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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Peasants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Peasants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Peasants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Peasants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cities_and_towns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cities_and_towns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Cities and towns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cities_and_towns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aristocracy,_nobles,_knights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aristocracy,_nobles,_knights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Aristocracy, nobles, knights</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aristocracy,_nobles,_knights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vassalage_and_feudal_land" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vassalage_and_feudal_land"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.1</span> <span>Vassalage and feudal land</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vassalage_and_feudal_land-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Peerage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Peerage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.2</span> <span>Peerage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Peerage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Monarchy_and_regional_powers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monarchy_and_regional_powers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Monarchy and regional powers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monarchy_and_regional_powers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-French_power_in_the_Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#French_power_in_the_Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.1</span> <span>French power in the Middle Ages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-French_power_in_the_Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Royal_administration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Royal_administration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Royal administration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Royal_administration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-King's_Council" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#King's_Council"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5.1</span> <span>King's Council</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-King's_Council-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Royal_finances" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Royal_finances"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5.2</span> <span>Royal finances</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Royal_finances-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Parlements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Parlements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5.3</span> <span>Parlements</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Parlements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Estates_General" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Estates_General"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5.4</span> <span>Estates General</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Estates_General-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prévôts,_baillages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prévôts,_baillages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5.5</span> <span>Prévôts, baillages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prévôts,_baillages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Political history</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Political_history-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Political history subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Political_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Carolingian_legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carolingian_legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Carolingian legacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carolingian_legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_First_Capetians_(940–1108)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_First_Capetians_(940–1108)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>The First Capetians (940–1108)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_First_Capetians_(940–1108)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Louis_VI_and_Louis_VII_(1108–1180)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Louis_VI_and_Louis_VII_(1108–1180)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Louis VI and Louis VII (1108–1180)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Louis_VI_and_Louis_VII_(1108–1180)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philip_II_Augustus_and_Louis_VIII_(1180–1226)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philip_II_Augustus_and_Louis_VIII_(1180–1226)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Philip II Augustus and Louis VIII (1180–1226)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philip_II_Augustus_and_Louis_VIII_(1180–1226)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Saint_Louis_(1226–1270)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Saint_Louis_(1226–1270)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Saint Louis (1226–1270)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Saint_Louis_(1226–1270)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philip_III_and_Philip_IV_(1270–1314)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philip_III_and_Philip_IV_(1270–1314)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Philip III and Philip IV (1270–1314)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philip_III_and_Philip_IV_(1270–1314)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Louis_X,_Philip_V_and_Charles_IV_(1314–1328)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Louis_X,_Philip_V_and_Charles_IV_(1314–1328)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.7</span> <span>Louis X, Philip V and Charles IV (1314–1328)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Louis_X,_Philip_V_and_Charles_IV_(1314–1328)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Hundred_Years'_War_(1328–1453)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Hundred_Years'_War_(1328–1453)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.8</span> <span>The Hundred Years' War (1328–1453)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Hundred_Years'_War_(1328–1453)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-List_of_kings_during_this_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#List_of_kings_during_this_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.9</span> <span>List of kings during this period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-List_of_kings_during_this_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion_and_the_Church" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion_and_the_Church"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Religion and the Church</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Religion_and_the_Church-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Religion and the Church subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Religion_and_the_Church-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Jewish-Christian_Relations_in_France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jewish-Christian_Relations_in_France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Jewish-Christian Relations in France</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jewish-Christian_Relations_in_France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economy_and_technology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy_and_technology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Economy and technology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economy_and_technology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Culture</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Culture subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Art_and_music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Art_and_music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Art and music</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Art_and_music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Bibliography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Early Middle Ages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-High_Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#High_Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>High Middle Ages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-High_Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">France in the Middle Ages</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 23 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-23" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">23 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7%D9%89" title="فرنسا في العصور الوسطى – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فرنسا في العصور الوسطى" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%8F%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%8F%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Сярэдневяковая Францыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Сярэдневяковая Францыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7a_a_l%27edat_mitjana" title="França a l'edat mitjana – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="França a l'edat mitjana" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keskaegne_Prantsusmaa" title="Keskaegne Prantsusmaa – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Keskaegne Prantsusmaa" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francia_en_la_Edad_Media" title="Francia en la Edad Media – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Francia en la Edad Media" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%87_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D9%82%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86_%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7%DB%8C" title="فرانسه در قرون وسطی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فرانسه در قرون وسطی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/France_au_Moyen_%C3%82ge" title="France au Moyen Âge – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="France au Moyen Âge" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Fhrainc_sna_Me%C3%A1naoiseanna" title="An Fhrainc sna Meánaoiseanna – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Fhrainc sna Meánaoiseanna" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A4%91%EC%84%B8_%ED%94%84%EB%9E%91%EC%8A%A4" title="중세 프랑스 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="중세 프랑스" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prancis_Abad_Pertengahan" title="Prancis Abad Pertengahan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Prancis Abad Pertengahan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francia_medievale" title="Francia medievale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Francia medievale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A6%D7%A8%D7%A4%D7%AA_%D7%91%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%99_%D7%94%D7%91%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9D" title="צרפת בימי הביניים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="צרפת בימי הביניים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perancis_di_Zaman_Pertengahan" title="Perancis di Zaman Pertengahan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Perancis di Zaman Pertengahan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankrijk_in_de_Middeleeuwen" title="Frankrijk in de Middeleeuwen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Frankrijk in de Middeleeuwen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1043282317">.mw-parser-output .ib-country{border-collapse:collapse;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country td,.mw-parser-output .ib-country th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-header{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-names{padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-name-style{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-image{padding:0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-anthem{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Kingdom of France</div><div class="ib-country-names"><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Regnum Franciae</i></span><br /><span title="Old French (842-ca. 1400)-language text"><i lang="fro">Reaume de France</i></span><br /><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Royaulme de France</i></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>987–<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 15th century</span></li></ul></div> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(France of the Middle Ages)</span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="noresize" style="display:table; width:100%;"> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding-left:5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_France_(XII-XIII).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of France"><img alt="Flag of France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_France_%28XII-XIII%29.svg/115px-Flag_of_France_%28XII-XIII%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="115" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_France_%28XII-XIII%29.svg/173px-Flag_of_France_%28XII-XIII%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_France_%28XII-XIII%29.svg/230px-Flag_of_France_%28XII-XIII%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div><div style="padding: 2px 0px 3px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_France_(XIV-XVI).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_France_%28XIV-XVI%29.svg/120px-Flag_of_France_%28XIV-XVI%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="115" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_France_%28XIV-XVI%29.svg/250px-Flag_of_France_%28XIV-XVI%29.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></div> <div>Top: <a href="/wiki/House_of_Capet" title="House of Capet">Royal banner of the Capetian dynasty</a><br />Bottom: <a href="/wiki/House_of_Valois" title="House of Valois">Royal banner of the Valois dynasty</a></div> </div> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding: 0px 5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Royal_Coat_of_Arms_of_Valois_France.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coat of arms of the King of France (from 1376)   Two variants of the Oriflamme, the battle standard of the king of France"><img alt="Royal Arms" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Royal_Coat_of_Arms_of_Valois_France.svg/110px-Royal_Coat_of_Arms_of_Valois_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="110" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Royal_Coat_of_Arms_of_Valois_France.svg/165px-Royal_Coat_of_Arms_of_Valois_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Royal_Coat_of_Arms_of_Valois_France.svg/220px-Royal_Coat_of_Arms_of_Valois_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="843" data-file-height="648" /></a></span></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Royal_Arms_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Arms of France">Coat of arms of the King of France</a> <span class="nowrap">(from 1376)</span><div style="padding:3px 0;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Oriflamme.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Oriflamme: The Battle standard of the King of France"><img alt="Oriflamme: The Battle standard of the King of France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Oriflamme.svg/40px-Oriflamme.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Oriflamme.svg/60px-Oriflamme.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="500" /></a></span> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Oriflamme1.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Second reconstruction of Oriflamme"><img alt="Second reconstruction of Oriflamme" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Oriflamme1.svg/20px-Oriflamme1.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Oriflamme1.svg/40px-Oriflamme1.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="3190" /></a></span></div><a href="/wiki/Oriflamme" title="Oriflamme">Two variants of the Oriflamme, the battle standard of the king</a></div> </div> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><b>Motto: </b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">"<a href="/wiki/Montjoie_Saint_Denis!" title="Montjoie Saint Denis!">Montjoie Saint Denis!</a>"</span></span> <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>)</span></li><li><span style="font-size: 85%;">"Mountjoy Saint Denis!"</span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Kingdom_of_France_1000.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Kingdom of France in 1000 C.E"><img alt="The Kingdom of France in 1000 C.E" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Kingdom_of_France_1000.svg/250px-Kingdom_of_France_1000.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Kingdom_of_France_1000.svg/375px-Kingdom_of_France_1000.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Kingdom_of_France_1000.svg/500px-Kingdom_of_France_1000.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="485" data-file-height="340" /></a></span><div class="ib-country-map-caption">The Kingdom of France in 1000 C.E</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Kingdom_of_France_1190.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Kingdom of France in 1190. The bright green area was controlled by the Angevin Empire."><img alt="The Kingdom of France in 1190. The bright green area was controlled by the Angevin Empire." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Kingdom_of_France_1190.svg/250px-Kingdom_of_France_1190.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Kingdom_of_France_1190.svg/375px-Kingdom_of_France_1190.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Kingdom_of_France_1190.svg/500px-Kingdom_of_France_1190.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="485" data-file-height="375" /></a></span><div class="ib-country-map-caption">The Kingdom of France in 1190. The bright green area was controlled by the <a href="/wiki/Angevin_Empire" title="Angevin Empire">Angevin Empire</a>.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Common languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Latin#Medieval_Latin" title="History of Latin">Latin</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_French" title="History of French">French</a> (official),</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occitan_language" title="Occitan language">Occitan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Franco-Proven%C3%A7al" title="Franco-Provençal">Franco-Provençal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Breton_language" title="Breton language">Breton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Basque_language" title="Basque language">Basque</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholicism">Roman Catholicism</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_France" title="Politics of France">Government</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudal monarchy</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/King_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="King of France">King of France</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Legislature</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Estates_General_(France)" title="Estates General (France)">Estates General</a><br />(since 1302)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Historical era</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Beginning of <a href="/wiki/Capetian_dynasty" title="Capetian dynasty">Capetian dynasty</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">987</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a><br />– <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Troyes" title="Treaty of Troyes">Capetians deposed</a> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(<a href="/wiki/English_claims_to_the_French_throne" title="English claims to the French throne">disputed</a>)</span> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1337–1453<br /><i>1422</i></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancien Régime">Ancien Régime</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 15th century</span></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_livre" title="French livre">Livre</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/French_franc" title="French franc">Franc</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89cu" title="Écu">Écu</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/ISO_3166" title="ISO 3166">ISO 3166 code</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/ISO_3166-2:FR" title="ISO 3166-2:FR">FR</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> <b>Preceded by</b></td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;"><b>Succeeded by</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/West_Francia" title="West Francia">West Francia</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/France_in_the_early_modern_period" title="France in the early modern period">Kingdom of France</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Royal_flag_of_France.svg/20px-Royal_flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Royal_flag_of_France.svg/30px-Royal_flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Royal_flag_of_France.svg/40px-Royal_flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> <style 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.sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks vcard plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_France" title="Category:History of France">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">History of <span class="fn org label">France</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Carte_de_France_dress%C3%A9e_pour_l%27usage_du_Roy_Delisle_Guillaume_1721.JPEG" class="mw-file-description" title="Carte de France dressée pour l'usage du Roy. Delisle Guillaume (1721)"><img alt="Carte de France dressée pour l'usage du Roy. Delisle Guillaume (1721)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Carte_de_France_dress%C3%A9e_pour_l%27usage_du_Roy_Delisle_Guillaume_1721.JPEG/250px-Carte_de_France_dress%C3%A9e_pour_l%27usage_du_Roy_Delisle_Guillaume_1721.JPEG" decoding="async" width="250" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Carte_de_France_dress%C3%A9e_pour_l%27usage_du_Roy_Delisle_Guillaume_1721.JPEG/375px-Carte_de_France_dress%C3%A9e_pour_l%27usage_du_Roy_Delisle_Guillaume_1721.JPEG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Carte_de_France_dress%C3%A9e_pour_l%27usage_du_Roy_Delisle_Guillaume_1721.JPEG/500px-Carte_de_France_dress%C3%A9e_pour_l%27usage_du_Roy_Delisle_Guillaume_1721.JPEG 2x" data-file-width="1233" data-file-height="965" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_French_history" title="Timeline of French history">Timeline</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color:black;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_France#Ancient_history" title="History of France">Ancient</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_France" title="Prehistory of France">Prehistory</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">  </td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Greeks_in_pre-Roman_Gaul" title="Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul">Greek colonies</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 600 BC – 49 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Celtic Gaul</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">   until 50 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Gaul" title="Roman Gaul">Roman Gaul</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 50 BC – 486 AD</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color:black;;color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Middle Ages</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Frankish</a> settlement</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">  </td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Merovingian_dynasty" title="Merovingian dynasty">Merovingians</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 481–751</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_dynasty" title="Carolingian dynasty">Carolingians</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 751–987</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">     <a href="/wiki/West_Francia" title="West Francia">West Francia</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 843–987</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">Kingdom of France</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 987–1792</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">     <a href="/wiki/House_of_Capet" title="House of Capet">Direct Capetians</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 987–1328</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">     <a href="/wiki/House_of_Valois#Valois_(direct)" title="House of Valois">Valois</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1328–1498</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color:black;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern France">Early modern</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><i><a href="/wiki/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancien Régime">Ancien Régime</a></i> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/House_of_Valois#Valois-Orléans" title="House of Valois">Valois-Orléans kings</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1498–1515</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/House_of_Valois#Valois-Orléans-Angoulême" title="House of Valois">Valois-Angoulême kings</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1515–1589</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/House_of_Bourbon" title="House of Bourbon">Bourbon kings</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1589–1792</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color:black;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/France_in_the_long_nineteenth_century" title="France in the long nineteenth century">Long 19th century</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1789–1799</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France_(1791%E2%80%9392)" title="Kingdom of France (1791–92)">Kingdom of France</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1791–1792</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">First Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1792–1804</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1804–1814</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Restoration_in_France" title="Bourbon Restoration in France">Restoration</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1814–1830</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/July_Monarchy" title="July Monarchy">July Monarchy</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1830–1848</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/French_Second_Republic" title="French Second Republic">Second Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1848–1852</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1852–1870</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">Third Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1870–1940</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">     <a href="/wiki/Belle_%C3%89poque" title="Belle Époque">Belle Époque</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1871–1914</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color:black;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_France_(1900_to_present)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of France (1900 to present)">20th century</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">Third Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1870–1940</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">     <a href="/wiki/Interwar_France" title="Interwar France">Interwar period</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1919–1939</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">         <a href="/wiki/Ann%C3%A9es_folles" title="Années folles">Années folles</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1920–1929</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free France</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy France</a></li></ul></div></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1940–1944</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the French Republic">Provisional Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1944–1946</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/French_Fourth_Republic" title="French Fourth Republic">Fourth Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1946–1958</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/French_Fifth_Republic" title="French Fifth Republic">Fifth Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1958–<span style="font-size: 85%;">present</span></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Topics</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_French_foreign_relations" title="History of French foreign relations">Diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_France" title="Economic history of France">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_health_care_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="History of health care in France">Health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history_of_France" title="Legal history of France">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_history_in_France" title="LGBTQ history in France">LGBTQ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine_in_France" title="History of medicine in France">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_France" title="Military history of