CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Common sense - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"69add166-4e46-4234-bcb6-7f9136666f23","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Common_sense","wgTitle":"Common sense","wgCurRevisionId":1253059201,"wgRevisionId":1253059201,"wgArticleId":21478754,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Articles containing French-language text","Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text","Articles containing Latin-language text","CS1: long volume value","Articles containing Italian-language text","Articles containing German-language text","All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases","Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from October 2022","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata", "Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from July 2024","Aristotelianism","Belief","Concepts in epistemology","Consensus reality","Folklore","German philosophy","Rhetoric"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Common_sense","wgRelevantArticleId":21478754,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":["sysop"],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":90000, "wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q332880","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage": "ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.quicksurveys.init","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.5"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Common sense - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_sense"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Common_sense&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_sense"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Common_sense rootpage-Common_sense skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Main menu </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z">Main page</a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia">Contents</a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events">Current events</a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x">Random article</a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works">About Wikipedia</a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia">Contact us</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia">Help</a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia">Learn to edit</a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors">Community portal</a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r">Recent changes</a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia">Upload file</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"> Search </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Appearance </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class="">Donate</a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Common+sense" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class="">Create account</a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Common+sense" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class="">Log in</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Personal tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en">Donate</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Common+sense" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"> Create account</a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Common+sense" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"> Log in</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing">learn more</a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y">Contributions</a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Aristotelian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aristotelian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1 Aristotelian </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aristotelian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roman" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Roman </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cartesian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cartesian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Cartesian </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cartesian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Enlightenment_after_Descartes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Enlightenment_after_Descartes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 The Enlightenment after Descartes </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_Enlightenment_after_Descartes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle The Enlightenment after Descartes subsection </button> <ul id="toc-The_Enlightenment_after_Descartes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Epistemology:_versus_claims_of_certainty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epistemology:_versus_claims_of_certainty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Epistemology: versus claims of certainty </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epistemology:_versus_claims_of_certainty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethics:_"humanist"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethics:_"humanist""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Ethics: "humanist" </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethics:_"humanist"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Giambattista_Vico" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Giambattista_Vico"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Giambattista Vico </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Giambattista_Vico-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thomas_Reid_and_the_Scottish_school" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thomas_Reid_and_the_Scottish_school"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Thomas Reid and the Scottish school </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thomas_Reid_and_the_Scottish_school-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kant:_In_aesthetic_taste" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kant:_In_aesthetic_taste"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Kant: In aesthetic taste </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kant:_In_aesthetic_taste-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Contemporary philosophy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Contemporary_philosophy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Contemporary philosophy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Epistemology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epistemology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Epistemology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epistemology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethics:_what_the_community_would_think" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethics:_what_the_community_would_think"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Ethics: what the community would think </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethics:_what_the_community_would_think-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-"Moral_sense"_as_opposed_to_"rationality"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Moral_sense"_as_opposed_to_"rationality""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 "Moral sense" as opposed to "rationality" </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Moral_sense"_as_opposed_to_"rationality"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Catholic_theology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Catholic_theology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Catholic theology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Catholic_theology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Projects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Projects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Projects </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Projects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Common sense</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 53 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-53" aria-hidden="true" > 53 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B3_%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85" title="حس عام – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حس عام" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sent%C3%ADu_com%C3%BAn" title="Sentíu común – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Sentíu común" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A3_%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A3%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="সাধারণ কাণ্ডজ্ঞান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সাধারণ কাণ্ডজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2_%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D1%83%D0%BC" title="Здрав разум – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Здрав разум" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentit_com%C3%BA" title="Sentit comú – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Sentit comú" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%BB%C4%95_%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%80%C4%83%D0%BC" title="Сиплĕ курăм – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Сиплĕ курăм" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zdrav%C3%BD_rozum" title="Zdravý rozum – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Zdravý rozum" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synnwyr_cyffredin" title="Synnwyr cyffredin – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Synnwyr cyffredin" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sund_fornuft" title="Sund fornuft – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Sund fornuft" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%AE%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%85_%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%B9" title="تخمام لمشاع – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="تخمام لمشاع" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesunder_Menschenverstand" title="Gesunder Menschenverstand – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Gesunder Menschenverstand" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terve_m%C3%B5istus" title="Terve mõistus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Terve mõistus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%BF%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%AE_%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE" title="Κοινή λογική – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κοινή λογική" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usta" title="Usta – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Usta" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Emiliàn e rumagnòl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentido_com%C3%BAn" title="Sentido común – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Sentido común" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komuna_sa%C4%9Do" title="Komuna saĝo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Komuna saĝo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zentzu_komun" title="Zentzu komun – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Zentzu komun" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%82%D9%84_%D8%B3%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%85" title="عقل سلیم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="عقل سلیم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sens_commun" title="Sens commun – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Sens commun" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentido_com%C3%BAn" title="Sentido común – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Sentido común" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%83%81%EC%8B%9D" title="상식 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="상식" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%88%D5%B2%D5%BB%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Ողջամտություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ողջամտություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zdrav_razum" title="Zdrav razum – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Zdrav razum" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akal_sehat" title="Akal sehat – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Akal sehat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almenn_skynsemi" title="Almenn skynsemi – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Almenn skynsemi" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senso_comune" title="Senso comune – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Senso comune" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%9B%D7%9C_%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%A8" title="שכל ישר – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="שכל ישר" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensus_communis" title="Sensus communis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Sensus communis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B3zan_%C3%A9sz" title="Józan ész – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Józan ész" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gezond_verstand" title="Gezond verstand – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Gezond verstand" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B8%B8%E8%AD%98" title="常識 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="常識" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunn_fornuft" title="Sunn fornuft – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Sunn fornuft" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rozs%C4%85dek" title="Rozsądek – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Rozsądek" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senso_comum" title="Senso comum – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Senso comum" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bun-sim%C8%9B" title="Bun-simț – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Bun-simț" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D1%81%D0%BC%D1%8B%D1%81%D0%BB" title="Здравый смысл – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Здравый смысл" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendimi_praktik" title="Mendimi praktik – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Mendimi praktik" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sennu" title="Sennu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Sennu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Common sense" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zdrav%C3%BD_rozum" title="Zdravý rozum – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Zdravý rozum" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%95%D9%82%DA%B5%DB%8C_%D8%B3%DB%95%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%85" title="ئەقڵی سەلیم – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئەقڵی سەلیم" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zdrav_razum" title="Zdrav razum – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Zdrav razum" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zdrav_razum" title="Zdrav razum – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Zdrav razum" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arkij%C3%A4rki" title="Arkijärki – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Arkijärki" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunt_f%C3%B6rnuft" title="Sunt förnuft – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Sunt förnuft" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%8D%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B3%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B6%E0%B8%81" title="สามัญสำนึก – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สามัญสำนึก" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sa%C4%9Fduyu" title="Sağduyu – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Sağduyu" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B3%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B4" title="Здоровий глузд – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Здоровий глузд" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%82%D9%84_%D8%B3%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%85" title="عقل سلیم – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="عقل سلیم" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%E1%BA%BD_th%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Dng" title="Lẽ thường – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Lẽ thường" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B8%B8%E7%90%86" title="常理 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="常理" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B8%B8%E8%AD%98" title="常識 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="常識" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B8%B8%E7%90%86" title="常理 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="常理" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q332880#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Common_sense" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >English </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Common_sense">Read</a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_sense&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_sense&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >Tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Common_sense">Read</a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_sense&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_sense&action=history">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Common_sense" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j">What links here</a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Common_sense" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k">Related changes</a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u">Upload file</a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q">Special pages</a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_sense&oldid=1253059201" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page">Permanent link</a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_sense&action=info" title="More information about this page">Page information</a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Common_sense&id=1253059201&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page">Cite this page</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FCommon_sense">Get shortened URL</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FCommon_sense">Download QR code</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Common_sense&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file">Download as PDF</a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_sense&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p">Printable version</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiquote mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Common_sense" hreflang="en">Wikiquote</a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q332880" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g">Wikidata item</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Sound practical judgement in everyday matters</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Common_knowledge" title="Common knowledge">Common knowledge</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the American Revolutionary War pamphlet by Thomas Paine, see <a href="/wiki/Common_Sense" title="Common Sense">Common Sense</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Common_sense_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Common sense (disambiguation)">Common sense (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="width: 18em;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Collective_intelligence" title="Collective intelligence">Collective intelligence</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#bbbbbb;"> Concepts</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collaborative_intelligence" title="Collaborative intelligence">Collaborative intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_wisdom" title="Collective wisdom">Collective wisdom</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Common sense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence_assessment" title="Intelligence assessment">Intelligence assessment</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#bbbbbb;"> Background concepts</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collective" title="Collective">Collective</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Collective_intelligence" title="Template:Collective intelligence"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Collective_intelligence" title="Template talk:Collective intelligence"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Collective_intelligence" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Collective intelligence"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Common sense is "knowledge, judgement, and taste which is more or less universal and which is held more or less without reflection or argument".<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> As such, it is often considered to represent the basic level of sound practical judgement or knowledge of basic facts that any adult human being ought to possess.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> It is "common" in the sense of being shared by nearly all people. The everyday understanding of common sense is ultimately derived from historical philosophical discussions.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Relevant terms from other languages used in such discussions include Latin sensus communis, Ancient Greek κοινὴ αἴσθησις (koinḕ aísthēsis), and French bon sens. However, these are not straightforward translations in all contexts, and in English different shades of meaning have developed. In philosophical and scientific contexts, since the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a> the term "common sense" has been used for <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetorical</a> effect both approvingly and disapprovingly. On the one hand it has been a standard for <a href="/wiki/Good_taste" class="mw-redirect" title="Good taste">good taste</a>, good sense, and source of scientific and logical <a href="/wiki/Axiom" title="Axiom">axioms</a>. On the other hand it has been equated to <a href="/wiki/Conventional_wisdom" title="Conventional wisdom">conventional wisdom</a>, vulgar <a href="/wiki/Prejudice" title="Prejudice">prejudice</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Superstition" title="Superstition">superstition</a>.<a href="#cite_note-hund-3">[3]</a> "Common sense" has at least two older and more specialized meanings which have influenced the modern meanings, and are still important in <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>. The original historical meaning is the capability of the animal soul (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%88%CF%85%CF%87%CE%AE#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:ψυχή">ψῡχή</a>, psūkhḗ), proposed by <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> to explain how the different senses join and enable discrimination of particular objects by people and other animals. This common sense is distinct from the several <a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">sensory perceptions</a> and from human <a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">rational thought</a>, but it cooperates with both. The second philosophical use of the term is Roman-influenced, and is used for the natural human sensitivity for other humans and the community.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> Just like the everyday meaning, both of the philosophical meanings refer to a type of basic awareness and ability to judge that most people are expected to share naturally, even if they cannot explain why. All these meanings of "common sense", including the everyday ones, are interconnected in a complex history and have evolved during important political and philosophical debates in modern <a href="/wiki/Western_civilisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Western civilisation">Western civilisation</a>, notably concerning science, politics and economics.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> The interplay between the meanings has come to be particularly notable in English, as opposed to other western European languages, and the English term has in turn become international.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> It was at the beginning of the 18th century that this old philosophical term first acquired its modern English meaning: "Those plain, self-evident truths or conventional wisdom that one needed no sophistication to grasp and no proof to accept precisely because they accorded so well with the basic (common sense) intellectual capacities and experiences of the whole social body."<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> This began with <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a>'s criticism of it, and what came to be known as the dispute between "<a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalism</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a>". In the opening line of one of his most famous books, <a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_Method" class="mw-redirect" title="Discourse on Method">Discourse on Method</a>, Descartes established the most common modern meaning, and its controversies, when he stated that everyone has a similar and sufficient amount of common sense (bon sens), but it is rarely used well. Therefore, a skeptical logical method described by Descartes needs to be followed and common sense should not be overly relied upon.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> In the ensuing 18th century <a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Enlightenment era">Enlightenment</a>, common sense came to be seen more positively as the basis for empiricist modern thinking. It was contrasted to <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>, which was, like <a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a>, associated with the <a href="/wiki/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancien Régime">Ancien Régime</a>. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Thomas Paine</a>'s polemical pamphlet <a href="/wiki/Common_Sense_(pamphlet)" class="mw-redirect" title="Common Sense (pamphlet)">Common Sense</a> (1776) has been described as the most influential political pamphlet of the 18th century, affecting both the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French revolutions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-hund-3">[3]</a> Today, the concept of common sense, and how it should best be used, remains linked to many of the most perennial topics in <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>, with special focus often directed at the philosophy of the modern <a href="/wiki/Social_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Social sciences">social sciences</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aristotelian">Aristotelian</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_sense&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Aristotelian">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg/220px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg/330px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg/440px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1700" data-file-height="2275" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, the first person known to have discussed "common sense", described it as the ability with which animals (including humans) process sense-perceptions, memories and imagination (φρονεῖν, phroneîn) in order to reach many types of basic judgments. In his scheme, only humans have real reasoned thinking (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%B5%E1%BF%96%CE%BD#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:νοεῖν">νοεῖν</a>, noeîn), which takes them beyond their common sense.