and_psychology&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Related texts">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Fryba, Mirko (1995). The Practice of Happiness: Exercises & Techniques for Developing Mindfulness, Wisdom, and Joy. Boston: Shambhala. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57062-123-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-57062-123-3">1-57062-123-3</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zindel_Segal" title="Zindel Segal">Segal, Zindel V.</a>, <a href="/wiki/J._Mark_G._Williams" title="J. Mark G. Williams">J. Mark G. Williams</a>, & <a href="/wiki/John_D._Teasdale" title="John D. Teasdale">John D. Teasdale</a> (2002). Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy for Depression. NY: Guilford. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57230-706-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57230-706-3">978-1-57230-706-3</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_and_psychology&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_scholarship">Early scholarship</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_and_psychology&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Early scholarship">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110513234650/http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-PHIL/ew27114.htm">Rowell Havens, Teresina (1964). "Mrs. Rhys Davids' Dialogue with Psychology (1893-1924)"</a>, in Philosophy East & West. V. 14 (1964) pp. 51–58, University of Hawaii Press.</li> <li>Sarunya Prasopchingchana & Dana Sugu, 'Distinctiveness of the Unseen Buddhist Identity' (International Journal of Humanistic Ideology, Cluj-Napoca, Romania, vol. 4, 2010)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mainstream_teachers_and_popularizers_2">Mainstream teachers and popularizers</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_and_psychology&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Mainstream teachers and popularizers">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.buddhanet.net/depth.htm">Burns, Douglas (undated). "Buddhist Meditation and Depth Psychology"</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Caveats_and_criticisms">Caveats and criticisms</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_and_psychology&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Caveats and criticisms">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dhammatalks.org/ebook_index.html#/books/BuddhistRomanticism/Section0001.html">"Buddhist Romanticism"</a> a treatise by <a href="/wiki/%E1%B9%ACh%C4%81nissaro_Bhikkhu" title="Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu">Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.audiodharma.org/mp3files/2002-03-25_ThanissaroBhikkhu_BuddhistRomanticism.mp3">"Buddhist Romanticism"</a>, talk by <a href="/wiki/%E1%B9%ACh%C4%81nissaro_Bhikkhu" title="Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu">Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu</a> (03/25/02)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.audiodharma.org/mp3files/2002-04-01_GilFronsdal_BuddhistRomanticismDiscussion.mp3">"Buddhist Romanticism Discussion", follow-up to Thanissaro Bhikkhu talk</a> by <a href="/wiki/Gil_Fronsdal" title="Gil Fronsdal">Gil Fronsdal</a> (04/01/02)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychotherapy_and_Buddhism">Psychotherapy and Buddhism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_and_psychology&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Psychotherapy and Buddhism">edit</a>]</div> Kohut <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.buddhanet.net/compassion.htm">Lorne Ladner, Positive Psychology & the Buddhist Path of Compassion</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://choshi.us/articleattention.html">Paul C. Cooper, Attention & Inattention in Zen and Psychoanalysis</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130826032030/http://choshi.us/articleattention.html">Archived</a> 2013-08-26 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGleig2009" class="citation journal cs1">Gleig, Ann (9 May 2009). "The Culture of Narcissism Revisited: Transformations of Narcissism in Contemporary Psychospirituality". Pastoral Psychology. 59 (1): 79–91. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11089-009-0207-9">10.1007/s11089-009-0207-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3765882">3765882</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pastoral+Psychology&rft.atitle=The+Culture+of+Narcissism+Revisited%3A+Transformations+of+Narcissism+in+Contemporary+Psychospirituality&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=79-91&rft.date=2009-05-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11089-009-0207-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A3765882%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Gleig&rft.aufirst=Ann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism+and+psychology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.emotionalcompetency.com/papers/empathydissertation.pdf">Jakob Håkansson, Exploring the phenomenon of empathy</a></li></ul> Winnicott <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110301232435/http://vimalakirtiusa.org/documents/GoA-and-Winnicott.pdf">Linda A. Nockler, The Spiritual and the Psychological Meet: Lessons from for Students of Awareness Practices</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books/about/A_Buddhist_Reinterpretation_of_Winnicott.html?id=ivsXtwAACAAJ&hl=en">Daniel G. Radter, A Buddhist reinterpretation of Winnicott</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journalpsyche.org/articles/0xabcf.pdf">FREDRIK FALKENSTRÖM, A Buddhist contribution to the psychoanalytic psychology of self</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ctp.net/PDFs/psychotherapybuddism.pdf">Janice Priddy, Psychotherapy and Buddhism: An Unfolding Dialogue. The Four Noble Truths in Buddhism</a></li></ul> Bhante Kovida <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151031023954/http://ftp.budaedu.org/ebooks/pdf/EN156.pdf">Bhante Kovida An Inquiring Mind's Journey</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Buddhism" title="Outline of Buddhism">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Buddhism" title="Glossary of Buddhism">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Buddhism-related_articles" title="Index of Buddhism-related articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Buddhism" title="Outline of Buddhism">Foundations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Noble_Truths" title="Four Noble Truths">Four Noble Truths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refuge_in_Buddhism" title="Refuge in Buddhism">Three