France">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_monarchs" title="List of French monarchs">Monarchs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_royal_consorts" title="List of French royal consorts">Consorts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_France" title="Political history of France">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="History of religion in France">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Christianity in France">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Islam in France">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_France" title="History of the Jews in France">Judaism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_taxation_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="History of taxation in France">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_France" title="Territorial evolution of France">Territory</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/20px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/40px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:France" title="Portal:France">France portal</a> <b>·</b> <span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/17px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/26px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/33px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_France_sidebar" title="Template:History of France sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_France_sidebar" title="Template talk:History of France sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_France_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of France sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">Kingdom of France</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> (roughly, from the 10th century to the middle of the 15th century) was marked by the fragmentation of the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/West_Francia" title="West Francia">West Francia</a> (843–987); the expansion of royal control by the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Capet" title="House of Capet">House of Capet</a> (987–1328), including their struggles with the virtually independent principalities (duchies and counties, such as the <a href="/wiki/Normandy#Norman_expansion" title="Normandy">Norman</a> and <a href="/wiki/County_of_Anjou" title="County of Anjou">Angevin</a> regions), and the creation and extension of administrative/state control (notably under <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_France" title="Philip II of France">Philip II Augustus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Louis_IX_of_France" title="Louis IX of France">Louis IX</a>) in the 13th century; and the rise of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Valois" title="House of Valois">House of Valois</a> (1328–1589), including the protracted dynastic crisis against the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Plantagenet" title="House of Plantagenet">House of Plantagenet</a> and their <a href="/wiki/Angevin_Empire" title="Angevin Empire">Angevin Empire</a>, culminating in the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a> (1337–1453) (compounded by the catastrophic <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> in 1348), which laid the seeds for a more centralized and expanded state in the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern France">early modern period</a> and the creation of a sense of French identity. </p><p>Up to the 12th century, the period saw the elaboration and extension of the <a href="/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">seigneurial</a> economic system (including the attachment of peasants to the land through <a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">serfdom</a>); the extension of the <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudal</a> system of political rights and obligations between lords and <a href="/wiki/Vassal" title="Vassal">vassals</a>; the so-called "feudal revolution" of the 11th century during which ever smaller lords took control of local lands in many regions; and the appropriation by regional/local seigneurs of various administrative, fiscal and judicial rights for themselves. From the 13th century on, the state slowly regained control of a number of these lost powers. The crises of the 13th and 14th centuries led to the convening of an advisory assembly, the <a href="/wiki/Estates_General_(France)" title="Estates General (France)">Estates General</a>, and also to an effective end to serfdom. During the seventy-year reign of <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV" title="Louis XIV">Louis XIV</a>, <a href="/wiki/Absolutism_(European_history)" title="Absolutism (European history)">absolutist</a> policies from Paris tightly constrained the regional nobility, centralizing political power at <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Versailles" title="Palace of Versailles">Versailles</a>. </p><p>From the 12th and 13th centuries on, France was at the center of a vibrant cultural production that extended across much of western Europe, including the transition from <a href="/wiki/Romanesque_architecture" title="Romanesque architecture">Romanesque architecture</a> to <a href="/wiki/Gothic_architecture" title="Gothic architecture">Gothic architecture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gothic_art" title="Gothic art">Gothic art</a>; the foundation of <a href="/wiki/Medieval_university" title="Medieval university">medieval universities</a> (such as the universities of <a href="/wiki/University_of_Paris" title="University of Paris">Paris</a> (recognized in 1150), <a href="/wiki/University_of_Montpellier" title="University of Montpellier">Montpellier</a> (1220), <a href="/wiki/University_of_Toulouse" title="University of Toulouse">Toulouse</a> (1229), and <a href="/wiki/University_of_Orleans" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Orleans">Orleans</a> (1235)) and the so-called "<a href="/wiki/Renaissance_of_the_12th_century" title="Renaissance of the 12th century">Renaissance of the 12th century</a>"; a growing body of <a href="/wiki/Medieval_French_literature" title="Medieval French literature">secular vernacular literature</a> (including the <span title="Old French (842-ca. 1400)-language text"><i lang="fro"><a href="/wiki/Chanson_de_geste" title="Chanson de geste">chanson de geste</a></i></span>, <a href="/wiki/Chivalric_romance" title="Chivalric romance">chivalric romance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Troubadour" title="Troubadour">troubadour</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trouv%C3%A8re" title="Trouvère">trouvère</a> poetry, etc.) and <a href="/wiki/Medieval_music" title="Medieval music">medieval music</a> (such as the flowering of the <a href="/wiki/Notre_Dame_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Notre Dame school">Notre Dame school</a> of polyphony). </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geography">Geography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=France_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Geography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_France" title="Territorial evolution of France">Territorial evolution of France</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crown_lands_of_France" title="Crown lands of France">Crown lands of France</a></div> <p>From the Middle Ages onward, French rulers believed their kingdoms had natural borders: the Pyrenees, the Alps and the Rhine. This was used as a pretext for an aggressive policy and repeated invasions.<sup id="cite_ref-Hallam_&_Everard_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hallam_&_Everard-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The belief, however, had mere basis in reality for not all of these territories were part of the Kingdom and the authority of the King within his kingdom would be quite fluctuant. The lands that composed the Kingdom of France showed great geographical diversity; the northern and central parts enjoyed a temperate climate while the southern part was closer to the Mediterranean climate. While there were great differences between the northern and southern parts of the kingdom there were equally important differences depending on the distance of mountains: mainly the <a href="/wiki/Alps" title="Alps">Alps</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Pyrenees" title="Pyrenees">Pyrenees</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Massif_Central" title="Massif Central">Massif Central</a>. France had important rivers that were used as waterways: the <a href="/wiki/Loire" title="Loire">Loire</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Rh%C3%B4ne" title="Rhône">Rhône</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Seine" title="Seine">Seine</a> as well as the <a href="/wiki/Garonne" title="Garonne">Garonne</a>. These rivers were settled earlier than the rest and important cities were founded on their banks but they were separated by large forests, marsh, and other rough terrains.<sup id="cite_ref-Hallam_&_Everard_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hallam_&_Everard-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Before the Romans conquered Gaul, the Gauls lived in villages organised in wider tribes. The Romans referred to the smallest of these groups as <i><a href="/wiki/Pagus" title="Pagus">pagi</a></i> and the widest ones as <i><a href="/wiki/Civitas" title="Civitas">civitates</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hallam_&_Everard_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hallam_&_Everard-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These <i>pagi</i> and <i>civitates</i> were often taken as a basis for the imperial administration and would survive up to the middle-ages when their capitals became centres of <a href="/wiki/Prince-bishop" title="Prince-bishop">bishoprics</a>. These religious provinces would survive until the French revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-Hallam_&_Everard_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hallam_&_Everard-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, southern Gaul was more heavily populated and because of this more episcopal sees were present there at first while in northern France they shrank greatly in size because of the barbarian invasions and became heavily fortified to resist the invaders.<sup id="cite_ref-Hallam_&_Everard_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hallam_&_Everard-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Discussion of the size of France in the Middle Ages is complicated by distinctions between lands personally held by the king (the "<i><a href="/wiki/Crown_lands_of_France" title="Crown lands of France">domaine royal</a></i>") and lands held in homage by another lord. The notion of <i><a href="/wiki/Res_publica" title="Res publica">res publica</a></i> inherited from the Roman province of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Gaul" title="Roman Gaul">Gaul</a> was not fully maintained by the <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Frankish kingdom</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a>, and by the early years of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Capet" title="House of Capet">Direct Capetians</a>, the French kingdom was more or less a fiction. The "domaine royal" of the Capetians was limited to the regions around <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bourges" title="Bourges">Bourges</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sens" title="Sens">Sens</a>. The great majority of French territory was part of <a href="/wiki/Aquitaine" title="Aquitaine">Aquitaine</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Normandy" title="Duchy of Normandy">Duchy of Normandy</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Brittany" title="Duchy of Brittany">Duchy of Brittany</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Champagne,_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Champagne, France">Comté of Champagne</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy" title="Duchy of Burgundy">Duchy of Burgundy</a>, the <a href="/wiki/County_of_Flanders" title="County of Flanders">County of Flanders</a> and other territories (for a map, see <a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_France" title="Provinces of France">Provinces of France</a>). In principle, the lords of these lands owed homage to the French king for their possession, but in reality the king in Paris had little control over these lands, and this was to be confounded by the uniting of Normandy, Aquitaine and <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a> under the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Plantagenet" title="House of Plantagenet">Plantagenet dynasty</a> in the 12th century. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Territorial_Conquests_of_Philip_II_of_France.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Territorial_Conquests_of_Philip_II_of_France.png/220px-Territorial_Conquests_of_Philip_II_of_France.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Territorial_Conquests_of_Philip_II_of_France.png/330px-Territorial_Conquests_of_Philip_II_of_France.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Territorial_Conquests_of_Philip_II_of_France.png/440px-Territorial_Conquests_of_Philip_II_of_France.png 2x" data-file-width="2160" data-file-height="1625" /></a><figcaption>The territorial conquests of <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_France" title="Philip II of France">Philip Augustus of France</a>, at the time of his accession (1180) and at the time of his death (1223).</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_France" title="Philip II of France">Philip II Augustus</a> undertook a massive French expansion in the 13th century, but most of these acquisitions were lost both by the royal system of "<a href="/wiki/Apanage" class="mw-redirect" title="Apanage">apanage</a>" (the giving of regions to members of the royal family to be administered) and through losses in the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a>. Only in the 15th century would <a href="/wiki/Charles_VII_of_France" title="Charles VII of France">Charles VII</a> and <a href="/wiki/Louis_XI_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XI of France">Louis XI</a> gain control of most of modern-day France (except for <a href="/wiki/Brittany" title="Brittany">Brittany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Navarre" title="Navarre">Navarre</a>, and parts of eastern and northern France). </p><p>The weather in France and Europe in the Middle Ages was significantly milder than during the periods preceding or following it. Historians refer to this as the "<a href="/wiki/Medieval_Warm_Period" title="Medieval Warm Period">Medieval Warm Period</a>", lasting from about the 10th century to about the 14th century. Part of the French population growth in this period (see below) is directly linked to this temperate weather and its effect on crops and livestock. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Demography">Demography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=France_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Demography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Medieval_demographics" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval demographics">Medieval demographics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_France" title="Demographics of France">Demographics of France</a></div> <p>At the end of the Middle Ages, France was the most populous region<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (September 2013)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> in Europe—having overtaken Spain and Italy by 1340.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 14th century, before the arrival of the Black Death, the total population of the area covered by modern-day France has been estimated at 16 million.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The population of Paris is controversial.<sup id="cite_ref-Josiah_Russell_p._150_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Josiah_Russell_p._150-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Josiah Russell argued for about 80,000 in the early 14th century, although he noted that some other scholars suggested 200,000.<sup id="cite_ref-Josiah_Russell_p._150_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Josiah_Russell_p._150-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The higher count would make it by far the largest city in western Europe; the lower count would put it behind Venice with 100,000 and Florence with 96,000.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> killed an estimated one-third of the population from its appearance in 1348. The concurrent <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a> slowed recovery. It would be the mid-16th century before the population recovered to mid-fourteenth century levels.<sup id="cite_ref-historical_demography_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-historical_demography-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the early Middle Ages, France was a center of Jewish learning, but increasing persecution, and a series of expulsions in the 14th century, caused considerable suffering for French Jews; <i>see <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_France" title="History of the Jews in France">History of the Jews in France</a></i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Languages_and_literacy">Languages and literacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=France_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Languages and literacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_French" title="History of French">History of French</a>, <a href="/wiki/Old_French" title="Old French">Old French</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Occitan_language" title="Occitan language">Occitan language</a></div> <p>During the Middle Ages in France, <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval Latin</a> was the primary medium of scholarly exchange as well as the <a href="/wiki/Liturgical_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Liturgical language">liturgical language</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a>; it was also the language of science, literature, law, and administration. From 1200 on, vernacular languages began to be used in administrative work and the law courts,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but Latin would remain an administrative and legal language until the <a href="/wiki/Ordinance_of_Villers-Cotter%C3%AAts" title="Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts">Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts</a> (1539) prescribed the use of French in all judicial acts, notarized contracts, and official legislation. </p><p>The vast majority of the population, however, spoke a variety of vernacular languages derived from <a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">vulgar Latin</a>, the common spoken language of the Western Roman Empire. The <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Italian" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Italian">medieval Italian</a> poet <a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a>, in his <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> <i><a href="/wiki/De_vulgari_eloquentia" title="De vulgari eloquentia">De vulgari eloquentia</a></i>, classified the <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a> into three groups by their respective words for "yes": <i>Nam alii oc, alii si, alii vero dicunt oil</i> ("For some say <i>oc</i>, others say <i>si</i>, others say <i>oïl</i>"). The <i>oïl</i> languages – from <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hoc" class="extiw" title="wikt:hoc">hoc</a> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ille" class="extiw" title="wikt:ille">ille</a></i>, "that is it" – were spoken primarily in northern France, the <i>oc</i> languages – from Latin <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hoc" class="extiw" title="wikt:hoc">hoc</a></i>, "that" – in southern France, and the <i>si</i> languages – from <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sic" class="extiw" title="wikt:sic">sic</a></i>, "thus" – on the <a href="/wiki/Italian_peninsula" title="Italian peninsula">Italian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iberian_peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Iberian peninsula">Iberian peninsulas</a>. Modern linguists typically add a third group within France around <a href="/wiki/Lyon" title="Lyon">Lyon</a>, the "Arpitan" or "<a href="/wiki/Franco-Proven%C3%A7al_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Franco-Provençal language">Franco-Provençal language</a>", whose modern word for "yes" is <i>ouè</i>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lenguas_de_Oil.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lenguas_de_Oil.png/250px-Lenguas_de_Oil.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lenguas_de_Oil.png/330px-Lenguas_de_Oil.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lenguas_de_Oil.png/500px-Lenguas_de_Oil.png 2x" data-file-width="580" data-file-height="506" /></a><figcaption>The area of <i><a href="/wiki/Langues_d%27o%C3%AFl" title="Langues d'oïl">langues d'oïl</a></i></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Gallo-Romance_languages" title="Gallo-Romance languages">Gallo-Romance</a> group in the north of France, consisting of <i><a href="/wiki/Langues_d%27o%C3%AFl" title="Langues d'oïl">langues d'oïl</a></i> such as <a href="/wiki/Picard_language" title="Picard language">Picard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Walloon_language" title="Walloon language">Walloon</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Francien_language" title="Francien language">Francien</a>, were influenced by <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic languages</a> spoken by the earliest Frankish invaders. From the time of <a href="/wiki/Clovis_I" title="Clovis I">Clovis I</a> on, the Franks expanded their rule over northern Gaul. Over time, the French language developed from either the Oïl languages found around <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a> and <a href="/wiki/%C3%8Ele-de-France" title="Île-de-France">Île-de-France</a> (the Francien theory) or from a standard administrative language based on common characteristics found in all Oïl languages (the <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a> theory). </p><p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Occitan_language" title="Occitan language">langue d'oc</a></i>, consisting of the languages which use <i>oc</i> or <i>òc</i> for "yes", was the language group spoken in the south of France and northeastern <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>. These languages, such as <a href="/wiki/Gascon_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gascon language">Gascon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Proven%C3%A7al_dialect" title="Provençal dialect">Provençal</a>, have relatively little Frankish influence. </p><p>The Middle Ages also saw the influence of other linguistic groups on the dialects spoken in France. From the 4th to 7th centuries, <a href="/wiki/Brythonic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Brythonic languages">Brythonic</a>-speaking peoples from <a href="/wiki/Cornwall" title="Cornwall">Cornwall</a>, <a href="/wiki/Devon" title="Devon">Devon</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a> travelled across the <a href="/wiki/English_Channel" title="English Channel">English Channel</a>, both for reasons of trade and of flight from the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon">Anglo-Saxon</a> invasions of England, and established themselves in <a href="/wiki/Armorica" title="Armorica">Armorica</a> in northwest France. Their dialect evolved into the <a href="/wiki/Breton_language" title="Breton language">Breton language</a> in more recent centuries, and they gave their name to the peninsula they inhabited: <a href="/wiki/Brittany" title="Brittany">Brittany</a>. </p><p>Attested since the time of <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a>, a non-Celtic people who spoke a <a href="/wiki/Basque_language" title="Basque language">Basque</a>-related language inhabited the <a href="/wiki/Novempopulania" title="Novempopulania">Novempopulania</a> (<i>Aquitania Tertia</i>) in southwestern France, though the language gradually lost ground to the expanding <a href="/wiki/Romance_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Romance language">Romance</a> during a period spanning most of the Early Middle Ages. This <a href="/wiki/Basque_language" title="Basque language">Proto-Basque</a> influenced the emerging Latin-based language spoken in the area between the <a href="/wiki/Garonne" title="Garonne">Garonne</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Pyrenees" title="Pyrenees">Pyrenees</a>, eventually resulting in the dialect of <a href="/wiki/Occitan_language" title="Occitan language">Occitan</a> called <a href="/wiki/Gascon_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gascon language">Gascon</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavian</a> <a href="/wiki/Vikings" title="Vikings">Vikings</a> invaded France from the 9th century onwards and established themselves mostly in what would come to be called <a href="/wiki/Normandy" title="Normandy">Normandy</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Normans" title="Normans">Normans</a> took up the <a href="/wiki/O%C3%AFl_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Oïl languages">langue d'oïl</a> spoken there, although <a href="/wiki/Norman_French" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman French">Norman French</a> remained heavily influenced by <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a> and its dialects. They also contributed many words to French related to sailing and farming. After the <a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman conquest of England</a> in 1066, the Normans' language developed into <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_language" title="Anglo-Norman language">Anglo-Norman</a>. Anglo-Norman served as the language of the ruling classes and commerce in England from the time of the conquest until the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by which time the use of <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_English_Language#Period_of_French_Domination" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the English Language">French-influenced English</a> had spread throughout English society. </p><p>Also around this time period, many words from the <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic language</a> entered French, mainly indirectly through <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval Latin</a>, Italian and Spanish. There are words for luxury goods (<i>élixir, orange</i>), <a href="/wiki/Spices" class="mw-redirect" title="Spices">spices</a> (<i>camphre, safran</i>), trade goods (<i>alcool, bougie, coton</i>), sciences (<i>alchimie, hasard</i>), and <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a> (<i>algèbre, algorithme</i>). </p><p>While education and literacy had been important components of aristocratic service in the Carolingian period,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by the 11th century and continuing into the 13th century, the lay (secular) public in France—both nobles and peasants—was largely <a href="/wiki/Literacy" title="Literacy">illiterate</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> except for (at least to the end of the 12th century) members of the great courts and, in the south, smaller noble families.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This situation began to change in the 13th century, where we find highly literate members of the French nobility like <a href="/wiki/Guillaume_de_Lorris" title="Guillaume de Lorris">Guillaume de Lorris</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_of_Villehardouin" title="Geoffrey of Villehardouin">Geoffrey of Villehardouin</a> (sometimes referred to as Villehardouin), and <a href="/wiki/Jean_de_Joinville" title="Jean de Joinville">Jean de Joinville</a> (sometimes referred to as Joinville).<sup id="cite_ref-Cantor,_466_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cantor,_466-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, due to the outpouring of French vernacular literature from the 12th century on (<span title="Old French (842-ca. 1400)-language text"><i lang="fro"><a href="/wiki/Chanson_de_geste" title="Chanson de geste">chanson de geste</a></i></span>, <a href="/wiki/Chivalric_romance" title="Chivalric romance">chivalric romance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Troubadour" title="Troubadour">troubadour</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trouv%C3%A8re" title="Trouvère">trouvère</a> poetry, etc.), French eventually became the "international language of the aristocracy".<sup id="cite_ref-Cantor,_466_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cantor,_466-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society_and_government">Society and government</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=France_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Society and government"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Peasants">Peasants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=France_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Peasants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the Middle Ages in France, the vast majority of the population—between 80 and 90 percent—were peasants.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Traditional categories inherited from the Roman and Merovingian period (distinctions between free and unfree peasants, between tenants and peasants who owned their own land, etc.) underwent significant changes up to the 11th century. The traditional rights of "free" peasants—such as service in royal armies (they had been able to serve in the royal armies as late as Charlemagne's reign) and participation in public assemblies and law courts—were lost through the 9th to the 10th centuries, and they were increasingly made dependents of nobles, churches and large landholders.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mid-8th century to 1000 also saw a steady increase of aristocratic and monastic control of the land, at the expense of landowning peasants.