</figcaption></figure> The origin of the term "common sense" is in the works of Aristotle. <a href="#CITEREFHeller-Roazen2008">Heller-Roazen (2008)</a> writes that "In different ways the philosophers of medieval Latin and Arabic tradition, from <a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi</a> to <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Averro%C3%ABs" class="mw-redirect" title="Averroës">Averroës</a>, <a href="/wiki/Albertus_Magnus" title="Albertus Magnus">Albert</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_of_Aquinas" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas of Aquinas">Thomas</a>, found in the De Anima and the <a href="/wiki/Parva_Naturalia" title="Parva Naturalia">Parva Naturalia</a> the scattered elements of a coherent doctrine of the "central" faculty of the sensuous soul."<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> It was "one of the most successful and resilient of Aristotelian notions".<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> The best-known case is <a href="/wiki/De_Anima" class="mw-redirect" title="De Anima">De Anima</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mikrosapoplous.gr/aristotle/psyxhs/3_01.html">Book III, chapter 1</a>, especially at line 425a27.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> The passage is about how the animal mind converts raw sense perceptions from the <a href="/wiki/Five_wits" title="Five wits">five specialized</a> <a href="/wiki/Sense_perception" class="mw-redirect" title="Sense perception">sense perceptions</a>, into perceptions of real things moving and changing, which can be thought about. According to Aristotle's understanding of perception, each of the five senses perceives one type of "perceptible" or "sensible" which is specific (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%BC%B4%CE%B4%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%82#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:ἴδιος">ἴδια</a>, idia) to it. For example, sight can see colour. But Aristotle was explaining how the animal mind, not just the human mind, links and categorizes different tastes, colours, feelings, smells and sounds in order to perceive real things in terms of the "common sensibles" (or "common perceptibles"). In this discussion, "common" (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%B9%CE%BD%CF%8C%CF%82#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:κοινός">κοινή</a>, koiné) is a term opposed to specific or particular (idia). The Greek for these common sensibles is tá koiná (τά κοινᾰ́), which means shared or common things, and examples include the oneness of each thing, with its specific shape and size and so on, and the change or movement of each thing.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> Distinct combinations of these properties are common to all perceived things.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> In this passage, Aristotle explained that concerning these koiná (such as movement) people have a sense — a "common sense" or sense of the common things (aísthēsis koinḕ) — and there is no specific (idéā) sense perception for movement and other koiná, because then we would not perceive the koiná at all, except by <a href="/wiki/Accident_(philosophy)" title="Accident (philosophy)">accident</a> (κᾰτᾰ́ σῠμβεβηκός, katá sumbebēkós). As examples of perceiving by accident Aristotle mentions using the specific sense perception vision on its own to try to see that something is sweet, or to try to recognize a friend only by their distinctive color. <a href="#CITEREFLee2011">Lee (2011</a>, p. 31) explains that "when I see Socrates, it is not insofar as he is Socrates that he is visible to my eye, but rather because he is coloured". So the normal five individual senses do sense the common perceptibles according to Aristotle (and Plato), but it is not something they necessarily interpret correctly on their own. Aristotle proposes that the reason for having several senses is in fact that it increases the chances that we can distinguish and recognize things correctly, and not just occasionally or by accident.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> Each sense is used to identify distinctions, such as sight identifying the difference between black and white, but, says Aristotle, all animals with perception must have "some one thing" that can distinguish black from sweet.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> The common sense is where this comparison happens, and this must occur by comparing impressions (or symbols or markers; <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%83%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%B5%E1%BF%96%CE%BF%CE%BD#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:σημεῖον">σημεῖον</a>, sēmeîon, 'sign, mark') of what the specialist senses have perceived.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> The common sense is therefore also where a type of <a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</a> originates, "for it makes us aware of having sensations at all". And it receives physical picture imprints from the imaginative faculty, which are then memories that can be recollected.<a href="#cite_note-brann43-17">[17]</a> The discussion was apparently intended to improve upon the account of Aristotle's friend and teacher <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> in his <a href="/wiki/Socratic_dialogue" title="Socratic dialogue">Socratic dialogue</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Theaetetus_(dialogue)" title="Theaetetus (dialogue)">Theaetetus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> But Plato's dialogue presented an argument that recognising koiná is an active thinking process in the rational part of the human soul, making the senses instruments of the thinking part of man. Plato's Socrates says this kind of thinking is not a kind of sense at all. Aristotle, trying to give a more general account of the souls of all animals, not just humans, moved the act of perception out of the rational thinking soul into this sensus communis, which is something like a sense, and something like thinking, but not rational.<a href="#cite_note-greg-19">[19]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Avicenna-miniatur.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Avicenna-miniatur.jpg/220px-Avicenna-miniatur.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="343" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Avicenna-miniatur.jpg/330px-Avicenna-miniatur.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Avicenna-miniatur.jpg/440px-Avicenna-miniatur.jpg 2x" data-file-width="801" data-file-height="1249" /></a><figcaption>Avicenna became one of the greatest medieval authorities concerning Aristotelian common sense, both in Islamic and Christian lands.</figcaption></figure> The passage is difficult to interpret and there is little consensus about the details.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> <a href="#CITEREFGregorić2007">Gregorić (2007</a>, pp. 204–205) has argued that this may be because Aristotle did not use the term as a standardized technical term at all. For example, in some passages in his works, Aristotle seems to use the term to refer to the individual sense perceptions simply being common to all people, or common to various types of animals. There is also difficulty with trying to determine whether the common sense is truly separable from the individual sense perceptions and from imagination, in anything other than a conceptual way as a capability. Aristotle never fully spells out the relationship between the common sense and the <a href="/wiki/Imagination" title="Imagination">imaginative faculty</a> (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%86%CE%B1%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%AF%CE%B1#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:φαντασία">φᾰντᾰσῐ́ᾱ</a>, phantasíā), although the two clearly work together in animals, and not only humans, for example in order to enable a perception of time. They may even be the same.<a href="#cite_note-brann43-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-greg-19">[19]</a> Despite hints by Aristotle himself that they were united, early commentators such as <a href="/wiki/Alexander_of_Aphrodisias" title="Alexander of Aphrodisias">Alexander of Aphrodisias</a> and Al-Farabi felt they were distinct, but later, Avicenna emphasized the link, influencing future authors including Christian philosophers.<a href="#cite_note-hr42-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-walz-22">[22]</a> <a href="#CITEREFGregorić2007">Gregorić (2007</a>, p. 205) argues that Aristotle used the term "common sense" both to discuss the individual senses when these act as a unity, which Gregorić calls "the perceptual capacity of the soul", or the higher level "sensory capacity of the soul" that represents the senses and the imagination working as a unity. According to Gregorić, there appears to have been a standardization of the term koinḕ aísthēsis as a term for the perceptual capacity (not the higher level sensory capacity), which occurred by the time of Alexander of Aphrodisias at the latest.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> Compared to Plato, Aristotle's understanding of the soul (psūkhḗ) has an extra level of complexity in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Nous" title="Nous">noûs</a> or "intellect"—which is something only humans have and enables humans to perceive things differently from other animals. It works with images coming from the common sense and imagination, using reasoning (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%BB%CF%8C%CE%B3%CE%BF%CF%82#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:λόγος">λόγος</a>, <a href="/wiki/Logos" title="Logos">lógos</a>) as well as the <a href="/wiki/Active_intellect" title="Active intellect">active intellect</a>. The noûs identifies the true <a href="/wiki/Formal_cause" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal cause">forms of things</a>, while the common sense identifies shared aspects of things. Though scholars have varying interpretations of the details, Aristotle's "common sense" was in any case not rational, in the sense that it implied no ability to explain the perception. <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">Reason</a> or <a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">rationality</a> (lógos) exists only in man according to Aristotle, and yet some animals can perceive "common perceptibles" such as change and shape, and some even have imagination according to Aristotle. Animals with imagination come closest to having something like reasoning and noûs.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> Plato, on the other hand was apparently willing to allow that animals could have some level of thought, meaning that he did not have to explain their sometimes complex behavior with a strict division between high-level perception processing and the human-like thinking such as being able to form opinions.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> Gregorić additionally argues that Aristotle can be interpreted as using the verbs phroneîn and noeîn to distinguish two types of thinking or awareness, the first being found in animals and the second unique to humans and involving reason.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> Therefore, in Aristotle (and the medieval Aristotelians) the universals used to identify and categorize things are divided into two. In medieval terminology these are the species sensibilis used for perception and imagination in animals, and the species intelligibilis or apprehendable forms used in the human intellect or noûs. Aristotle also occasionally called the koinḕ aísthēsis (or one version of it) the prôton aisthētikón (πρῶτον αἰσθητῐκόν, <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> ''first of the senses''). (According to Gregorić, this is specifically in contexts where it refers to the higher order common sense that includes imagination.) Later philosophers developing this line of thought, such as <a href="/wiki/Themistius" title="Themistius">Themistius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a>, and Al-Farabi, calling it the ruler of the senses or ruling sense, apparently a metaphor developed from a section of Plato's <a href="/wiki/Timaeus_(dialogue)" title="Timaeus (dialogue)">Timaeus</a> (70b).<a href="#cite_note-walz-22">[22]</a> <a href="/wiki/Augustine" class="mw-redirect" title="Augustine">Augustine</a> and some of the Arab writers, also called it the "inner sense".<a href="#cite_note-hr42-21">[21]</a> The concept of the inner senses, plural, was further developed in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>. Under the influence of the great Persian philosophers Al-Farabi and Avicenna, several inner senses came to be listed. "Thomas Aquinas and <a href="/wiki/John_of_Jandun" title="John of Jandun">John of Jandun</a> recognized four internal senses: the common sense, <a href="/wiki/Imagination" title="Imagination">imagination</a>, vis cogitativa, and memory. Avicenna, followed by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Grosseteste" title="Robert Grosseteste">Robert Grosseteste</a>, <a href="/wiki/Albert_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Albert the Great">Albert the Great</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a>, argued for five internal senses: the common sense, imagination, fantasy, vis aestimativa, and memory."