Jewels</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">Buddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sangha" title="Sangha">Sangha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path" title="Noble Eightfold Path">Noble Eightfold Path</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">Nirvana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Way" title="Middle Way">Middle Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">The Buddha</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tath%C4%81gata" title="Tathāgata">Tathāgata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha%27s_Birthday" title="Buddha's Birthday">Birthday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_sights" title="Four sights">Four sights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Eight_Great_Events_in_the_Life_of_Buddha" title="The Eight Great Events in the Life of Buddha">Eight Great Events</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Renunciation" title="Great Renunciation">Great Renunciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_characteristics_of_the_Buddha" title="Physical characteristics of the Buddha">Physical characteristics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_of_Buddha_in_art" title="Life of Buddha in art">Life of Buddha in art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha_footprint" title="Buddha footprint">Footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relics_associated_with_Buddha" title="Relics associated with Buddha">Relics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iconography_of_Gautama_Buddha_in_Laos_and_Thailand" title="Iconography of Gautama Buddha in Laos and Thailand">Iconography in Laos and Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depictions_of_Gautama_Buddha_in_film" title="Depictions of Gautama Buddha in film">Films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracles_of_Gautama_Buddha" title="Miracles of Gautama Buddha">Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_of_Gautama_Buddha" title="Family of Gautama Buddha">Family</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Auddhodana" title="Śuddhodana">Suddhodāna (father)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_(mother_of_the_Buddha)" title="Maya (mother of the Buddha)">Māyā (mother)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahapajapati_Gotami" title="Mahapajapati Gotami">Mahapajapati Gotamī (aunt, adoptive mother)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ya%C5%9Bodhar%C4%81" title="Yaśodharā">Yaśodharā (wife)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C4%81hula" title="Rāhula">Rāhula (son)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80nanda" title="Ānanda">Ānanda (cousin)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devadatta" title="Devadatta">Devadatta (cousin)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_places_where_Gautama_Buddha_stayed" title="List of places where Gautama Buddha stayed">Places where the Buddha stayed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha_in_world_religions" title="Gautama Buddha in world religions">Buddha in world religions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattvas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avalokite%C5%9Bvara" title="Avalokiteśvara">Avalokiteśvara</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guanyin" title="Guanyin">Guanyin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manjushri" title="Manjushri">Mañjuśrī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahasthamaprapta" title="Mahasthamaprapta">Mahāsthāmaprāpta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80k%C4%81%C5%9Bagarbha" title="Ākāśagarbha">Ākāśagarbha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%E1%B9%A3itigarbha" title="Kṣitigarbha">Kṣitigarbha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samantabhadra_(Bodhisattva)" title="Samantabhadra (Bodhisattva)">Samantabhadra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrapani" title="Vajrapani">Vajrapāṇi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skanda_(Buddhism)" title="Skanda (Buddhism)">Skanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tara_(Buddhism)" title="Tara (Buddhism)">Tārā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maitreya" title="Maitreya">Metteyya/Maitreya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Disciples_of_Gautama_Buddha" title="Category:Disciples of Gautama Buddha">Disciples</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kaundinya" title="Kaundinya">Kaundinya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assaji" title="Assaji">Assaji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C4%81riputra" title="Śāriputra">Sāriputta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maudgalyayana" title="Maudgalyayana">Mahamoggallāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80nanda" title="Ānanda">Ānanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81k%C4%81%C5%9Byapa" title="Mahākāśyapa">Mahākassapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%E1%B9%85gulim%C4%81la" title="Aṅgulimāla">Aṅgulimāla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anuruddha" title="Anuruddha">Anuruddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katyayana_(Buddhist)" title="Katyayana (Buddhist)">Mahākaccana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanda_(half-brother_of_Buddha)" title="Nanda (half-brother of Buddha)">Nanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subh%C5%ABti" title="Subhūti">Subhūti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pu%E1%B9%87%E1%B9%87a_Mant%C4%81n%C4%ABputta" title="Puṇṇa Mantānīputta">Puṇṇa Mantānīputta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Up%C4%81li" title="Upāli">Upāli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahapajapati_Gotami" title="Mahapajapati Gotami">Mahapajapati Gotamī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khema" title="Khema">Khema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uppalavanna" title="Uppalavanna">Uppalavanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asita" title="Asita">Asita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Channa_(Buddhist)" title="Channa (Buddhist)">Channa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yasa" title="Yasa">Yasa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Buddhism" title="Glossary of Buddhism">Key concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avidy%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Avidyā (Buddhism)">Avidyā (Ignorance)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bardo" title="Bardo">Bardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhicitta" title="Bodhicitta">Bodhicitta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha-nature" title="Buddha-nature">Buddha-nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhamma_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhamma theory">Dhamma theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_hindrances" title="Five hindrances">Five hindrances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indriya" title="Indriya">Indriya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karma_in_Buddhism" title="Karma in Buddhism">Karma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleshas_(Buddhism)" title="Kleshas (Buddhism)">Kleshas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_factors_(Buddhism)" title="Mental factors (Buddhism)">Mental factors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mindstream" title="Mindstream">Mindstream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parinirvana" title="Parinirvana">Parinirvana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da" title="Pratītyasamutpāda">Pratītyasamutpāda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebirth_(Buddhism)" title="Rebirth (Buddhism)">Rebirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra_(Buddhism)" title="Saṃsāra (Buddhism)">Saṃsāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%85kh%C4%81ra" title="Saṅkhāra">Saṅkhāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skandha" title="Skandha">Skandha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ta%E1%B9%87h%C4%81" title="Taṇhā">Taṇhā (Craving)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tath%C4%81t%C4%81" title="Tathātā">Tathātā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fetter_(Buddhism)" title="Fetter (Buddhism)">Ten Fetters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_marks_of_existence" title="Three marks of existence">Three marks of existence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Impermanence_(Buddhism)" title="Impermanence (Buddhism)">Anicca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Du%E1%B8%A5kha" title="Duḥkha">Dukkha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatt%C4%81" title="Anattā">Anattā</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_truths_doctrine" title="Two truths doctrine">Two truths doctrine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_cosmology" title="Buddhist cosmology">Cosmology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ten_realms" title="Ten realms">Ten spiritual realms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six_Paths" title="Six Paths">Six Paths</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deva_(Buddhism)" title="Deva (Buddhism)">Deva realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_beings_in_Buddhism" title="Human beings in Buddhism">Human realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asura_(Buddhism)" title="Asura (Buddhism)">Asura realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preta" title="Preta">Hungry Ghost realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animals_in_Buddhism" title="Animals in Buddhism">Animal realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naraka_(Buddhism)" title="Naraka (Buddhism)">Naraka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trailokya" title="Trailokya">Three planes of existence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Buddhism" title="Schools of Buddhism">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chinese Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Zen" title="Japanese Zen">Japanese Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Seon" title="Korean Seon">Korean Seon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thi%E1%BB%81n" title="Thiền">Vietnamese Thiền</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Pure Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rissh%C5%AB_(Buddhism)" title="Risshū (Buddhism)">Risshū</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nichiren_Buddhism" title="Nichiren Buddhism">Nichiren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogachara</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Esoteric_Buddhism" title="Chinese Esoteric Buddhism">Chinese Esoteric Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shingon_Buddhism" title="Shingon Buddhism">Shingon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzogchen" title="Dzogchen">Dzogchen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navayana" title="Navayana">Navayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_schools" title="Early Buddhist schools">Early Buddhist schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-sectarian_Buddhism" title="Pre-sectarian Buddhism">Pre-sectarian Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_points_unifying_Therav%C4%81da_and_Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na" title="Basic points unifying Theravāda and Mahāyāna">Basic points unifying Theravāda and Mahāyāna</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Buddhist_practices" title="Category:Buddhist practices">Practices</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhavana" title="Bhavana">Bhavana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhipakkhiy%C4%81dhamm%C4%81" title="Bodhipakkhiyādhammā">Bodhipakkhiyādhammā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmavihara" title="Brahmavihara">Brahmavihara</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maitr%C4%AB" title="Maitrī">Mettā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karu%E1%B9%87%C4%81" title="Karuṇā">Karuṇā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudita" title="Mudita">Mudita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upek%E1%B9%A3%C4%81" title="Upekṣā">Upekkha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddh%C4%81bhi%E1%B9%A3eka" title="Buddhābhiṣeka">Buddhābhiṣeka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C4%81na" title="Dāna">Dāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_devotion" title="Buddhist devotion">Devotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deity_yoga" title="Deity yoga">Deity yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhyana_in_Buddhism" title="Dhyana in Buddhism">Dhyāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_in_Buddhism" title="Faith in Buddhism">Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Strengths" title="Five Strengths">Five Strengths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iddhipada" title="Iddhipada">Iddhipada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_meditation" title="Buddhist meditation">Meditation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mantra#Buddhism" title="Mantra">Mantras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamma%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADh%C4%81na" title="Kammaṭṭhāna">Kammaṭṭhāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anussati" title="Anussati">Recollection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simran" title="Simran">Smarana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anapanasati" title="Anapanasati">Anapanasati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samatha-vipassan%C4%81" title="Samatha-vipassanā">Samatha-vipassanā</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vipassana_movement" title="Vipassana