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the same time, the traditional notion of "unfree" dependents and the distinction between "unfree" and "free" tenants was eroded as the concept of <a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">serfdom</a> (see also <a href="/wiki/History_of_serfdom" title="History of serfdom">History of serfdom</a>) came to dominate.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From the mid-8th century on, particularly in the north, the relationship between peasants and the land became increasingly characterized by the extension of the new "bipartite estate" system (<a href="/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">manorialism</a>), in which peasants (who were bound to the land) held tenant holdings from a lord or monastery (for which they paid rent), but were also required to work the lord's own "<a href="/wiki/Demesne" title="Demesne">demesne</a>"; in the north, some of these estates could be quite substantial.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This system remained a standard part of lord-tenant relations into the 12th century.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The economic and demographic crises of the 14th–15th centuries (<a href="/wiki/Agricultural_expansion" title="Agricultural expansion">agricultural expansion</a> had lost many of the gains made in the 12th and 13th centuries<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) reversed this trend: landlords offered serfs their freedom in exchange for working abandoned lands, ecclesiastical and royal authorities created new "free" cities (<i>villefranches</i>) or granted freedom to existing cities, etc. By the end of the 15th century, serfdom was largely extinct;<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> henceforth "free" peasants paid rents for their own lands, and the lord's demesne was worked by hired labor.<sup id="cite_ref-Cantor,_484_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cantor,_484-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This liberated the peasantry to a certain degree, but also made their lives more precarious in times of economic uncertainty.<sup id="cite_ref-Cantor,_484_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cantor,_484-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For lords who rented out more and more of their holdings for fixed rents, the initial benefits were positive, but over time they found themselves increasingly cash-strapped as inflationary pressures reduced their incomes.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cities_and_towns">Cities and towns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=France_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Cities and towns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Much of the Gallo-Roman urban network of cities survived (albeit much changed) into the Middle Ages as regional centers and capitals: certain cities had been chosen as centers of bishoprics by the church<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (for example, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Paris" title="Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Paris">Paris</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Reims" title="Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Reims">Reims</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Aix" title="Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Aix">Aix</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Tours" title="Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Tours">Tours</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Carcassonne-Narbonne" title="Roman Catholic Diocese of Carcassonne-Narbonne">Carcassonne and Narbonne</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Auch" title="Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Auch">Auch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Albi" title="Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Albi">Albi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Bourges" title="Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Bourges">Bourges</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Lyon" title="Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Lyon">Lyon</a>, etc.), others as seats of local (county, duchy) administrative power (such as <a href="/wiki/County_of_Anjou" title="County of Anjou">Angers</a>, <a href="/wiki/County_of_Blois" title="County of Blois">Blois</a>, <a href="/wiki/County_of_Poitou" title="County of Poitou">Poitiers</a>, <a href="/wiki/County_of_Toulouse" title="County of Toulouse">Toulouse</a>). In many cases (such as with <a href="/wiki/Poitiers" title="Poitiers">Poitiers</a>) cities were seats of both episcopal and administrative power. </p><p>From the 10th to the 11th centuries, the urban development of the country expanded (particularly on the northern coasts): new ports appeared and dukes and counts encouraged and created new towns.<sup id="cite_ref-Hallam,_p_8_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hallam,_p_8-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In other areas, urban growth was slower and centered on the monastic houses.<sup id="cite_ref-Hallam,_p_9_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hallam,_p_9-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In many regions, <a href="/wiki/Market_town" title="Market town">market towns</a> (<i>burgs</i>) with limited privileges were established by local lords. In the late 11th century, "<a href="/wiki/Medieval_commune" title="Medieval commune">communes</a>", governing assemblies, began to develop in towns.<sup id="cite_ref-Hallam,_p_8_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hallam,_p_8-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Starting sporadically in the late 10th, and increasingly in the 12th century, many towns and villages were able to gain economic, social or judicial privileges and franchises from their lords (exemptions from tolls and dues, rights to clear land or hold fairs, some judicial or administrative independence, etc.).<sup id="cite_ref-Hallam,_p_9_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hallam,_p_9-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The seigneurial reaction to expanding urbanism and enfranchisement was mixed; some lords fought against the changes, but some lords gained financial and political advantages from the communal movement and growing trade.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 13th to 14th centuries were a period of significant urbanization. <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a> was the largest city in the realm, and indeed one of the largest cities in Europe, with an estimated population of 200,000 or more at the end of the century. The second-largest city was <a href="/wiki/Rouen" title="Rouen">Rouen</a>; the other major cities (with populations over 10,000) were <a href="/wiki/Orl%C3%A9ans" title="Orléans">Orléans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tours" title="Tours">Tours</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bordeaux" title="Bordeaux">Bordeaux</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lyon" title="Lyon">Lyon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dijon" title="Dijon">Dijon</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Reims" title="Reims">Reims</a>. In addition to these, there also existed zones with an extended urban network of medium to small cities, as in the south and the Mediterranean coast (from <a href="/wiki/Toulouse" title="Toulouse">Toulouse</a> to <a href="/wiki/Marseille" title="Marseille">Marseille</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Narbonne" title="Narbonne">Narbonne</a> and <a href="/wiki/Montpellier" title="Montpellier">Montpellier</a>) and in the north (<a href="/wiki/Beauvais" title="Beauvais">Beauvais</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laon" title="Laon">Laon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amiens" title="Amiens">Amiens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arras" title="Arras">Arras</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bruges" title="Bruges">Bruges</a>, etc.).<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Market_town" title="Market town">Market towns</a> increased in size and many were able to gain privileges and franchises including transformation into free cities (<i>villes franches</i>); rural populations from the countrysides moved to the cities and burgs.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was also a period of urban building: the extension of walls around the entirety of the urban space, the vast construction of Gothic <a href="/wiki/Cathedral" title="Cathedral">cathedrals</a> (starting in the 12th century), urban fortresses, castles (such as Philip II Augustus' <a href="/wiki/Louvre" title="Louvre">Louvre</a> around 1200) and bridges.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aristocracy,_nobles,_knights"><span id="Aristocracy.2C_nobles.2C_knights"></span>Aristocracy, nobles, knights</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=France_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Aristocracy, nobles, knights"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/French_nobility" title="French nobility">French nobility</a> and <a href="/wiki/Knight" title="Knight">knight</a></div> <p>In the Carolingian period, the "aristocracy" (<i>nobilis</i> in the Latin documents) was by no means a legally defined category.<sup id="cite_ref-Wickham,_520_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wickham,_520-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With traditions going back to the Romans; one was "noble" if he or she possessed significant land holdings, had access to the king and royal court, could receive <i>honores</i> and <a href="/wiki/Benefice" title="Benefice">benefices</a> for service (such as being named <a href="/wiki/Count" title="Count">count</a> or <a href="/wiki/Duke" title="Duke">duke</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Wickham,_520_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wickham,_520-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their access to political power in the Carolingian period might also necessitate a need for education.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their wealth and power was also evident in their lifestyle and purchase of luxury goods, and in their maintenance of an armed entourage of <i>fideles</i> (men who had sworn oaths to serve them). </p><p>From the late 9th to the late 10th century, the nature of the noble class changed significantly. First off, the aristocracy increasingly focused on establishing strong regional bases of landholdings,<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> on taking hereditary control of the counties and duchies,<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and eventually on erecting these into veritable independent principalities<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and privatizing various privileges and rights of the state. (By 1025, the area north of the Loire was dominated by six or seven of these virtually independent states.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) After 1000, these counties in turn began to break down into smaller lordships, as smaller lords wrest control of local lands in the so-called "feudal revolution"<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and seized control over many elements of comital powers (see vassal/feudal below). </p><p>Secondly, from the 9th century on, military ability was increasingly seen as conferring special status, and professional soldiers or <i>milites</i>, generally in the entourage of sworn lords, began to establish themselves in the ranks of the aristocracy (acquiring local lands, building private castles, seizing elements of justice), thereby transforming into the military noble class historians refer to as "<a href="/wiki/Knight" title="Knight">knights</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vassalage_and_feudal_land">Vassalage and feudal land</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=France_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Vassalage and feudal land"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Vassal" title="Vassal">Vassal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fief" title="Fief">Fief</a></div> <p>The Merovingians and Carolingians maintained relations of power with their aristocracy through the use of clientele systems and the granting of <i>honores</i> and benefices, including land, a practice which grew out of Late Antiquity. This practice would develop into the system of vassalage and feudalism in the Middle Ages. Originally, <a href="/wiki/Vassal" title="Vassal">vassalage</a> did not imply the giving or receiving of landholdings (which were granted only as a reward for loyalty), but by the eighth century the giving of a landholding was becoming standard.<sup id="cite_ref-Cantor_1993,_pp._198-199_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cantor_1993,_pp._198-199-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The granting of a landholding to a vassal did not relinquish the lord's property rights, but only the use of the lands and their income; the granting lord retained ultimate ownership of the fee and could, technically, recover the lands in case of disloyalty or death.<sup id="cite_ref-Cantor_1993,_pp._198-199_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cantor_1993,_pp._198-199-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">8th-century Frankish empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Martel" title="Charles Martel">Charles Martel</a> was the first to make large scale and systematic use (the practice had remained until then sporadic) of the remuneration of vassals by the concession of the usufruct of lands (a <i>beneficatium</i> or "<a href="/wiki/Benefice" title="Benefice">benefice</a>" in the documents) for the lifetime of the vassal, or, sometimes extending to the second or third generation.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the middle of the 10th century, feudal land grants (fee, fiefs) had largely become hereditary.<sup id="cite_ref-Cantor,_200_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cantor,_200-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The eldest son of a deceased vassal would inherit, but first he had to do homage and fealty to the lord and pay a "<a href="/wiki/Feudal_relief" title="Feudal relief">relief</a>" for the land (a monetary recognition of the lord's continuing proprietary rights over the property). By the 11th century, the bonds of vassalage and the granting of fiefs had spread throughout much of French society, but it was in no ways universal in France: in the south, feudal grants of land or of rights were unknown.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In its origin, the feudal grant had been seen in terms of a personal bond between lord and vassal, but with time and the transformation of fiefs into hereditary holdings, the nature of the system came to be seen as a form of "politics of land" (an expression used by the historian <a href="/wiki/Marc_Bloch" title="Marc Bloch">Marc Bloch</a>). The 11th century in France saw what has been called by historians a "feudal revolution" or "mutation" and a "fragmentation of powers" (Bloch) that was unlike the development of <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudalism</a> in England or Italy or Germany in the same period or later:<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> counties and duchies began to break down into smaller holdings as <a href="/wiki/Castellan" title="Castellan">castellans</a> and lesser seigneurs took control of local lands, and (as comital families had done before them) lesser lords usurped/privatized a wide range of prerogatives and rights of the state, most importantly the highly profitable rights of justice, but also travel dues, market dues, fees for using woodlands, obligations to use the lord's mill, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (what <a href="/wiki/Georges_Duby" title="Georges Duby">Georges Duby</a> called collectively the "<i>seigneurie banale</i>"<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). Power in this period became more personal<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and it would take centuries for the state to fully reimpose its control over local justice and fiscal administration (by the 15th century, much of the seigneur's legal purview had been given to the <i><a href="/wiki/Bailli" class="mw-redirect" title="Bailli">bailliages</a></i>, leaving them only affairs concerning seigneurial dues and duties, and small affairs of local justice) </p><p>This "fragmentation of powers" was not however systematic throughout France, and in certain counties (such as Flanders, Normandy, Anjou, Toulouse), counts were able to maintain control of their lands into the 12th century or later.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, in some regions (like Normandy and Flanders), the vassal/feudal system was an effective tool for ducal and comital control, linking vassals to their lords; but in other regions, the system led to significant confusion, all the more so as vassals could and frequently did pledge themselves to two or more lords. In response to this, the idea of a "<a href="/wiki/Liege_lord" class="mw-redirect" title="Liege lord">liege lord</a>" was developed (where the obligations to one lord are regarded as superior) in the 12th century.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Peerage">Peerage</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=France_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Peerage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Peerage_of_France" title="Peerage of France">Peerage of France</a></div> <p>Medieval French kings conferred the dignity of peerage upon certain of his preëminent <a href="/wiki/Vassal" title="Vassal">vassals</a>, both clerical and lay. Some historians consider <a href="/wiki/Louis_VII_of_France" title="Louis VII of France">Louis VII</a> (1137–1180) to have created the French system of peers.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Peerage was attached to a specific territorial jurisdiction, either an <a href="/wiki/Episcopal_see" title="Episcopal see">episcopal see</a> for episcopal peerages or a <a href="/wiki/Fief" title="Fief">fief</a> for secular. Peerages attached to fiefs were transmissible or inheritable with the fief, and these fiefs are often designated as <i>pairie-duché</i> (for duchies) and <i>pairie-comté</i> (for counties). </p><p>By 1216 there were nine peers: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archbishop_of_Reims" class="mw-redirect" title="Archbishop of Reims">Archbishop of Reims</a> who had the distinction of anointing and crowning the king</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bishop_of_Langres" class="mw-redirect" title="Bishop of Langres">Bishop of Langres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bishop_of_Beauvais" class="mw-redirect" title="Bishop of Beauvais">Bishop of Beauvais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bishop_of_Ch%C3%A2lons-sur-Marne" class="mw-redirect" title="Bishop of Châlons-sur-Marne">Bishop of Châlons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bishop_of_Noyon" class="mw-redirect" title="Bishop of Noyon">Bishop of Noyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dukes_of_Normandy" class="mw-redirect" title="Dukes of Normandy">Duke of Normandy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dukes_of_Burgundy" class="mw-redirect" title="Dukes of Burgundy">Duke of Burgundy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dukes_of_Aquitaine" class="mw-redirect" title="Dukes of Aquitaine">Duke of Aquitaine</a> also called Duke of Guyenne</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counts_of_Champagne" class="mw-redirect" title="Counts of Champagne">Count of Champagne</a></li></ul> <p>A few years later and before 1228 three peers were added to make the total of twelve peers: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bishop_of_Laon" class="mw-redirect" title="Bishop of Laon">Bishop of Laon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Count_of_Flanders" title="Count of Flanders">Count of Flanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counts_of_Toulouse" class="mw-redirect" title="Counts of Toulouse">Count of Toulouse</a></li></ul> <p>These twelve peerages are known as the <i>ancient peerage</i> or <i>pairie ancienne</i>, and the number twelve is sometimes said to have been chosen to mirror the 12 <a href="/wiki/Paladin" title="Paladin">paladins</a> of <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> in the <i><a href="/wiki/Chansons_de_geste" class="mw-redirect" title="Chansons de geste">Chanson de geste</a></i> (see below). Parallels may also be seen with mythical <a href="/wiki/Knights_of_the_Round_Table" title="Knights of the Round Table">Knights of the Round Table</a> under <a href="/wiki/King_Arthur" title="King Arthur">King Arthur</a>. So popular was this notion, that for a long time people thought peerage had originated in the reign of Charlemagne, who was considered the model king and shining example for knighthood and nobility. </p><p>The dozen <i>pairs</i> played a role in the royal <i>sacre</i> or <a href="/wiki/Consecration" class="mw-redirect" title="Consecration">consecration</a>, during the liturgy of the <a href="/wiki/Coronation" title="Coronation">coronation</a> of the king, attested to as early as 1179, symbolically upholding his crown, and each original peer had a specific role, often with an attribute. Since the peers were never twelve during the coronation in early periods, due to the fact that most lay peerages were forfeited to or merged in the crown, delegates were chosen by the king, mainly from the princes of the blood. In later periods peers also held up by poles a <a href="/wiki/Baldaquin" class="mw-redirect" title="Baldaquin">baldaquin</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cloth_of_honour" class="mw-redirect" title="Cloth of honour">cloth of honour</a> over the king during much of the ceremony. </p><p>In 1204 the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Normandy" title="Duchy of Normandy">Duchy of Normandy</a> was absorbed by the French crown, and later in the 13th century two more of the lay peerages were absorbed by the crown (Toulouse 1271, Champagne 1284), so in 1297 three new peerages were created, the <a href="/wiki/Count_of_Artois" title="Count of Artois">County of Artois</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Anjou" class="mw-redirect" title="Duke of Anjou">Duchy of Anjou</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Brittany" class="mw-redirect" title="Duke of Brittany">Duchy of Brittany</a>, to compensate for the three peerages that had disappeared. </p><p>Thus, beginning in 1297 the practice started of creating new peerages by <a href="/wiki/Letters_patent" title="Letters patent">letters patent</a>, specifying the fief to which the peerage was attached, and the conditions under which the fief could be transmitted (e.g. only male heirs) for princes of the blood who held an <a href="/wiki/Apanage" class="mw-redirect" title="Apanage">apanage</a>. By 1328 all apanagists would be peers. </p><p>The number of lay peerages increased over time from 7 in 1297 to 26 in 1400, 21 in 1505, and 24 in 1588. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Monarchy_and_regional_powers">Monarchy and regional powers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=France_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Monarchy and regional powers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>France was a very decentralised state during the Middle Ages. At the time, <a href="/wiki/Lorraine_(duchy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lorraine (duchy)">Lorraine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Burgundy-Arles" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Burgundy-Arles">Provence</a> were states of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> and not a part of France. North of the Loire, the King of France at times fought or allied with one of the great principalities of Normandy, Anjou, Blois-Champagne, Flanders and Burgundy. The duke of Normandy was overlord of the duke of Brittany. South of the Loire were the principalities of Aquitaine, Toulouse and Barcelona. Normandy became the strongest power in the north, while Barcelona became the strongest in the south. The rulers of both fiefs eventually became kings, the former by the conquest of England, and the latter by the succession to Aragon. French suzerainty over Barcelona was only formally relinquished by Saint Louis in 1258. </p><p>Initially, West Frankish kings were elected by the secular and ecclesiastic magnates, but the regular coronation of the eldest son of the reigning king during his father's lifetime established the principle of male primogeniture, later popularized as the <a href="/wiki/Salic_law" title="Salic law">Salic law</a>. The authority of the king was more religious than administrative. The 11th century in France marked the apogee of princely power at the expense of the king when states like <a href="/wiki/Normandy" title="Normandy">Normandy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flanders" title="Flanders">Flanders</a> or <a href="/wiki/Languedoc" title="Languedoc">Languedoc</a> enjoyed a local authority comparable to kingdoms in all but name. The <a href="/wiki/House_of_Capet" title="House of Capet">Capetians</a>, as they were descended from the <a href="/wiki/Robertians" title="Robertians">Robertians</a>, were formerly powerful princes themselves who had successfully unseated the weak and unfortunate <a href="/wiki/Carolingian" class="mw-redirect" title="Carolingian">Carolingian</a> kings.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1993_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1993-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Carolingian" class="mw-redirect" title="Carolingian">Carolingian</a> kings had nothing more than a royal title when the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Capet" title="House of Capet">Capetian</a> kings added their principality to that title. The Capetians, in a way, held a dual status of King and Prince; as king they held the <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Charlemagne" title="Crown of Charlemagne">Crown of Charlemagne</a> and as <a href="/wiki/Count_of_Paris" title="Count of Paris">Count of Paris</a> they held their personal fiefdom, best known as <a href="/wiki/%C3%8Ele-de-France" title="Île-de-France">Île-de-France</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1993_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1993-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The fact that the Capetians both held lands as Prince as well as in the title of King gave them a complicated status. Thus they were involved in the struggle for power within France as princes but they also had a religious authority over <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholicism_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholicism in France">Roman Catholicism in France</a> as King. However, and despite the fact that the Capetian kings often treated other princes more as enemies and allies than as subordinates, their royal title was often recognised yet not often respected. The royal authority was so weak in some remote places that bandits were the effective power.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1993_50-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1993-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some of the king's vassals would grow sufficiently powerful that they would become some of the strongest rulers of western Europe. The <a href="/wiki/Normans" title="Normans">Normans</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Plantagenets" class="mw-redirect" title="Plantagenets">Plantagenets</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Lusignans" class="mw-redirect" title="Lusignans">Lusignans</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Hautevilles" class="mw-redirect" title="Hautevilles">Hautevilles</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ramnulfids" title="Ramnulfids">Ramnulfids</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Toulouse" title="House of Toulouse">House of Toulouse</a> successfully carved lands outside France for themselves. The most important of these conquests for French history was the <a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a> by <a href="/wiki/William_the_Conqueror" title="William the Conqueror">William the Conqueror</a>, following the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hastings" title="Battle of Hastings">Battle of Hastings</a> and immortalised in the <a href="/wiki/Bayeux_Tapestry" title="Bayeux Tapestry">Bayeux Tapestry</a>, because it linked England to France through Normandy. Although the Normans were now both vassals of the French kings and their equals as kings of England, their zone of political activity remained centered in France.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An important part of the French aristocracy also involved itself in the crusades, and French knights founded and ruled the <a href="/wiki/Crusader_states" title="Crusader states">Crusader states</a>. An example of the legacy left in the Middle East by these nobles is the <a href="/wiki/Krak_des_Chevaliers" title="Krak des Chevaliers">Krak des Chevaliers</a>' enlargement by the Counts of <a href="/wiki/Tripoli,_Libya" title="Tripoli, Libya">Tripoli</a> and <a href="/wiki/Toulouse" title="Toulouse">Toulouse</a>. </p><p>The history of the monarchy is how it overcame the powerful barons over ensuing centuries, and established absolute sovereignty over France in the 16th century. A number of factors contributed to the rise of the French monarchy. The dynasty established by Hugh Capet continued uninterrupted until 1328, and the laws of <a href="/wiki/Primogeniture" title="Primogeniture">primogeniture</a> ensured orderly successions of power. Secondly, the successors of Capet came to be recognised as members of an illustrious and ancient royal house and therefore socially superior to their politically and economically superior rivals. Thirdly, the Capetians had the support of the <a href="/wiki/Papacy,_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Papacy, history">Church</a>, which favoured a strong central government in France. This alliance with the Church was one of the great enduring legacies of the Capetians. The <a href="/wiki/First_Crusade" title="First Crusade">First Crusade</a> was composed almost entirely of Frankish Princes. As time went on the power of the King was expanded by conquests, seizures and successful feudal political battles.