<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> By the time of <a href="/wiki/Descartes" class="mw-redirect" title="Descartes">Descartes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hobbes" class="mw-redirect" title="Hobbes">Hobbes</a>, in the 1600s, the inner senses had been standardized to <a href="/wiki/Five_wits" title="Five wits">five wits</a>, which complemented the more well-known five "external" senses.<a href="#cite_note-hr42-21">[21]</a> Under this medieval scheme the common sense was understood to be seated not in the heart, as Aristotle had thought, but in the anterior <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galenic</a> <a href="/wiki/Ventricular_system" title="Ventricular system">ventricle</a> of the brain. The anatomist <a href="/wiki/Andreas_Vesalius" title="Andreas Vesalius">Andreas Vesalius</a> found no connections between the anterior ventricle and the sensory nerves, leading to speculation about other parts of the brain into the 1600s.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Roman">Roman</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_sense&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Roman">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MSR-ra-61-b-1-DM.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/MSR-ra-61-b-1-DM.jpg/220px-MSR-ra-61-b-1-DM.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/MSR-ra-61-b-1-DM.jpg/330px-MSR-ra-61-b-1-DM.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/MSR-ra-61-b-1-DM.jpg/440px-MSR-ra-61-b-1-DM.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Marcus Aurelius, emperor and Stoic philosopher, and an important influence upon the concept of "humanist" common sense</figcaption></figure> "Sensus communis" is the Latin translation of the Greek koinḕ aísthēsis, which came to be recovered by Medieval <a href="/wiki/Scholastics" class="mw-redirect" title="Scholastics">scholastics</a> when discussing Aristotelian theories of perception. In the earlier Latin of the Roman empire, the term had taken a distinct ethical detour, developing new shades of meaning. These especially Roman meanings were apparently influenced by several Stoic Greek terms with the word koinḗ (κοινή, 'common, shared'); not only koinḕ aísthēsis, but also such terms as koinós noûs (κοινός νοῦς, 'common mind/thought/reason'), koinḗ énnoia (κοινή ἔννοιᾰ), and koinonoēmosúnē, all of which involve noûs—something, at least in Aristotle, that would not be present in "lower" animals.<a href="#cite_note-Bugter1987-29">[29]</a> <ul><li>Koinḗ énnoia is a term from <a href="/wiki/Stoic_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Stoic philosophy">Stoic philosophy</a>, a Greek philosophy, influenced by Aristotle, and influential in <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>. This refers to shared notions, or common conceptions, that are either in-born or imprinted by the senses on to the soul. Unfortunately few true Stoic texts survive, and our understanding of their technical terminology is limited.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></li> <li>Koinós noûs is a term found in <a href="/wiki/Epictetus" title="Epictetus">Epictetus</a> (III.vi.8), a Stoic philosopher. C.S. <a href="#CITEREFLewis1967">Lewis (1967</a>, p. 146) believed this to be close to a modern English meaning of "common sense", "the elementary mental outfit of the normal man", something like <a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">intelligence</a>. He noted that sensus could be a translation of noûs, (for example in the <a href="/wiki/Vulgate_Bible" class="mw-redirect" title="Vulgate Bible">Vulgate Bible</a>), but he only found one clear case of a Latin text showing this apparent meaning, a text by <a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(fabulist)" title="Phaedrus (fabulist)">Phaedrus the fable writer</a>.</li> <li>Koinonoēmosúnē is found only in the work of the emperor <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a> (<a href="/wiki/Meditations" title="Meditations">Meditations</a> I.16), also known as a Stoic. He uses the word on its own in a list of things he learned from his adopted father. <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Ashley_Cooper,_3rd_Earl_of_Shaftesbury" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthony Ashley Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury">Anthony Ashley Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury</a> felt it represented the Stoic Greek original, which gave the special Roman meaning of sensus communis, especially when used to refer to someone's public spirit. He explained the change of meaning as being due to the specific way that Stoics understood perception and intellect, saying that one should "consider withal how small the distinction was in that Philosophy, between the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%BD%91%CF%80%CF%8C%CE%BB%CE%B7%CF%88%CE%B9%CF%82" class="extiw" title="wikt:ὑπόληψις">ὑπόληψις</a> [conjecture], and the vulgar <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%B1%E1%BC%B4%CF%83%CE%B8%CE%B7%CF%83%CE%B9%CF%82" class="extiw" title="wikt:αἴσθησις">αἴσθησις</a> [perception]; how generally Passion was by those Philosophers brought under the Head of Opinion".<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></li></ul> Another link between Latin communis sensus and Aristotle's Greek was in <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a>, a subject that Aristotle was the first to systematize. In rhetoric, a prudent speaker must take account of opinions (δόξαι, <a href="/wiki/Doxa" title="Doxa">dóxai</a>) that are widely held.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> Aristotle referred to such commonly held beliefs not as koinaí dóxai (κοιναί δόξαι, <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> ''common opinions''), which is a term he used for self-evident logical axioms, but with other terms such as <a href="/wiki/Endoxa" class="mw-redirect" title="Endoxa">éndóxa</a> (ἔνδόξα). In his <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_(Aristotle)" title="Rhetoric (Aristotle)">Rhetoric</a> for example Aristotle mentions "koinōn [...] tàs písteis" or "common beliefs", saying that "our proofs and arguments must rest on generally accepted principles, [...] when speaking of converse with the multitude".<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> In a similar passage in his own work on rhetoric, <a href="/wiki/De_Oratore" title="De Oratore">De Oratore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> wrote that "in oratory the very cardinal sin is to depart from the language of everyday life and the usage approved by the sense of the community." The sense of the community is in this case one translation of "communis sensus" in the Latin of Cicero.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> Whether the Latin writers such as <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> deliberately used this Aristotelian term in a new more peculiarly Roman way, probably also influenced by Greek Stoicism, therefore remains a subject of discussion. <a href="#CITEREFSchaeffer1990">Schaeffer (1990</a>, p. 112) has proposed for example that the <a href="/wiki/Roman_republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman republic">Roman republic</a> maintained a very "oral" culture whereas in Aristotle's time rhetoric had come under heavy criticism from philosophers such as Socrates. <a href="#CITEREFPeters_Agnew2008">Peters Agnew (2008)</a> argues, in agreement with Shaftesbury, that the concept developed from the Stoic concept of ethical virtue, influenced by Aristotle, but emphasizing the role of both the individual perception, and shared communal understanding. But in any case a complex of ideas attached itself to the term, to be almost forgotten in the Middle Ages, and eventually returning into ethical discussion in 18th-century Europe, after Descartes. As with other meanings of common sense, for the Romans of the classical era "it designates a sensibility shared by all, from which one may deduce a number of fundamental judgments, that need not, or cannot, be questioned by rational reflection".<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> But even though Cicero did at least once use the term in a manuscript on Plato's <a href="/wiki/Timaeus_(dialogue)" title="Timaeus (dialogue)">Timaeus</a> (concerning a primordial "sense, one and common for all [...] connected with nature"), he and other Roman authors did not normally use it as a technical term limited to discussion about sense perception, as Aristotle apparently had in De Anima, and as the Scholastics later would in the Middle Ages.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> Instead of referring to all animal judgment, it was used to describe pre-rational, widely shared human beliefs, and therefore it was a near equivalent to the concept of <a href="/wiki/Humanitas" title="Humanitas">humanitas</a>. This was a term that could be used by Romans to imply not only <a href="/wiki/Human_nature" title="Human nature">human nature</a>, but also humane conduct, good breeding, refined manners, and so on.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> Apart from Cicero, <a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Elder" title="Seneca the Elder">Seneca</a>, <a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a> and some of the most influential Roman authors influenced by Aristotle's rhetoric and philosophy used the Latin term "sensus communis" in a range of such ways.<a href="#cite_note-rethink-39">[39]</a> As <a href="/wiki/C._S._Lewis" title="C. S. Lewis">C. S. Lewis</a> wrote: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Quintilian says it is better to send a boy to school than to have a private tutor for him at home; for if he is kept away from the herd (congressus) how will he ever learn that sensus which we call communis? (I, ii, 20). On the lowest level it means tact. In Horace the man who talks to you when you obviously don't want to talk lacks communis sensus.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></blockquote> Compared to Aristotle and his strictest medieval followers, these Roman authors were not so strict about the boundary between animal-like common sense and specially human reasoning. As discussed above, Aristotle had attempted to make a clear distinction between, on the one hand, imagination and the sense perception which both use the sensible koiná, and which animals also have; and, on the other hand, noûs (intellect) and reason, which perceives another type of koiná, the intelligible forms, which (according to Aristotle) only humans have. In other words, these Romans allowed that people could have animal-like shared understandings of reality, not just in terms of memories of sense perceptions, but in terms of the way they would tend to explain things, and in the language they use.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cartesian">Cartesian</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_sense&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Cartesian">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Descartes_mind_and_body.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Descartes_mind_and_body.gif/200px-Descartes_mind_and_body.gif" decoding="async" width="200" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Descartes_mind_and_body.gif/300px-Descartes_mind_and_body.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Descartes_mind_and_body.gif/400px-Descartes_mind_and_body.gif 2x" data-file-width="493" data-file-height="609" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a>' illustration of perception. Sensations from the senses travel to sensus communis, seated in the pineal gland inside the brain, and from there to the immaterial spirit.</figcaption></figure> One of the last notable philosophers to accept something like the Aristotelian "common sense" was <a href="/wiki/Descartes" class="mw-redirect" title="Descartes">Descartes</a> in the 17th century, but he also undermined it. He described this inner faculty when writing in Latin in his <a href="/wiki/Meditations_on_first_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Meditations on first philosophy">Meditations on first philosophy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> The common sense is the link between the body and its senses, and the true human mind, which according to Descartes must be purely immaterial. Unlike Aristotle, who had placed it in the heart, by the time of Descartes this faculty was thought to be in the brain, and he located it in the <a href="/wiki/Pineal_gland" title="Pineal gland">pineal gland</a>.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> Descartes' judgement of this common sense was that it was enough to persuade the human consciousness of the existence of physical things, but often in a very indistinct way. To get a more distinct understanding of things, it is more important to be methodical and mathematical.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> This line of thought was taken further, if not by Descartes himself then by those he influenced, until the concept of a faculty or organ of common sense was itself rejected. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">René Descartes is generally credited with making obsolete the notion that there was an actual faculty within the human brain that functioned as a sensus communis. The French philosopher did not fully reject the idea of the inner senses, which he appropriated from the <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholastics</a>. But he distanced himself from the Aristotelian conception of a common sense faculty, abandoning it entirely by the time of his <a href="/wiki/Passions_of_the_Soul" title="Passions of the Soul">Passions of the Soul</a> (1649).