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id="toc-Slab_avalanches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slab_avalanches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Slab avalanches</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slab_avalanches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Powder_snow_avalanches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Powder_snow_avalanches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Powder snow avalanches</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Powder_snow_avalanches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wet_snow_avalanches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wet_snow_avalanches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Wet snow avalanches</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wet_snow_avalanches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ice_avalanche" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ice_avalanche"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Ice avalanche</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ice_avalanche-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Avalanche_pathway" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Avalanche_pathway"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Avalanche pathway</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Avalanche_pathway-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Injuries_and_deaths" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Injuries_and_deaths"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Injuries and deaths</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Injuries_and_deaths-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Terrain,_snowpack,_weather" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Terrain,_snowpack,_weather"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Terrain, snowpack, weather</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Terrain,_snowpack,_weather-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Terrain, snowpack, weather subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Terrain,_snowpack,_weather-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Terrain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Terrain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Terrain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Terrain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Snowpack_structure_and_characteristics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Snowpack_structure_and_characteristics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Snowpack structure and characteristics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Snowpack_structure_and_characteristics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Weather" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Weather"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Weather</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Weather-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dynamics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dynamics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Dynamics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Dynamics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Dynamics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Dynamics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Modeling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modeling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Modeling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modeling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_involvement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_involvement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Human involvement</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Human_involvement-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Human involvement subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Human_involvement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-How_to_prevent_avalanches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#How_to_prevent_avalanches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>How to prevent avalanches</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-How_to_prevent_avalanches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mitigation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mitigation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Mitigation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mitigation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_warning_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_warning_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Early warning systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_warning_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alarm_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alarm_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Alarm systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alarm_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Survival,_rescue,_and_recovery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Survival,_rescue,_and_recovery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Survival, rescue, and recovery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Survival,_rescue,_and_recovery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_avalanches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_avalanches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Notable avalanches</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_avalanches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classification_of_avalanches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification_of_avalanches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Classification of avalanches</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Classification_of_avalanches-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Classification of avalanches subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Classification_of_avalanches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-European_avalanche_risk" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#European_avalanche_risk"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>European avalanche risk</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-European_avalanche_risk-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-European_avalanche_size_table" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#European_avalanche_size_table"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>European avalanche size table</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-European_avalanche_size_table-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-North_American_Avalanche_Danger_Scale" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_American_Avalanche_Danger_Scale"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>North American Avalanche Danger Scale</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_American_Avalanche_Danger_Scale-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Avalanche_problems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Avalanche_problems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Avalanche problems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Avalanche_problems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Canadian_classification_for_avalanche_size" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canadian_classification_for_avalanche_size"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Canadian classification for avalanche size</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canadian_classification_for_avalanche_size-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States_classification_for_avalanche_size" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States_classification_for_avalanche_size"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.6</span> <span>United States classification for avalanche size</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States_classification_for_avalanche_size-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rutschblock_Test" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rutschblock_Test"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.7</span> <span>Rutschblock Test</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rutschblock_Test-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Avalanches_and_climate_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Avalanches_and_climate_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Avalanches and climate change</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Avalanches_and_climate_change-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Avalanches and climate change subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Avalanches_and_climate_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Impacts_on_avalanche_type_and_frequency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impacts_on_avalanche_type_and_frequency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Impacts on avalanche type and frequency</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Impacts_on_avalanche_type_and_frequency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impacts_on_burial_survival_rate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impacts_on_burial_survival_rate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Impacts on burial survival rate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Impacts_on_burial_survival_rate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Avalanches_of_dust_on_Mars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Avalanches_of_dust_on_Mars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Avalanches of dust on Mars</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Avalanches_of_dust_on_Mars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle See also subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Related_flows" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Related_flows"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Related flows</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Related_flows-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Avalanche_disasters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Avalanche_disasters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Avalanche disasters</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Avalanche_disasters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.2</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Avalanche</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 117 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-117" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">117 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sneeustorting" title="Sneeustorting – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Sneeustorting" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawine" title="Lawine – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Lawine" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4" title="हिमप्रपात – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="हिमप्रपात" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%8A%D9%87%D9%88%D8%B1" title="تيهور – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تيهور" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lurte" title="Lurte – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Lurte" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lavenche" title="Lavenche – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Lavenche" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Arpetan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%96%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%A8" title="হিমস্খলন – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="হিমস্খলন" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81dene" title="Ádene – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Ádene" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qar_u%C3%A7qunu" title="Qar uçqunu – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Qar uçqunu" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%88%DA%86%D9%82%D9%88%D9%86%D9%88" title="قار اوچقونو – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="قار اوچقونو" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%B8" title="হিমধস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="হিমধস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pang-seh" title="Pang-seh – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Pang-seh" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%A0%D0%B0%D1%80_%D0%B8%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BC%D3%99%D2%BB%D0%B5" title="Ҡар ишелмәһе – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Ҡар ишелмәһе" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Лавіна – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Лавіна" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%8F%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Лявіна – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Лявіна" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Лавина – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Лавина" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laan" title="Laan – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Laan" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lavina" title="Lavina – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Lavina" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allau" title="Allau – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Allau" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AE%D1%80_%D0%B8%D1%88%C4%95%D0%BB%C4%95%D0%B2%C4%95" title="Юр ишĕлĕвĕ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Юр ишĕлĕвĕ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lavina" title="Lavina – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Lavina" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eirlithriad" title="Eirlithriad – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Eirlithriad" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lavine" title="Lavine – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Lavine" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawine" title="Lawine – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Lawine" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dty mw-list-item"><a href="https://dty.