<sup id="cite_ref-google235_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-google235-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="French_power_in_the_Middle_Ages">French power in the Middle Ages</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=France_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: French power in the Middle Ages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Vassals and cadets of the King of France made several foreign acquisitions during the Middle Ages: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_the_Conqueror" title="William the Conqueror">William the Conqueror</a>, Duke of Normandy (1066): conquered the Kingdom of England</li> <li>The success of the <a href="/wiki/First_Crusade" title="First Crusade">First Crusade</a> led to the creation of a Frankish kingdom in the Levant in 1099</li> <li>Norman knights settled in Sicily, which was raised to a kingdom in 1130</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fulk,_King_of_Jerusalem" title="Fulk, King of Jerusalem">Fulk V, Count of Anjou</a> (1131): became King of Jerusalem by marriage</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afonso_I_of_Portugal" title="Afonso I of Portugal">Afonso I of Portugal</a> (1139): great-grandson of <a href="/wiki/Robert_I,_Duke_of_Burgundy" title="Robert I, Duke of Burgundy">Robert I, Duke of Burgundy</a>, and founder of the Kingdom of Portugal</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_II_of_England" title="Henry II of England">Henry II of England</a> (1154): ruled England and much of Western France (The <a href="/wiki/Angevin_Empire" title="Angevin Empire">Angevin Empire</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfonso_II_of_Aragon" title="Alfonso II of Aragon">Alfonso II of Aragon</a>, Count of Barcelona (1164): first Count of Barcelona to become King of Aragon in his own right</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theobald_I_of_Navarre" title="Theobald I of Navarre">Theobald I of Navarre</a>, Count of Champagne (1234): inherited the Kingdom of Navarre from his uncle</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_I_of_Naples" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles I of Naples">Charles I of Naples</a>, Count of Anjou (1266): youngest son of <a href="/wiki/Louis_VIII_of_France" title="Louis VIII of France">Louis VIII of France</a>, conquered the Kingdom of Naples and Sicily, proclaimed himself King of Albania</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_I_of_Hungary" title="Charles I of Hungary">Charles I of Hungary</a> (1301): scion of the <a href="/wiki/Capetian_House_of_Anjou" title="Capetian House of Anjou">Capetian House of Anjou</a>, King of Hungary and Croatia</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_VII,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Henry VII, Holy Roman Emperor">Henry VII, Holy Roman Emperor</a>: became a vassal of <a href="/wiki/Philip_IV_of_France" title="Philip IV of France">Philip IV of France</a> while Count of Luxembourg. Philip IV advanced the candidacy of his brother <a href="/wiki/Charles_of_Valois" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles of Valois">Charles of Valois</a> for the imperial throne, but the German electors were unwilling to expand French influence even further. Henry was elected King of Germany in 1308 as a compromise candidate, and became emperor in 1312.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_of_Bohemia" title="John of Bohemia">John of Bohemia</a> (1310): son of Emperor Henry VII, he became of King of Bohemia by marriage. John was raised in Paris, and died fighting for the French in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cr%C3%A9cy" title="Battle of Crécy">Battle of Crécy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_III_of_Navarre" title="Philip III of Navarre">Philip III of Navarre</a>, Count of Évreux (1328): became King of Navarre by marriage</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_I_of_Hungary" title="Louis I of Hungary">Louis I of Hungary</a> (1342): son of Charles I of Hungary, eventually became King of Poland in addition to the realms inherited from his father</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_IV,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor</a> (1346): son of John of Bohemia, he received French education and resided in the French court for seven years. His close connection to the House of France facilitated the sale of <a href="/wiki/Dauphin%C3%A9" title="Dauphiné">Dauphiné</a>, an imperial fief, in 1349, and its eventual transfer into the French crown.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_the_Bold" title="Philip the Bold">Philip the Bold</a>, Duke of Burgundy (1363): with his appanage of Burgundy and his marriage to the heiress of Flanders, he founded the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Valois-Burgundy" title="House of Valois-Burgundy">House of Valois-Burgundy</a>, the most powerful dynasty of the Middle Ages which is not of royal rank</li></ul> <p>The power of the French monarchy grew at a slower rate at the beginning: </p> <ul><li>The early Capetians ruled much longer than their contemporaries, but had little power. They did not have the will, or the resources, to coerce their vassals into obedience.</li> <li>Louis VI began an aggressive policy of demanding obedience from his vassals in the Ile-de-France backed by military force</li> <li>Louis VII's marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine brought the French monarchy's influence to southern France, but the annulment of their marriage brought about the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Angevin_kings_of_England" title="Angevin kings of England">Angevin dynasty</a>, the most formidable rival of the French monarchy</li> <li>Philip II made the French king the foremost power within his own kingdom, destroying Angevin power in France through the conquest of Normandy and Anjou</li> <li>Louis VIII embarked on the <a href="/wiki/Albigensian_Crusade" title="Albigensian Crusade">Albigensian Crusade</a>, which brought northern France to war against the south</li> <li>Louis IX brought the prestige of the French monarchy at its height. Even the Mongol leader Hulagu, who had been under the impression that the Pope was the ruler of all Christians, realized that the true power rested in the King of France and sought an alliance with him. His crusading ventures, however, were unsuccessful</li> <li>Philip III inherited Toulouse and married his son to the heiress of Navarre and Champagne</li> <li>Philip IV was the most absolutist of the medieval French kings, but his costly policies brought him into conflict with the pope and the persecution of the Templars in order to obtain their resources.</li> <li>The orderly succession of French kings for more than 300 years, combined with an abrupt dynastic crisis in 1316 led to the adoption of a succession law that prevented the kingship from going out of the Capetian dynasty. The successive deaths of the sons of Philip IV in a short period of time led to the rise of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Valois" title="House of Valois">House of Valois</a></li> <li>Philip VI was an initially promising ruler, having brought Flanders into submission early in his reign. At the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a> France was the foremost power in Western Europe, but this did not prevent his overwhelming defeat at Crécy.</li> <li>John II brought the French monarchy at its lowest with another overwhelming defeat in Poitiers.</li> <li>Charles V recovered most of the territories lost during the war</li> <li>The madness of Charles VI multiplied the woes of France, as the princes of the royal house split into factions in order to obtain power. France suffered another defeat at Agincourt, and the king was forced to disinherit his own son in favor of <a href="/wiki/Henry_V_of_England" title="Henry V of England">Henry V of England</a></li> <li>Charles VII was apathetic during the early years of his reign, but his fortunes changed with the rise of <a href="/wiki/Joan_of_Arc" title="Joan of Arc">Joan of Arc</a> in 1429 and his reconciliation with the Duke of Burgundy in 1435. The French were victorious at the end of the war in 1453, and the King of France was once again the most powerful monarch in Europe, with the first <a href="/wiki/Standing_army" title="Standing army">standing army</a> since Roman times.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Royal_administration">Royal administration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=France_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Royal administration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="King's_Council"><span id="King.27s_Council"></span>King's Council</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=France_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: King's Council"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Conseil_du_Roi" title="Conseil du Roi">Conseil du Roi</a></div> <p>The kings of France traditionally always sought the advice of their entourage (<a href="/wiki/Vassal" title="Vassal">vassals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cleric" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleric">clerics</a>, etc.) before making important decisions. In the early Middle Ages, the entourage around the king was sometimes called the <i><a href="/wiki/Familia_regis" class="mw-redirect" title="Familia regis">familia</a></i>; later the expression "hôtel du roi" or the "<a href="/wiki/Maison_du_roi" class="mw-redirect" title="Maison du roi">maison du roi</a>" (the "royal household") was used for people attached directly to the person of the king, while (in the 12th century), those who were called upon to counsel the king in his administration of the realm took the form of a specific (and separate) institution called the King's Court (Latin: the "Curia Regis", later the <i><a href="/wiki/Conseil_du_Roi" title="Conseil du Roi">Conseil du Roi</a></i>)), although by the middle of the 13th century distinctions between "hôtel du roi" and <i>curia regis</i> were less clear.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to the King's Council, the consultative governing of the country also depended on other intermittent and permanent institutions, such as the <a href="/wiki/French_States-General" class="mw-redirect" title="French States-General">States General</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Parlement" title="Parlement">Parlements</a> and the Provincial Estates. The Parliament of Paris – as indeed all of the sovereign courts of the realm – was itself born out of the King's Council: originally a consultative body of the <i>Curia Regis</i>, later (in the thirteenth century) endowed with judicial functions, the Parliament was separated from the King's Council in 1254. </p><p>The King's Court functioned as an advisory body under the early <a href="/wiki/House_of_Capet" title="House of Capet">Capetian kings</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-MFE255_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MFE255-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was composed of a number of the king's trusted advisers but only a few traveled with the king at any time.<sup id="cite_ref-MFE255_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MFE255-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the later twelfth century it had become a judicial body with a few branching off to remain the king's council.<sup id="cite_ref-MFE255_54-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MFE255-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the fourteenth century the term <i>curia regis</i> was no longer used.<sup id="cite_ref-MFE255_54-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MFE255-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, it had served as a predecessor to later sovereign assemblies; the <a href="/wiki/Parlement" title="Parlement">Parlement</a> which was a judiciary body, the Chamber of Accounts which was a financial body and <a href="/wiki/Council_of_State_(France)" class="mw-redirect" title="Council of State (France)">King's Council</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The composition of the King's Council changed constantly over the centuries and according to the needs and desires of the king. Medieval councils frequently excluded: </p> <ul><li>the queen (both as queen consort or as queen mother) – the influence of the queen lost direct political control as early as the 13th century, except in periods of regency; the queen thus only exceptionally attended the Council.</li> <li>close relations to the king, including younger sons, grandsons and princes of the royal bloodline ("prince du sang") from junior branches of the family – these individuals were often suspected of political ambition and of plotting.</li></ul> <p>On the other hand, medieval councils generally included: </p> <ul><li>the crown prince (the "dauphin") – if he was of age to attend the council</li> <li>the "grands" – the most powerful members of the church and of the nobility.</li></ul> <p>The feudal aristocracy would maintain great control over the king's council up until the 14th and 15th centuries. The most important positions in the court were those of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Officers_of_the_Crown_of_France" title="Great Officers of the Crown of France">Great Officers of the Crown of France</a>, headed by the <a href="/wiki/Constable_of_France" title="Constable of France">connétable</a> (chief military officer of the realm; established by King Philip I in 1060) and the <a href="/wiki/Chancellor_of_France" title="Chancellor of France">chancellor</a>. Other positions included the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Chamberman_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Chamberman of France">Grand Chambrier</a> who managed the Royal Treasury along with the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Butler_of_France" title="Grand Butler of France">Grand Bouteiller</a> (Grand Butler), before being supplanted of these functions by the Chamber of Accounts (<a href="/wiki/Chambre_des_comptes" class="mw-redirect" title="Chambre des comptes">Chambre des comptes</a>, created by King <a href="/wiki/Philip_IV_of_France" title="Philip IV of France">Philip IV</a>) and the position of <a href="/wiki/Surintendant_des_finances" class="mw-redirect" title="Surintendant des finances">Surintendant des finances</a> (created in 1311). Certain kings were unable to reduce the importance of the feudal aristocracy (<a href="/wiki/Louis_X_of_France" title="Louis X of France">Louis X</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philip_VI_of_France" title="Philip VI of France">Philip VI</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_II_of_France" title="John II of France">John II</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_VI_of_France" title="Charles VI of France">Charles VI</a>), while others were more successful (<a href="/wiki/Charles_V_of_France" title="Charles V of France">Charles V</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louis_XI_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XI of France">Louis XI</a>). </p><p>Over the centuries, the number of <a href="/wiki/Jurist" title="Jurist">jurists</a> (or "légistes"), generally educated by the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Paris" title="University of Paris">université de Paris</a>, steadily increased as the technical aspects of the matters studied in the council mandated specialized counsellers. Coming from the lesser nobility or the bourgeoisie, these jurists (whose positions sometimes gave them or their heirs nobility, as the so-called "<a href="/wiki/Noblesse_de_robe" class="mw-redirect" title="Noblesse de robe">noblesse de robe</a>" or chancellor nobles) helped in preparing and putting into legal form the king's decisions, and they formed the early elements of a true civil service and royal administration which would – because of their permanence – provide a sense of stability and continuity to the royal council, despite its many reorganizations. In their attempts at greater efficiency, the kings tried to reduce the number of counsellors or to convoke "reduced councils". <a href="/wiki/Charles_V_of_France" title="Charles V of France">Charles V</a> had a council of 12 members. </p><p>The Council had only a consultational role: the final decision was always the king's. Although jurists frequented praised (especially later in the 16th century) the advantages of consultative government (with the agreement of his counsellors, the king could more easily impose the most severe of his decisions, or he could have his most unpopular decisions blamed on his counsellors), mainstream legal opinion never held that the king was bound by the decisions of his council; the opposite was however put forward by the <a href="/wiki/French_States-General" class="mw-redirect" title="French States-General">States General</a> of 1355–1358. </p><p>The Council's purview concerned all matters pertaining to government and royal administration, both in times of war and of peace. In his council, the king received ambassadors, signed treaties, appointed administrators and gave them instructions (called, from the 12th century on, <i>mandements</i>), elaborated on the laws of the realm (called <i><a href="/wiki/Political_system_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Political system of France">ordonnances</a></i>). The council also served as a supreme court and rendered royal justice on those matters that the king reserved for himself (so-called "justice retenue") or decided to discuss personally. </p><p>Council meetings, initially irregular, took on a regular schedule which became daily from the middle of the 15th century. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Royal_finances">Royal finances</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=France_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Royal finances"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Court_of_Finances" class="mw-redirect" title="Court of Finances">Court of Finances</a></div> <p>The king was expected to survive on the revenues of the "<a href="/wiki/Crown_lands_of_France" title="Crown lands of France">domaine royal</a>", or lands that belonged to him directly. In times of need, the <i><a href="/wiki/Taille" title="Taille">taille</a></i>, an "exceptional" tax could be imposed and collected; this resource was increasingly required during the protracted wars of the 14th–15th centuries and the taille became permanent in 1439, when the right to collect taxes in support of a standing army was granted to <a href="/wiki/Charles_VII_of_France" title="Charles VII of France">Charles VII of France</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a>. </p><p>To oversee the Kingdom's revenues and expenditure, the French King first relied solely on the <i>Curia Regis</i>. However, by the mid-12th century, the Crown entrusted its finances to the <a href="/wiki/Knights_Templar" title="Knights Templar">Knights Templar</a>, who maintained a banking establishment in Paris. The royal Treasury was henceforth organized like a bank and salaries and revenues were transferred between accounts. Royal accounting officers in the field, who sent revenues to the Temple, were audited by the King's Court, which had special clerks assigned to work at the Temple. These financial specialists came to be called the <i>Curia in Compotis</i> and sat in special sessions of the King's Court for dealing with financial business. From 1297, accounts were audited twice yearly after Midsummer Day (24 June) and Christmas. In time, what was once a simple Exchequer of Receipts developed into a central auditing agency, branched off, and eventually specialized into a full-time court. </p><p>In 1256, <a href="/wiki/Louis_IX_of_France" title="Louis IX of France">Saint Louis</a> issued a decree ordering all mayors, burghesses, and town councilmen to appear before the King's sovereign auditors of the Exchequer (French <i>gens des comptes</i>) in <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a> to render their final accounts. The King's Court's general secretariat had members who specialized in finance and accountancy and could receive accounts. A number of <i>maîtres lais</i> were commissioned to sit as the King's <a href="/wiki/Exchequer" title="Exchequer">Exchequer</a> (<i>comptes du Roi</i>). </p><p>In or around 1303, the Paris Court of Accounts was established in the <a href="/wiki/Palais_de_la_Cit%C3%A9" title="Palais de la Cité">Palais de la Cité</a>. Its auditors were responsible for overseeing revenue from Crown estates and checking public spending. It audited the royal household, inspectors, royal commissioners, provosts, baillifs, and seneschals. In 1307, the <a href="/wiki/Philip_IV_of_France" title="Philip IV of France">Philip IV</a> definitively removed royal funds from the Temple and placed them in the fortress of the Louvre. Thereafter, the financial specialists received accounts for audit in a room of the royal palace that became known as the <i>Camera compotorum</i> or <i>Chambre des comptes</i>, and they began to be collectively identified under the same name, although still only a subcommission of the King's Court, consisting of about sixteen people. </p><p>The Vivier-en-Brie Ordinance of 1320, issued by <a href="/wiki/Philip_V_of_France" title="Philip V of France">Philip V</a>, required the <i>Chambre</i> to audit accounts, judge cases arising from accountability, and maintain registers of financial documents; it also laid out the basic composition of financial courts: three (later four) cleric masters of accounts (<i>maîtres-clercs</i>) to act as chief auditors and three <i>maîtres-lais familiers du Roi</i> empowered to hear and adjudge ("<a href="/wiki/Oyer_and_terminer" title="Oyer and terminer">oyer and terminer</a>") audit accounts. They were assisted by eleven clerks (<i>petis clercs</i>, later <i>clercs des comptes</i>) who acted as auditors of the prests. This complement grew by 50 percent in the next two decades but was reduced to seven masters and twelve clerks in 1346. The office of <i>président</i> was created by the Ordinance of 1381, and a second lay Chief Baron was appointed in 1400. Clerks of court were eventually added to the court's composition. Examiners (<i>correcteurs</i>) were created to assist the <i>maitres</i>. Other court officers (<i>conseillers</i>) appointed by the King were created to act alongside the <i>maîtres ordinaires</i>. Lastly, the Ordinance of 26 February 1464 named the Court of Accounts as the "sovereign, primary, supreme, and sole court of last resort in all things financial".<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While gaining in stability in the later 14th century, the court lost its central role in royal finances. First, currency was moved to a separate body (<i>Chambre des monnaies</i>), then the increasingly regular "extraordinary" taxes (<i>aide</i>, <a href="/wiki/Tallage" title="Tallage">tallage</a>, <i>gabelle</i>) became the responsibility of the <i>généraux</i> of the <a href="/wiki/Cour_des_aides" class="mw-redirect" title="Cour des aides">Cour des aides</a> (created in 1390). The Crown's domainal revenues, still retained by the Court of Accounts, fell in importance and value. By 1400, the Court's role had been much reduced. However, with the gradual enlargement of the realm through conquest, the need for the court remained secure. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Parlements">Parlements</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=France_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Parlements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Parlement" title="Parlement">Parliament of Paris</a>, born out of the king's council in 1307, and sitting inside the medieval <a href="/wiki/Palace" title="Palace">royal palace</a> on the <a href="/wiki/%C3%8Ele_de_la_Cit%C3%A9" title="Île de la Cité">Île de la Cité</a>, still the site of the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Hall_of_Justice" class="mw-redirect" title="Paris Hall of Justice">Paris Hall of Justice</a>. The jurisdiction of the Parliament of Paris covered the entire kingdom as it was in the fourteenth century, but did not automatically advance in step with the enlarging personal dominions of the kings. In 1443, following the turmoil of the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a>, King <a href="/wiki/Charles_VII_of_France" title="Charles VII of France">Charles VII of France</a> granted <a href="/wiki/Languedoc" title="Languedoc">Languedoc</a> its own <i>parlement</i> by establishing the <i>Parlement</i> of <a href="/wiki/Toulouse" title="Toulouse">Toulouse</a>, the first <i>parlement</i> outside of Paris; its jurisdiction extended over most of southern France. </p><p>Several other <i>parlements</i> were created in various provinces of France in the Middle Ages: <a href="/wiki/Dauphin%C3%A9" title="Dauphiné">Dauphiné</a> (<a href="/wiki/Grenoble" title="Grenoble">Grenoble</a> 1453), <a href="/wiki/Guyenne" title="Guyenne">Guyenne</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gascony" title="Gascony">Gascony</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bordeaux" title="Bordeaux">Bordeaux</a> 1462), <a href="/wiki/Burgundy_(region)" class="mw-redirect" title="Burgundy (region)">Burgundy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dijon" title="Dijon">Dijon</a> 1477), <a href="/wiki/Normandy" title="Normandy">Normandy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Rouen" title="Rouen">Rouen</a> 1499/1515). All of them were administrative capitals of regions with strong historical traditions of independence before they were incorporated into France. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Estates_General">Estates General</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=France_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Estates General"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Estates_General_(France)" title="Estates General (France)">Estates General (France)</a></div> <p>In 1302, expanding French royal power led to a general assembly consisting of the chief lords, both lay and ecclesiastical, and the representatives of the principal privileged towns, which were like distinct lordships. Certain precedents paved the way for this institution: representatives of principal towns had several times been convoked by the king, and under <a href="/wiki/Philip_III_of_France" title="Philip III of France">Philip III</a> there had been assemblies of nobles and ecclesiastics in which the two <a href="/wiki/Estates_of_the_realm" title="Estates of the realm">orders</a> deliberated separately. It was the dispute between <a href="/wiki/Philip_IV_of_France" title="Philip IV of France">Philip the Fair</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pope_Boniface_VIII" title="Pope Boniface VIII">Pope Boniface VIII</a> which led to the States-General of 1302; the king of France desired that, in addition to the <a href="/wiki/Great_Officers_of_the_Crown_of_France" title="Great Officers of the Crown of France">Great Officers of the Crown of France</a>, he receive the counsel from the three estates in this serious crisis. The letters summoning the assembly of 1302 are published by M. Georges Picot in his collection of <i>Documents inédits pour servir à l'histoire de France</i>. During the same reign they were subsequently assembled several times to give him aid by granting <a href="/wiki/Subsidies" class="mw-redirect" title="Subsidies">subsidies</a>. Over time subsidies came to be the most frequent motive for their convocation. </p><p>The Estates-General included representatives of the First Estate (<a href="/wiki/Clergy" title="Clergy">clergy</a>), Second Estate (the <a href="/wiki/Nobility" title="Nobility">nobility</a>), and Third Estate (<a href="/wiki/Commoners" class="mw-redirect" title="Commoners">commoners</a>: all others), and monarchs always summoned them either to grant subsidies or to advise <a href="/wiki/The_Crown" title="The Crown">the Crown</a>, to give aid and counsel. In their primitive form in the 14th and the first half of the 15th centuries, the Estates-General had only a limited elective element. The lay lords and the ecclesiastical lords (<a href="/wiki/Bishop" title="Bishop">bishops</a> and other high clergy) who made up the Estates-General were not elected by their peers, but directly chosen and summoned by the king. In the order of the clergy, however, since certain ecclesiastical bodies, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Abbey" title="Abbey">abbeys</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chapter_(religion)" title="Chapter (religion)">chapters</a> of <a href="/wiki/Cathedral" title="Cathedral">cathedrals</a>, were also summoned to the assembly, and as these bodies, being persons in the moral but not in the physical sense, could not appear in person, their representative had to be chosen by the <a href="/wiki/Monk" title="Monk">monks</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Convent" title="Convent">convent</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Canon_(priest)" class="mw-redirect" title="Canon (priest)">canons</a> of the chapter. It was only the representation of the Third Estate which was furnished by election. Originally, moreover, the latter was not called upon as a whole to seek representation in the estates. It was only the <i>bonnes villes</i>, the privileged towns, which were called upon. They were represented by elected <i>procureurs</i>, who were frequently the municipal officials of the town, but deputies were often elected for the purpose. The country districts, the <i>plat pays</i>, were not represented. Even within the <i>bonnes villes</i>, the franchise was quite narrow. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Prévôts,_baillages"><span id="Pr.C3.A9v.C3.B4ts.2C_baillages"></span>Prévôts, baillages</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=France_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Prévôts, baillages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Pr%C3%A9v%C3%B4t" title="Prévôt">prévôts</a></i> were the first-level judges created by the Capetian monarchy around the 11th century who administered the scattered parts of the royal domain. Provosts replaced <a href="/wiki/Viscount" title="Viscount">viscounts</a> wherever a viscounty had not been made a fief, and it is likely that the provost position imitated and was styled after the corresponding ecclesiastical <a href="/wiki/Provost_(religion)" title="Provost (religion)">provost</a> of <a href="/wiki/Cathedral_chapter" title="Cathedral chapter">cathedral chapters</a>. Provosts were entrusted with and carried out local royal power, including the collection of the Crown's domainal revenues and all taxes and duties owed the King within a provostship's jurisdiction. They were also responsible for military defense such as raising local contingents for royal armies. The provosts also administered justice though with limited jurisdiction. </p><p>In the 11th century, the provosts tended increasingly to make their positions hereditary and thus became more difficult to control. One of the King's great officers, the Great Seneschal, became their supervisor. In the 12th century, the office of provost was put up for bidding, and thereafter provosts were farmers of revenues. The provost thus received the speculative right to collect the King's seignorial revenues within his provostship. This remained his primary role. </p><p>To monitor the performance and curtail abuses of the prévôts or their equivalent (in <a href="/wiki/Normandy" title="Normandy">Normandy</a> a <i><a href="/wiki/Viscount" title="Viscount">vicomte</a></i>, in parts of northern France a <i><a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2telain" title="Châtelain">châtelain</a></i>, in the south a <i>viguier</i> or a <i>bayle</i>), Philip II Augustus, an able and ingenious administrator who founded many of the central institutions on which the French monarchy's system of power would be based, established itinerant justices known as <i><a href="/wiki/Bailli" class="mw-redirect" title="Bailli">baillis</a></i> ("bailiff") based on medieval fiscal and tax divisions which had been used by earlier sovereign princes (such as the Duke of Normandy).<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>bailli</i> was thus the king's administrative representative in northern France responsible for the application of justice and control of the administration and local finances in his <i><a href="/wiki/Bailiwick" title="Bailiwick">baillage</a></i> (in the south of France, the equivalent post was "sénéchal, sénéchaussé"). </p><p>Over time, the role of the baillages would be greatly extended as extensions of royal power, administration and justice. With the office of Great Seneschal vacant after 1191, the bailies became stationary and established themselves as powerful officials superior to provosts. A bailie's district included about half a dozen provostships. When appeals were instituted by the Crown, appeal of provost judgments, formerly impossible, now lay with the bailie. Moreover, in the 14th century, provosts no longer were in charge of collecting domainal revenues, except in farmed provostships, having instead yielded this responsibility to royal receivers (receveurs royaux). Raising local army contingents (ban and arrière-ban) also passed to bailies. Provosts therefore retained the sole function of inferior judges over vassals with original jurisdiction concurrent with bailies over claims against nobles and actions reserved for royal courts (<i>cas royaux</i>). This followed a precedent established in the chief feudal courts in the 13th and 14th centuries in which summary provostship suits were distinguished from solemn bailliary sessions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Political_history">Political history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=France_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Political history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">Kingdom of France</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Carolingian_legacy">Carolingian legacy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=France_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Carolingian legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a></div> <p>During the later years of the elderly <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a>'s rule, the <a href="/wiki/Viking" class="mw-redirect" title="Viking">Vikings</a> made advances along the northern and western perimeters of his kingdom. After Charlemagne's death in 814 his heirs were incapable of maintaining political unity and the empire began to crumble. The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Verdun" title="Treaty of Verdun">Treaty of Verdun</a> of 843 divided the Carolingian Empire, and <a href="/wiki/Charles_the_Bald" title="Charles the Bald">Charles the Bald</a> ruled over <a href="/wiki/West_Francia" title="West Francia">West Francia</a>, roughly corresponding to the territory of modern France. </p><p>Viking advances were allowed to escalate, and their dreaded <a href="/wiki/Longboat" title="Longboat">longboats</a> were sailing up the <a href="/wiki/Loire_(river)" class="mw-redirect" title="Loire (river)">Loire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seine" title="Seine">Seine</a> Rivers and other inland waterways, wreaking havoc and spreading terror. In 843 Viking invaders murdered the <a href="/wiki/Bishop_of_Nantes" class="mw-redirect" title="Bishop of Nantes">Bishop of Nantes</a>, and a few years after that, they burned the Church of Saint Martin at <a href="/wiki/Tours" title="Tours">Tours</a>, and in 845 the Vikings sacked <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2008)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> During the reign of <a href="/wiki/Charles_the_Simple" title="Charles the Simple">Charles the Simple</a> (898–922), Normans under <a href="/wiki/Rollo" title="Rollo">Rollo</a> were settled in an area on either side of the Seine River, downstream from <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>, that was to become <a href="/wiki/Normandy" title="Normandy">Normandy</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Carolingians" class="mw-redirect" title="Carolingians">Carolingians</a> were subsequently to share the fate of their predecessors: after an intermittent power struggle between the two families, the accession (987) of <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Capet" title="Hugh Capet">Hugh Capet</a>, Duke of France and Count of Paris, established on the throne the <a href="/wiki/Capetian_dynasty" title="Capetian dynasty">Capetian dynasty</a> which with its <a href="/wiki/House_of_Valois" title="House of Valois">Valois</a> and <a href="/wiki/House_of_Bourbon" title="House of Bourbon">Bourbon</a> offshoots was to rule France for more than 800 years. </p><p>The Carolingian era had seen the gradual emergence of institutions which were to condition France's development for centuries to come: the acknowledgement by the crown of the administrative authority of the realm's nobles within their territories in return for their (sometimes tenuous) loyalty and military support, a phenomenon readily visible in the rise of the Capetians and foreshadowed to some extent by the Carolingians' own rise to power. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_First_Capetians_(940–1108)"><span id="The_First_Capetians_.28940.E2.80.931108.29"></span>The First Capetians (940–1108)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=France_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: The First Capetians (940–1108)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Capetian_France.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Capetian_France.jpg/250px-Capetian_France.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Capetian_France.jpg/330px-Capetian_France.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Capetian_France.jpg/500px-Capetian_France.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption>France at the Coronation of Hugh Capet</figcaption></figure> <p>The history of medieval France starts with the election of <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Capet" title="Hugh Capet">Hugh Capet</a> (940–996) by an assembly summoned in <a href="/wiki/Reims" title="Reims">Reims</a> in 987. Capet was previously "Duke of the Franks" and then became "King of the Franks" (Rex Francorum). Hugh's lands extended little beyond the Paris basin; his political unimportance weighed against the powerful barons who elected him. Many of the king's vassals (who included for a long time the kings of England) ruled over territories far greater than his own.<sup id="cite_ref-google235_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-google235-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was recorded to be recognised king by the <a href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Gauls</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bretons" title="Bretons">Bretons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Danes_(Germanic_tribe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Danes (Germanic tribe)">Danes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aquitanians" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquitanians">Aquitanians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a>, Spanish and <a href="/wiki/Gascons" class="mw-redirect" title="Gascons">Gascons</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1995_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1995-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The new dynasty was in immediate control of little beyond the middle Seine and adjacent territories, while powerful territorial lords such as the 10th- and 11th-century <a href="/wiki/Counts_of_Blois" title="Counts of Blois">counts of Blois</a> accumulated large domains of their own through marriage and through private arrangements with lesser nobles for protection and support. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Borrell_II,_Count_of_Barcelona" class="mw-redirect" title="Borrell II, Count of Barcelona">Count Borell of Barcelona</a> called for Hugh's help against Islamic raids, but even if Hugh intended to help Borell, he was otherwise occupied in fighting <a href="/wiki/Charles,_Duke_of_Lower_Lorraine" title="Charles, Duke of Lower Lorraine">Charles of Lorraine</a>. The loss of other Spanish principalities then followed, as the Spanish marches grew more and more independent.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1995_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1995-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hugh Capet, the first Capetian king, is not a well documented figure, his greatest achievement being certainly to survive as king and defeating the Carolingian claimant, thus allowing him to establish what would become one of Europe's most powerful house of kings.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1995_58-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1995-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Clocher_abbaye_cluny_2.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Clocher_abbaye_cluny_2.JPG/220px-Clocher_abbaye_cluny_2.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="302" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Clocher_abbaye_cluny_2.JPG/330px-Clocher_abbaye_cluny_2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Clocher_abbaye_cluny_2.JPG/440px-Clocher_abbaye_cluny_2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1128" data-file-height="1546" /></a><figcaption>A view of the remains of the <a href="/wiki/Cluny_Abbey" title="Cluny Abbey">Abbey of Cluny</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_St._Benedict" class="mw-redirect" title="Rule of St. Benedict">Benedictine</a> monastery, was the centre of monastic life revival in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> and marked an important step in the cultural rebirth following the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Hugh's son – <a href="/wiki/Robert_II_of_France" title="Robert II of France">Robert the Pious</a> – was crowned King of the Franks before Capet's demise. Hugh Capet decided so in order to have his succession secured. Robert II, as King of the Franks, met <a href="/wiki/Henry_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor">Holy Roman Emperor Henry II</a> in 1023 on the borderline. They agreed to end all claims over each other's realm, setting a new stage of Capetian and Ottonian relationships. Although a king weak in power, Robert II's efforts were considerable. His surviving charters imply he relied heavily on the Church to rule France, much like his father did. Although he lived with a mistress – <a href="/wiki/Bertha_of_Burgundy" title="Bertha of Burgundy">Bertha of Burgundy</a> – and was excommunicated because of this, he was regarded as a model of piety for monks (hence his nickname, Robert the Pious).<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1995_58-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1995-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The reign of Robert II was quite important because it involved the <a href="/wiki/Peace_and_Truce_of_God" title="Peace and Truce of God">Peace and Truce of God</a> (beginning in 989) and the <a href="/wiki/Cluniac_Reforms" title="Cluniac Reforms">Cluniac Reforms</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1995_58-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1995-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Robert II crowned his son – <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Magnus_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Hugh Magnus of France">Hugh Magnus</a> – as King of the Franks at age 10 to secure the succession, but Hugh Magnus rebelled against his father and died fighting him in 1025. </p><p>The next King of the Franks was Robert II's next son, <a href="/wiki/Henry_I_of_France" title="Henry I of France">Henry I</a> (reigned 1027–1060). Like Hugh Magnus, Henry was crowned as co-ruler with his father (1027), in the Capetian tradition, but he had little power or influence as junior king while his father still lived. Henry I was crowned after Robert's death in 1031, which is quite exceptional for a French king of the times. Henry I was one of the weakest kings of the Franks, and his reign saw the rise of some very powerful nobles such as William the Conqueror.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1995_58-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1995-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Henry I's biggest source of concerns was his brother – <a href="/wiki/Robert_I,_Duke_of_Burgundy" title="Robert I, Duke of Burgundy">Robert I of Burgundy</a> – who was pushed by his mother to the conflict. Robert of Burgundy was made Duke of Burgundy by King Henry I and had to be satisfied with that title. From Henry I onward, the Dukes of Burgundy were relatives of the King of the Franks until the end of the Duchy proper. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Godfrey_of_Bouillon,_holding_a_pollaxe._(Manta_Castle,_Cuneo,_Italy).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Godfrey_of_Bouillon%2C_holding_a_pollaxe._%28Manta_Castle%2C_Cuneo%2C_Italy%29.jpg/200px-Godfrey_of_Bouillon%2C_holding_a_pollaxe._%28Manta_Castle%2C_Cuneo%2C_Italy%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="327" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Godfrey_of_Bouillon%2C_holding_a_pollaxe._%28Manta_Castle%2C_Cuneo%2C_Italy%29.jpg/300px-Godfrey_of_Bouillon%2C_holding_a_pollaxe._%28Manta_Castle%2C_Cuneo%2C_Italy%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Godfrey_of_Bouillon%2C_holding_a_pollaxe._%28Manta_Castle%2C_Cuneo%2C_Italy%29.jpg/400px-Godfrey_of_Bouillon%2C_holding_a_pollaxe._%28Manta_Castle%2C_Cuneo%2C_Italy%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="735" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Godfrey_of_Bouillon" title="Godfrey of Bouillon">Godefroy de Bouillon</a>, a French knight, leader of the <a href="/wiki/First_Crusade" title="First Crusade">First Crusade</a> and founder of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem" title="Kingdom of Jerusalem">Kingdom of Jerusalem</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Philip_I_of_France" title="Philip I of France">King Philip I</a>, named by his Kievan mother with a typically Eastern European name, was no more fortunate than his predecessor<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1995_58-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1995-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although the kingdom did enjoy a modest recovery during his extraordinarily long reign (1060–1108). His reign also saw the launch of the <a href="/wiki/First_Crusade" title="First Crusade">First Crusade</a> to regain the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Land" title="Holy Land">Holy Land</a>, which heavily involved his family although he personally did not support the expedition. </p><p>The area around the lower Seine, ceded to <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavian</a> invaders as the Duchy of Normandy in 911, became a source of particular concern when <a href="/wiki/William_I_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="William I of England">Duke William</a> took possession of the kingdom of <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a> of 1066, making himself and his heirs the King's equal outside France (where he was still nominally subject to the Crown). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Louis_VI_and_Louis_VII_(1108–1180)"><span id="Louis_VI_and_Louis_VII_.281108.E2.80.931180.29"></span>Louis VI and Louis VII (1108–1180)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=France_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Louis VI and Louis VII (1108–1180)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It is from <a href="/wiki/Louis_VI_of_France" title="Louis VI of France">Louis VI</a> (reigned 1108–1137) onward that royal authority became more accepted. Louis VI was more a soldier and warmongering king than a scholar. The way the king raised money from his vassals made him quite unpopular; he was described as greedy and ambitious and that is corroborated by records of the time. His regular attacks on his vassals, although damaging the royal image, reinforced the royal power. From 1127 onward Louis had the assistance of a skilled religious statesman, <a href="/wiki/Abbot_Suger" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbot Suger">Abbot Suger</a>. The abbot was the son of a minor family of knights, but his political advice was extremely valuable to the king. Louis VI successfully defeated, both military and politically, many of the <a href="/wiki/Robber_baron_(feudalism)" title="Robber baron (feudalism)">robber barons</a>. Louis VI frequently summoned his vassals to the court, and those who did not show up often had their land possessions confiscated and military campaigns mounted against them. This drastic policy clearly imposed some royal authority on Paris and its surrounding areas. When Louis VI died in 1137, much progress had been made towards strengthening Capetian authority.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1995_58-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1995-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Thanks to Abbot Suger's political advice, <a href="/wiki/Louis_VII_of_France" title="Louis VII of France">King Louis VII</a> (junior king 1131–1137, senior king 1137–1180) enjoyed greater <a href="/wiki/Moral_authority" title="Moral authority">moral authority</a> over France than his predecessors. Powerful vassals paid homage to the French king.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Abbot Suger arranged the 1137 marriage between Louis VII and <a href="/wiki/Eleanor_of_Aquitaine" title="Eleanor of Aquitaine">Eleanor of Aquitaine</a> in Bordeaux, which made Louis VII Duke of Aquitaine and gave him considerable power. However, the couple disagreed over the burning of more than a thousand people in <a href="/wiki/Vitry-en-Perthois" title="Vitry-en-Perthois">Vitry</a> during the conflict against the Count of Champagne.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated4_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated4-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>King Louis VII was deeply horrified by the event and sought penitence by going to the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Land" title="Holy Land">Holy Land</a>. He later involved the Kingdom of France in the <a href="/wiki/Second_Crusade" title="Second Crusade">Second Crusade</a> but his relationship with Eleanor did not improve. The marriage was ultimately annulled by the pope under the pretext of consanguinity and Eleanor soon married the Duke of Normandy – <a href="/wiki/Henry_II_of_England" title="Henry II of England">Henry Fitzempress</a>, who would become King of England as Henry II two years later.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated4_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated4-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Louis VII was once a very powerful monarch and was now facing a much stronger vassal, who was his equal as King of England and his strongest prince as Duke of Normandy and Aquitaine. </p><p>(Henry had inherited the Duchy of Normandy through his mother, Mathilda of England, and the County of <a href="/wiki/County_of_Anjou" title="County of Anjou">Anjou</a> from his father, <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_of_Anjou" class="mw-redirect" title="Geoffrey of Anjou">Geoffrey of Anjou</a>, and in 1152, he had married France's newly divorced ex-queen, <a href="/wiki/Eleanor_of_Aquitaine" title="Eleanor of Aquitaine">Eleanor of Aquitaine</a>, who ruled much of southwest France. After defeating a <a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_1173%E2%80%931174" title="Revolt of 1173–1174">revolt</a> led by Eleanor and three of their four sons, Henry had Eleanor imprisoned, made the Duke of <a href="/wiki/Brittany" title="Brittany">Brittany</a> his vassal, and in effect ruled the western half of France as a greater power than the French throne. However, disputes among Henry's descendants over the division of his French territories, coupled with <a href="/wiki/John_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="John of England">John of England</a>'s lengthy quarrel with Philip II, allowed <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_France" title="Philip II of France">Philip II</a> to recover influence over most of this territory. After the French victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bouvines" title="Battle of Bouvines">Battle of Bouvines</a> in 1214, the English monarchs maintained power only in southwestern Duchy of <a href="/wiki/Guyenne" title="Guyenne">Guyenne</a>.) </p><p>Abbot Suger's vision of construction became what is now known as <a href="/wiki/Gothic_architecture" title="Gothic architecture">Gothic architecture</a>. This style became standard for most European cathedrals built in the <a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">late Middle Ages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated4_60-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated4-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The late direct Capetian kings were considerably more powerful and influential than the earliest ones. While Philip I could hardly control his Parisian barons, Philip IV could dictate popes and emperors. The late Capetians, although they often ruled for a shorter time than their earlier peers, were often much more influential. This period also saw the rise of a complex system of international alliances and conflicts opposing, through dynasties, Kings of France and England and Holy Roman Emperor. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philip_II_Augustus_and_Louis_VIII_(1180–1226)"><span id="Philip_II_Augustus_and_Louis_VIII_.281180.E2.80.931226.29"></span>Philip II Augustus and Louis VIII (1180–1226)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=France_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Philip II Augustus and Louis VIII (1180–1226)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The reign of <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_France" title="Philip II of France">Philip II Augustus</a> (junior king 1179–1180, senior king 1180–1223) marked an important step in the history of French monarchy. His reign saw the French royal domain and influence greatly expanded. He set the context for the rise of power to much more powerful monarchs like Saint Louis and Philip the Fair. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bataille_de_Bouvines_gagnee_par_Philippe_Auguste.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Bataille_de_Bouvines_gagnee_par_Philippe_Auguste.jpg/300px-Bataille_de_Bouvines_gagnee_par_Philippe_Auguste.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Bataille_de_Bouvines_gagnee_par_Philippe_Auguste.jpg/450px-Bataille_de_Bouvines_gagnee_par_Philippe_Auguste.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Bataille_de_Bouvines_gagnee_par_Philippe_Auguste.jpg/600px-Bataille_de_Bouvines_gagnee_par_Philippe_Auguste.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2482" data-file-height="1222" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_France" title="Philip II of France">Philip II</a> victorious at <a href="/wiki/Bouvines" title="Bouvines">Bouvines</a> thus annexing Normandy and Anjou into his royal domains. This battle involved a complex set of alliances from three important states, the Kingdoms of France and England and the Holy Roman Empire.</figcaption></figure> <p>Philip II spent an important part of his reign fighting the so-called <a href="/wiki/Angevin_Empire" title="Angevin Empire">Angevin Empire</a>, which was probably the greatest threat to the King of France since the rise of the Capetian dynasty. During the first part of his reign Philip II tried using Henry II of England's son against him. He allied himself with the Duke of Aquitaine and son of Henry II – <a href="/wiki/Richard_I_of_England" title="Richard I of England">Richard Lionheart</a> – and together they launched a decisive attack on Henry's castle and home of <a href="/wiki/Chinon" title="Chinon">Chinon</a> and removed him from power. </p><p>Richard replaced his father as King of England afterward. The two kings then went crusading during the <a href="/wiki/Third_Crusade" title="Third Crusade">Third Crusade</a>; however, their alliance and friendship broke down during the crusade. The two men were once again at odds and fought each other in France until Richard was on the verge of totally defeating Philip II. </p><p>Adding to their battles in France, the Kings of France and England were trying to install their respective allies at the head of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>. If Philip II Augustus supported <a href="/wiki/Philip_of_Swabia" title="Philip of Swabia">Philip of Swabia</a>, member of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Hohenstaufen" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Hohenstaufen">House of Hohenstaufen</a>, then Richard Lionheart supported <a href="/wiki/Otto_IV,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Otto IV, Holy Roman Emperor">Otto IV</a>, member of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Welf" title="House of Welf">House of Welf</a>. Philip of Swabia had the upper hand, but his premature death made Otto IV Holy Roman Emperor. The crown of France was saved by Richard's demise after a wound he received fighting his own vassals in <a href="/wiki/Limousin_(province)" title="Limousin (province)">Limousin</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/John_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="John of England">John Lackland</a>, Richard's successor, refused to come to the French court for a trial against the <a href="/wiki/Lusignan" class="mw-redirect" title="Lusignan">Lusignans</a> and, as Louis VI had done often to his rebellious vassals, Philip II confiscated John's possessions in France. John's defeat was swift and his attempts to reconquer his French possession at the decisive <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bouvines" title="Battle of Bouvines">Battle of Bouvines</a> (1214) resulted in complete failure. The annexation of Normandy and Anjou was confirmed, the Counts of Boulogne and Flanders were captured, and the Emperor Otto IV was overthrown by Philip's ally <a href="/wiki/Frederick_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor">Frederick II</a>. Aquitaine and Gascony survived the French conquest, for the Duchess Eleanor still lived. Philip II of France was crucial in ordering Western European politics in both England and France. </p><p>Philip Augustus founded <a href="/wiki/La_Sorbonne" class="mw-redirect" title="La Sorbonne">the Sorbonne</a> and made Paris a city for scholars. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Louis_VIII_of_France" title="Louis VIII of France">Prince Louis</a> (the future Louis VIII, reigned 1223–1226) was involved in the subsequent <a href="/wiki/First_Barons_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First Barons War">English civil war</a> as French and English (or rather Anglo-Norman) aristocracies were once one and were now split between allegiances. While the French kings were struggling against the Plantagenets, the Church called for the <a href="/wiki/Albigensian_Crusade" title="Albigensian Crusade">Albigensian Crusade</a>. Southern France was then largely absorbed in the royal domains. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Saint_Louis_(1226–1270)"><span id="Saint_Louis_.281226.E2.80.931270.29"></span>Saint Louis (1226–1270)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=France_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Saint Louis (1226–1270)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Louis-ix.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Louis-ix.jpg/220px-Louis-ix.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="284" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/Louis-ix.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="232" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Louis_IX_of_France" title="Louis IX of France">Saint Louis</a> saw France's cultural expansion in the Western Christian world.