<a href="#cite_note-rosenfeld21-45">[45]</a></blockquote> Contemporaries such as <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Gassendi" title="Pierre Gassendi">Gassendi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hobbes" class="mw-redirect" title="Hobbes">Hobbes</a> went beyond Descartes in some ways in their rejection of Aristotelianism, rejecting explanations involving anything other than matter and motion, including the distinction between the animal-like judgement of sense perception, a special separate common sense, and the human mind or noûs, which Descartes had retained from Aristotelianism.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> In contrast to Descartes who "found it unacceptable to assume that sensory representations may enter the mental realm from without"... <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">According to Hobbes [...] man is no different from the other animals. [...] Hobbes' philosophy constituted a more profound rupture with <a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic</a> thought. He accepted mental representations but [...] "All sense is fancy", as Hobbes famously put it, with the only exception of extension and motion.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg/220px-Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg/330px-Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg/440px-Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="817" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>René Descartes is the source of the most common way of understanding the "common sense" as a widely spread type of judgement.</figcaption></figure> But Descartes used two different terms in his work, not only the Latin term "sensus communis", but also the French term bon sens, with which he opens his Discourse on Method. And this second concept survived better. This work was written in French, and does not directly discuss the Aristotelian technical theory of perception. Bon sens is the equivalent of modern English "common sense" or "good sense". As the Aristotelian meaning of the Latin term began to be forgotten after Descartes, his discussion of bon sens gave a new way of defining sensus communis in various European languages (including Latin, even though Descartes himself did not translate bon sens as sensus communis, but treated them as two separate things).<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchaeffer1990">Schaeffer (1990</a>, p. 2) writes that "Descartes is the source of the most common meaning of common sense today: practical judgment". Gilson noted that Descartes actually gave bon sens two related meanings, first the basic and widely shared ability to judge true and false, which he also calls raison (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation"><a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a></abbr> ''reason''); and second, wisdom, the perfected version of the first. The Latin term Descartes uses, bona mens (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> ''good mind''), derives from the Stoic author <a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca</a> who only used it in the second sense. Descartes was being original.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> The idea that now became influential, developed in both the Latin and French works of Descartes, though coming from different directions, is that common good sense (and indeed sense perception) is not reliable enough for the new Cartesian method of <a href="/wiki/Skeptical" class="mw-redirect" title="Skeptical">skeptical</a> reasoning.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> The Cartesian project to replace common good sense with clearly defined mathematical reasoning was aimed at certainty, and not mere probability. It was promoted further by people such as Hobbes, <a href="/wiki/Spinoza" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinoza">Spinoza</a>, and others and continues to have important impacts on everyday life. In France, the Netherlands, Belgium, Spain and Italy, it was in its initial florescence associated with the administration of Catholic empires of the competing <a href="/wiki/Bourbon_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Bourbon dynasty">Bourbon</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Habsburg dynasty">Habsburg</a> dynasties, both seeking to centralize their power in a modern way, responding to <a href="/wiki/Machiavelli" class="mw-redirect" title="Machiavelli">Machiavellianism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a> as part of the <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Cartesian theory offered a justification for innovative social change achieved through the courts and administration, an ability to adapt the law to changing social conditions by making the basis for legislation "rational" rather than "traditional".<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></blockquote> So after Descartes, critical attention turned from Aristotle and his theory of perception, and more towards Descartes' own treatment of common good sense, concerning which several 18th-century authors found help in Roman literature. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Enlightenment_after_Descartes">The Enlightenment after Descartes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_sense&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: The Enlightenment after Descartes">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Epistemology:_versus_claims_of_certainty">Epistemology: versus claims of certainty</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_sense&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Epistemology: versus claims of certainty">edit</a>]</div> During the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a>, Descartes' insistence upon a mathematical-style method of thinking that treated common sense and the sense perceptions sceptically, was accepted in some ways, but also criticized. On the one hand, the approach of Descartes is and was seen as radically sceptical in some ways. On the other hand, like the Scholastics before him, while being cautious of common sense, Descartes was instead seen to rely too much on undemonstrable metaphysical assumptions in order to justify his method, especially in its separation of mind and body (with the sensus communis linking them). Cartesians such as <a href="/wiki/Henricus_Regius" title="Henricus Regius">Henricus Regius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geraud_de_Cordemoy" class="mw-redirect" title="Geraud de Cordemoy">Geraud de Cordemoy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</a> realized that Descartes's logic could give no evidence of the "external world" at all, meaning it had to be taken on faith.<a href="#cite_note-gil1-53">[53]</a> Though his own proposed solution was even more controversial, Berkeley famously wrote that enlightenment requires a "revolt from metaphysical notions to the plain dictates of nature and common sense".<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> Descartes and the Cartesian "<a href="/wiki/Rationalists" class="mw-redirect" title="Rationalists">rationalists</a>", rejected reliance upon experience, the senses and <a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">inductive reasoning</a>, and seemed to insist that certainty was possible. The alternative to induction, deductive reasoning, demanded a mathematical approach, starting from simple and certain assumptions. This in turn required Descartes (and later rationalists such as Kant) to assume the existence of innate or "<a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">a priori</a>" <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a> in the human mind—a controversial proposal. In contrast to the rationalists, the "<a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricists</a>" took their orientation from <a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a>, whose arguments for methodical science were earlier than those of Descartes, and less directed towards mathematics and certainty. Bacon is known for his doctrine of the "<a href="/wiki/Idols_of_the_mind" class="mw-redirect" title="Idols of the mind">idols of the mind</a>", presented in his <a href="/wiki/Novum_Organum" title="Novum Organum">Novum Organum</a>, and in his <a href="/wiki/Essays_(Francis_Bacon)" title="Essays (Francis Bacon)">Essays</a> described normal human thinking as biased towards believing in lies.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> But he was also the opponent of all metaphysical explanations of nature, or over-reaching speculation generally, and a proponent of science based on small steps of experience, experimentation and methodical induction. So while agreeing upon the need to help common sense with a methodical approach, he also insisted that starting from common sense, including especially common sense perceptions, was acceptable and correct. He influenced <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bayle" title="Pierre Bayle">Pierre Bayle</a>, in their critique of metaphysics, and in 1733 <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a> "introduced him as the "father" of the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a>" to a French audience, an understanding that was widespread by 1750. Together with this, references to "common sense" became positive and associated with modernity, in contrast to negative references to metaphysics, which was associated with the <a href="/wiki/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancien Régime">Ancien Régime</a>.<a href="#cite_note-hund-3">[3]</a> As mentioned above, in terms of the more general epistemological implications of common sense, modern philosophy came to use the term common sense like Descartes, abandoning Aristotle's theory. While Descartes had distanced himself from it, John Locke abandoned it more openly, while still maintaining the idea of "common sensibles" that are perceived. But then <a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a> abandoned both.<a href="#cite_note-rosenfeld21-45">[45]</a> <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> agreed with Berkeley on this, and like Locke and Vico saw himself as following Bacon more than Descartes. In his synthesis, which he saw as the first Baconian analysis of man (something the lesser known Vico had claimed earlier), common sense is entirely built up from shared experience and shared innate emotions, and therefore it is indeed imperfect as a basis for any attempt to know the truth or to make the best decision. But he defended the possibility of science without absolute certainty, and consistently described common sense as giving a valid answer to the challenge of <a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonian_skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyrrhonian skepticism">extreme skepticism</a>. Concerning such sceptics, he wrote: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">But would these prejudiced reasoners reflect a moment, there are many obvious instances and arguments, sufficient to undeceive them, and make them enlarge their maxims and principles. Do they not see the vast variety of inclinations and pursuits among our species; where each man seems fully satisfied with his own course of life, and would esteem it the greatest unhappiness to be confined to that of his neighbour? Do they not feel in themselves, that what pleases at one time, displeases at another, by the change of inclination; and that it is not in their power, by their utmost efforts, to recall that taste or appetite, which formerly bestowed charms on what now appears indifferent or disagreeable? [...] Do you come to a philosopher as to a cunning man, to learn something by magic or witchcraft, beyond what can be known by common prudence and discretion?<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethics:_"humanist"">Ethics: "humanist"</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_sense&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Ethics: "humanist"">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Engraving_of_Anthony_Ashley-Cooper,_3rd_Earl_of_Shaftesbury.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Engraving_of_Anthony_Ashley-Cooper%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Shaftesbury.jpg/220px-Engraving_of_Anthony_Ashley-Cooper%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Shaftesbury.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="315" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Engraving_of_Anthony_Ashley-Cooper%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Shaftesbury.jpg/330px-Engraving_of_Anthony_Ashley-Cooper%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Shaftesbury.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Engraving_of_Anthony_Ashley-Cooper%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Shaftesbury.jpg/440px-Engraving_of_Anthony_Ashley-Cooper%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Shaftesbury.jpg 2x" data-file-width="558" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Ashley-Cooper,_3rd_Earl_of_Shaftesbury" title="Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury">Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury</a>, a proponent of a Roman-inspired concept of common sense</figcaption></figure> Once Thomas Hobbes and <a href="/wiki/Spinoza" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinoza">Spinoza</a> had applied Cartesian approaches to <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophy</a>, concerns about the inhumanity of the deductive approach of Descartes increased. With this in mind, Shaftesbury and <a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Giambattista Vico</a> presented new arguments for the importance of the Roman understanding of common sense, in what is now often referred to, after <a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Hans-Georg Gadamer</a>, as a <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Humanist" class="mw-redirect" title="Renaissance Humanist">humanist</a> interpretation of the term.