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B" title="हिमपहिरो – Doteli" lang="dty" hreflang="dty" data-title="हिमपहिरो" data-language-autonym="डोटेली" data-language-local-name="Doteli" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>डोटेली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laviin" title="Laviin – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Laviin" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A7%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%B2%CE%AC%CE%B4%CE%B1" title="Χιονοστιβάδα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Χιονοστιβάδα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alud" title="Alud – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Alud" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lavango" title="Lavango – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Lavango" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elur-jausi" title="Elur-jausi – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Elur-jausi" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B2%D8%B4_%D8%A8%D9%87%D9%85%D9%86" title="ریزش بهمن – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ریزش بهمن" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avalanche" title="Avalanche – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Avalanche" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avalanche" title="Avalanche – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Avalanche" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maidhm_shneachta" title="Maidhm shneachta – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Maidhm shneachta" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maoim-sneachda" title="Maoim-sneachda – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Maoim-sneachda" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avalancha" title="Avalancha – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Avalancha" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%8C%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%82" title="Хьетт – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Хьетт" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ГӀалгӀай</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%88%88%EC%82%AC%ED%83%9C" title="눈사태 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="눈사태" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%81%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%B0%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%BD" title="Ձնահյուս – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ձնահյուս" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%A8" title="हिमस्खलन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="हिमस्खलन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snje%C5%BEna_lavina" title="Snježna lavina – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Snježna lavina" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avalancho" title="Avalancho – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Avalancho" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longsor_salju" title="Longsor salju – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Longsor salju" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avalanche" title="Avalanche – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Avalanche" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snj%C3%B3fl%C3%B3%C3%B0" title="Snjóflóð – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Snjóflóð" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valanga" title="Valanga – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Valanga" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%AA_%D7%A9%D7%9C%D7%92%D7%99%D7%9D" title="מפולת שלגים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מפולת שלגים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C6%89omba_kpada_kpada" title="Ɖomba kpada kpada – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Ɖomba kpada kpada" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc mw-list-item"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%8E%D1%80%D1%82" title="Кюрт – Karachay-Balkar" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="Кюрт" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="Karachay-Balkar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Къарачай-малкъар</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%96%E1%83%95%E1%83%90%E1%83%95%E1%83%98" title="ზვავი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ზვავი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%9A%D0%B0%D1%80_%D0%B6%D3%99%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%BC%D2%B1%D0%B7_%D0%BA%D3%A9%D1%88%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%96" title="Қар және мұз көшкіні – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Қар және мұз көшкіні" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poromoko_la_theluji" title="Poromoko la theluji – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Poromoko la theluji" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berfende" title="Berfende – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Berfende" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80_%D0%BA%D3%A9%D1%87%D0%BA%D2%AF" title="Кар көчкү – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Кар көчкү" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labina_nivis" title="Labina nivis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Labina nivis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lav%C4%ABna" title="Lavīna – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Lavīna" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lavina" title="Lavina – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Lavina" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lwien" title="Lwien – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Lwien" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lavina" title="Lavina – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Lavina" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Лавина – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Лавина" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B9%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%82" title="ഹിമാനീപതനം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഹിമാനീപതനം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%A8" title="हिमस्खलन – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="हिमस्खलन" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A8%E1%83%95%E1%83%94" title="შვე – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="შვე" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B4" title="افالانش – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="افالانش" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runtuhan_salji" title="Runtuhan salji – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Runtuhan salji" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abalanxa" title="Abalanxa – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Abalanxa" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%97%E1%80%B2%E1%80%9C%E1%80%94%E1%80%B7%E1%80%BA%E1%80%81%E1%80%BB%E1%80%BA" title="အဗဲလန့်ချ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အဗဲလန့်ချ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawine" title="Lawine – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Lawine" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawine" title="Lawine – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Lawine" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B" title="हिमपहिरो – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="हिमपहिरो" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0" title="च्वापुहुर – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="च्वापुहुर" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%AA%E5%B4%A9" title="雪崩 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="雪崩" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D1%85%D1%8C%D0%B0%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%82" title="Лайн хьаьтт – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Лайн хьаьтт" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawiin" title="Lawiin – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Lawiin" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sn%C3%B8skred" title="Snøskred – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Snøskred" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sn%C3%B8ras" title="Snøras – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Snøras" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avalanca" title="Avalanca – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Avalanca" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ko%CA%BBchki" title="Koʻchki – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Koʻchki" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AC%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%AB%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%8B%E0%A9%9C%E0%A9%8D%E0%A8%B9" title="ਬਰਫ਼ਾਨੀ ਰੋੜ੍ਹ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਬਰਫ਼ਾਨੀ ਰੋੜ੍ਹ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%81_%D8%AF%D8%A7_%DB%81%DA%91" title="برف دا ہڑ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="برف دا ہڑ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84" title="يمال – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="يمال" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valanga" title="Valanga – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Valanga" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawina" title="Lawina – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Lawina" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avalancha" title="Avalancha – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Avalancha" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avalan%C8%99%C4%83" title="Avalanșă – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Avalanșă" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Лавина – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Лавина" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Лавина – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Лавина" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4" title="हिमप्रपात – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="हिमप्रपात" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orteku" title="Orteku – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Orteku" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lavanca_(frana_di_nivi)" title="Lavanca (frana di nivi) – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Lavanca (frana di nivi)" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avalanche" title="Avalanche – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Avalanche" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lav%C3%ADna" title="Lavína – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Lavína" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sne%C5%BEni_plaz" title="Snežni plaz – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Snežni plaz" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%BE%DB%95%D8%B1%DB%95%D8%B3" title="ھەرەس – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ھەرەس" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Лавина – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Лавина" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lavina" title="Lavina – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Lavina" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lumivy%C3%B6ry" title="Lumivyöry – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Lumivyöry" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lavin" title="Lavin – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Lavin" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagguho_ng_yelo" title="Pagguho ng yelo – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Pagguho ng yelo" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%81" title="பனிச்சரிவு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பனிச்சரிவு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qar_i%C5%9Felm%C3%A4se" title="Qar işelmäse – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Qar işelmäse" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B9%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%AE_%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%AA%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%82" title="హిమ సంపాతం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="హిమ సంపాతం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%96%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%A1" title="หิมะถล่ม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="หิมะถล่ม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Тарма – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Тарма" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87%C4%B1%C4%9F" title="Çığ – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Çığ" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Лавина – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Лавина" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%81%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="برفشار – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="برفشار" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Va%C5%82anga" title="Vałanga – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Vałanga" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuy%E1%BA%BFt_l%E1%BB%9F" title="Tuyết lở – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tuyết lở" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laviin" title="Laviin – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Laviin" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagkatimpag" title="Pagkatimpag – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Pagkatimpag" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%AA%E5%B4%A9" title="雪崩 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="雪崩" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%95%D7%95%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%A2" title="לאווינע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="לאווינע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%AA%E5%B4%A9" title="雪崩 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="雪崩" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hewr%C3%AAs" title="Hewrês – Dimli" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Hewrês" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Dimli" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg 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data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Avalanche" title="Special:EditPage/Avalanche">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Avalanche%22">"Avalanche"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Avalanche%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Avalanche%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Avalanche%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Avalanche%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Avalanche%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Rapid flow of a mass of snow down a slope</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the sliding of large masses of snow. For rock and debris avalanches, see <a href="/wiki/Landslide" title="Landslide">Landslide</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Avalanche_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Avalanche (disambiguation)">Avalanche (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Avalanche_on_Everest.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Avalanche_on_Everest.jpg/280px-Avalanche_on_Everest.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Avalanche_on_Everest.jpg/420px-Avalanche_on_Everest.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Avalanche_on_Everest.jpg/560px-Avalanche_on_Everest.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>A powder snow avalanche in the <a href="/wiki/Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalayas</a> near <a href="/wiki/Mount_Everest" title="Mount Everest">Mount Everest</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ligne_Saint-Gervais_-_Vallorcine_-_avalanche_2006_-_08.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Ligne_Saint-Gervais_-_Vallorcine_-_avalanche_2006_-_08.jpg/220px-Ligne_Saint-Gervais_-_Vallorcine_-_avalanche_2006_-_08.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Ligne_Saint-Gervais_-_Vallorcine_-_avalanche_2006_-_08.jpg/330px-Ligne_Saint-Gervais_-_Vallorcine_-_avalanche_2006_-_08.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Ligne_Saint-Gervais_-_Vallorcine_-_avalanche_2006_-_08.jpg/440px-Ligne_Saint-Gervais_-_Vallorcine_-_avalanche_2006_-_08.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Heavy equipment in action after an avalanche has interrupted service on the <a href="/wiki/Saint-Gervais%E2%80%93Vallorcine_railway" title="Saint-Gervais–Vallorcine railway">Saint-Gervais–Vallorcine railway</a> in <a href="/wiki/Haute-Savoie" title="Haute-Savoie">Haute-Savoie</a>, France (2006).</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AvalancheToe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/AvalancheToe.jpg/220px-AvalancheToe.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="86" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/AvalancheToe.jpg/330px-AvalancheToe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/AvalancheToe.jpg/440px-AvalancheToe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="311" /></a><figcaption>The terminus of an avalanche in <a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Kenai_Fjords_National_Park" title="Kenai Fjords National Park">Kenai Fjords</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alaska_-_Miscellaneous_(Airscapes)_-_NARA_-_23933547.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Alaska_-_Miscellaneous_%28Airscapes%29_-_NARA_-_23933547.jpg/220px-Alaska_-_Miscellaneous_%28Airscapes%29_-_NARA_-_23933547.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Alaska_-_Miscellaneous_%28Airscapes%29_-_NARA_-_23933547.jpg/330px-Alaska_-_Miscellaneous_%28Airscapes%29_-_NARA_-_23933547.