</figcaption></figure> <p>France became a truly centralised kingdom under <a href="/wiki/Louis_IX_of_France" title="Louis IX of France">Louis IX</a> (reigned 1226–1270). Saint Louis has often been portrayed as a one-dimensional character, a flawless example of the faith and an administrative reformer who cared for the governed ones. However, his reign was far from perfect for everyone: he made unsuccessful crusades, his expanding administrations raised opposition, and he burned Jewish books at the Pope's urging.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His judgments were not often practical, although they seemed fair by the standards of the time. It appears Louis had a strong sense of justice and always wanted to judge people himself before applying any sentence. This was said about Louis and French clergy asking for excommunications of Louis' vassals:<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><i>For it would be against God and contrary to right and justice if he compelled any man to seek absolution when the clergy were doing him wrong.</i></p></blockquote> <p>Louis IX was only twelve years old when he became King of France. His mother – <a href="/wiki/Blanche_of_Castile" title="Blanche of Castile">Blanche of Castile</a> – was the effective power as <a href="/wiki/Regent" title="Regent">regent</a> (although she did not formally use the title). Blanche's authority was strongly opposed by the French barons yet she maintained her position until Louis was old enough to rule by himself. </p><p>In 1229 the King had to struggle with a long-lasting <a href="/wiki/University_of_Paris_strike_of_1229" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Paris strike of 1229">strike at the University of Paris</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Latin_Quarter" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin Quarter">Latin Quarter</a> was strongly hit by these strikes. </p><p>The kingdom was vulnerable: war was still going on in the County of Toulouse, and the royal army was occupied fighting resistance in Languedoc. <a href="/wiki/Raymond_VII_of_Toulouse" class="mw-redirect" title="Raymond VII of Toulouse">Count Raymond VII of Toulouse</a> finally signed the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1229)" title="Treaty of Paris (1229)">Treaty of Paris</a> in 1229, in which he retained much of his lands for life, but his daughter, married to <a href="/wiki/Alfonso,_Count_of_Poitou" class="mw-redirect" title="Alfonso, Count of Poitou">Count Alfonso of Poitou</a>, produced him no heir and so the County of Toulouse went to the King of France. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Henry_III_of_England" title="Henry III of England">King Henry III of England</a> had not yet recognized the Capetian overlordship over Aquitaine and still hoped to recover Normandy and Anjou and reform the Angevin Empire. He landed in 1230 at <a href="/wiki/Saint-Malo" title="Saint-Malo">Saint-Malo</a> with a massive force. Henry III's allies in Brittany and Normandy fell down because they did not dare fight their king, who led the counterstrike himself. This evolved into the <a href="/wiki/Saintonge_War" title="Saintonge War">Saintonge War</a> (1242). </p><p>Ultimately, Henry III was defeated and had to recognize Louis IX's overlordship, although the King of France did not seize Aquitaine from Henry III. Louis IX was now the most important landowner of France, adding to his royal title. There were some opposition to his rule in Normandy, yet it proved remarkably easy to rule, especially compared to the County of Toulouse which had been brutally conquered. The <a href="/wiki/Conseil_du_Roi" title="Conseil du Roi">Conseil du Roi</a>, which would evolve into the <a href="/wiki/Parlement" title="Parlement">Parlement</a>, was founded in these times. </p><p>After his conflict with <a href="/wiki/Henry_III_of_England" title="Henry III of England">King Henry III of England</a>, Louis established a cordial relation with the Plantagenet King. An amusing anecdote is about Henry III's attending the French <a href="/wiki/Parlement" title="Parlement">Parlement</a>, as Duke of Aquitaine; however, the King of England was always late because he liked to stop each time he met a priest to hear the mass, so Louis made sure no priest was on the way of Henry III. Henry III and Louis IX then started a long contest for who was the most faithful; this evolved to the point that none ever arrived on time to the Parlement, which was then allowed to debate in their absence.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Saint Louis also supported new forms of art such as <a href="/wiki/Gothic_architecture" title="Gothic architecture">Gothic architecture</a>; his <a href="/wiki/Sainte-Chapelle" title="Sainte-Chapelle">Sainte-Chapelle</a> became a very famous gothic building, and he is also credited for the <a href="/wiki/Morgan_Bible" title="Morgan Bible">Morgan Bible</a>. </p><p>The Kingdom was involved in two crusades under Saint Louis: the <a href="/wiki/Seventh_Crusade" title="Seventh Crusade">Seventh Crusade</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Eighth_Crusade" title="Eighth Crusade">Eighth Crusade</a>. Both proved to be complete failures for the French King. He died in the Eighth Crusade and <a href="/wiki/Philip_III_of_France" title="Philip III of France">Philip III</a> became king. </p><p>The 13th century was to bring the crown important gains also in the south, where a papal-royal crusade against the region's Albigensian or Cathar heretics (1209) led to the incorporation into the royal domain of Lower (1229) and Upper (1271) <a href="/wiki/Languedoc" title="Languedoc">Languedoc</a>. <a href="/wiki/Philip_IV_of_France" title="Philip IV of France">Philip IV</a>'s seizure of <a href="/wiki/Flanders" title="Flanders">Flanders</a> (1300) was less successful, ending two years later in the rout of his knights by the forces of the <a href="/wiki/Flanders" title="Flanders">Flemish</a> cities at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Golden_Spurs" title="Battle of the Golden Spurs">Battle of the Golden Spurs</a> near <a href="/wiki/Kortrijk" title="Kortrijk">Kortrijk</a> (Courtrai). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philip_III_and_Philip_IV_(1270–1314)"><span id="Philip_III_and_Philip_IV_.281270.E2.80.931314.29"></span>Philip III and Philip IV (1270–1314)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=France_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Philip III and Philip IV (1270–1314)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After Louis IX died of bubonic plague crusading in Tunisia in 1270, his son <a href="/wiki/Philip_III_of_France" title="Philip III of France">Philip III</a> (1270–1285) and grandson Philip IV (1285–1314) followed him. Philip III was called "the Bold" on the basis of his abilities in combat and on horseback, and not because of his character or ruling abilities. Philip III took part in another crusading disaster: the <a href="/wiki/Aragonese_Crusade" title="Aragonese Crusade">Aragonese Crusade</a>, which cost him his life in 1285. </p><p>Philip III continued the steady expansion of the royal domain. He inherited <a href="/wiki/Toulouse" title="Toulouse">Toulouse</a> in 1271 from his uncle and married his son and heir to the heiress of Champagne and Navarre. </p><p>After taking the throne, Philip III felt obliged to continue his father's apparently solid diplomacy despite circumstances having changed. In 1282, the misrule of <a href="/wiki/Charles_of_Anjou" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles of Anjou">Charles of Anjou</a> in Sicily compelled the island's populace to rebel in favor of King <a href="/wiki/Peter_III_of_Aragon" title="Peter III of Aragon">Peter III of Aragon</a>. As Pope <a href="/wiki/Martin_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="Martin IV">Martin IV</a> was a close ally of Philip, he immediately excommunicated Peter and offered his throne to one of the French king's sons. Since Philip the Fair was already slated to inherit Navarre, the entire Spanish March seemed ripe for reconquest by France. However, Philip III's attempted crusade against Aragon, a blatantly political affair, ended in disaster as an epidemic struck his army, which then was soundly defeated by Aragonese forces at Col de Panissars. The humiliated king died shortly afterwards in Perpignan, followed by Charles of Anjou and Martin IV. </p><p>Of the later Capetian rulers, Philip IV was the greatest, bringing royal power to the strongest level it would attain in the Middle Ages, yet alienated a great many people and generally left France exhausted. As such, his sons were obliged to follow a more restrained course without however abandoning their father's ambitions. Philip IV for the most part ignored the Mediterranean and instead focused his foreign policy efforts on France's northern frontiers. Some of this was done at the expense of the Holy Roman Emperors, but the king's most aggressive actions were against England. Disputes over Aquitaine were a bone of contention for years and finally in 1294, war broke out. The French armies drove deep into Gascony, leading to Edward I of England joining forces with Flanders and other allies on the northern borders of France. The allied forces were soundly beaten in 1297 by a French army led by Robert of Artois and a truce was agreed to, leading to preservation of the <i>status quo ante bellum</i>. As part of the peace arrangement, Edward married Philip's sister and the son and daughter of both kings were slated to marry. </p><p>Flanders remained stubbornly rebellious and insubordinate. Although their count had been imprisoned by Philip, this did not prevent the Flemish burghers from rising up against French troops stationed there, inflicting a sensational defeat on them at the 1302 <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Courtrai_(1302)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Courtrai (1302)">Battle of Courtrai</a>. Eventually however, the king began a new offensive into Flanders and a peace was finally agreed to in 1305 which however still failed to placate the Flemish townsmen. </p><p>In addition, Philip IV extended royal jurisdiction by treaty into the ecclesiastical territories of Vivers, Cahors, Mende, and Le Puy. With all this, the king could now assert power nearly anywhere in France, yet there was still a great deal of work yet to be done and French rulers for the time being continued to do without Brittany, Burgundy, and numerous lesser territories although they legislated for the whole realm. Governmental administration in France during this period became more bureaucratic and sophisticated along with the steady expansion of royal power. Even so, the Capetian kings should not be taken as arbitrary tyrants since feudal custom and tradition still acted as restraints on them. </p><p>If Philip's policies provoked hostility and complaints, it was because they favored no class in particular. The king's policy towards the towns remained fairly traditional, but this was not the case with the Church. When he wanted to tax French clergy to fund military campaigns, he encountered the objection of Pope <a href="/wiki/Boniface_VIII" class="mw-redirect" title="Boniface VIII">Boniface VIII</a>. The pope had received a number of complaints from French and English clergy over lay taxes and thus issued the bull <i>Clericis lacios</i> in 1296 declaring that papal consent was necessary for this. Philip however became infuriated and issued loud arguments in defense of his actions, leaving the clergy divided over the matter. Eventually the pope withdrew his objection. </p><p>In 1301, fresh trouble erupted when the Bishop of Pamiers was accused by the King of heresy and treason, leading to another protest from <a href="/wiki/Boniface_VIII" class="mw-redirect" title="Boniface VIII">Boniface VIII</a> that Church property could not be confiscated without Rome's permission and all Christian rulers were subordinate to papal authority. The pope summoned French clergy to the Vatican to debate a reform of the kingdom. Once again the prelates were left divided between loyalty to their country and loyalty to the Church. Those who took the side of Philip met in a large assembly in Paris along with other segments of French society criticizing the Pope, who responded by excommunicating the king and all clergy who had supported him. The following year, Philip struck back with a vengeance. Prelates loyal to the crown formed a scheme to bring Boniface to trial, and the Pope was summarily arrested at Anagni that September. He was beaten by his jailers and threatened with execution if he did not resign the papacy, but he refused. The 68-year-old Pope was released from captivity after only a few days and died several weeks later. </p><p>Philip ensured that he would never again have trouble with the Church by promoting Raymond Bertrand de Got, archbishop of Bordeaux, as the next Pope. The papal conclave was evenly divided between French and Italian cardinals, but the latter acquiesced and de Got became Pope <a href="/wiki/Clement_V" class="mw-redirect" title="Clement V">Clement V</a>. Thus, Philip successfully installed an obedient French puppet in the papacy that was moved to <a href="/wiki/Avignon_Papacy" title="Avignon Papacy">Avignon</a>. </p><p>More administrative reforms were made by <a href="/wiki/Philip_IV_of_France" title="Philip IV of France">Philip IV</a>, also called Philip the Fair (reigned 1285–1314). This king signed the <a href="/wiki/Auld_Alliance" title="Auld Alliance">Auld Alliance</a>, and established the <a href="/wiki/Parlement" title="Parlement">Parlement of Paris</a>. </p><p>One of the more bizarre episodes of Philip's reign was his involvement in the destruction of the <a href="/wiki/Knights_Templar" title="Knights Templar">Knights Templar</a>. The Templars had been founded during the Crusades more than a century earlier, but now consisted of old men whose prestige was greatly diminished after the fall of the Holy Land and no longer seemed to serve any useful purpose worth their privileges. Unable to find suitable evidence of misdeeds by the Templars to justify disposing of the order, Philip had to resort to a mass meeting at Tours in 1308 to rally support. Finally in 1312, Clement V, despite his misgivings, issued a bull ordering their dissolution. The Templars' possessions were handed over to the <a href="/wiki/Knights_Hospitallers" class="mw-redirect" title="Knights Hospitallers">Knights Hospitallers</a> and their remaining members imprisoned or executed for heresy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Louis_X,_Philip_V_and_Charles_IV_(1314–1328)"><span id="Louis_X.2C_Philip_V_and_Charles_IV_.281314.E2.80.931328.29"></span>Louis X, Philip V and Charles IV (1314–1328)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=France_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Louis X, Philip V and Charles IV (1314–1328)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444" /><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/France_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Special:EditPage/France in the Middle Ages">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22France%22+%22Louis+X%22+OR+%22Philip+V%22+OR+%22Charles+IV%22">"France" "Louis X" OR "Philip V" OR "Charles IV"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22France%22+%22Louis+X%22+OR+%22Philip+V%22+OR+%22Charles+IV%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22France%22+%22Louis+X%22+OR+%22Philip+V%22+OR+%22Charles+IV%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22France%22+%22Louis+X%22+OR+%22Philip+V%22+OR+%22Charles+IV%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22France%22+%22Louis+X%22+OR+%22Philip+V%22+OR+%22Charles+IV%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22France%22+%22Louis+X%22+OR+%22Philip+V%22+OR+%22Charles+IV%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In 1314, Philip IV died abruptly in a hunting accident at the age of 47 and the throne passed to his son Louis X (1314–1316). Louis's brief reign saw further unsuccessful attempts to assert control over Flanders as the king mobilized an army along the border, but supply problems caused the effort to break down. Louis died in the summer of 1316 at only 26 of an unknown illness (possibly <a href="/wiki/Gastroenteritis" title="Gastroenteritis">gastroenteritis</a>) after consuming a large quantity of chilled wine following a game of <a href="/wiki/Tennis" title="Tennis">tennis</a> on an extremely hot day. The king's wife was then pregnant and gave birth to a son, John, in November, but he died after a week and the throne passed to his brother Philip. </p><p>Philip V (1316–1322) made peace with Flanders via a marriage compact with its count Robert III and faced continued quarrels with Edward II of England over Gascony. He made plans for a new crusade to relieve the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, but the Flanders situation remained unstable and an attempted French naval expedition to the Middle East was destroyed off Genoa in 1319. At this point, peasants and soldiers originally intended to invade Flanders rose in another self-proclaimed crusade (Pastoreux) which once again turned into an assault on the nobility, tax collectors, and Jews. Pope <a href="/wiki/John_XXII" class="mw-redirect" title="John XXII">John XXII</a> denounced the uprising and Philip was forced to send troops to break it up. </p><p>In 1321, <a href="/wiki/1321_leper_scare" class="mw-redirect" title="1321 leper scare">a rumor began spreading through the country</a> that Jews in the employ of foreign Muslim rulers were using lepers to poison drinking wells. With the Pastoreux still fresh in everyone's mind, a volatile situation had formed especially as Philip V granted tolerance to Jews and even employed a number of them in his service. With the king facing potential disaster no matter what side he took, his health began to fail from stress and he succumbed at the start of 1322, only 29 years old. </p><p>Having failed to produce a son that survived infancy, Philip was succeeded by his brother (and the youngest of Philip IV's sons) <a href="/wiki/Charles_IV_of_France" title="Charles IV of France">Charles IV</a> (1322–1328). The new king faced much of the same problems as his predecessors (namely the quarrels over Flanders and Gascony). Having put an end to the chaos in southern France that his brother faced, he turned his attention to Flanders, but then a revolt broke out in Gascony over the unwelcome construction of a fortress on the border by a French vassal. The king's uncle <a href="/wiki/Charles_of_Valois" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles of Valois">Charles of Valois</a> invaded the province, whereupon the former declared Edward II's claims to it null and void. Although Charles IV's sister married the English king, he still refused to return Gascony and finally came to an agreement to divide it up among the two rulers. </p><p>Charles was also eager to begin a new crusade in the Levant and had once plotted to become Byzantine emperor. He failed to work out an agreement with the Pope over funding the expedition however, and his attention was distracted by the events in Gascony. But in 1327, a French ambassador traveled to Constantinople and found the Byzantine Empire beset by civil wars. The following year, Charles IV died, ending any plans for crusades in the region. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Hundred_Years'_War_(1328–1453)"><span id="The_Hundred_Years.27_War_.281328.E2.80.931453.29"></span>The Hundred Years' War (1328–1453)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=France_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: The Hundred Years' War (1328–1453)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444" /><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/France_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Special:EditPage/France in the Middle Ages">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22France%22+Hundred+Years%27+War">"France" Hundred Years' War</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22France%22+Hundred+Years%27+War+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22France%22+Hundred+Years%27+War&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22France%22+Hundred+Years%27+War+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22France%22+Hundred+Years%27+War">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22France%22+Hundred+Years%27+War&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The death of <a href="/wiki/Charles_IV_of_France" title="Charles IV of France">Charles IV</a> in 1328 without male heirs ended the main Capetian line. Under <a href="/wiki/Salic_law" title="Salic law">Salic law</a> the crown could not pass through a woman (Philip IV's daughter was Isabella, whose son was <a href="/wiki/Edward_III_of_England" title="Edward III of England">Edward III of England</a>), so the throne passed to <a href="/wiki/Philip_VI_of_France" title="Philip VI of France">Philip VI</a>, son of <a href="/wiki/Charles_of_Valois" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles of Valois">Charles of Valois</a>. This, in addition to a long-standing dispute over the rights to Gascony in the south of France, and the relationship between England and the Flemish cloth towns, led to the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a> of 1337–1453. The following century was to see devastating warfare and peasant revolts (the <a href="/wiki/English_peasants%27_revolt_of_1381" class="mw-redirect" title="English peasants' revolt of 1381">English peasants' revolt of 1381</a> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Jacquerie" title="Jacquerie">Jacquerie</a></i> of 1358 in France). </p><p>French losses in the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War,_1337%E2%80%931360" title="Hundred Years' War, 1337–1360">first phase of the conflict (1337–1360)</a> were partly reversed in <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War,_1369%E2%80%931389" title="Hundred Years' War, 1369–1389">the second (1369–1396)</a>; but <a href="/wiki/Henry_V_of_England" title="Henry V of England">Henry V</a>'s shattering victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Agincourt" title="Battle of Agincourt">battle of Agincourt</a> in 1415 against a France now bitterly divided between rival Armagnac and Burgundian factions of the royal house was to lead to his son <a href="/wiki/Henry_VI_of_England" title="Henry VI of England">Henry VI</a>'s recognition as king in Paris seven years later under the 1420 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Troyes" title="Treaty of Troyes">Treaty of Troyes</a>, reducing Valois rule to the lands south of the <a href="/wiki/Loire" title="Loire">Loire</a> River Valley. </p><p>France's humiliation was abruptly reversed in 1429 by the appearance of a restorationist movement embodied by the peasant maid <a href="/wiki/Joan_of_Arc" title="Joan of Arc">Joan of Arc</a> from Domremy la Pucelle, who claimed the guidance of divine voices for the campaign which rapidly ended the English siege of <a href="/wiki/Orl%C3%A9ans" title="Orléans">Orléans</a> and ended in <a href="/wiki/Charles_VII_of_France" title="Charles VII of France">Charles VII</a>'s coronation in the historic city of <a href="/wiki/Rheims" class="mw-redirect" title="Rheims">Rheims</a>. Subsequently, captured by the Burgundians and sold to their English allies, her execution for heresy in 1431 redoubled her value as the embodiment of France's cause. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:100_Years_War_France_1435.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/100_Years_War_France_1435.svg/220px-100_Years_War_France_1435.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/100_Years_War_France_1435.svg/330px-100_Years_War_France_1435.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/100_Years_War_France_1435.svg/440px-100_Years_War_France_1435.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="948" data-file-height="945" /></a><figcaption>France in 1435</figcaption></figure> <p>Reconciliation in 1435 between the king and <a href="/wiki/Philippe_the_Good" class="mw-redirect" title="Philippe the Good">Philippe the Good</a>, duke of Burgundy, removed the greatest obstacle to French recovery, leading to the recapture of Paris (1436), Normandy (1450) and <a href="/wiki/Guienne" class="mw-redirect" title="Guienne">Guienne</a> (1453), reducing England's foothold to a small area around <a href="/wiki/Calais" title="Calais">Calais</a> (lost also in 1558). After victory over England, France's emergence as a powerful national monarchy was crowned by the "incorporation" of the Duchies of Burgundy (1477) and <a href="/wiki/Brittany" title="Brittany">Brittany</a> (1532), which had previously been independent European states. </p><p>The losses of the century of war were enormous, particularly owing to the plague (the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a>, usually considered an outbreak of bubonic plague), which arrived from Italy in 1348, spreading rapidly up the Rhone valley and thence across most of the country: it is estimated that a population of some 18–20 million in modern-day France at the time of the 1328 <a href="/wiki/Hearth_tax" title="Hearth tax">hearth tax</a> returns had been reduced 150 years later by 50% or more. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Capture_Jean_II.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Capture_Jean_II.jpg/220px-Capture_Jean_II.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Capture_Jean_II.jpg/330px-Capture_Jean_II.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Capture_Jean_II.jpg 2x" data-file-width="376" data-file-height="367" /></a><figcaption>The capture of the French king <a href="/wiki/John_II_of_France" title="John II of France">John II</a> at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Poitiers_(1356)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Poitiers (1356)">Poitiers</a> in 1356</figcaption></figure> <p>The tensions between the Houses of <a href="/wiki/Plantagenet" class="mw-redirect" title="Plantagenet">Plantagenet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Capetian_dynasty" title="Capetian dynasty">Capet</a> climaxed during the so-called <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a> (actually several distinct wars over the period 1337 to 1453) when the Plantagenets claimed the throne of France from the Valois. This was also the time of the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a>, as well as several civil wars. The French population suffered much from these wars. In 1420 <a href="/wiki/Henry_V_of_England" title="Henry V of England">Henry V</a> was made heir to Charles VI by the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Troyes" title="Treaty of Troyes">Treaty of Troyes</a>. Henry V failed to outlive Charles so it was Henry VI of England and France who consolidated the dual monarchy of England and France. </p><p>It has been argued that the difficult conditions the French population suffered during the Hundred Years' War awakened French nationalism, a nationalism represented by Joan of Arc (1412–1431). Although this is debatable, the Hundred Years' War is remembered more as a Franco-English war than as a succession of feudal struggles. During this war, France evolved politically and militarily. </p><p>Although a Franco-Scottish army was successful at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Baug%C3%A9" title="Battle of Baugé">Battle of Baugé</a> (1421), the humiliating defeats of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Poitiers_(1356)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Poitiers (1356)">Poitiers</a> (1356) and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Agincourt" title="Battle of Agincourt">Agincourt</a> (1415) forced the French nobility to realise they could not stand just as armoured knights without an organised army. <a href="/wiki/Charles_VII_of_France" title="Charles VII of France">Charles VII</a> (reigned 1422–1461) established the first French standing army, the <a href="/wiki/Compagnies_d%27ordonnance" class="mw-redirect" title="Compagnies d'ordonnance">Compagnies d'ordonnance</a>, and defeated the Plantagenets once at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Patay" title="Battle of Patay">Patay</a> (1429) and again, using cannons, at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Formigny" title="Battle of Formigny">Formigny</a> (1450). The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Castillon" title="Battle of Castillon">Battle of Castillon</a> (1453) was regarded as the last engagement of this "war", yet <a href="/wiki/Calais" title="Calais">Calais</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Channel_Islands" title="Channel Islands">Channel Islands</a> remained ruled by the Plantagenets. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="List_of_kings_during_this_period">List of kings during this period</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=France_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: List of kings during this period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capetian_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Capetian Dynasty">Capetian Dynasty</a> (<a href="/wiki/House_of_Capet" title="House of Capet">House of Capet</a>): <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Capet" title="Hugh Capet">Hugh Capet</a>, 940–996</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_II_of_France" title="Robert II of France">Robert the Pious</a>, 996–1027</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_I_of_France" title="Henry I of France">Henry I</a>, 1027–1060</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_I_of_France" title="Philip I of France">Philip I</a>, 1060–1108</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_VI_of_France" title="Louis VI of France">Louis VI the Fat</a>, 1108–1137</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_VII_of_France" title="Louis VII of France">Louis VII the Young</a>, 1137–1180</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_France" title="Philip II of France">Philip II Augustus</a>, 1180–1223</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_VIII_of_France" title="Louis VIII of France">Louis VIII the Lion</a>, 1223–1226</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_IX_of_France" title="Louis IX of France">Saint Louis IX</a>, 1226–1270</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_III_of_France" title="Philip III of France">Philip III the Bold</a>, 1270–1285</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_IV_of_France" title="Philip IV of France">Philip IV the Fair</a>, 1285–1314</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_X_of_France" title="Louis X of France">Louis X the Quarreller</a>, 1314–1316</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_I_of_France" title="John I of France">John I the Posthumous</a>, five days in 1316</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_V_of_France" title="Philip V of France">Philip V the Tall</a>, 1316–1322</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_IV_of_France" title="Charles IV of France">Charles IV the Fair</a>, 1322–1328</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Valois" title="House of Valois">House of Valois</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philip_VI_of_France" title="Philip VI of France">Philip VI of Valois</a>, 1328–1350</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_II_of_France" title="John II of France">John II the Good</a>, 1350–1364</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_V_of_France" title="Charles V of France">Charles V the Wise</a>, 1364–1380</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_VI_of_France" title="Charles VI of France">Charles VI the Mad</a>, 1380–1422 <ul><li><i>English</i> interlude (between Charles VI and VII): <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Henry_V_of_England" title="Henry V of England">Henry V of England</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Henry_VI_of_England" title="Henry VI of England">Henry VI of England</a></i> and France, 1422–1453</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_VII_of_France" title="Charles VII of France">Charles VII the Well Served</a>, 1422–1461</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religion_and_the_Church">Religion and the Church</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=France_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Religion and the Church"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444" /><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=France_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2013</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Roman_Catholicism_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Roman Catholicism in France">History of Roman Catholicism in France</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Ancien_R%C3%A9gime_dioceses_of_France" title="List of Ancien Régime dioceses of France">List of Ancien Régime dioceses of France</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jewish-Christian_Relations_in_France">Jewish-Christian Relations in France</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=France_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Jewish-Christian Relations in France"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Antisemitic_canards" class="mw-redirect" title="Antisemitic canards">Antisemitic canards</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444" /><table class="box-Cleanup_rewrite plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg/40px-Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg/60px-Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg/120px-Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This Jewish-Christian Relations in France <b>may need to be rewritten</b> to comply with Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style">quality standards</a>, as explained at <a href="/wiki/Talk:France_in_the_Middle_Ages#Jewish-Christian_Relations_in_France" title="Talk:France in the Middle Ages">Talk</a>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=France_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit">You can help</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Talk:France_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Talk:France in the Middle Ages">talk page</a> may contain suggestions.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2021</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444" /><table class="box-One_source plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-one_source" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>relies largely or entirely on a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Articles_with_a_single_source" title="Wikipedia:Articles with a single source">single source</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Relevant discussion may be found on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:France_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Talk:France in the Middle Ages">talk page</a>. Please help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=France_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">introducing citations to additional sources</a>.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Medieval+France%22+Jewish-Christian+relations">"Medieval France" Jewish-Christian relations</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Medieval+France%22+Jewish-Christian+relations+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Medieval+France%22+Jewish-Christian+relations&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Medieval+France%22+Jewish-Christian+relations+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Medieval+France%22+Jewish-Christian+relations">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Medieval+France%22+Jewish-Christian+relations&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2021</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In the Middle Ages, France was primarily made up of a Christian population that maintained a positive relationship with the Jewish minority. In a historical sense, Christians and Jews both made generalizations about the success of their community relations in medieval France. The history of Jewish-Christian relations was focused primarily on the persecution that Jews faced in a prominently Christian world. In France, however, there were many examples of Jewish and Christian people working together towards a prosperity that was beneficial to both religions. They conducted business together, as well as participated in intimate social affairs. While the Jews would never fully assimilate into French culture by choice, they were accepted by the Christians in their societies.<sup id="cite_ref-Praeger_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Praeger-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After years of peace, in the 13th Century, Louis IX became obsessed with restricting Jewish activities. Eventually, after the Jewish population suffered multiple expulsions from France, the anti-Jewish rhetoric gained some popularity in small villages and towns. Jews began to face a fatal price for practicing their religious traditions. This discriminatory action promoted by the Royals, did not take hold with the general civilian populations in large cities because a large population of Christians permitted and accepted the differing Jewish faith.<sup id="cite_ref-Praeger_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Praeger-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Small communities however, incorporated these prejudiced ideas into their beliefs, which led to some instances of blood libels which took many Jewish lives. Blood Libels consisted of accusations directed at small Jewish communities that promoted a false belief that there was a sacrificial aspect in Jewish prayer. These falsities proclaimed that a Jewish religious event included the sacrifice of a Christian child. In Blois, France, as many as 40 Jews were accused of killing a young Christian boy. They were found guilty and killed. Though Blood Libels and persecution did not define Jewish-Christian relations in the Middle-Ages in France, it had a large impact on the way the history of this time period is recited.<sup id="cite_ref-Praeger_64-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Praeger-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economy_and_technology">Economy and technology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=France_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Economy and technology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_France" title="Economic history of France">Economic history of France</a></div> <p>The period after the death of Charlemagne was marked by an economic crisis caused by political instability; town life all but disappeared. However, this had changed by the 11th century. The introduction of new crops, the improvements in the climate, and the introduction of new agricultural technologies created a large agricultural surplus. This was accompanied by the growth in town life, trade, and industry. The economy once again collapsed in the fourteenth century because of war, bad weather, and the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a>. </p><p>The rural economy was based on the manor; in urban areas economic activity was organized around guilds. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=France_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature">Literature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=France_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>For the literature of Northern France written in one of the <a href="/wiki/Old_French" title="Old French">Old French</a> languages ("langues d'oïl") and (later) <a href="/wiki/Middle_French" title="Middle French">Middle French</a>, see <a href="/wiki/Medieval_French_literature" title="Medieval French literature">Medieval French literature</a>.</li> <li>For the literature of Southern France written in one of the <a href="/wiki/Occitan_language" title="Occitan language">Occitan languages</a>, see <a href="/wiki/Occitan_literature" title="Occitan literature">Occitan literature</a>.</li> <li>For the literature written in the "langue d'oïl" <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_language" title="Anglo-Norman language">Anglo-Norman language</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Normans" title="Normans">Norman</a> rule of <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>, see <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_literature" title="Anglo-Norman literature">Anglo-Norman literature</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Art_and_music">Art and music</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=France_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Art and music"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Art was a large staple of the medieval France. <a href="/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript" title="Illuminated manuscript">Illuminated manuscripts</a> were diligently written and illustrated within this period, some notable examples include the <i><a href="/wiki/Hours_of_Philip_the_Bold" title="Hours of Philip the Bold">Hours of Philip the Bold</a></i>, the <i><a href="/wiki/Hours_of_Jeanne_d%27Evreux" title="Hours of Jeanne d'Evreux">Hours of Jeanne d'Evreux</a></i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Tr%C3%A8s_Riches_Heures_du_Duc_de_Berry" title="Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry">Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry</a></i> of the 14th and 15th centuries. Some of the earliest painters lived in the Later Middle Ages in France such as <a href="/wiki/Jacquemart_de_Hesdin" title="Jacquemart de Hesdin">Jacquemart de Hesdin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean_de_Beaumetz" title="Jean de Beaumetz">Jean de Beaumetz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Colart_de_Laon" title="Colart de Laon">Colart de Laon</a>. While in music, the <a href="/wiki/Ars_antiqua" title="Ars antiqua">Ars antiqua</a> musical style was common in the High Middle Ages and <a href="/wiki/Ars_nova" title="Ars nova">Ars nova</a> in the Later Middle Ages. A group of composers from the <a href="/wiki/Notre-Dame_school" title="Notre-Dame school">Notre-Dame school</a>, were active during Ars antiqua period, arguably the most famous being the 12th-century <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9onin" title="Léonin">Léonin</a> and <a href="/wiki/P%C3%A9rotin" title="Pérotin">Pérotin</a>. <a href="/wiki/Troubadour" title="Troubadour">Troubadour</a> culture flourished after the 12th century, exemplified by famous personages of the High Middle Ages such as <a href="/wiki/Perdigon" title="Perdigon">Perdigon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bertran_de_Born" title="Bertran de Born">Bertran de Born</a> and <a href="/wiki/Raimbaut_de_Vaqueiras" title="Raimbaut de Vaqueiras">Raimbaut de Vaqueiras</a> among others. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=France_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Hallam_&_Everard-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hallam_&_Everard_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hallam_&_Everard_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hallam_&_Everard_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hallam_&_Everard_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hallam_&_Everard_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hallam & Everard, pp. 1–2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFJosiah_C." class="citation web cs1">Josiah C., Russell. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/pop-in-eur.html">"Medieval Sourcebook: Tables on Population in Medieval Europe"</a>. <i>"Population in Europe:, in Carlo M. Cipolla, ed., The Fontana Economic History of Europe, Vol. I: The Middle Ages</i>. Collins/Fontana<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 March</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=%22Population+in+Europe%3A%2C+in+Carlo+M.+Cipolla%2C+ed.%2C+The+Fontana+Economic+History+of+Europe%2C+Vol.+I%3A+The+Middle+Ages&rft.atitle=Medieval+Sourcebook%3A+Tables+on+Population+in+Medieval+Europe&rft.aulast=Josiah+C.&rft.aufirst=Russell&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fordham.edu%2Fhalsall%2Fsource%2Fpop-in-eur.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrance+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.paolomalanima.it/default_file/Papers/MEDIEVAL_GROWTH.pdf">"ENERGY AND POPULATION IN EUROPE The Medieval Growth (10th-14th Centuries)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 February</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ENERGY+AND+POPULATION+IN+EUROPE+The+Medieval+Growth+%2810th-14th+Centuries%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.paolomalanima.it%2Fdefault_file%2FPapers%2FMEDIEVAL_GROWTH.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrance+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Josiah_Russell_p._150-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Josiah_Russell_p._150_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Josiah_Russell_p._150_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Josiah Russell, <i>Medieval Regions and Their Cities</i>, p. 150.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Josiah Russell, <i>Medieval Regions and Their Cities</i>, pp. 44, 64, 148, 150.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-historical_demography-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-historical_demography_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McEvedy, Colin, and Richard Jones, <i>Atlas of World Population History.</i> Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin Books, 1978, pp. 55–58.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cantor, 344.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Baugh, Cable, "A History of the English Language, 104."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see Wickham, 415.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>La Chanson de Roland</i>, 12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bumke, Joachim. Translated by Thomas Dunlap. <i>Courtly Culture: Literature and Society in the High Middle Ages.</i> Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1991, p. 429.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cantor,_466-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cantor,_466_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cantor,_466_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cantor, 466.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Over the course of the 13th century, one historian (G. Sivery) estimates that the percentage dropped from 90% to 85%.. Bourin-Derruau, p. 75.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wickham, 529-30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wickham, 515.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wickham, 538.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wickham, 534-5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wickham, 537-8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cantor, 481-2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cantor, 483.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cantor,_484-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cantor,_484_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cantor,_484_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cantor, 484.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cantor, 484-5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hallam, pp.1–2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hallam,_p_8-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hallam,_p_8_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hallam,_p_8_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hallam, p 8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hallam,_p_9-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hallam,_p_9_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hallam,_p_9_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hallam, p 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hallam, p. 140.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hallam, p.142.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bourin-Derruau, p.121-2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bourin-Derruau, p.122-125.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bourin-Derruau, p.115-8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wickham,_520-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wickham,_520_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wickham,_520_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wickham, 520.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wickham, 415.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wickham, 450.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wickham, 441.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wickham, 442.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wickham, 443.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wickham, 444.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wickham, 519–520.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cantor_1993,_pp._198-199-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cantor_1993,_pp._198-199_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cantor_1993,_pp._198-199_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cantor (1993), pp. 198–199.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lebecq, pp.196–197.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cantor,_200-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cantor,_200_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cantor (1993), p. 200.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hallam, p.56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wickham, p. 522-3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wickham, 518.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wickham, p. 518.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wickham, 522.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wickham, 523.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hallam, p.17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Such is the view of, for example, François Velde.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated1993-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1993_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1993_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1993_50-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Georges Duby, <i>France in the Middle Ages 987–1460: From Hugh Capet to Joan of Arc</i> (1993).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Carpenter <i>The Struggle for Mastery. The Penguin history of Britain 1066–1284</i> p. 91: "In the first place, after 1072 William was largely an absentee. Of the 170 months remaining of his reign he spent around 130 in France, returning to England only on four occasions. This was no passing phase. Absentee kings continued to spend at best half their time in England until the loss of Normandy in 1204... But this absenteeism solidified rather than sapped royal government since it engendered structures both to maintain peace and extract money on the king's absence, money which was above all needed across the channel".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-google235-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-google235_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-google235_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMarvin_PerryMargaret_Jacob2008" class="citation book cs1">Marvin Perry; et al. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XMKpq_nV0J8C&pg=PA235"><i>Western Civilization: Ideas, Politics, and Society: To 1789</i></a>. Cengage Learning. p. 235. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0547147420" title="Special:BookSources/978-0547147420"><bdi>978-0547147420</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Western+Civilization%3A+Ideas%2C+Politics%2C+and+Society%3A+To+1789&rft.pages=235&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0547147420&rft.au=Marvin+Perry&rft.au=Margaret+Jacob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXMKpq_nV0J8C%26pg%3DPA235&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrance+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bourin-Derruau, p.186.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MFE255-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MFE255_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MFE255_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MFE255_54-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MFE255_54-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kibler, p. 255</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arthur Augustus Tilley, <i>Medieval France: A Companion to French Studies</i> (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1922), p. 72</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In French: <i>Cour souveraine, principale, première et singulière du dernier ressort en tout le fait du compte des finances</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Norman F. Cantor, <i>The Civilization of the Middle Ages</i> 1993:412f, discusses the institution of the <i>bailli</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated1995-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1995_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1995_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1995_58-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1995_58-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1995_58-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1995_58-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1995_58-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1995_58-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">William W. Kibler, ed. <i>Medieval France: An Encyclopedia</i> (1995)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hallam & Everard, p. 64: "Then, in 1151, Henry Plantagenet paid homage for the duchy to Louis VII in Paris, homage he repeated as king of England in 1156.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated4-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated4_60-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated4_60-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated4_60-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul Frankl, <i>Gothic Architecture</i> (2001)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGigot1910" class="citation book cs1">Gigot, Francis E. (1910). "Judaism". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08399a.htm"><i>The Catholic Encyclopedia</i></a>. Vol. VIII. New York: Robert Appleton Company<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 August</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Judaism&rft.btitle=The+Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Robert+Appleton+Company&rft.date=1910&rft.aulast=Gigot&rft.aufirst=Francis+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Fcathen%2F08399a.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrance+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hallam & Everard, p. 265.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hallam & Everard, p. 264.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Praeger-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Praeger_64-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Praeger_64-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Praeger_64-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHalloRudermanStanislawski1984" class="citation book cs1">Hallo, William W; Ruderman, David B; Stanislawski, Michael (1984). <i>Heritage: civilization and the Jews : source reader</i>. Praeger. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0030004799" title="Special:BookSources/0030004799"><bdi>0030004799</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/10949828">10949828</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Heritage%3A+civilization+and+the+Jews+%3A+source+reader&rft.pub=Praeger&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F10949828&rft.isbn=0030004799&rft.aulast=Hallo&rft.aufirst=William+W&rft.au=Ruderman%2C+David+B&rft.au=Stanislawski%2C+Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrance+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=France_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Middle_Ages">Early Middle Ages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=France_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Early Middle Ages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Stéphane Lebecq. <i>Les origines franques: Ve-IXe siècles</i>. Series: Nouvelle histoire de la France médiévale. Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1999. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-02-011552-2" title="Special:BookSources/2-02-011552-2">2-02-011552-2</a></li> <li>Chris Wickham. <i>The Inheritance of Rome: Illuminating the Dark Ages, 400–1000.</i> Penguin: 2009. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-311742-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-311742-1">978-0-14-311742-1</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="High_Middle_Ages">High Middle Ages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=France_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: High Middle Ages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Dominique Barthélemy. <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span> <i>L'ordre seigneurial: XIe-XIIe siècle.</i> Series: Nouvelle histoire de la France médiévale, tome 3. Editions du Seuil. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-02-011554-9" title="Special:BookSources/2-02-011554-9">2-02-011554-9</a></li> <li>Marc Bloch. <i>Feudal Society.</i> 2nd edition: Routledge, 1989. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226059785" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226059785">978-0226059785</a></li> <li>Constance Brittain Bouchard. <i>Strong of Body, Brave and Noble": Chivalry and Society in Medieval France.</i> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0801485480" title="Special:BookSources/978-0801485480">978-0801485480</a></li> <li>Norman F. Cantor. <i>The Civilization of the Middle Ages</i>. New York: HarperPerennial, 1993. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-092553-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-092553-1">0-06-092553-1</a></li> <li>Alain Demurger. <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span> <i>Temps de crises, temps d'espoirs: XIVe-XVe siècle.</i> Series: Nouvelle histoire de la France médiévale, tome 5. Editions du Seuil. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-02-012221-9" title="Special:BookSources/2-02-012221-9">2-02-012221-9</a></li> <li>Monique Bourin-Derruau. <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span> <i>Temps d'équilibres, temps de ruptures: XIIIe siècle.</i> Series: Nouvelle histoire de la France médiévale, tome 4. Editions du Seuil. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-02-012220-0" title="Special:BookSources/2-02-012220-0">2-02-012220-0</a></li> <li>Georges Duby. <i>France in the Middle Ages 987–1460: From Hugh Capet to Joan of Arc.</i> Wiley-Blackwell. 1993. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0631189459" title="Special:BookSources/978-0631189459">978-0631189459</a></li> <li>Elizabeth M. Hallam & Judith Everard. <i>Capetian France 987–1328.</i> Editions Longman. 2nd edition: Pearson, 2001. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0582404281" title="Special:BookSources/978-0582404281">978-0582404281</a></li> <li>William Kibler. <i>Medieval France: An Encyclopedia</i> Series: Routledge Encyclopedias of the Middle Ages. Routledge, 1995. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0824044442" title="Special:BookSources/978-0824044442">978-0824044442</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 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units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western and<br />Northern Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Corsica" title="Medieval Corsica">Corsica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Denmark#Middle_Ages" title="History of Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/England_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="England in the Middle Ages">England</a> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Early</a>, <a href="/wiki/England_in_the_High_Middle_Ages" title="England in the High Middle Ages">High</a>, <a href="/wiki/England_in_the_Late_Middle_Ages" title="England in the Late Middle Ages">Late</a>)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany#Middle_Ages" title="History of Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland" title="History of Ireland">Ireland</a> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(400%E2%80%93800)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Ireland (400–800)">400–800</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(800%E2%80%931169)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Ireland (800–1169)">800–1169</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(1169%E2%80%931536)" title="History of Ireland (1169–1536)">1169–1536</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italy_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Italy in the Middle Ages">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Scotland in the Middle Ages">Scotland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages" title="Scotland in the Early Middle Ages">Early</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_High_Middle_Ages" title="Scotland in the High Middle Ages">High</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_Late_Middle_Ages" title="Scotland in the Late Middle Ages">Late</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spain_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Spain in the Middle Ages">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sweden_(800%E2%80%931521)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Sweden (800–1521)">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Wales in the Middle Ages">Wales</a> (<a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages" title="Wales in the Early Middle Ages">Early</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_High_Middle_Ages" title="Wales in the High Middle Ages">High</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_Late_Middle_Ages" title="Wales in the Late Middle Ages">Late</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central, Eastern Europe<br />and Near East</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albania_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Albania in the Middle Ages">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Armenia" title="Medieval Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Middle Ages">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Croatia_(925%E2%80%931102)" title="Kingdom of Croatia (925–1102)">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Lands_of_the_Bohemian_Crown_(Middle_Ages)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Lands of the Bohemian Crown (Middle Ages)">Czech lands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Georgia" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li>Greece (<a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Greece" title="Byzantine Greece">Byzantine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Greece" title="Ottoman Greece">Ottoman</a>)</li> <li>Hungary (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary_(1000%E2%80%931301)" title="Kingdom of Hungary (1000–1301)">High Medieval Kingdom</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary_(1301%E2%80%931526)" title="Kingdom of Hungary (1301–1526)">Late Medieval Kingdom</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_during_the_Piast_dynasty" title="History of Poland during the Piast dynasty">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romania_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Romania in the Middle Ages">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbia_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Serbia in the Middle Ages">Serbia</a></li> <li>Anatolia (<a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Anatolia" title="Byzantine Anatolia">Byzantine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Seljuk</a>-<a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_R%C3%BBm" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultanate of Rûm">Rum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Anatolia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Anatolia">Ottoman</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval<br />territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western and<br />Northern Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Frankish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bohemia" title="Kingdom of Bohemia">Kingdom of Bohemia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(Holy_Roman_Empire)" title="Kingdom of Italy (Holy Roman Empire)">Kingdom of Italy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Growth_of_the_Old_Swiss_Confederacy" title="Growth of the Old Swiss Confederacy">Swiss Confederacy</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Kingdom of Sicily</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples" title="Kingdom of Naples">Kingdom of Naples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Republic of Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Republic of Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy" title="Duchy of Burgundy">Duchy of Burgundy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Burgundian_Netherlands" title="Burgundian Netherlands">Burgundian Netherlands</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Crown of Castile</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Asturias" title="Kingdom of Asturias">Kingdom of Asturias</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Le%C3%B3n" title="Kingdom of León">Kingdom of León</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Castile" title="Kingdom of Castile">Kingdom of Castile</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Galicia" title="Kingdom of Galicia">Kingdom of Galicia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragon" title="Kingdom of Aragon">Kingdom of Aragon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Catalonia" title="Principality of Catalonia">Principality of Catalonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Valencia" title="Kingdom of Valencia">Kingdom of Valencia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Majorca" title="Kingdom of Majorca">Kingdom of Majorca</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Navarre" title="Kingdom of Navarre">Kingdom of Navarre</a></li> <li>Portugal (<a href="/wiki/County_of_Portugal" title="County of Portugal">County</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Kingdom of Portugal</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">Kingdom of England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Scotland" title="Kingdom of Scotland">Kingdom of Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lordship_of_Ireland" title="Lordship of Ireland">Lordship of Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">al-Andalus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphate of Córdoba">Caliphate of Córdoba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taifa" title="Taifa">Taifa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohads</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Granada" title="Emirate of Granada">Emirate of Granada</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hereditary_Kingdom_of_Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="Hereditary Kingdom of Norway">Hereditary Kingdom of Norway</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central, Eastern Europe<br />and Near East</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li>Bulgarian Empire <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li>Croatia (<a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Croatia" title="Duchy of Croatia">Dalmatia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Pannonian_Croatia" class="mw-redirect" title="Duchy of Pannonian Croatia">Pannonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Croatia_(925%E2%80%931102)" title="Kingdom of Croatia (925–1102)">Kingdom of Croatia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusader_states" title="Crusader states">Crusader states</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cyprus" title="Kingdom of Cyprus">Cyprus</a>, <a href="/wiki/County_of_Tripoli" title="County of Tripoli">Tripoli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Antioch" title="Principality of Antioch">Antioch</a>, <a href="/wiki/County_of_Edessa" title="County of Edessa">Edessa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem" title="Kingdom of Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>)</li> <li>Bosnia and Herzegovina (<a href="/wiki/Banate_of_Bosnia" title="Banate of Bosnia">Banate of Bosnia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bosnia" title="Kingdom of Bosnia">Kingdom of Bosnia</a>)</li> <li>Ukraine (<a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Rus%27" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Rus'">Kingdom of Rus'</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Chernigov" title="Principality of Chernigov">Principality of Chernigov</a>)</li> <li>Russia (<a href="/wiki/Rus%27_Khaganate" title="Rus' Khaganate">Rus' Khaganate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Novgorod_Republic" title="Novgorod Republic">Novgorod Republic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Ryazan" title="Principality of Ryazan">Ryazan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Moscow" class="mw-redirect" title="Principality of Moscow">Moscow</a>)</li> <li>Serbia (<a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Serbia_(early_medieval)" title="Principality of Serbia (early medieval)">Principality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grand_Principality_of_Serbia" title="Grand Principality of Serbia">Grand Principality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Serbia_(medieval)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Serbia (medieval)">Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moravian_Serbia" title="Moravian Serbia">Lordship</a>, <a href="/wiki/Serbian_Despotate" title="Serbian Despotate">Despotate</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="European_Middle_Ages448" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Middle_Ages" title="Template:Middle Ages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:Middle Ages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Middle_Ages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Middle Ages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="European_Middle_Ages448" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">European Middle Ages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">Decline of the Western Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbarian_kingdoms" title="Barbarian kingdoms">Barbarian kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_pagans_in_the_late_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire">Decline of Hellenistic religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Christianity in the Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam" title="Spread of Islam">Rise of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First Bulgarian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Frankish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Serbia_(early_medieval)" title="Principality of Serbia (early medieval)">Principality of Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Croatia" title="Duchy of Croatia">Duchy of Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic" title="Old Church Slavonic">Old Church Slavonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Rise of the Venetian Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civitas_Schinesghe" title="Civitas Schinesghe">Civitas Schinesghe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Justinian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty">Growth of the Eastern Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second Bulgarian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Georgian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom of Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Serbia_(1217%E2%80%931346)" title="Kingdom of Serbia (1217–1346)">Kingdom of Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Croatia_(925%E2%80%931102)" title="Kingdom of Croatia (925–1102)">Kingdom of Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Rise of the Republic of Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">Great Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capet%E2%80%93Plantagenet_feud" class="mw-redirect" title="Capet–Plantagenet feud">Capet–Plantagenet feud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_commune" title="Medieval commune">Communalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">Manorialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Warm_Period" title="Medieval Warm Period">Medieval Warm Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Kingdom of Portugal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roses" title="Wars of the Roses">Wars of the Roses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hussite_Wars" title="Hussite Wars">Hussite Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy" title="Duchy of Burgundy">Burgundy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Castile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Western Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Rise of the Ottoman Empire">Rise of the Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_mercenaries" title="Swiss mercenaries">Swiss mercenaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chivalry" title="Chivalry">Chivalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_university" title="Medieval university">Universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_late_Middle_Ages" title="Crisis of the late Middle Ages">Crisis of the late Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_1315%E2%80%931317" title="Great Famine of 1315–1317">Great Famine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Ice_Age" title="Little Ice Age">Little Ice Age</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Agriculture in the Middle Ages">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_architecture" title="Medieval architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_art" title="Medieval art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_and_state_in_medieval_Europe" title="Church and state in medieval Europe">Church and State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_cuisine" title="Medieval cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_dance" title="Medieval dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_demography" title="Medieval demography">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medieval_Arabic_and_Western_European_domes" title="History of medieval Arabic and Western European domes">Domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hastilude" title="Hastilude">Hastilude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_household" title="Medieval household">Household</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_hunting" title="Medieval hunting">Hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages_in_popular_culture" title="Middle Ages in popular culture">In popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itinerant_court" title="Itinerant court">Itinerant court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_literature" title="Medieval literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_medicine_of_Western_Europe" title="Medieval medicine of Western Europe">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minstrel" title="Minstrel">Minstrel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_music" title="Medieval music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_poetry" title="Medieval poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_science_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="European science in the Middle Ages">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_medieval_Europe" title="Slavery in medieval Europe">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_technology" title="Medieval technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_theatre" title="Medieval theatre">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_warfare" title="Medieval warfare">Warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Women in the Middle Ages">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Ages_(historiography)" title="Dark Ages (historiography)">Dark Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Disability in the Middle Ages">Disability in the Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Middle_Ages" title="Outline of the Middle Ages">Basic topics list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_land_terms" title="List of medieval land terms">Land terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medievalism" title="Medievalism">Medievalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_reenactment" title="Medieval reenactment">Medieval reenactment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_studies" title="Medieval studies">Medieval studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_the_Middle_Ages" title="List of common misconceptions about the Middle Ages">Misconceptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-medievalism" title="Neo-medievalism">Neo-medievalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_post-classical_history" title="Timeline of post-classical history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Historiography in the Middle Ages">Historiography in the Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_archaeology" title="Medieval archaeology">Medieval archaeology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/20px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/40px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Middle_Ages" title="Portal:Middle Ages">Portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Middle_Ages" title="Category:Middle Ages">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Middle_Ages" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Middle Ages">WikiProject</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="France_topics486" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:France_topics" title="Template:France topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:France_topics" title="Template talk:France topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:France_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:France topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="France_topics486" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_France" title="Outline of France">topics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_French_history" title="Timeline of French history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_France" title="Political history of France">Political history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_France" title="Military history of France">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_French" title="History of French">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_France" title="Economic history of France">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_French_foreign_relations" title="History of French foreign relations">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_French_journalism" title="History of French journalism">Journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_France" title="Liberalism and radicalism in France">Liberalism and radicalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Brittany" title="History of Brittany">History of Brittany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Normandy" title="History of Normandy">History of Normandy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_France" title="Prehistory of France">Prehistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greeks_in_pre-Roman_Gaul" title="Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul">Greek colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Celtic Gaul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Gaul" title="Roman Gaul">Roman Gaul</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Visigothic_Kingdom" title="Visigothic Kingdom">Visigothic Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Francia" title="West Francia">West Francia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">Kingdom of France</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fundamental_laws_of_the_Kingdom_of_France" title="Fundamental laws of the Kingdom of France">Fundamental laws</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Early_Modern" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Modern">Early Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern France">Early modern era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Bourbon" title="House of Bourbon">House of Bourbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy_in_France" title="Absolute monarchy in France">Absolute monarchy</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancien Régime">Ancien Régime</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">Wars of Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Second Hundred Years' War">Second Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV" title="Louis XIV">Louis XIV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_Revolution_of_1756" class="mw-redirect" title="Diplomatic Revolution of 1756">Diplomatic Revolution of 1756</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Revolution</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_era" title="Napoleonic era">Napoleonic era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">First Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First Empire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Late_Modern" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Modern">Late Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/France_in_the_long_nineteenth_century" title="France in the long nineteenth century">Long nineteenth century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Restoration_in_France" title="Bourbon Restoration in France">Restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/July_Monarchy" title="July Monarchy">July Monarchy</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution_of_1848" title="French Revolution of 1848">Revolution of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Second_Republic" title="French Second Republic">Second Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1851_French_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1851 French coup d'état">Coup of 2 December 1851</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_National_Defense" title="Government of National Defense">Government of National Defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">Third Republic</a> <ul><li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Belle_%C3%89poque" title="Belle Époque">Belle Époque</a></i></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Army_in_World_War_I" title="French Army in World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_France" title="Interwar France">Interwar</a> <ul><li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Ann%C3%A9es_folles" title="Années folles">Années folles</a></i></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France_during_World_War_II" title="France during World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_of_France" title="Liberation of France">Liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the French Republic">Provisional Government</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Contemporary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_France_(1900_to_present)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of France (1900 to present)">1900 to present</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Fourth_Republic" title="French Fourth Republic">Fourth Republic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_War" title="Algerian War">Algerian War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Fifth_Republic" title="French Fifth Republic">Fifth Republic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/May_68" title="May 68">May 68</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2005_French_riots" title="2005 French riots">2005 riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Europe#France,_Benelux_countries" title="Great Recession in Europe">Great Recession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/November_2015_Paris_attacks" title="November 2015 Paris attacks">2015 Paris attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_French_presidential_election" title="2017 French presidential election">2017 presidential election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_France" title="COVID-19 pandemic in France">Coronavirus pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_French_labor_protests" title="2021 French labor protests">2021 labor protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_French_presidential_election" title="2022 French presidential election">2022 presidential election</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_France" title="Geography of France">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_France" title="Administrative divisions of France">Administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_communes_in_France_with_over_20,000_inhabitants" title="List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_France" title="Climate change in France">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_France" title="Borders of France">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_France" title="List of islands of France">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_France" title="List of lakes of France">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_mountains_by_prominence" title="List of French mountains by prominence">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_France" title="List of national parks of France">National parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_France" title="List of rivers of France">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_France" title="List of World Heritage Sites in France">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_France" title="Politics of France">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutions_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitutions of France">Constitutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_France" title="Elections in France">Elections</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_elections_in_France" title="Presidential elections in France">presidential</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_France" title="Foreign relations of France">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_France" title="Politics of France">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_France" title="Human rights in France">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_rights_in_France" title="Intersex rights in France">Intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in France">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_France" title="Judiciary of France">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_France" title="Law of France">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history_of_France" title="Legal history of France">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_France" title="Law enforcement in France">enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_criminal_law" title="French criminal law">criminal law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Armed_Forces" title="French Armed Forces">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Parliament" title="French Parliament">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_France" title="List of political parties in France">Political parties</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_France" title="Economy of France">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_France#Agriculture" title="Economy of France">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_France" title="Automotive industry in France">Automotive industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_France" title="Banking in France">Banking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bank_of_France" title="Bank of France">Central bank</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_France" title="Economic history of France">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_France" title="Energy in France">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euro" title="Euro">Euro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exports_of_France" title="List of exports of France">Exports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_franc" title="French franc">Franc (former currency)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_regions_and_overseas_collectivities_by_GDP" title="List of French regions and overseas collectivities by GDP">French subdivisions by GDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_in_France" title="Mining in France">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euronext_Paris" title="Euronext Paris">Stock exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_France" title="Science and technology in France">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_France" title="Taxation in France">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_France" title="Telecommunications in France">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_France" title="Tourism in France">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_trade_unions_in_France" title="List of trade unions in France">Trade unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_France" title="Transport in France">Transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_France" title="Rail transport in France">Rail</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_France" title="Category:Society of France">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_France" title="Abortion in France">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control_in_France" title="Birth control in France">Birth control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_France" title="Crime in France">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_France" title="Demographics of France">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_France" title="Education in France">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_in_France" title="Health care in France">Health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_France" title="Homelessness in France">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_France" title="Immigration to France">Immigration</a></li> <li><a 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