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> Their concern had several inter-related aspects. One ethical concern was the deliberately simplified method that treated human communities as made up of selfish independent individuals (<a href="/wiki/Methodological_individualism" title="Methodological individualism">methodological individualism</a>), ignoring the <a href="/wiki/Sense_of_community" title="Sense of community">sense of community</a> that the Romans understood as part of common sense. Another connected epistemological concern was that by considering common good sense as inherently inferior to Cartesian conclusions developed from simple assumptions, an important type of wisdom was being arrogantly ignored. The Earl's seminal 1709 essay Sensus Communis: An Essay on the Freedom of Wit and Humour was a highly erudite and influential defense of the use of irony and humour in serious discussions, at least among men of "Good Breeding". He drew upon authors such as <a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Elder" title="Seneca the Elder">Seneca</a>, <a href="/wiki/Juvenal" title="Juvenal">Juvenal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a>, for whom, he saw, common sense was not just a reference to widely held vulgar opinions, but something cultivated among educated people living in better communities. One aspect of this, later taken up by authors such as Kant, was good taste. Another very important aspect of common sense particularly interesting to later British political philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Francis_Hutcheson_(philosopher)" title="Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)">Francis Hutcheson</a> was what came to be called moral sentiment, which is different from a tribal or factional sentiment, but a more general fellow feeling that is very important for larger communities: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">A publick Spirit can come only from a social Feeling or Sense of Partnership with Human Kind. Now there are none so far from being Partners in this Sense, or sharers in this common Affection, as they who scarcely know an Equall, nor consider themselves as subject to any law of Fellowship or Community. And thus Morality and good Government go together.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a></blockquote> Hutcheson described it as, "a Publick Sense, viz. "our Determination to be pleased with the Happiness of others, and to be uneasy at their Misery."" which, he explains, "was sometimes called κοινονοημοσύνη<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> or Sensus Communis by some of the Antients".<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> A reaction to Shaftesbury in defense of the Hobbesian approach of treating communities as driven by individual self-interest, was not long coming in <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Mandeville" title="Bernard Mandeville">Bernard Mandeville</a>'s controversial works. Indeed, this approach was never fully rejected, at least in economics. And so despite the criticism heaped upon Mandeville and Hobbes by Adam Smith, Hutcheson's student and successor in Glasgow university, Smith made self-interest a core assumption within nascent modern economics, specifically as part of the practical justification for allowing free markets. By the late enlightenment period in the 18th century, the communal sense had become the "moral sense" or "<a href="/wiki/Moral_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Moral sentiment">moral sentiment</a>" referred to by Hume and <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a>, the latter writing in plural of the "moral sentiments" with the key one being <a href="/wiki/Sympathy" title="Sympathy">sympathy</a>, which was not so much a public spirit as such, but a kind of extension of self-interest. <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a> gives a summary of the plethora of terms used in British philosophy by the nineteenth century to describe common sense in discussions about ethics: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Another man comes and alters the phrase: leaving out moral, and putting in common, in the room of it. He then tells you, that his common sense teaches him what is right and wrong, as surely as the other's moral sense did: meaning by common sense, a sense of some kind or other, which he says, is possessed by all mankind: the sense of those, whose sense is not the same as the author's, being struck out of the account as not worth taking.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a></blockquote> This was at least to some extent opposed to the Hobbesian approach, still today normal in economic theory, of trying to understand all human behaviour as fundamentally selfish, and would also be a foil to the new ethics of Kant. This understanding of a moral sense or public spirit remains a subject for discussion, although the term "common sense" is no longer commonly used for the sentiment itself.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> In several European languages, a separate term for this type of common sense is used. For example, French sens commun and German Gemeinsinn are used for this feeling of human solidarity, while bon sens (good sense) and gesunder Verstand (healthy understanding) are the terms for everyday "common sense". According to Gadamer, at least in French and British philosophy a moral element in appeals to common sense (or bon sens), such as found in Reid, remains normal to this day.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> But according to Gadamer, the civic quality implied in discussion of sensus communis in other European countries did not take root in the German philosophy of the 18th and 19th centuries, despite the fact it consciously imitated much in English and French philosophy. "Sensus communis was understood as a purely theoretical judgment, parallel to moral consciousness (<a href="/wiki/Conscience" title="Conscience">conscience</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Taste" title="Taste">taste</a>."<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> The concept of sensus communis "was emptied and intellectualized by the German enlightenment".<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> But German philosophy was becoming internationally important at this same time. Gadamer notes one less-known exception—the <a href="/wiki/W%C3%BCrttemberg_pietism" class="mw-redirect" title="Württemberg pietism">Württemberg pietism</a>, inspired by the 18th century <a href="/wiki/Swabia" title="Swabia">Swabian</a> churchman, M. <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Christoph_Oetinger" title="Friedrich Christoph Oetinger">Friedrich Christoph Oetinger</a>, who appealed to Enlightenment figures in his critique of the Cartesian rationalism of <a href="/wiki/Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Leibniz">Leibniz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Wolff</a>, who were the most important German philosophers before Kant.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Giambattista_Vico">Giambattista Vico</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_sense&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Giambattista Vico">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Giovan_Battista_Vico.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Giovan_Battista_Vico.jpg/220px-Giovan_Battista_Vico.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="295" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Giovan_Battista_Vico.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="282" data-file-height="378" /></a><figcaption>Giambattista Vico. A defender of classical education in rhetoric, who analysed evidence of ancient wisdom in common sense.</figcaption></figure> Vico, who taught classical rhetoric in <a href="/wiki/Naples" title="Naples">Naples</a> (where Shaftesbury died) under a Cartesian-influenced Spanish government, was not widely read until the 20th century, but his writings on common sense have been an important influence upon Hans-Georg Gadamer, <a href="/wiki/Benedetto_Croce" title="Benedetto Croce">Benedetto Croce</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci#Hegemony" title="Antonio Gramsci">Antonio Gramsci</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Bugter1987-29">[29]</a> Vico united the Roman and Greek meanings of the term communis sensus.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> Vico's initial use of the term, which was of much inspiration to Gadamer for example, appears in his On the Study Methods of our Time, which was partly a defense of his own profession, given the reformist pressure upon both his University and the legal system in Naples. It presents common sense as something adolescents need to be trained in if they are not to "break into odd and arrogant behaviour when adulthood is reached", whereas teaching Cartesian method on its own harms common sense and stunts intellectual development. Rhetoric and elocution are not just for legal debate, but also educate young people to use their sense perceptions and their perceptions more broadly, building a fund of remembered images in their imagination, and then using ingenuity in creating linking metaphors, in order to make <a href="/wiki/Enthymeme" title="Enthymeme">enthymemes</a>. Enthymemes are reasonings about uncertain truths and probabilities—as opposed to the Cartesian method, which was skeptical of all that could not be dealt with as <a href="/wiki/Syllogism" title="Syllogism">syllogisms</a>, including raw perceptions of physical bodies. Hence common sense is not just a "guiding standard of <a href="/wiki/Eloquence" title="Eloquence">eloquence</a>" but also "the standard of <a href="/wiki/Practical_judgment" class="mw-redirect" title="Practical judgment">practical judgment</a>". The imagination or fantasy, which under traditional Aristotelianism was often equated with the koinḕ aísthēsis, is built up under this training, becoming the "fund" (to use Schaeffer's term) accepting not only memories of things seen by an individual, but also metaphors and images known in the community, including the ones out of which language itself is made.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> In its mature version, Vico's conception of sensus communis is defined by him as "judgment without reflection, shared by an entire class, an entire people, and entire nation, or the entire human race". Vico proposed his own anti-Cartesian methodology for a new Baconian science, inspired, he said, by <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a>,<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> Francis Bacon and <a href="/wiki/Grotius" class="mw-redirect" title="Grotius">Grotius</a>. In this he went further than his predecessors concerning the ancient certainties available within vulgar common sense. What is required, according to his new science, is to find the common sense shared by different people and nations. He made this a basis for a new and better-founded approach to discuss <a href="/wiki/Natural_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural Law">Natural Law</a>, improving upon Grotius, <a href="/wiki/John_Selden" title="John Selden">John Selden</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pufendorf" class="mw-redirect" title="Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a> who he felt had failed to convince, because they could claim no authority from nature. Unlike Grotius, Vico went beyond looking for one single set of similarities amongst nations but also established rules about how natural law properly changes as peoples change, and has to be judged relative to this state of development. He thus developed a detailed view of an evolving wisdom of peoples. Ancient forgotten wisdoms, he claimed, could be re-discovered by analysis of languages and myths formed under the influence of them.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> This is comparable to both <a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Spirit_of_the_Laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Spirit of the Laws">Spirit of the Laws</a>, as well as much later <a href="/wiki/Hegel" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegel">Hegelian</a> <a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">historicism</a>, both of which apparently developed without any awareness of Vico's work.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thomas_Reid_and_the_Scottish_school">Thomas Reid and the Scottish school</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_sense&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Thomas Reid and the Scottish school">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ThomasReid.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/ThomasReid.jpg/220px-ThomasReid.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/ThomasReid.jpg/330px-ThomasReid.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/ThomasReid.jpg/440px-ThomasReid.jpg 2x" data-file-width="609" data-file-height="735" /></a><figcaption>Thomas Reid, founder of the Scottish school of Common Sense</figcaption></figure> Contemporary with Hume, but critical of Hume's scepticism, a so-called <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Common_Sense_Realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Scottish Common Sense Realism">Scottish school of Common Sense</a> formed, whose basic principle was enunciated by its founder and greatest figure, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Thomas Reid</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">If there are certain principles, as I think there are, which the constitution of our nature leads us to believe, and which we are under a necessity to take for granted in the common concerns of life, without being able to give a reason for them — these are what we call the principles of common sense; and what is manifestly contrary to them, is what we call absurd.