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Alaska_-_Miscellaneous_%28Airscapes%29_-_NARA_-_23933547.jpg/440px-Alaska_-_Miscellaneous_%28Airscapes%29_-_NARA_-_23933547.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3720" data-file-height="3005" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Railroad" title="Alaska Railroad">Alaska Railroad</a> track blocked by a snow slide</figcaption></figure> <p>An <b>avalanche</b> is a rapid flow of <a href="/wiki/Snow" title="Snow">snow</a> down a <a href="/wiki/Grade_(slope)" title="Grade (slope)">slope</a>, such as a hill or mountain.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Avalanches can be triggered spontaneously, by factors such as increased precipitation or <a href="/wiki/Snowpack" title="Snowpack">snowpack</a> weakening, or by external means such as humans, other animals, and <a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">earthquakes</a>. Primarily composed of flowing snow and air, large avalanches have the capability to capture and move ice, rocks, and trees. </p><p>Avalanches occur in two general forms, or combinations thereof:<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <b>slab avalanches</b> made of tightly packed snow, triggered by a collapse of an underlying weak snow layer, and <b>loose snow avalanches</b> made of looser snow. After being set off, avalanches usually accelerate rapidly and grow in mass and volume as they capture more snow. If an avalanche moves fast enough, some of the snow may mix with the air, forming a <a href="/wiki/Powder_snow_avalanche" title="Powder snow avalanche">powder snow avalanche</a>. </p><p>Though they appear to share similarities, avalanches are distinct from <a href="/wiki/Slush_flow" title="Slush flow">slush flows</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mudflow" title="Mudflow">mudslides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Landslide#Debris_landslide" title="Landslide">rock slides</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Serac" title="Serac">serac</a> collapses. They are also different from <a href="/wiki/Ice-sheet_dynamics" class="mw-redirect" title="Ice-sheet dynamics">large scale movements of ice</a>. Avalanches can happen in any mountain range that has an enduring snowpack. They are most frequent in winter or spring, but may occur at any time of the year. In mountainous areas, avalanches are among the most serious <a href="/wiki/Natural_hazard" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural hazard">natural hazards</a> to life and property, so great efforts are made in <a href="/wiki/Avalanche_control" title="Avalanche control">avalanche control</a>. There are many classification systems for the different forms of avalanches. Avalanches can be described by their size, destructive potential, initiation mechanism, composition, and <a href="/wiki/Dynamics_(mechanics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamics (mechanics)">dynamics</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Formation">Formation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Avalanche&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Formation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Loose_snow_and_slab_avalanches_near_mt_shuksan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Loose_snow_and_slab_avalanches_near_mt_shuksan.jpg/220px-Loose_snow_and_slab_avalanches_near_mt_shuksan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Loose_snow_and_slab_avalanches_near_mt_shuksan.jpg/330px-Loose_snow_and_slab_avalanches_near_mt_shuksan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Loose_snow_and_slab_avalanches_near_mt_shuksan.jpg/440px-Loose_snow_and_slab_avalanches_near_mt_shuksan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="359" /></a><figcaption>Loose snow avalanches (far left) and slab avalanches (near center) near <a href="/wiki/Mount_Shuksan" title="Mount Shuksan">Mount Shuksan</a> in the <a href="/wiki/North_Cascades" title="North Cascades">North Cascades</a> mountains. Fracture propagation is relatively limited.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Snowboarder_triggered_soft_slab_near_mount_baker.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Snowboarder_triggered_soft_slab_near_mount_baker.jpg/220px-Snowboarder_triggered_soft_slab_near_mount_baker.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Snowboarder_triggered_soft_slab_near_mount_baker.jpg/330px-Snowboarder_triggered_soft_slab_near_mount_baker.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Snowboarder_triggered_soft_slab_near_mount_baker.jpg/440px-Snowboarder_triggered_soft_slab_near_mount_baker.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="359" /></a><figcaption>15 cm deep, soft slab avalanche triggered by a snowboarder near Heliotrope Ridge, <a href="/wiki/Mount_Baker" title="Mount Baker">Mount Baker</a> in March 2010. Multiple crown fracture lines are visible in the top-middle of the image. Note the granular characteristic of the debris in the foreground that results from the slab breaking up during descent.</figcaption></figure> <p>Most avalanches occur spontaneously during storms under increased load due to snowfall and/or <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a>. Metamorphic changes in the snowpack, such as melting due to solar radiation, is the second-largest cause of natural avalanches. Other natural causes include rain, earthquakes, rockfall, and icefall. Artificial triggers of avalanches include skiers, snowmobiles, and controlled explosive work. Contrary to popular belief, avalanches are not triggered by loud sound; the pressure from sound is orders of magnitude too small to trigger an avalanche.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Avalanche initiation can start at a point with only a small amount of snow moving initially; this is typical of wet snow avalanches or avalanches in dry unconsolidated snow. However, if the snow has sintered into a stiff slab overlying a weak layer, then fractures can propagate very rapidly, so that a large volume of snow, possibly thousands of cubic metres, can start moving almost simultaneously.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>A snowpack will fail when the load exceeds the strength. The load is straightforward; it is the weight of the snow. However, the strength of the snowpack is much more difficult to determine and is extremely heterogeneous. It varies in detail with properties of the snow grains, size, density, morphology, temperature, water content; and the properties of the bonds between the grains.<sup id="cite_ref-McClung_2006_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McClung_2006-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These properties may all metamorphose in time according to the local humidity, water vapour flux, temperature and heat flux. The top of the snowpack is also extensively influenced by incoming radiation and the local air flow. One of the aims of avalanche research is to develop and validate computer models that can describe the evolution of the seasonal snowpack over time.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A complicating factor is the complex interaction of terrain and weather, which causes significant spatial and temporal variability of the depths, crystal forms, and layering of the seasonal snowpack.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slab_avalanches">Slab avalanches</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Avalanche&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Slab avalanches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Slab avalanches are formed frequently in snow that has been deposited, or redeposited by wind. They have the characteristic appearance of a block (slab) of snow cut out from its surroundings by fractures. Elements of slab avalanches include a crown fracture at the top of the start zone, flank fractures on the sides of the start zones, and a fracture at the bottom called the stauchwall. The crown and flank fractures are vertical walls in the snow delineating the snow that was entrained in the avalanche from the snow that remained on the slope. Slabs can vary in thickness from a few centimetres to three metres. Slab avalanches account for around 90% of avalanche-related fatalities.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Powder_snow_avalanches">Powder snow avalanches</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Avalanche&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Powder snow avalanches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Powder_snow_avalanche" title="Powder snow avalanche">Powder snow avalanche</a></div> <p>The largest avalanches form turbulent suspension currents known as <a href="/wiki/Powder_snow_avalanche" title="Powder snow avalanche">powder snow avalanches</a> or mixed avalanches,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a kind of <a href="/wiki/Gravity_current" title="Gravity current">gravity current</a>. These consist of a powder cloud, which overlies a dense avalanche. They can form from any type of snow or initiation mechanism, but usually occur with fresh dry powder. They can exceed speeds of 300 km/h (190 mph), and masses of 1,000,000 tons; their flows can travel long distances along flat valley bottoms and even uphill for short distances.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wet_snow_avalanches">Wet snow avalanches</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Avalanche&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Wet snow avalanches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lawinenkegel_auf_dem_Simplonpass_(2019).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lawinenkegel_auf_dem_Simplonpass_%282019%29.jpg/220px-Lawinenkegel_auf_dem_Simplonpass_%282019%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lawinenkegel_auf_dem_Simplonpass_%282019%29.jpg/330px-Lawinenkegel_auf_dem_Simplonpass_%282019%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lawinenkegel_auf_dem_Simplonpass_%282019%29.jpg/440px-Lawinenkegel_auf_dem_Simplonpass_%282019%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5472" data-file-height="3648" /></a><figcaption>Avalanche on <a href="/wiki/Simplon_Pass" title="Simplon Pass">Simplon Pass</a> (2019)</figcaption></figure> <p>In contrast to powder snow avalanches, wet snow avalanches are a low velocity suspension of snow and water, with the flow confined to the track surface (McClung, 1999, p. 108).<sup id="cite_ref-McClung_2006_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McClung_2006-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The low speed of travel is due to the friction between the sliding surface of the track and the water saturated flow. Despite the low speed of travel (≈10–40 km/h), wet snow avalanches are capable of generating powerful destructive forces, due to the large mass and density. The body of the flow of a wet snow avalanche can plough through soft snow, and can scour boulders, earth, trees, and other vegetation; leaving exposed and often scored ground in the avalanche track. Wet snow avalanches can be initiated from either loose snow releases, or slab releases, and only occur in snowpacks that are water saturated and isothermally equilibrated to the melting point of water. The isothermal characteristic of wet snow avalanches has led to the secondary term of isothermal slides found in the literature (for example in Daffern, 1999, p. 93).<sup id="cite_ref-Daffern_1999_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Daffern_1999-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At temperate latitudes wet snow avalanches are frequently associated with climatic avalanche cycles at the end of the winter season, when there is significant daytime warming.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ice_avalanche">Ice avalanche</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Avalanche&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Ice avalanche"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An ice avalanche occurs when a large piece of ice, such as from a serac or calving glacier, falls onto ice (such as the Khumbu Icefall), triggering a movement of broken ice chunks. The resulting movement is more analogous to a rockfall or a landslide than a snow avalanche.<sup id="cite_ref-McClung_2006_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McClung_2006-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are typically very difficult to predict and almost impossible to mitigate.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Avalanche_pathway">Avalanche pathway</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Avalanche&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Avalanche pathway"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As an avalanche moves down a slope it follows a certain pathway that is dependent on the slope's degree of steepness and the volume of snow/ice involved in the <a href="/wiki/Mass_wasting" title="Mass wasting">mass movement</a>. The origin of an avalanche is called the Starting Point and typically occurs on a 30–45 degree slope. The body of the pathway is called the Track of the avalanche and usually occurs on a 20–30 degree slope. When the avalanche loses its momentum and eventually stops it reaches the Runout Zone. This usually occurs when the slope has reached a steepness that is less than 20 degrees.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These degrees are not consistently true due to the fact that each avalanche is unique depending on the stability of the <a href="/wiki/Snowpack" title="Snowpack">snowpack</a> that it was derived from as well as the environmental or human influences that triggered the mass movement.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Injuries_and_deaths">Injuries and deaths</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Avalanche&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Injuries and deaths"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>People caught in avalanches can die from <a href="/wiki/Suffocation" class="mw-redirect" title="Suffocation">suffocation</a>, trauma, or <a href="/wiki/Hypothermia" title="Hypothermia">hypothermia</a>. From "1950–1951 to 2020–2021"<sup id="cite_ref-Colorado_Avalanche_Information_Center_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Colorado_Avalanche_Information_Center-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> there were 1,169 people who died in avalanches in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-Colorado_Avalanche_Information_Center_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Colorado_Avalanche_Information_Center-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the 11-year period ending April 2006, 445 people died in avalanches throughout North America.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On average, 28 people die in avalanches every winter in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-ready.gov_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ready.gov-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2001 it was reported that globally an average of 150 people die each year from avalanches.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From 2014–2024, the majority of those killed in avalanches in the United States were skiing (91) followed by snowmobiling (71), snowshoeing/climbing/hiking (38), and snowboarding (20).<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Three of <a href="/wiki/List_of_avalanches_by_death_toll" title="List of avalanches by death toll">the deadliest recorded avalanches</a> have killed over a thousand people each. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terrain,_snowpack,_weather"><span id="Terrain.2C_snowpack.2C_weather"></span>Terrain, snowpack, weather</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Avalanche&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Terrain, snowpack, weather"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:North_Ridge_of_Mount_Rohr.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/North_Ridge_of_Mount_Rohr.jpg/220px-North_Ridge_of_Mount_Rohr.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/North_Ridge_of_Mount_Rohr.jpg/330px-North_Ridge_of_Mount_Rohr.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/North_Ridge_of_Mount_Rohr.jpg/440px-North_Ridge_of_Mount_Rohr.