movement">Vipassana movement</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shikantaza" title="Shikantaza">Shikantaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zazen" title="Zazen">Zazen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tukdam" title="Tukdam">Tukdam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koan" title="Koan">Koan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganana" title="Ganana">Ganana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandala" title="Mandala">Mandala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonglen" title="Tonglen">Tonglen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tantra" title="Tantra">Tantra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tert%C3%B6n" title="Tertön">Tertön</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terma_(religion)" title="Terma (religion)">Terma</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merit_(Buddhism)" title="Merit (Buddhism)">Merit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mindfulness" title="Mindfulness">Mindfulness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mindful_Yoga" title="Mindful Yoga">Mindful Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satipatthana" title="Satipatthana">Satipatthana</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nekkhamma" title="Nekkhamma">Nekkhamma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nianfo" title="Nianfo">Nianfo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81ramit%C4%81" title="Pāramitā">Pāramitā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paritta" title="Paritta">Paritta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_devotion" title="Buddhist devotion">Puja</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Offering_(Buddhism)" title="Offering (Buddhism)">Offerings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostration_(Buddhism)" title="Prostration (Buddhism)">Prostration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_music" title="Buddhist music">Music</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refuge_in_Buddhism" title="Refuge in Buddhism">Refuge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C4%81dhu_(Pali_word)" title="Sādhu (Pali word)">Sādhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satya" title="Satya">Satya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sacca" title="Sacca">Sacca</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Factors_of_Awakening" title="Seven Factors of Awakening">Seven Factors of Enlightenment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sati_(Buddhism)" title="Sati (Buddhism)">Sati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhamma_vicaya" title="Dhamma vicaya">Dhamma vicaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%ABti" title="Pīti">Pīti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passaddhi" title="Passaddhi">Passaddhi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Śīla</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Five_precepts" title="Five precepts">Five precepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight_precepts" title="Eight precepts">Eight precepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva_vow" title="Bodhisattva vow">Bodhisattva vow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pratimok%E1%B9%A3a" title="Pratimokṣa">Pratimokṣa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Threefold_Training" title="Threefold Training">Threefold Training</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Śīla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samadhi" title="Samadhi">Samadhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Prajñā (Buddhism)">Prajñā</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C4%ABrya" title="Vīrya">Vīrya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Right_Exertions" title="Four Right Exertions">Four Right Exertions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-two_vows_of_Ambedkar" title="Twenty-two vows of Ambedkar">Twenty-two vows of Ambedkar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">Nirvana</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">Bodhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddhahood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pratyekabuddhay%C4%81na" title="Pratyekabuddhayāna">Pratyekabuddhayāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_stages_of_awakening" title="Four stages of awakening">Four stages of awakening</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sot%C4%81panna" title="Sotāpanna">Sotāpanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakadagami" title="Sakadagami">Sakadagami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An%C4%81g%C4%81mi" title="Anāgāmi">Anāgāmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arhat" title="Arhat">Arhat</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_monasticism" title="Buddhist monasticism">Monasticism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhikkhu" title="Bhikkhu">Bhikkhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhikkhun%C4%AB" title="Bhikkhunī">Bhikkhunī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanera" title="Samanera">Śrāmaṇera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanera" title="Samanera">Śrāmaṇerī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anag%C4%81rika" title="Anagārika">Anagārika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajahn" title="Ajahn">Ajahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayadaw" title="Sayadaw">Sayadaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen_master" title="Zen master">Zen master</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C5%8Dshi" title="Rōshi">Rōshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lama" title="Lama">Lama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rinpoche" title="Rinpoche">Rinpoche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geshe" title="Geshe">Geshe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulku" title="Tulku">Tulku</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_tulku" title="Western tulku">Western tulku</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kappiya" title="Kappiya">Kappiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donchee" title="Donchee">Donchee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Householder_(Buddhism)" title="Householder (Buddhism)">Householder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Up%C4%81saka_and_Up%C4%81sik%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Upāsaka and Upāsikā">Upāsaka and Upāsikā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achar_(Buddhism)" title="Achar (Buddhism)">Achar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Ar%C4%81vaka" title="Śrāvaka">Śrāvaka</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ten_principal_disciples" title="Ten principal disciples">Ten principal disciples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaolin_Monastery" title="Shaolin Monastery">Shaolin Monastery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhists" title="List of Buddhists">Major figures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">The Buddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagasena" title="Nagasena">Nagasena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C5%9Bvagho%E1%B9%A3a" title="Aśvaghoṣa">Aśvaghoṣa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna" title="Nagarjuna">Nagarjuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asanga" title="Asanga">Asanga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva" title="Kumārajīva">Kumārajīva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhaghosa" title="Buddhaghosa">Buddhaghosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhap%C4%81lita" title="Buddhapālita">Buddhapālita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dign%C4%81ga" title="Dignāga">Dignāga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhidharma" title="Bodhidharma">Bodhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhiyi" title="Zhiyi">Zhiyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wen_of_Sui" title="Emperor Wen of Sui">Emperor Wen of Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songtsen_Gampo" title="Songtsen Gampo">Songtsen Gampo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shandao" title="Shandao">Shandao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Padmasambhava" title="Padmasambhava">Padmasambhava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saraha" title="Saraha">Saraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ati%C5%9Ba" title="Atiśa">Atiśa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naropa" title="Naropa">Naropa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karmapa" title="Karmapa">Karmapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C5%8Dnen" title="Hōnen">Hōnen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shinran" title="Shinran">Shinran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C5%8Dgen" title="Dōgen">Dōgen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nichiren" title="Nichiren">Nichiren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamarpa" title="Shamarpa">Shamarpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalai_Lama" title="Dalai Lama">Dalai Lama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panchen_Lama" title="Panchen Lama">Panchen Lama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajahn_Mun" title="Ajahn Mun">Ajahn Mun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">B. R. Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajahn_Chah" title="Ajahn Chah">Ajahn Chah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%ADch_Nh%E1%BA%A5t_H%E1%BA%A1nh" title="Thích Nhất Hạnh">Thích Nhất Hạnh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_texts" title="Buddhist texts">Texts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_texts" title="Early Buddhist texts">Early Buddhist texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka" title="Tripiṭaka">Tripiṭaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahayana_sutras" title="Mahayana sutras">Mahayana sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pali_Canon" title="Pali Canon">Pali Canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhist_canon" title="Chinese Buddhist canon">Chinese Buddhist canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist_canon" title="Tibetan Buddhist canon">Tibetan Buddhist canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhammapada" title="Dhammapada">Dhammapada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">Sutra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinaya" title="Vinaya">Vinaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamak%C4%81la%E1%B9%83k%C4%81ra" title="Madhyamakālaṃkāra">Madhyamakālaṃkāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharmad%C4%ABpa" title="Abhidharmadīpa">Abhidharmadīpa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_by_country" title="Buddhism by country">Countries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Afghanistan" title="Buddhism in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Bangladesh" title="Buddhism in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Bhutan" title="Buddhism in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Cambodia" title="Buddhism in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_China" title="Buddhism in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism_in_India" title="History of Buddhism in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Indonesia" title="Buddhism in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Japan" title="Buddhism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Buddhism" title="Korean Buddhism">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Laos" title="Buddhism in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Malaysia" title="Buddhism in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Maldives" title="Buddhism in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Mongolia" title="Buddhism in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Myanmar" title="Buddhism in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Nepal" title="Buddhism in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Pakistan" title="Buddhism in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Philippines" title="Buddhism in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Russia" title="Buddhism in Russia">Russia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Buryatia" title="Buddhism in Buryatia">Buryatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Kalmykia" title="Buddhism in Kalmykia">Kalmykia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_in_Tuva&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Buddhism in Tuva (page does not exist)">Tuva</a> (<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC_%D0%B2_%D0%A2%D1%8B%D0%B2%D0%B5" class="extiw" title="ru:Буддизм в Тыве">ru</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Singapore" title="Buddhism in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Buddhism in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Taiwan" title="Buddhism