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a></blockquote> Thomas Reid was a successor to Francis Hutcheson and Adam Smith as <a href="/wiki/Professor_of_Moral_Philosophy,_Glasgow" class="mw-redirect" title="Professor of Moral Philosophy, Glasgow">Professor of Moral Philosophy, Glasgow</a>. While Reid's interests lay in the defense of common sense as a type of self-evident knowledge available to individuals, this was also part of a defense of natural law in the style of Grotius. He believed his use of "common sense" encompassed both the communal common sense described by Shaftesbury and Hutcheson, and the perceptive powers described by Aristotelians. Reid was criticised, partly for his critique of Hume, by Kant and <a href="/wiki/J._S._Mill" class="mw-redirect" title="J. S. Mill">J. S. Mill</a>, who were two of the most important influences in nineteenth century philosophy. He was blamed for over-stating Hume's scepticism of commonly held beliefs, and more importantly for not perceiving the problem with any claim that common sense could ever fulfill Cartesian (or Kantian) demands for absolute knowledge. Reid furthermore emphasized inborn common sense as opposed to only experience and sense perception. In this way his common sense has a similarity to the assertion of a priori knowledge asserted by rationalists like Descartes and Kant, despite Reid's criticism of Descartes concerning his theory of ideas. Hume was critical of Reid on this point. Despite the criticism, the influence of the Scottish school was notable for example upon American <a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">pragmatism</a>, and modern <a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a>. The influence has been particularly important concerning the epistemological importance of a sensus communis for any possibility of rational discussion between people. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Kant:_In_aesthetic_taste">Kant: In aesthetic taste</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_sense&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Kant: In aesthetic taste">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Immanuel_Kant_-_Gemaelde_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Immanuel_Kant_-_Gemaelde_2.jpg/220px-Immanuel_Kant_-_Gemaelde_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="384" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Immanuel_Kant_-_Gemaelde_2.jpg/330px-Immanuel_Kant_-_Gemaelde_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Immanuel_Kant_-_Gemaelde_2.jpg/440px-Immanuel_Kant_-_Gemaelde_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="940" data-file-height="1640" /></a><figcaption>Immanuel Kant proposed that sensus communis (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: Gemeinsinn) was a useful concept for understanding aesthetics, but he was critical of the Scottish school's appeals to ordinary widely shared common sense (gesunden Verstand) as a basis of real knowledge.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> developed a new variant of the idea of sensus communis, noting how having a sensitivity for what opinions are widely shared and comprehensible gives a sort of standard for judgment, and objective discussion, at least in the field of <a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">aesthetics</a> and taste: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The common Understanding of men [gemeine Menschenverstand], which, as the mere sound (not yet cultivated) Understanding, we regard as the least to be expected from any one claiming the name of man, has therefore the doubtful honour of being given the name of common sense [Namen des Gemeinsinnes] (sensus communis); and in such a way that by the name common (not merely in our language, where the word actually has a double signification, but in many others) we understand vulgar, that which is everywhere met with, the possession of which indicates absolutely no merit or superiority. But under the sensus communis we must include the Idea of a communal sense [eines gemeinschaftlichen Sinnes], i.e. of a faculty of judgement, which in its reflection takes account (a priori) of the mode of representation of all other men in thought; in order as it were to compare its judgement with the collective Reason of humanity, and thus to escape the illusion arising from the private conditions that could be so easily taken for objective, which would injuriously affect the judgement.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a></blockquote> Kant saw this concept as answering a particular need in his system: "the question of why aesthetic judgments are valid: since aesthetic judgments are a perfectly normal function of the same faculties of cognition involved in ordinary cognition, they will have the same universal validity as such ordinary acts of cognition".<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> But Kant's overall approach was very different from those of Hume or Vico. Like Descartes, he rejected appeals to uncertain sense perception and common sense (except in the very specific way he describes concerning aesthetics), or the prejudices of one's "<a href="/wiki/Weltanschauung" class="mw-redirect" title="Weltanschauung">Weltanschauung</a>", and tried to give a new way to certainty through methodical logic, and an assumption of a type of <a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">a priori</a> knowledge. He was also not in agreement with Reid and the Scottish school, who he criticized in his <a href="/wiki/Prolegomena_to_Any_Future_Metaphysics" title="Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics">Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics</a> as using "the magic wand of common sense", and not properly confronting the "metaphysical" problem defined by Hume, which Kant wanted to be solved scientifically—the problem of how to use reason to consider how one ought to act. Kant used different words to refer to his aesthetic sensus communis, for which he used Latin or else German Gemeinsinn, and the more general English meaning which he associated with Reid and his followers, for which he used various terms such as gemeinen Menscheverstand, gesunden Verstand, or gemeinen Verstand.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> According to Gadamer, in contrast to the "wealth of meaning" brought from the Roman tradition into humanism, Kant "developed his moral philosophy in explicit opposition to the doctrine of 'moral feeling' that had been worked out in English philosophy". The <a href="/wiki/Moral_imperative" title="Moral imperative">moral imperative</a> "cannot be based on feeling, not even if one does not mean an individual's feeling but common moral sensibility".<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> For Kant, the sensus communis only applied to taste, and the meaning of taste was also narrowed as it was no longer understood as any kind of knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Taste, for Kant, is universal only in that it results from "the free play of all our cognitive powers", and is communal only in that it "abstracts from all subjective, private conditions such as attractiveness and emotion".<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> Kant himself did not see himself as a relativist, and was aiming to give knowledge a more solid basis, but as <a href="/wiki/Richard_J._Bernstein" title="Richard J. Bernstein">Richard J. Bernstein</a> remarks, reviewing this same critique of Gadamer: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Once we begin to question whether there is a common faculty of taste (a sensus communis), we are easily led down the path to <a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">relativism</a>. And this is what did happen after Kant—so much so that today it is extraordinarily difficult to retrieve any idea of taste or aesthetic judgment that is more than the expression of personal preferences. Ironically (given Kant's intentions), the same tendency has worked itself out with a vengeance with regards to all judgments of value, including moral judgments.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contemporary_philosophy">Contemporary philosophy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_sense&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Contemporary philosophy">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Epistemology">Epistemology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_sense&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Epistemology">edit</a>]</div> Continuing the tradition of Reid and the enlightenment generally, the common sense of individuals trying to understand reality continues to be a serious subject in philosophy. In America, Reid influenced <a href="/wiki/C._S._Peirce" class="mw-redirect" title="C. S. Peirce">C. S. Peirce</a>, the founder of the philosophical movement now known as <a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a>, which has become internationally influential. One of the names Peirce used for the movement was "Critical Common-Sensism". Peirce, who wrote after <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>, suggested that Reid and Kant's ideas about inborn common sense could be explained by evolution. But while such beliefs might be well adapted to primitive conditions, they were not infallible, and could not always be relied upon. Another example still influential today is from <a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a>, several of whose essays, such as the 1925 "<a href="/wiki/A_Defence_of_Common_Sense" title="A Defence of Common Sense">A Defence of Common Sense</a>", argued that individuals can make many types of statements about what they judge to be true, and that the individual and everyone else knows to be true. <a href="/wiki/Michael_Huemer" title="Michael Huemer">Michael Huemer</a> has advocated an epistemic theory he calls <a href="/wiki/Phenomenal_conservatism" title="Phenomenal conservatism">phenomenal conservatism</a>, which he claims to accord with common sense by way of <a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">internalist</a> <a href="/wiki/Intuition" title="Intuition">intuition</a>.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethics:_what_the_community_would_think">Ethics: what the community would think</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_sense&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Ethics: what the community would think">edit</a>]</div> In twentieth century philosophy the concept of the sensus communis as discussed by Vico and especially Kant became a major topic of philosophical discussion. The theme of this discussion questions how far the understanding of eloquent rhetorical discussion (in the case of Vico), or communally sensitive aesthetic tastes (in the case of Kant) can give a standard or model for political, ethical and legal discussion in a world where forms of <a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">relativism</a> are commonly accepted, and serious dialogue between very different nations is essential. Some philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Ranci%C3%A8re" title="Jacques Rancière">Jacques Rancière</a> indeed take the lead from <a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Lyotard" title="Jean-François Lyotard">Jean-François Lyotard</a> and refer to the "<a href="/wiki/Postmodern" class="mw-redirect" title="Postmodern">postmodern</a>" condition as one where there is "dissensus communis".<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Hannah Arendt</a> adapted Kant's concept of sensus communis as a faculty of aesthetic judgement that imagines the judgements of others, into something relevant for political judgement. Thus she created a "Kantian" political philosophy, which, as she said herself, Kant did not write. She argued that there was often a banality to evil in the real world, for example in the case of someone like <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Eichmann" title="Adolf Eichmann">Adolf Eichmann</a>, which consisted in a lack of sensus communis and thoughtfulness generally. Arendt and also <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a>, who took a similar position concerning Kant's sensus communis, were criticised by Lyotard for their use of Kant's sensus communis as a standard for real political judgement. Lyotard also saw Kant's sensus communis as an important concept for understanding political judgement, not aiming at any consensus, but rather at a possibility of a "<a href="/wiki/Euphony" class="mw-redirect" title="Euphony">euphony</a>" in "dis-sensus". Lyotard claimed that any attempt to impose any sensus communis in real politics would mean imposture by an empowered faction upon others.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> In a parallel development, <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Antonio Gramsci</a>, Benedetto Croce, and later Hans-Georg Gadamer took inspiration from Vico's understanding of common sense as a kind of wisdom of nations, going beyond Cartesian method. It has been suggested that Gadamer's most well-known work, <a href="/wiki/Truth_and_Method" title="Truth and Method">Truth and Method</a>, can be read as an "extended meditation on the implications of Vico's defense of the rhetorical tradition in response to the nascent methodologism that ultimately dominated academic enquiry".