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>In steep avalanche-prone terrain, traveling on <a href="/wiki/Ridge" title="Ridge">ridges</a> is generally safer than traversing the slopes.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mount_Windsor_Cornice2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Mount_Windsor_Cornice2.jpg/220px-Mount_Windsor_Cornice2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Mount_Windsor_Cornice2.jpg/330px-Mount_Windsor_Cornice2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Mount_Windsor_Cornice2.jpg/440px-Mount_Windsor_Cornice2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2712" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Cornice_(climbing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cornice (climbing)">cornice</a> of snow about to fall. Cracks in the snow are visible in area (1). Area (3) fell soon after this picture was taken, leaving area (2) as the new edge.</figcaption></figure> <p>Doug Fesler and Jill Fredston developed a conceptual model of the three primary elements of avalanches: terrain, weather, and snowpack. Terrain describes the places where avalanches occur, weather describes the meteorological conditions that create the snowpack, and snowpack describes the structural characteristics of snow that make avalanche formation possible.<sup id="cite_ref-McClung_2006_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McClung_2006-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Terrain">Terrain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Avalanche&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Terrain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Avalanche formation requires a slope shallow enough for snow to accumulate but steep enough for the snow to accelerate once set in motion by the combination of mechanical failure (of the snowpack) and gravity. The angle of the slope that can hold snow, called the <a href="/wiki/Angle_of_repose" title="Angle of repose">angle of repose</a>, depends on a variety of factors, such as crystal form and moisture content. Some forms of drier and colder snow will only stick to shallower slopes, while wet and warm snow can bond to very steep surfaces. In coastal mountains, such as the <a href="/wiki/Cordillera_del_Paine" class="mw-redirect" title="Cordillera del Paine">Cordillera del Paine</a> region of <a href="/wiki/Patagonia" title="Patagonia">Patagonia</a>, deep snowpacks collect on vertical and even overhanging rock faces. The slope angle that can allow moving snow to accelerate depends on a variety of factors such as the snow's shear strength (which is itself dependent upon crystal form) and the configuration of layers and inter-layer interfaces.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The snowpack on slopes with sunny exposures is strongly influenced by <a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">sunshine</a>. Diurnal cycles of thawing and refreezing can stabilize the snowpack by promoting settlement. Strong freeze-thaw cycles result in the formation of surface crusts during the night and of unstable surface snow during the day. Slopes in the lee of a ridge or of another wind obstacle accumulate more snow and are more likely to include pockets of deep snow, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wind_slabs&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wind slabs (page does not exist)">wind slabs</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cornice_(climbing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cornice (climbing)">cornices</a>, all of which, when disturbed, may result in avalanche formation. Conversely, the snowpack on a windward slope is often much shallower than on a lee slope.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Avalanche_path_7271.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Avalanche_path_7271.JPG/220px-Avalanche_path_7271.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Avalanche_path_7271.JPG/330px-Avalanche_path_7271.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Avalanche_path_7271.JPG/440px-Avalanche_path_7271.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>Avalanche path with 800 metres (2,600 ft) vertical fall in the <a href="/wiki/Glacier_Peak_Wilderness" title="Glacier Peak Wilderness">Glacier Peak Wilderness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Washington_(state)" title="Washington (state)">Washington state</a>. Avalanche paths in alpine terrain may be poorly defined because of limited vegetation. Below tree line, avalanche paths are often delineated by vegetative trim lines created by past avalanches. The start zone is visible near the top of the image, the track is in the middle of the image and clearly denoted by vegetative trimlines, and the runout zone is shown at the bottom of the image. One possible timeline is as follows: an avalanche forms in the start zone near the ridge, and then descends the track, until coming to rest in the runout zone.</figcaption></figure> <p>Avalanches and avalanche paths share common elements: a start zone where the avalanche originates, a track along which the avalanche flows, and a runout zone where the avalanche comes to rest. The debris deposit is the accumulated mass of the avalanched snow once it has come to rest in the run-out zone. For the image at left, many small avalanches form in this avalanche path every year, but most of these avalanches do not run the full vertical or horizontal length of the path. The frequency with which avalanches form in a given area is known as the <a href="/wiki/Return_period" title="Return period">return period</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The start zone of an avalanche must be steep enough to allow snow to accelerate once set in motion, additionally <a href="/wiki/Convex_function" title="Convex function">convex</a> slopes are less stable than <a href="/wiki/Concave_function" title="Concave function">concave</a> slopes because of the disparity between the <a href="/wiki/Tensile_strength" class="mw-redirect" title="Tensile strength">tensile strength</a> of snow layers and their <a href="/wiki/Compressive_strength" title="Compressive strength">compressive strength</a>. The composition and structure of the ground surface beneath the snowpack influences the stability of the snowpack, either being a source of strength or weakness. Avalanches are unlikely to form in very thick forests, but boulders and sparsely distributed vegetation can create weak areas deep within the snowpack through the formation of strong temperature gradients. Full-depth avalanches (avalanches that sweep a slope virtually clean of snow cover) are more common on slopes with smooth ground, such as grass or rock slabs.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Generally speaking, avalanches follow drainages down-slope, frequently sharing drainage features with summertime watersheds. At and below <a href="/wiki/Tree_line" title="Tree line">tree line</a>, avalanche paths through drainages are well defined by vegetation boundaries called <a href="/wiki/Trim_line" title="Trim line">trim lines</a>, which occur where avalanches have removed trees and prevented regrowth of large vegetation. Engineered drainages, such as the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Avalanche_dam_on_Mount_Stephen_in_Kicking_Horse_Pass&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Avalanche dam on Mount Stephen in Kicking Horse Pass (page does not exist)">avalanche dam on Mount Stephen in Kicking Horse Pass</a>, have been constructed to protect people and property by redirecting the flow of avalanches. Deep debris deposits from avalanches will collect in catchments at the terminus of a run out, such as gullies and river beds. </p><p>Slopes flatter than 25 degrees or steeper than 60 degrees typically have a lower incidence of avalanches. Human-triggered avalanches have the greatest incidence when the snow's <a href="/wiki/Angle_of_repose" title="Angle of repose">angle of repose</a> is between 35 and 45 degrees; the critical angle,<sup id="cite_ref-:1_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the angle at which human-triggered avalanches are most frequent, is 38 degrees. When the incidence of human triggered avalanches is normalized by the rates of recreational use, however, hazard increases uniformly with slope angle, and no significant difference in hazard for a given exposure direction can be found.<sup id="cite_ref-Pascal_Hageli_et_al_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pascal_Hageli_et_al-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rule of thumb is: <i>A slope that is flat enough to hold snow but steep enough to ski has the potential to generate an avalanche, regardless of the angle.</i><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Snowpack_structure_and_characteristics">Snowpack structure and characteristics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Avalanche&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Snowpack structure and characteristics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:D_Hoarfrost_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/D_Hoarfrost_3.jpg/220px-D_Hoarfrost_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/D_Hoarfrost_3.jpg/330px-D_Hoarfrost_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/D_Hoarfrost_3.jpg/440px-D_Hoarfrost_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>After surface <a href="/wiki/Hoarfrost" class="mw-redirect" title="Hoarfrost">hoarfrost</a> becomes buried by later snowfall, the buried hoar layer can be a weak layer upon which upper layers can slide.</figcaption></figure> <p>The snowpack is composed of ground-parallel layers that accumulate over the winter. Each layer contains ice grains that are representative of the distinct meteorological conditions during which the snow formed and was deposited. Once deposited, a snow layer continues to evolve under the influence of the meteorological conditions that prevail after deposition.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>For an avalanche to occur, it is necessary that a snowpack have a weak layer (or instability) below a slab of cohesive snow. In practice the formal mechanical and structural factors related to snowpack instability are not directly observable outside of laboratories, thus the more easily observed properties of the snow layers (e.g. penetration resistance, grain size, grain type, temperature) are used as index measurements of the mechanical properties of the snow (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Tensile_strength" class="mw-redirect" title="Tensile strength">tensile strength</a>, <a href="/wiki/Friction" title="Friction">friction</a> coefficients, <a href="/wiki/Shear_strength" title="Shear strength">shear strength</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ductility" title="Ductility">ductile strength</a>). This results in two principal sources of uncertainty in determining snowpack stability based on snow structure: First, both the factors influencing snow stability and the specific characteristics of the snowpack vary widely within small areas and time scales, resulting in significant difficulty extrapolating point observations of snow layers across different scales of space and time. Second, the relationship between readily observable snowpack characteristics and the snowpack's critical mechanical properties has not been completely developed.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>While the deterministic relationship between snowpack characteristics and snowpack stability is still a matter of ongoing scientific study, there is a growing empirical understanding of the snow composition and deposition characteristics that influence the likelihood of an avalanche. Observation and experience has shown that newly fallen snow requires time to bond with the snow layers beneath it, especially if the new snow falls during very cold and dry conditions. If ambient air temperatures are cold enough, shallow snow above or around boulders, plants, and other discontinuities in the slope, weakens from rapid crystal growth that occurs in the presence of a critical temperature gradient. Large, angular snow crystals are indicators of weak snow, because such crystals have fewer bonds per unit volume than small, rounded crystals that pack tightly together. Consolidated snow is less likely to slough than loose powdery layers or wet isothermal snow; however, consolidated snow is a necessary condition for the occurrence of <a href="/wiki/Slab_avalanche" class="mw-redirect" title="Slab avalanche">slab avalanches</a>, and persistent instabilities within the snowpack can hide below well-consolidated surface layers. Uncertainty associated with the empirical understanding of the factors influencing snow stability leads most professional avalanche workers to recommend conservative use of avalanche terrain relative to current snowpack instability.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Weather">Weather</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Avalanche&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Weather"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Avalanche" title="Special:EditPage/Avalanche">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Avalanche_testing_snow_pit.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Avalanche_testing_snow_pit.JPG/220px-Avalanche_testing_snow_pit.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Avalanche_testing_snow_pit.JPG/330px-Avalanche_testing_snow_pit.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Avalanche_testing_snow_pit.JPG/440px-Avalanche_testing_snow_pit.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption>After digging a snow pit, it is possible to evaluate the snowpack for unstable layers. In this picture, snow from a weak layer has been easily scraped away by hand, leaving a horizontal line in the wall of the pit.</figcaption></figure> <p>Avalanches only occur in a standing snowpack. Typically winter seasons at high latitudes, high altitudes, or both have weather that is sufficiently unsettled and cold enough for precipitated snow to accumulate into a seasonal snowpack. <a href="/wiki/Continentality" class="mw-redirect" title="Continentality">Continentality</a>, through its potentiating influence on the meteorological extremes experienced by snowpacks, is an important factor in the evolution of instabilities, and consequential occurrence of avalanches faster stabilization of the snowpack after storm cycles.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The evolution of the snowpack is critically sensitive to small variations within the narrow range of meteorological conditions that allow for the accumulation of snow into a snowpack. Among the critical factors controlling snowpack evolution are: heating by the sun, <a href="/wiki/Radiational_cooling" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiational cooling">radiational cooling</a>, vertical <a href="/wiki/Temperature_gradient" title="Temperature gradient">temperature gradients</a> in standing snow, snowfall amounts, and snow types. Generally, mild winter weather will promote the settlement and stabilization of the snowpack; conversely, very cold, windy, or hot weather will weaken the snowpack.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At temperatures close to the freezing point of water, or during times of moderate solar radiation, a gentle freeze-thaw cycle will take place. The melting and refreezing of water in the snow strengthens the snowpack during the freezing phase and weakens it during the thawing phase. A rapid rise in temperature, to a point significantly above the freezing point of water, may cause avalanche formation at any time of year.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Persistent cold temperatures can either prevent new snow from stabilizing or destabilize the existing snowpack. Cold air temperatures on the snow surface produce a temperature gradient in the snow, because the ground temperature at the base of the snowpack is usually around 0 °C, and the ambient air temperature can be much colder. When a temperature gradient greater than 10 °C change per vertical meter of snow is sustained for more than a day, angular crystals called <a href="/wiki/Depth_hoar" title="Depth hoar">depth hoar</a> or facets begin forming in the snowpack because of rapid moisture transport along the temperature gradient. These angular crystals, which bond poorly to one another and the surrounding snow, often become a persistent weakness in the snowpack. When a slab lying on top of a persistent weakness is loaded by a force greater than the strength of the slab and persistent weak layer, the persistent weak layer can fail and generate an avalanche.