in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Thailand" title="Buddhism in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Vietnam" title="Buddhism in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Africa" title="Buddhism in Africa">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Senegal" title="Buddhism in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_South_Africa" title="Buddhism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Central_Asia" title="Buddhism in Central Asia">Central Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Uzbekistan" title="Buddhism in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Middle_East" title="Buddhism in the Middle East">Middle East</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Iran" title="Buddhism in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Buddhism in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_West" title="Buddhism in the West">Western countries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Argentina" title="Buddhism in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Australia" title="Buddhism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Brazil" title="Buddhism in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Canada" title="Buddhism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Costa_Rica" title="Buddhism in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Buddhism in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_France" title="Buddhism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Germany" title="Buddhism in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Italy" title="Buddhism in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Mexico" title="Buddhism in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_New_Zealand" title="Buddhism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Norway" title="Buddhism in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Poland" title="Buddhism in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Sweden" title="Buddhism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Switzerland" title="Buddhism in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Ukraine" title="Buddhism in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Buddhism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_United_States" title="Buddhism in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Venezuela" title="Buddhism in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism" title="History of Buddhism">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Buddhism" title="Timeline of Buddhism">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashoka" title="Ashoka">Ashoka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanishka" title="Kanishka">Kanishka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_councils" title="Buddhist councils">Buddhist councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism_in_India" title="History of Buddhism in India">History of Buddhism in India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Buddhism_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent">Decline of Buddhism in India</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huichang_persecution_of_Buddhism" title="Huichang persecution of Buddhism">Huichang persecution of Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhism" title="Greco-Buddhism">Greco-Buddhism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Menander_I" title="Menander I">Menander I</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_the_Roman_world" title="Buddhism and the Roman world">Buddhism and the Roman world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_West" title="Buddhism in the West">Buddhism in the West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silk_Road_transmission_of_Buddhism" title="Silk Road transmission of Buddhism">Silk Road transmission of Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Buddhists" title="Persecution of Buddhists">Persecution of Buddhists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banishment_of_Buddhist_monks_from_Nepal" title="Banishment of Buddhist monks from Nepal">Banishment of Buddhist monks from Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_crisis" title="Buddhist crisis">Buddhist crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinhalese_Buddhist_nationalism" title="Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism">Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_modernism" title="Buddhist modernism">Buddhist modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vipassana_movement" title="Vipassana movement">Vipassana movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/969_Movement" title="969 Movement">969 Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Buddhism" title="Women in Buddhism">Women in Buddhism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_atomism" title="Buddhist atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_studies" title="Buddhist studies">Buddhology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creator_in_Buddhism" title="Creator in Buddhism">Creator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_democracy" title="Buddhism and democracy">Buddhism and democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_economics" title="Buddhist economics">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight_Consciousnesses" title="Eight Consciousnesses">Eight Consciousnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engaged_Buddhism" title="Engaged Buddhism">Engaged Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_eschatology" title="Buddhist eschatology">Eschatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhism and evolution">Evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Buddhism" title="Humanistic Buddhism">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_logico-epistemology" title="Buddhist logico-epistemology">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reality_in_Buddhism" title="Reality in Buddhism">Reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_Buddhism" title="Secular Buddhism">Secular Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_socialism" title="Buddhist socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_unanswerable_questions" title="The unanswerable questions">The unanswerable questions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Buddhism" title="Culture of Buddhism">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_architecture" title="Buddhist architecture">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_temple" title="Buddhist temple">Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vih%C4%81ra" title="Vihāra">Vihāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyaung" title="Kyaung">Kyaung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wat" title="Wat">Wat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination_hall" title="Ordination