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Any wind stronger than a light breeze can contribute to a rapid accumulation of snow on sheltered slopes downwind. Wind slabs form quickly and, if present, weaker snow below the slab may not have time to adjust to the new load. Even on a clear day, wind can quickly load a slope with snow by blowing snow from one place to another. Top-loading occurs when wind deposits snow from the top of a slope; cross-loading occurs when wind deposits snow parallel to the slope. When a wind blows over the top of a mountain, the leeward, or downwind, side of the mountain experiences top-loading, from the top to the bottom of that lee slope. When the wind blows across a ridge that leads up the mountain, the leeward side of the ridge is subject to cross-loading. Cross-loaded wind-slabs are usually difficult to identify visually.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Snowstorms and rainstorms are important contributors to avalanche danger. Heavy snowfall will cause instability in the existing snowpack, both because of the additional weight and because the new snow has insufficient time to bond to underlying snow layers. Rain has a similar effect. In the short term, rain causes instability because, like a heavy snowfall, it imposes an additional load on the snowpack and once rainwater seeps down through the snow, acts as a lubricant, reducing the natural friction between snow layers that holds the snowpack together. Most avalanches happen during or soon after a storm.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Daytime exposure to sunlight will rapidly destabilize the upper layers of the snowpack if the sunlight is strong enough to melt the snow, thereby reducing its hardness. During clear nights, the snowpack can re-freeze when ambient air temperatures fall below freezing, through the process of long-wave radiative cooling, or both. Radiative heat loss occurs when the night air is significantly cooler than the snowpack, and the heat stored in the snow is re-radiated into the atmosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dynamics">Dynamics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Avalanche&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Dynamics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When a slab avalanche forms, the slab disintegrates into increasingly smaller fragments as the snow travels downhill. If the fragments become small enough the outer layer of the avalanche, called a saltation layer, takes on the characteristics of a <a href="/wiki/Fluid" title="Fluid">fluid</a>. When sufficiently fine particles are present they can become airborne and, given a sufficient quantity of airborne snow, this portion of the avalanche can become separated from the bulk of the avalanche and travel a greater distance as a powder snow avalanche.<sup id="cite_ref-final_report_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-final_report-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scientific studies using <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a>, following the 1999 <a href="/wiki/Galt%C3%BCr_Avalanche" class="mw-redirect" title="Galtür Avalanche">Galtür avalanche disaster</a>, confirmed the hypothesis that a <a href="/wiki/Saltation_(geology)" title="Saltation (geology)">saltation layer</a> forms between the surface and the airborne components of an avalanche, which can also separate from the bulk of the avalanche.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Driving an avalanche is the component of the avalanche's weight parallel to the slope; as the avalanche progresses any unstable snow in its path will tend to become incorporated, so increasing the overall weight. This force will increase as the steepness of the slope increases, and diminish as the slope flattens. Resisting this are a number of components that are thought to interact with each other: the friction between the avalanche and the surface beneath; friction between the air and snow within the fluid; fluid-dynamic drag at the leading edge of the avalanche; shear resistance between the avalanche and the air through which it is passing, and shear resistance between the fragments within the avalanche itself. An avalanche will continue to accelerate until the resistance exceeds the forward force.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modeling">Modeling</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Avalanche&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Modeling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Attempts to model avalanche behaviour date from the early 20th century, notably the work of Professor Lagotala in preparation for the <a href="/wiki/1924_Winter_Olympics" title="1924 Winter Olympics">1924 Winter Olympics</a> in <a href="/wiki/Chamonix" title="Chamonix">Chamonix</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ancey_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ancey-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His method was developed by A. Voellmy and popularised following the publication in 1955 of his <i>Ueber die Zerstoerungskraft von Lawinen</i> (On the Destructive Force of Avalanches).<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Voellmy used a simple empirical formula, treating an avalanche as a sliding block of snow moving with a drag force that was proportional to the square of the speed of its flow:<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\textrm {Pref}}={\frac {1}{2}}\,{\rho }\,{v^{2}}\,\!}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>Pref</mtext> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>ρ</mi> </mrow> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msup> <mi>v</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mspace width="negativethinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\textrm {Pref}}={\frac {1}{2}}\,{\rho }\,{v^{2}}\,\!}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2d2247404a9c90bc05f4ae3a341b58c76056bacf" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; margin-right: -0.387ex; width:13.881ex; height:5.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\textrm {Pref}}={\frac {1}{2}}\,{\rho }\,{v^{2}}\,\!}"></span></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>He and others subsequently derived other formulae that take other factors into account, with the Voellmy-Salm-Gubler and the Perla-Cheng-McClung models becoming most widely used as simple tools to model flowing (as opposed to powder snow) avalanches.<sup id="cite_ref-Ancey_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ancey-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since the 1990s many more sophisticated models have been developed. In Europe much of the recent work was carried out as part of the SATSIE (Avalanche Studies and Model Validation in Europe) research project supported by the <a href="/wiki/European_Commission" title="European Commission">European Commission</a><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which produced the leading-edge MN2L model, now in use with the <i>Service Restauration des Terrains en Montagne</i> (Mountain Rescue Service) in France, and D2FRAM (Dynamical Two-Flow-Regime Avalanche Model), which was still undergoing validation as of 2007.<sup id="cite_ref-final_report_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-final_report-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other known models are the SAMOS-AT avalanche simulation software<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the RAMMS software.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Human_involvement">Human involvement</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Avalanche&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Human involvement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Avalanche_warning_in_Tuckerman.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Avalanche_warning_in_Tuckerman.JPG/260px-Avalanche_warning_in_Tuckerman.JPG" decoding="async" width="260" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Avalanche_warning_in_Tuckerman.JPG 1.5x" data-file-width="309" data-file-height="260" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/United_States_Forest_Service" title="United States Forest Service">United States Forest Service</a> avalanche danger advisories.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Verbauung_Tanngrindel.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Verbauung_Tanngrindel.JPG/220px-Verbauung_Tanngrindel.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Verbauung_Tanngrindel.JPG/330px-Verbauung_Tanngrindel.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Verbauung_Tanngrindel.JPG/440px-Verbauung_Tanngrindel.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Snow_fence" title="Snow fence">Snow fences</a> in <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a> during summer.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Avalanche_Blasting.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Avalanche_Blasting.jpg/220px-Avalanche_Blasting.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Avalanche_Blasting.jpg/330px-Avalanche_Blasting.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Avalanche_Blasting.jpg/440px-Avalanche_Blasting.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>Avalanche blasting in French <a href="/wiki/Ski_resort" title="Ski resort">ski resort</a> <a href="/wiki/Tignes" title="Tignes">Tignes</a> (3,600 m)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Avalanche_warning_Banff.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Avalanche_warning_Banff.jpg/170px-Avalanche_warning_Banff.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="109" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Avalanche_warning_Banff.jpg/255px-Avalanche_warning_Banff.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Avalanche_warning_Banff.jpg/340px-Avalanche_warning_Banff.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1159" data-file-height="744" /></a><figcaption>Avalanche warning sign near <a href="/wiki/Banff,_Alberta" title="Banff, Alberta">Banff, Alberta</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="How_to_prevent_avalanches">How to prevent avalanches</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Avalanche&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: How to prevent avalanches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Avalanche_control" title="Avalanche control">Avalanche control</a></div> <p>Preventative measures are employed in areas where avalanches pose a significant threat to people, such as <a href="/wiki/Ski_resort" title="Ski resort">ski resorts</a>, mountain towns, roads, and railways. There are several ways to prevent avalanches and lessen their power and develop preventative measures to reduce the likelihood and size of avalanches by disrupting the structure of the snowpack, while passive measures reinforce and stabilize the snowpack <i>in situ</i>. The simplest active measure is repeatedly traveling on a snowpack as snow accumulates; this can be by means of boot-packing, ski-cutting, or <a href="/wiki/Snow_grooming" title="Snow grooming">machine grooming</a>. <a href="/wiki/Explosive" title="Explosive">Explosives</a> are used extensively to prevent avalanches, by triggering smaller avalanches that break down instabilities in the snowpack, and removing overburden that can result in larger avalanches. Explosive charges are delivered by a number of methods including hand-tossed charges, helicopter-dropped bombs, Gazex concussion lines, and ballistic projectiles launched by air cannons and artillery. Passive preventive systems such as <a href="/wiki/Snow_fence" title="Snow fence">snow fences</a> and light walls can be used to direct the placement of snow. Snow builds up around the fence, especially the side that faces the prevailing <a href="/wiki/Wind" title="Wind">winds</a>. Downwind of the fence, snow build-up is lessened. This is caused by the loss of snow at the fence that would have been deposited and the pickup of the snow that is already there by the wind, which was depleted of snow at the fence. When there is a sufficient density of <a href="/wiki/Tree" title="Tree">trees</a>, they can greatly reduce the strength of avalanches. They hold snow in place and when there is an avalanche, the impact of the snow against the trees slows it down. Trees can either be planted or they can be conserved, such as in the building of a ski resort, to reduce the strength of avalanches.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In turn, socio-environmental changes can influence the occurrence of damaging avalanches: some studies linking changes in land-use/land-cover patterns and the evolution of snow avalanche damage in mid latitude mountains show the importance of the role played by vegetation cover, that is at the root of the increase of damage when the protective forest is deforested (because of demographic growth, intensive grazing and industrial or legal causes), and at the root of the decrease of damage because of the transformation of a traditional land-management system based on <a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">overexploitation</a> into a system based on land marginalization and reforestation, something that has happened mainly since the mid-20th century in mountain environments of developed countries.<sup id="cite_ref-García-Hernández_et_al.,_2017_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-García-Hernández_et_al.,_2017-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mitigation">Mitigation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Avalanche&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Mitigation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In many areas, regular avalanche tracks can be identified and precautions can be taken to minimize damage, such as the prevention of development in these areas. To mitigate the effect of avalanches the construction of artificial barriers can be very effective in reducing avalanche damage. There are several types: One kind of barrier (<a href="/wiki/Snow_net" class="mw-redirect" title="Snow net">snow net</a>) uses a net strung between poles that are anchored by <a href="/wiki/Guy_wire" class="mw-redirect" title="Guy wire">guy wires</a> in addition to their foundations. These barriers are similar to those used for <a href="/wiki/Rockslide" title="Rockslide">rockslides</a>. Another type of barrier is a rigid fence-like structure (<a href="/wiki/Snow_fence" title="Snow fence">snow fence</a>) and may be constructed of <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">wood</a> or pre-stressed <a href="/wiki/Concrete" title="Concrete">concrete</a>. They usually have gaps between the beams and are built perpendicular to the slope, with reinforcing beams on the downhill side. Rigid barriers are often considered unsightly, especially when many rows must be built. They are also expensive and vulnerable to damage from falling rocks in the warmer months. In addition to industrially manufactured barriers, landscaped barriers, called <a href="/wiki/Avalanche_dam" class="mw-redirect" title="Avalanche dam">avalanche dams</a> stop or deflect avalanches with their weight and strength. These barriers are made out of concrete, rocks, or earth. They are usually placed right above the structure, road, or railway that they are trying to protect, although they can also be used to channel avalanches into other barriers. Occasionally, <a href="/wiki/Earth_mound" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth mound">earth mounds</a> are placed in the avalanche's path to slow it down. Finally, along transportation corridors, large shelters, called <a href="/wiki/Snow_shed" class="mw-redirect" title="Snow shed">snow sheds</a>, can be built directly in the slide path of an avalanche to protect traffic from avalanches.