hall">Ordination hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stupa" title="Stupa">Stupa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pagoda" title="Pagoda">Pagoda</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_pagoda" title="Burmese pagoda">Burmese pagoda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candi_of_Indonesia" title="Candi of Indonesia">Candi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzong_architecture" title="Dzong architecture">Dzong architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhist_architecture_in_China" title="List of Buddhist architecture in China">List of Buddhist architecture in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Buddhist_architecture" title="Japanese Buddhist architecture">Japanese Buddhist architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_temples_in_Korea" title="Buddhist temples in Korea">Buddhist temples in Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_temple_art_and_architecture" title="Thai temple art and architecture">Thai temple art and architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist_architecture" title="Tibetan Buddhist architecture">Tibetan Buddhist architecture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_art" title="Buddhist art">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhist_art" title="Greco-Buddhist art">Greco-Buddhist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhi_Tree" title="Bodhi Tree">Bodhi Tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Budai" title="Budai">Budai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha_in_art" title="Buddha in art">Buddha in art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_calendar" title="Buddhist calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_cuisine" title="Buddhist cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_funeral" title="Buddhist funeral">Funeral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_holidays" title="Buddhist holidays">Holidays</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vesak" title="Vesak">Vesak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uposatha" title="Uposatha">Uposatha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%81gha_P%C5%ABj%C4%81" title="Māgha Pūjā">Māgha Pūjā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asalha_Puja" title="Asalha Puja">Asalha Puja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vassa" title="Vassa">Vassa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaya_Sri_Maha_Bodhi" title="Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi">Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasaya_(clothing)" title="Kasaya (clothing)">Kasaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahabodhi_Temple" title="Mahabodhi Temple">Mahabodhi Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mantra" title="Mantra">Mantra</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Om_mani_padme_hum" title="Om mani padme hum">Om mani padme hum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudra" title="Mudra">Mudra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_music" title="Buddhist music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_pilgrimage_sites" title="Buddhist pilgrimage sites">Pilgrimage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lumbini" title="Lumbini">Lumbini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_Devi_Temple,_Lumbini" title="Maya Devi Temple, Lumbini">Maya Devi Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodh_Gaya" title="Bodh Gaya">Bodh Gaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarnath" title="Sarnath">Sarnath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushinagar" title="Kushinagar">Kushinagar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_poetry" title="Buddhist poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japamala" title="Japamala">Prayer beads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hama_yumi" title="Hama yumi">Hama yumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer_wheel" title="Prayer wheel">Prayer wheel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_symbolism" title="Buddhist symbolism">Symbolism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dharmachakra" title="Dharmachakra">Dharmachakra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_flag" title="Buddhist flag">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhavacakra" title="Bhavacakra">Bhavacakra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swastika" title="Swastika">Swastika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thangka" title="Thangka">Thangka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_the_Tooth" title="Temple of the Tooth">Temple of the Tooth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_vegetarianism" title="Buddhist vegetarianism">Vegetarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Buddhism-related_articles" title="Index of Buddhism-related articles">Miscellaneous</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhij%C3%B1%C4%81" title="Abhijñā">Abhijñā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha" title="Amitābha">Amitābha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahm%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Brahmā (Buddhism)">Brahmā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma_talk" title="Dharma talk">Dharma talk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinayana" title="Hinayana">Hinayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iddhi" title="Iddhi">Iddhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalpa_(time)" title="Kalpa (time)">Kalpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koliya" title="Koliya">Koliya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lineage_(Buddhism)" title="Lineage (Buddhism)">Lineage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mara_(demon)" title="Mara (demon)">Māra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddhi" title="Siddhi">Siddhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_language" title="Sacred language">Sacred languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pali" title="Pali">Pāḷi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Comparative_Buddhism" title="Category:Comparative Buddhism">Comparison</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_and_Buddhism" title="Baháʼí Faith and Buddhism">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Christianity" title="Buddhism and Christianity">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_influences_on_Christianity" title="Buddhist influences on 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