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_warning_systems">Early warning systems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Avalanche&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Early warning systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Warning systems can detect avalanches which develop slowly, such as ice avalanches caused by icefalls from glaciers. Interferometric radars, high-resolution cameras, or motion sensors can monitor instable areas over a long term, lasting from days to years. Experts interpret the recorded data and are able to recognize upcoming ruptures in order to initiate appropriate measures. Such systems (e.g. the monitoring of the Weissmies glacier in Switzerland<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) can recognize events several days in advance. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alarm_systems">Alarm systems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Avalanche&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Alarm systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ZermattRadar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/ZermattRadar.jpg/220px-ZermattRadar.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/ZermattRadar.jpg/330px-ZermattRadar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/ZermattRadar.jpg/440px-ZermattRadar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>Radar station for avalanche monitoring in <a href="/wiki/Zermatt" title="Zermatt">Zermatt</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Zermatt_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zermatt-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Modern radar technology enables the monitoring of large areas and the localization of avalanches at any weather condition, by day and by night. Complex alarm systems are able to detect avalanches within a short time in order to close (e.g. roads and rails) or evacuate (e.g. construction sites) endangered areas. An example of such a system is installed on the only access road of Zermatt in Switzerland.<sup id="cite_ref-Zermatt_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zermatt-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two radars monitor the slope of a mountain above the road. The system automatically closes the road by activating several barriers and traffic lights within seconds such that no people are harmed.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Survival,_rescue,_and_recovery"><span id="Survival.2C_rescue.2C_and_recovery"></span>Survival, rescue, and recovery</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Avalanche&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Survival, rescue, and recovery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Avalanche_rescue" title="Avalanche rescue">Avalanche rescue</a></div> <p>Avalanche accidents are broadly differentiated into 2 categories: accidents in recreational settings, and accidents in residential, industrial, and transportation settings. This distinction is motivated by the observed difference in the causes of avalanche accidents in the two settings. In the recreational setting most accidents are caused by the people involved in the avalanche. In a 1996 study, Jamieson et al. (pages 7–20)<sup id="cite_ref-Jamieson_1996_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jamieson_1996-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> found that 83% of all avalanches in the recreational setting were caused by those who were involved in the <a href="/wiki/Accident" title="Accident">accident</a>. In contrast, all the accidents in the residential, industrial, and transportation settings were due to spontaneous natural avalanches. Because of the difference in the causes of avalanche accidents, and the activities pursued in the two settings, avalanche and disaster management professionals have developed two related preparedness, rescue, and recovery strategies for each of the settings.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_avalanches">Notable avalanches</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Avalanche&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Notable avalanches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_avalanches" class="mw-redirect" title="List of avalanches">List of avalanches</a></div> <p>Two avalanches occurred in March 1910 in the Cascade and Selkirk Mountain ranges; on 1 March the <a href="/wiki/Wellington_avalanche" class="mw-redirect" title="Wellington avalanche">Wellington avalanche</a> killed 96 in <a href="/wiki/Washington_(state)" title="Washington (state)">Washington state</a>, United States. Three days later 62 railroad workers were killed in the <a href="/wiki/Rogers_Pass_avalanche" class="mw-redirect" title="Rogers Pass avalanche">Rogers Pass avalanche</a> in <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a>, Canada.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, an estimated 40,000 to 80,000 soldiers died as a result of avalanches during the mountain campaign in the <a href="/wiki/Alps" title="Alps">Alps</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Campaign_(World_War_I)" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Campaign (World War I)">Austrian-Italian</a> front, many of which were caused by <a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">artillery</a> fire.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some 10,000 men, from both sides, died in avalanches in December 1916.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Northern_hemisphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern hemisphere">northern hemisphere</a> winter of 1950–1951 approximately 649 avalanches were recorded in a three-month period throughout the <a href="/wiki/Alps" title="Alps">Alps</a> in Austria, France, Switzerland, Italy and Germany. This series of avalanches killed around 265 people and was termed the <a href="/wiki/Winter_of_Terror_(1951)" class="mw-redirect" title="Winter of Terror (1951)">Winter of Terror</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/1968_Bia%C5%82y_Jar_avalanche" title="1968 Biały Jar avalanche">avalanche in Biały Jar</a> occurred on 20 March 1968, sweeping away 24 people who were walking along the bottom of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bia%C5%82y_Jar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Biały Jar (page does not exist)">Biały Jar</a> ravine in the <a href="/wiki/Giant_Mountains" title="Giant Mountains">Giant Mountains</a>. Five of them, who were thrown aside by the avalanche, managed to survive. The remaining 19 people – including 13 Russians, 4 citizens of <a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East Germany</a>, and two Polish citizens – lost their lives. A total of 1,100 people took part in the rescue operation.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A mountain climbing camp on Lenin Peak, in what is now Kyrgyzstan, was wiped out in 1990 when an earthquake triggered a large avalanche that overran the camp.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Forty-three climbers were killed.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1993, the <a href="/wiki/1993_Bayburt_%C3%9Czengili_avalanche" title="1993 Bayburt Üzengili avalanche">Bayburt Üzengili avalanche</a> killed 60 individuals in <a href="/wiki/%C3%9Czengili,_Bayburt" title="Üzengili, Bayburt">Üzengili</a> in the province of <a href="/wiki/Bayburt_Province" title="Bayburt Province">Bayburt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A large avalanche in <a href="/wiki/Montroc,_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Montroc, France">Montroc, France</a>, in 1999, 300,000 cubic metres of snow slid on a 30° slope, achieving a speed in the region of 100 km/h (62 mph). It killed 12 people in their chalets under 100,000 tons of snow, 5 meters (16 feet) deep. The mayor of <a href="/wiki/Chamonix" title="Chamonix">Chamonix</a> was convicted of second-degree murder for not evacuating the area, but received a suspended sentence.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The small Austrian village of <a href="/wiki/Galt%C3%BCr" title="Galtür">Galtür</a> was hit by the <a href="/wiki/1999_Galt%C3%BCr_avalanche" title="1999 Galtür avalanche">Galtür avalanche</a> in 1999. The village was thought to be in a safe zone but the avalanche was exceptionally large and flowed into the village. Thirty-one people died.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>On 1 December 2000, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Glory_Bowl_Avalanche&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glory Bowl Avalanche (page does not exist)">Glory Bowl Avalanche</a> formed on Mt. Glory which is located within the <a href="/wiki/Teton_Range" title="Teton Range">Teton Mountain Range</a> in Wyoming, United States. Joel Roof was snowboarding recreationally in this backcountry, bowl-shaped run and triggered the avalanche. He was carried nearly 2,000 feet to the base of the mountain and was not successfully rescued.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 28 January 2003, the <a href="/wiki/2003_Tatra_Mountains_avalanche" title="2003 Tatra Mountains avalanche">Tatra Mountains avalanche</a> swept away nine out of a thirteen-member group heading to the summit of <a href="/wiki/Rysy" title="Rysy">Rysy</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Tatra_Mountains" title="Tatra Mountains">Tatra Mountains</a>. The participants of the trip were students from the <a href="/w/index.php?title=I_Leon_Kruczkowski_High_School&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="I Leon Kruczkowski High School (page does not exist)">I Leon Kruczkowski High School</a> in <a href="/wiki/Tychy" title="Tychy">Tychy</a> and individuals associated with the school's sports club. </p><p>On 3 July 2022 a <a href="/wiki/2022_Marmolada_serac_collapse" title="2022 Marmolada serac collapse">serac collapsed</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Marmolada_Glacier" title="Marmolada Glacier">Marmolada Glacier</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>, causing an avalanche that killed 11 alpinists and injured eight.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification_of_avalanches">Classification of avalanches</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Avalanche&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Classification of avalanches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="European_avalanche_risk">European avalanche risk</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Avalanche&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: European avalanche risk"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>, the avalanche risk is widely rated on the following scale, which was adopted in April 1993 to replace the earlier non-standard national schemes. Descriptions were last updated in May 2003 to enhance uniformity.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In France, most avalanche deaths occur at risk levels 3 and 4. In Switzerland most occur at levels 2 and 3. It is thought that this may be due to national differences of interpretation when assessing the risks.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th style="width:10%;">Risk Level </th> <th style="width:25%;">Snow Stability </th> <th style="width:10%;">Icon </th> <th style="width:55%;">Avalanche Risk </th></tr> <tr> <td>1 – Low </td> <td>Snow is generally very stable. </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Avalanche_low_danger_level.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Avalanche_low_danger_level.svg/66px-Avalanche_low_danger_level.svg.png" decoding="async" width="66" height="64" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Avalanche_low_danger_level.svg/98px-Avalanche_low_danger_level.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Avalanche_low_danger_level.svg/131px-Avalanche_low_danger_level.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1666" data-file-height="1624" /></a></span> </td> <td>Avalanches are unlikely except when heavy loads are applied on a few extreme steep slopes. Any spontaneous avalanches will be minor sloughs. In general, safe conditions. </td></tr> <tr> <td>2 – Moderate </td> <td>On some steep slopes the snow is only moderately stable. Elsewhere it is very stable. </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Avalanche_moderate_danger_level.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Avalanche_moderate_danger_level.svg/64px-Avalanche_moderate_danger_level.svg.png" decoding="async" width="64" height="64" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Avalanche_moderate_danger_level.svg/96px-Avalanche_moderate_danger_level.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Avalanche_moderate_danger_level.svg/128px-Avalanche_moderate_danger_level.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1656" data-file-height="1653" /></a></span> </td> <td>Avalanches may be triggered when heavy loads are applied, especially on a few generally identified steep slopes. Large spontaneous avalanches are not expected. </td></tr> <tr> <td>3 – Considerable </td> <td>On many steep slopes the snow is only moderately or weakly stable. </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Avalanche_considerable_danger_level.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Avalanche_considerable_danger_level.svg/76px-Avalanche_considerable_danger_level.svg.png" decoding="async" width="76" height="64" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Avalanche_considerable_danger_level.svg/114px-Avalanche_considerable_danger_level.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Avalanche_considerable_danger_level.svg/152px-Avalanche_considerable_danger_level.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1968" data-file-height="1653" /></a></span> </td> <td>Avalanches may be triggered on many slopes even if only light loads are applied. On some slopes, medium or even fairly large spontaneous avalanches may occur. </td></tr> <tr> <td>4 – High </td> <td>On most steep slopes the snow is not very stable. </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Avalanche_high_or_very_high_danger_level.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Avalanche_high_or_very_high_danger_level.svg/87px-Avalanche_high_or_very_high_danger_level.svg.png" decoding="async" width="87" height="64" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Avalanche_high_or_very_high_danger_level.svg/131px-Avalanche_high_or_very_high_danger_level.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Avalanche_high_or_very_high_danger_level.svg/175px-Avalanche_high_or_very_high_danger_level.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2268" data-file-height="1664" /></a></span> </td> <td>Avalanches are likely to be triggered on many slopes even if only light loads are applied. In some places, many medium or sometimes large spontaneous avalanches are likely. </td></tr> <tr> <td>5 – Very High </td> <td>The snow is generally unstable. </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Avalanche_high_or_very_high_danger_level.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Avalanche_high_or_very_high_danger_level.svg/87px-Avalanche_high_or_very_high_danger_level.svg.png" decoding="async" width="87" height="64" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Avalanche_high_or_very_high_danger_level.svg/131px-Avalanche_high_or_very_high_danger_level.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Avalanche_high_or_very_high_danger_level.svg/175px-Avalanche_high_or_very_high_danger_level.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2268" data-file-height="1664" /></a></span> </td> <td>Even on gentle slopes, many large spontaneous avalanches are likely to occur. </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>[1] Stability:</b> </p> <ul><li>Generally described in more detail in the avalanche bulletin (regarding the altitude, aspect, type of terrain etc.)</li></ul> <p><b>[2] additional load:</b> </p> <ul><li>heavy: two or more skiers or boarders without spacing between them, a single <a href="/wiki/Hiking" title="Hiking">hiker</a> or <a href="/wiki/Climbing" title="Climbing">climber</a>, a grooming machine, avalanche blasting</li> <li>light: a single skier or snowboarder smoothly linking turns and without falling, a group of skiers or snowboarders with a minimum 10 m gap between each person, a single person on <a href="/wiki/Snowshoe" title="Snowshoe">snowshoes</a></li></ul> <p><b>Gradient:</b> </p> <ul><li>gentle slopes: with an incline below about 30°</li> <li>steep slopes: with an incline over 30°</li> <li>very steep slopes: with an incline over 35°</li> <li>extremely steep slopes: extreme in terms of the incline (over 40°), the terrain profile, proximity of the ridge, smoothness of underlying ground</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="European_avalanche_size_table">European avalanche size table</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Avalanche&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: European avalanche size table"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Avalanche size:</b> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th style="width:10%;">Size </th> <th style="width:35%;">Runout </th> <th style="width:35%;">Potential Damage </th> <th style="width:20%;">Physical Size </th></tr> <tr> <td>1 – Sluff </td> <td>Small snow slide that cannot bury a person, though there is a danger of falling. </td> <td>Unlikely, but possible risk of injury or death to people. </td> <td>length <50 m <br />volume <100 m<sup>3</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2 – Small </td> <td>Stops within the slope. </td> <td>Could bury, injure or kill a person. </td> <td>length <100 m <br />volume <1,000 m<sup>3</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>3 – Medium </td> <td>Runs to the bottom of the slope. </td> <td>Could bury and destroy a car, damage a truck, destroy small buildings or break trees. </td> <td>length <1,000 m <br />volume <10,000 m<sup>3</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>4 – Large </td> <td>Runs over flat areas (significantly less than 30°) of at least 50 m in length, may reach the valley bottom. </td> <td>Could bury and destroy large trucks and trains, large buildings and forested areas. </td> <td>length >1,000 m <br />volume >10,000 m<sup>3</sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="North_American_Avalanche_Danger_Scale">North American Avalanche Danger Scale</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Avalanche&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: North American Avalanche Danger Scale"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> In the United States and Canada, the following avalanche danger scale is used. Descriptors vary depending on country.</p><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Danger_Scale_-_English.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Danger Scale – English"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Danger_Scale_-_English.jpg/703px-Danger_Scale_-_English.jpg" decoding="async" width="703" height="398" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Danger_Scale_-_English.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="990" data-file-height="560" /></a><figcaption>Danger Scale – English</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Avalanche_problems">Avalanche problems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Avalanche&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Avalanche problems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are nine different types of avalanche problems:<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Storm slab</li> <li>Wind slab</li> <li>Wet slab avalanches</li> <li>Persistent slab</li> <li>Deep persistent slab</li> <li>Loose dry avalanches</li> <li>Loose wet avalanches</li> <li>Glide avalanches</li> <li>Cornice fall<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Canadian_classification_for_avalanche_size">Canadian classification for avalanche size</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Avalanche&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Canadian classification for avalanche size"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Canadian classification for avalanche size is based upon the consequences of the avalanche. Half sizes are commonly used.<sup id="cite_ref-backcountryavalancheawareness_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-backcountryavalancheawareness-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th style="width:5%;">Size </th> <th style="width:95%;">Destructive Potential </th></tr> <tr> <td>1 </td> <td>Relatively harmless to people. </td></tr> <tr> <td>2 </td> <td>Could bury, injure or kill a person. </td></tr> <tr> <td>3 </td> <td>Could bury and destroy a car, damage a truck, destroy a small building or break a few trees. </td></tr> <tr> <td>4 </td> <td>Could destroy a railway car, large truck, several buildings or a forest area up to 4 hectares. </td></tr> <tr> <td>5 </td> <td>Largest snow avalanche known. Could destroy a village or a forest of 40 hectares. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States_classification_for_avalanche_size">United States classification for avalanche size</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Avalanche&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: United States classification for avalanche size"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The size of avalanches are classified using two scales; size relative to destructive force or D-scale and size relative to the avalanche path or R-scale.<sup id="cite_ref-Snow-2010_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Snow-2010-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-AmAvalAssoc_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AmAvalAssoc-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both size scales range from 1 to 5 with the D size scale half sizes can be used.<sup id="cite_ref-Snow-2010_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Snow-2010-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-AmAvalAssoc_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AmAvalAssoc-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Size Relative to Path </th></tr> <tr> <td>R1~Very small, relative to the path. </td></tr> <tr> <td>R2~Small, relative to the path </td></tr> <tr> <td>R3~Medium, relative to the path </td></tr> <tr> <td>R4~Large, relative to the path </td></tr> <tr> <td>R5~Major or maximum, relative to the path </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="4">Size – Destructive Force </th></tr> <tr> <td>code </td> <td> </td> <td>mass </td> <td>length </td></tr> <tr> <td>D1 </td> <td>Relatively harmless to people </td> <td><10 t </td> <td>10 m </td></tr> <tr> <td>D2 </td> <td>Could bury, injure, or kill a person </td> <td>10<sup>2</sup> t </td> <td>100 m </td></tr> <tr> <td>D3 </td> <td>Could bury and destroy a car, damage a truck, destroy a wood-frame house, or break a few trees </td> <td>10<sup>3</sup> t </td> <td>1000 m </td></tr> <tr> <td>D4 </td> <td>Could destroy a railway car, large truck, several buildings, or substantial amount of forest </td> <td>10<sup>4</sup> t </td> <td>2000 m </td></tr> <tr> <td>D5 </td> <td>Could gouge the landscape. Largest snow avalanche known </td> <td>10<sup>5</sup> t </td> <td>3000 m </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rutschblock_Test">Rutschblock Test</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Avalanche&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Rutschblock Test"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Slab avalanche hazard analysis can be done using the Rutschblock Test. A 2 m wide block of snow is isolated from the rest of the slope and progressively loaded. The result is a rating of slope stability on a seven step scale.<sup id="cite_ref-Abromelt_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abromelt-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<i>Rutsch</i> means slide in German.) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Avalanches_and_climate_change">Avalanches and climate change</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Avalanche&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Avalanches and climate change"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Avalanche formation and frequency is highly affected by weather patterns and the local climate. Snowpack layers will form differently depending on whether snow is falling in very cold or very warm conditions, and very dry or very humid conditions. Thus, climate change may affect when, where, and how often avalanches occur, and may also change the type of avalanches that are occurring.<sup id="cite_ref-Strapazzon-2021_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Strapazzon-2021-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Impacts_on_avalanche_type_and_frequency">Impacts on avalanche type and frequency</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Avalanche&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Impacts on avalanche type and frequency"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Overall, a rising seasonal snow line and a decrease in the number of days with snow cover are predicted.<sup id="cite_ref-IPCC_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPCC-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lazar-2010_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lazar-2010-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Climate change-caused temperature increases and changes in precipitation patterns will likely differ between the different mountain regions,<sup id="cite_ref-IPCC_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPCC-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the impacts of these changes on avalanches will change at different elevations. In the long term, avalanche frequency at lower elevations is expected to decline corresponding to a decrease in snow cover and depth, and a short-term increase in the number of wet avalanches are predicted.<sup id="cite_ref-IPCC_60-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPCC-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Zeidler-2016_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zeidler-2016-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Precipitation is expected to increase, meaning more snow or rain depending on the elevation. Higher elevations predicted to remain above the seasonal snow line will likely see an increase in avalanche activity due to the increases in precipitation during the winter season.<sup id="cite_ref-Zeidler-2016_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zeidler-2016-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Storm precipitation intensity is also expected to increase, which is likely to lead to more days with enough snowfall to cause the snowpack to become unstable. Moderate and high elevations may see an increase in volatile swings from one weather extreme to the other.<sup id="cite_ref-IPCC_60-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPCC-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Predictions also show an increase in the number of rain on snow events,<sup id="cite_ref-Lazar-2010_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lazar-2010-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and wet avalanche cycles occurring earlier in the spring during the remainder of this century.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Impacts_on_burial_survival_rate">Impacts on burial survival rate</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Avalanche&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Impacts on burial survival rate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The warm, wet snowpacks that are likely to increase in frequency due to climate change may also make avalanche burials more deadly. Warm snow has a higher moisture content and is therefore denser than colder snow. Denser avalanche debris decreases the ability for a buried person to breath and the amount of time they have before they run out of oxygen. This increases the likelihood of death by asphyxia in the event of a burial.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, the predicted thinner snowpacks may increase the frequency of injuries due to trauma, such as a buried skier striking a rock or tree.<sup id="cite_ref-Strapazzon-2021_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Strapazzon-2021-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><br /> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Avalanches_of_dust_on_Mars">Avalanches of dust on Mars</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Avalanche&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Avalanches of dust on Mars"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Avalanche&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2023</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tnone center"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:558px;max-width:558px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader"><a href="/wiki/Planum_Boreum#Avalanches" title="Planum Boreum">Avalanches</a> on <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:302px;max-width:302px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Avalanche_on_North_pole_scarp_on_Mars.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Avalanche_on_North_pole_scarp_on_Mars.jpg/300px-Avalanche_on_North_pole_scarp_on_Mars.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Avalanche_on_North_pole_scarp_on_Mars.jpg/450px-Avalanche_on_North_pole_scarp_on_Mars.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Avalanche_on_North_pole_scarp_on_Mars.jpg/600px-Avalanche_on_North_pole_scarp_on_Mars.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2880" data-file-height="1800" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">27 November 2011</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:252px;max-width:252px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:PIA24035-Mars-Avalanche-20190529.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/PIA24035-Mars-Avalanche-20190529.jpg/250px-PIA24035-Mars-Avalanche-20190529.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/PIA24035-Mars-Avalanche-20190529.jpg/375px-PIA24035-Mars-Avalanche-20190529.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/PIA24035-Mars-Avalanche-20190529.jpg/500px-PIA24035-Mars-Avalanche-20190529.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">29 May 2019</div></div></div></div></div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Avalanche&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/The_Matterhorn_as_seen_from_Zermatt.png/28px-The_Matterhorn_as_seen_from_Zermatt.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/The_Matterhorn_as_seen_from_Zermatt.png/42px-The_Matterhorn_as_seen_from_Zermatt.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/The_Matterhorn_as_seen_from_Zermatt.png/56px-The_Matterhorn_as_seen_from_Zermatt.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="994" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Mountains" title="Portal:Mountains">mountains portal</a></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Related_flows">Related flows</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Avalanche&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Related flows"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 23em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debris_flow" title="Debris flow">Debris flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_current" title="Gravity current">Gravity current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lahar" title="Lahar">Lahar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landslide" title="Landslide">Landslide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudflow" title="Mudflow">Mudflow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyroclastic_flow" title="Pyroclastic flow">Pyroclastic flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rockslide" title="Rockslide">Rockslide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slush_flow" title="Slush flow">Slush flow</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Avalanche_disasters">Avalanche disasters</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Avalanche&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Avalanche disasters"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_avalanches_by_death_toll" title="List of avalanches by death toll">List of avalanches by death toll</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1999_Galt%C3%BCr_avalanche" title="1999 Galtür avalanche">1999 Galtür avalanche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montroc" title="Montroc">Montroc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_Gayari_Sector_avalanche" title="2012 Gayari Sector avalanche">2012 Gayari Sector avalanche</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Avalanche&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Avalanche&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>McClung, David. <i>Snow Avalanches as a Non-critical, Punctuated Equilibrium System</i>: Chapter 24 in Nonlinear Dynamics in Geosciences, A.A. Tsonsis and J.B. Elsner (Eds.), Springer, 2007 <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>Daffern, Tony: <i>Avalanche Safety for Skiers, Climbers and Snowboarders</i>, Rocky Mountain Books, 1999, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-921102-72-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-921102-72-0">0-921102-72-0</a></li> <li>Billman, John: <i>Mike Elggren on Surviving an Avalanche</i>. <i><a href="/wiki/Skiing_(magazine)" title="Skiing (magazine)">Skiing</a></i> magazine February 2007: 26.</li> <li>McClung, David and Shaerer, Peter: <i>The Avalanche Handbook</i>, The Mountaineers: 2006. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89886-809-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89886-809-8">978-0-89886-809-8</a></li> <li>Tremper, Bruce: <i>Staying Alive in Avalanche Terrain</i>, The Mountaineers: 2001. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89886-834-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-89886-834-3">0-89886-834-3</a></li> <li>Munter, Werner: <i>Drei mal drei (3x3) Lawinen. Risikomanagement im Wintersport</i>, <a href="/wiki/Bergverlag_Rother" title="Bergverlag Rother">Bergverlag Rother</a>, 2002. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-7633-2060-1" title="Special:BookSources/3-7633-2060-1">3-7633-2060-1</a> <span class="languageicon">(in German)</span> (partial English translation included in <i>PowderGuide: Managing Avalanche Risk</i> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9724827-3-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-9724827-3-3">0-9724827-3-3</a>)</li> <li>Michael Falser: <i>Historische Lawinenschutzlandschaften: eine Aufgabe für die Kulturlandschafts- und Denkmalpflege</i> In: kunsttexte 3/2010, unter: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://edoc.hu-berlin.de/kunsttexte/2010-3/falser-michael-1/PDF/falser.pdf">Historische Lawinenschutzlandschaften: eine Aufgabe für die Kulturlandschafts- und Denkmalpflege</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Avalanche&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nsidc.org/cryosphere/snow/science/avalanches.html">"Snow Avalanches | National Snow and Ice Data Center"</a>. <i>nsidc.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 March</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=nsidc.org&rft.atitle=Snow+Avalanches+%7C+National+Snow+and+Ice+Data+Center&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnsidc.org%2Fcryosphere%2Fsnow%2Fscience%2Favalanches.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAvalanche" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLouchet2021" class="citation book cs1">Louchet, Francois (2021). <i>Snow Avalanches</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">1–</span>2. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foso%2F9780198866930.001.0001">10.1093/oso/9780198866930.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-886693-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-886693-0"><bdi>978-0-19-886693-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Snow+Avalanches&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E2&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foso%2F9780198866930.001.0001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-886693-0&rft.aulast=Louchet&rft.aufirst=Francois&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAvalanche" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReuterSchweizer2009" class="citation conference cs1">Reuter, B.; Schweizer, J. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gblanc.fr/IMG/pdf/reuter2009.pdf"><i>Avalanche triggering by sound: Myth and truth</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. ISSW 09 – International Snow Science Workshop, Proceedings. pp. <span class="nowrap">330–</span>333. <q>Based on order of magnitude estimates of the pressure amplitude of various sources that cause elastic or pressure (sound) waves it can be ruled out that shouting or loud noise can trigger snow slab avalanches. The amplitudes are at least about two orders of magnitude smaller than known efficient triggers. Triggering by sound really is a myth.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Avalanche+triggering+by+sound%3A+Myth+and+truth&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E330-%3C%2Fspan%3E333&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Reuter&rft.aufirst=B.&rft.au=Schweizer%2C+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgblanc.fr%2FIMG%2Fpdf%2Freuter2009.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAvalanche" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McClung_2006-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McClung_2006_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McClung_2006_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McClung_2006_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McClung_2006_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">McClung, David and Shaerer, Peter: <i>The Avalanche Handbook, The Mountaineers</i>: 2006. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89886-809-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89886-809-8">978-0-89886-809-8</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarteltLehning2002" class="citation journal cs1">Bartelt, Perry; Lehning, Michael (24 May 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130128103159/http://www.mendeley.com/research/physical-snowpack-model-swiss-avalanche-warning-part-i-numerical-model/">"A physical SNOWPACK model for the Swiss avalanche warning Part I: Numerical model"</a>. <i>Cold Regions Science and Technology</i>. <b>35</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">123–</span>145. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002CRST...35..123B">2002CRST...35..123B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0165-232X%2802%2900074-5">10.1016/S0165-232X(02)00074-5</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mendeley.com/catalogue/3f58ea80-6488-31f0-867c-a94843e225e3/">the original</a> on 28 January 2013 – via www.mendeley.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cold+Regions+Science+and+Technology&rft.atitle=A+physical+SNOWPACK+model+for+the+Swiss+avalanche+warning+Part+I%3A+Numerical+model&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E123-%3C%2Fspan%3E145&rft.date=2002-05-24&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0165-232X%2802%2900074-5&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002CRST...35..123B&rft.aulast=Bartelt&rft.aufirst=Perry&rft.au=Lehning%2C+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mendeley.com%2Fcatalogue%2F3f58ea80-6488-31f0-867c-a94843e225e3%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAvalanche" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wunderground.com/cat6/avalanches-their-dangers-and-how-to-reduce-your-risks">"Avalanches: Their Dangers and How to Reduce Your Risks"</a>. <i>www.wunderground.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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href="https://arc.lib.montana.edu/snow-science/item/400">"Climate Change in Lower Austria – A Snow Cover Analysis of the Last 100 Years With a Special Emphasis on the Last Century and the Impact of the Avalanche Situation in Lower Austria"</a>. <i>2010 International Snow Science Workshop</i>: <span class="nowrap">362–</span>366.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=2010+International+Snow+Science+Workshop&rft.atitle=Climate+Change+in+Lower+Austria+%E2%80%93+A+Snow+Cover+Analysis+of+the+Last+100+Years+With+a+Special+Emphasis+on+the+Last+Century+and+the+Impact+of+the+Avalanche+Situation+in+Lower+Austria&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E362-%3C%2Fspan%3E366&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Salzer&rft.aufirst=Friedrich&rft.au=Studeregger%2C+Arnold&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farc.lib.montana.edu%2Fsnow-science%2Fitem%2F400&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAvalanche" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLazarWilliams2006" class="citation journal cs1">Lazar, Brian; Williams, Mark (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arc.lib.montana.edu/snow-science/item/1035">"Climate Change in Western Ski Areas: Timing of Wet Avalanches in Aspen Ski Area in the Years 2030 and 2100"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the 2006 International Snow Science Workshop, Telluride, Colorado</i>: <span class="nowrap">899–</span>906.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+2006+International+Snow+Science+Workshop%2C+Telluride%2C+Colorado&rft.atitle=Climate+Change+in+Western+Ski+Areas%3A+Timing+of+Wet+Avalanches+in+Aspen+Ski+Area+in+the+Years+2030+and+2100&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E899-%3C%2Fspan%3E906&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Lazar&rft.aufirst=Brian&rft.au=Williams%2C+Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farc.lib.montana.edu%2Fsnow-science%2Fitem%2F1035&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAvalanche" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrapazzonPaalSchweizerFalk2017" class="citation journal cs1">Strapazzon, Giacomo; Paal, Peter; Schweizer, Jürg; Falk, Markus; Reuter, Benjamin; Schenk, Kai; Gatterer, Hannes; Grasegger, Katharina; Dal Cappello, Tomas; Malacrida, Sandro; Riess, Lukas (15 December 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5732296">"Effects of snow properties on humans breathing into an artificial air pocket – an experimental field study"</a>. <i>Scientific Reports</i>. <b>7</b> (1): 17675. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017NatSR...717675S">2017NatSR...717675S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41598-017-17960-4">10.1038/s41598-017-17960-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2045-2322">2045-2322</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5732296">5732296</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29247235">29247235</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+Reports&rft.atitle=Effects+of+snow+properties+on+humans+breathing+into+an+artificial+air+pocket+%E2%80%93+an+experimental+field+study&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=17675&rft.date=2017-12-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5732296%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017NatSR...717675S&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29247235&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41598-017-17960-4&rft.issn=2045-2322&rft.aulast=Strapazzon&rft.aufirst=Giacomo&rft.au=Paal%2C+Peter&rft.au=Schweizer%2C+J%C3%BCrg&rft.au=Falk%2C+Markus&rft.au=Reuter%2C+Benjamin&rft.au=Schenk%2C+Kai&rft.au=Gatterer%2C+Hannes&rft.au=Grasegger%2C+Katharina&rft.au=Dal+Cappello%2C+Tomas&rft.au=Malacrida%2C+Sandro&rft.au=Riess%2C+Lukas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5732296&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAvalanche" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Avalanche&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output 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img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <b>Avalanche</b> at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects"><span id="sister-projects">sister projects</span></a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Avalanche" class="extiw" title="wikt:Special:Search/Avalanche">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Avalanche" class="extiw" title="c:Avalanche">Media</a> from Commons</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/27px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/41px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/54px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Category:Avalanches" class="extiw" title="n:Category:Avalanches">News</a> from Wikinews</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Avalanche" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Avalanche">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/39px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/51px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Avalanche" class="extiw" title="s:Special:Search/Avalanche">Texts</a> from Wikisource</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/41px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/54px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Search/Avalanche" class="extiw" title="b:Special:Search/Avalanche">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/27px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/41px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/54px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:Search/Avalanche" class="extiw" title="v:Special:Search/Avalanche">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</span></li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100514164556/http://www.virtualmountains.ca/">The Avalanche Education Project</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.edu4hazards.org/avalanche.html">Surviving an Avalanche – A guide for children and youth</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210426223016/http://www.edu4hazards.org/avalanche.html">Archived</a> 26 April 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/006/AD075E/AD075e09.htm">Avalanche Defense Photographs</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.avalanche.ca/">Avalanche Canada</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.avalancheassociation.ca/">Canadian Avalanche Association</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201021082553/https://www.avalancheassociation.ca/">Archived</a> 21 October 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://avalanche.state.co.us/">Colorado Avalanche Information Center</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.snowstudies.org/">Center for Snow and Avalanche Studies</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170801122210/http://www.avalanches.org/eaws/en/main.php">EAWS – European Avalanche Warning Services</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050306024837/http://www.slf.ch/laworg/map.html">Directory of European avalanche services</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/subjects/a/avalanches/index.html">Avalanches</a> collected news and commentary at <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060423190948/http://www.slf.ch/welcome-en.html">Swiss Federal Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sais.gov.uk/">Scottish Avalanche Information Service</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChisholm1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a>, ed. (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Avalanche"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Avalanche">"Avalanche" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i> (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Avalanche&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAvalanche" class="Z3988"></span> But note the myths cited above</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://utahavalanchecenter.org/">Utah Avalanche Center</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.avalanche.net.nz/">New Zealand Avalanche Advisory</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130407180312/http://www.gulmargavalanche.org/">Gulmarg Avalanche Center</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.avalanche.org/">US Avalanche.org</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sierraavalanchecenter.org/">Sierra Avalanche Center (Tahoe National Forest)</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Temperature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blizzard" title="Blizzard">Blizzard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_wave" title="Cold wave">Cold wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_storm" title="Ice storm">Ice storm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_wave" title="Heat wave">Heat wave</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">Drought</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megadrought" title="Megadrought">Megadrought</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" 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