<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> In the case of Gadamer, this was in specific contrast to the sensus communis concept in Kant, which he felt (in agreement with Lyotard) could not be relevant to politics if used in its original sense. Gadamer came into direct debate with his contemporary Habermas, the so-called <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hermeneutikstreit&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hermeneutikstreit (page does not exist)">Hermeneutikstreit</a>. Habermas, with a self-declared Enlightenment "prejudice against prejudice" argued that if breaking free from the restraints of language is not the aim of dialectic, then social science will be dominated by whoever wins debates, and thus Gadamer's defense of sensus communis effectively defends traditional prejudices. Gadamer argued that being critical requires being critical of prejudices including the prejudice against prejudice. Some prejudices will be true. And Gadamer did not share Habermas' acceptance that aiming at going beyond language through method was not itself potentially dangerous. Furthermore, he insisted that because all understanding comes through language, hermeneutics has a claim to universality. As Gadamer wrote in the "Afterword" of <a href="/wiki/Truth_and_Method" title="Truth and Method">Truth and Method</a>, "I find it frighteningly unreal when people like Habermas ascribe to rhetoric a compulsory quality that one must reject in favor of unconstrained, rational dialogue". <a href="/wiki/Paul_Ricoeur" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul Ricoeur">Paul Ricoeur</a> argued that Gadamer and Habermas were both right in part. As a hermeneutist like Gadamer he agreed with him about the problem of lack of any perspective outside of history, pointing out that Habermas himself argued as someone coming from a particular tradition. He also agreed with Gadamer that hermeneutics is a "basic kind of knowing on which others rest".<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> But he felt that Gadamer under-estimated the need for a dialectic that was critical and distanced, and attempting to go behind language.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> A recent commentator on Vico, John D. Schaeffer has argued that Gadamer's approach to sensus communis exposed itself to the criticism of Habermas because it "privatized" it, removing it from a changing and oral community, following the Greek philosophers in rejecting true communal rhetoric, in favour of forcing the concept within a <a href="/wiki/Socratic_dialectic" class="mw-redirect" title="Socratic dialectic">Socratic dialectic</a> aimed at truth. Schaeffer claims that Vico's concept provides a third option to those of Habermas and Gadamer and he compares it to the recent philosophers <a href="/wiki/Richard_J._Bernstein" title="Richard J. Bernstein">Richard J. Bernstein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Williams" title="Bernard Williams">Bernard Williams</a>, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Rorty" title="Richard Rorty">Richard Rorty</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">Alasdair MacIntyre</a>, and the recent theorist of rhetoric, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Lanham" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Lanham">Richard Lanham</a>.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id=""Moral_sense"_as_opposed_to_"rationality"">"Moral sense" as opposed to "rationality"</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_sense&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: "Moral sense" as opposed to "rationality"">edit</a>]</div> The other Enlightenment debate about common sense, concerning common sense as a term for an emotion or drive that is unselfish, also continues to be important in discussion of social science, and especially <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>. The axiom that communities can be usefully modeled as a collection of <a href="/wiki/Homo_economicus" title="Homo economicus">self-interested individuals</a> is a central assumption in much of modern <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_economics" title="Mathematical economics">mathematical economics</a>, and mathematical economics has now come to be an influential tool of political decision making. While the term "common sense" had already become less commonly used as a term for the empathetic moral sentiments by the time of Adam Smith, debates continue about <a href="/wiki/Methodological_individualism" title="Methodological individualism">methodological individualism</a> as something supposedly justified philosophically for methodological reasons (as argued for example by <a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Milton Friedman</a> and more recently by <a href="/wiki/Gary_Becker" title="Gary Becker">Gary S. Becker</a>, both members of the so-called <a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_of_economics" title="Chicago school of economics">Chicago school of economics</a>).<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> As in the Enlightenment, this debate therefore continues to combine debates about not only what the individual motivations of people are, but also what can be known about scientifically, and what should be usefully assumed for methodological reasons, even if the truth of the assumptions are strongly doubted. Economics and social science generally have been criticized as a refuge of Cartesian methodology. Hence, amongst critics of the methodological argument for assuming self-centeredness in economics are authors such as <a href="/wiki/Deirdre_McCloskey" title="Deirdre McCloskey">Deirdre McCloskey</a>, who have taken their bearings from the above-mentioned philosophical debates involving Habermas, Gadamer, the anti-Cartesian <a href="/wiki/Richard_Rorty" title="Richard Rorty">Richard Rorty</a> and others, arguing that trying to force economics to follow artificial methodological laws is bad, and it is better to recognize social science as driven by rhetoric. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Catholic_theology">Catholic theology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_sense&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Catholic theology">edit</a>]</div> Among Catholic theologians, writers such as theologian <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_F%C3%A9nelon" title="François Fénelon">François Fénelon</a> and philosopher <a href="/wiki/Claude_Buffier" title="Claude Buffier">Claude Buffier</a> (1661–1737) gave an anti-Cartesian defense of common sense as a foundation for knowledge. Other Catholic theologians took up this approach, and attempts were made to combine this with more traditional Thomism, for example <a href="/wiki/Jean-Marie_de_Lamennais" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean-Marie de Lamennais">Jean-Marie de Lamennais</a>. This was similar to the approach of Thomas Reid, who for example was a direct influence on <a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9odore_Simon_Jouffroy" title="Théodore Simon Jouffroy">Théodore Jouffroy</a>. This meant basing knowledge upon something uncertain, and irrational. <a href="/wiki/Matteo_Liberatore" title="Matteo Liberatore">Matteo Liberatore</a>, seeking an approach more consistent with Aristotle and Aquinas, equated this foundational common sense with the koinaí dóxai of Aristotle, that correspond to the communes conceptiones of Aquinas.<a href="#cite_note-gil1-53">[53]</a> In the twentieth century, this debate is especially associated with <a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Gilson" title="Étienne Gilson">Étienne Gilson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reginald_Garrigou-Lagrange" class="mw-redirect" title="Reginald Garrigou-Lagrange">Reginald Garrigou-Lagrange</a>.<a href="#cite_note-murph-89">[89]</a> Gilson pointed out that Liberatore's approach means categorizing such common beliefs as the existence of God or the immortality of the soul, under the same heading as (in Aristotle and Aquinas) such logical beliefs as that it is impossible for something to exist and not exist at the same time. This, according to Gilson, is going beyond the original meaning. Concerning Liberatore he wrote: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Endeavours of this sort always end in defeat. In order to confer a technical philosophical value upon the common sense of orators and moralists it is necessary either to accept Reid's common sense as a sort of unjustified and unjustifiable instinct, which will destroy Thomism, or to reduce it to the Thomist <a href="/wiki/Nous" title="Nous">intellect</a> and reason, which will result in its being suppressed as a specifically distinct faculty of knowledge. In short, there can be no middle ground between Reid and St. Thomas.<a href="#cite_note-gil1-53">[53]</a></blockquote> Gilson argued that Thomism avoided the problem of having to decide between Cartesian innate certainties and Reid's uncertain common sense, and that "as soon as the problem of the existence of the external world was presented in terms of common sense, Cartesianism was accepted".<a href="#cite_note-murph-89">[89]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Projects">Projects</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_sense&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Projects">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_McCarthy_(computer_scientist)" title="John McCarthy (computer scientist)">McCarthy</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Advice_taker" title="Advice taker">advice-taker</a> proposal of 1958 represents an early proposal to use logic for representing common-sense knowledge in <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_logic" title="Mathematical logic">mathematical logic</a> and using an <a href="/wiki/Automated_theorem_prover" class="mw-redirect" title="Automated theorem prover">automated theorem prover</a> to derive answers to questions expressed in logical form. Compare <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Leibniz</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Calculus_ratiocinator" title="Calculus ratiocinator">calculus ratiocinator</a> and <a href="/wiki/Characteristica_universalis" title="Characteristica universalis">characteristica universalis</a>.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Cyc" title="Cyc">Cyc</a> project attempts to provide a basis of common-sense knowledge for <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial-intelligence</a> systems.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Open_Mind_Common_Sense" title="Open Mind Common Sense">Open Mind Common Sense</a> project resembles the Cyc project, except that it, like other on-line collaborative projects depends on the contributions of thousands of individuals across the <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_sense&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_tradition" title="Appeal to tradition">Appeal to tradition</a> – Logical fallacy in which a thesis is deemed correct on the basis of tradition</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_belief" title="Basic belief">Basic belief</a> – Axioms under the epistemological view called foundationalism</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_knowledge" title="Common knowledge">Common knowledge</a> – Statement widely known to be true</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commonsense_reasoning" title="Commonsense reasoning">Commonsense reasoning</a> – Branch of artificial intelligence aiming to create AI systems with "common sense"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventional_wisdom" title="Conventional wisdom">Conventional wisdom</a> – Ideas generally accepted by experts or the public</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterintuitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Counterintuitive">Counterintuitive</a> – Quality of being surprising and contrary to intuition</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunning%E2%80%93Kruger_effect" title="Dunning–Kruger effect">Dunning–Kruger effect</a> – Cognitive bias about one's own skill</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-theoretic_belief" title="Pre-theoretic belief">Pre-theoretic belief</a> – Topic in linguistics and philosophy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_opinion" title="Public opinion">Public opinion</a> – Aggregate of individual attitudes or beliefs held by the adult population</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">Social norm</a> – Informal understanding of acceptable conduct</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_sense&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFvan_HolthoornOlson1987">van Holthoorn & Olson (1987</a>, p. 9) </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Merriam-Webster_Online_Dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary">Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary</a>: "sound and prudent judgment based on a simple perception of the situation or facts"; <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge Dictionary">Cambridge Dictionary</a>: "the basic level of practical knowledge and judgment that we all need to help us live in a reasonable and safe way". C.S. <a href="#CITEREFLewis1967">Lewis (1967</a>, p. 146) wrote that what common sense "often means" is "the elementary mental outfit of the normal man." </li> <li id="cite_note-hund-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hund_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-hund_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-hund_3-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFHundert1987">Hundert (1987)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/Shorter_Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Shorter Oxford English Dictionary">Shorter Oxford English Dictionary</a> of 1973 gives four meanings of "common sense": An archaic meaning is "An internal sense which was regarded as the common bond or centre of the five senses"; "Ordinary, normal, or average understanding" without which a man would be "foolish or insane", "the general sense of mankind, or of a community" (two sub-meanings of this are good sound practical sense and general sagacity); A philosophical meaning, the "faculty of primary truths." </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> See the body of this article concerning (for example) Descartes, Hobbes, Adam Smith, and so on. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Thomas Paine</a>'s pamphlet named "<a href="/wiki/Common_Sense_(pamphlet)" class="mw-redirect" title="Common Sense (pamphlet)">Common Sense</a>" was an influential publishing success during the period leading up to the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> See for example <a href="#CITEREFRosenfeld2011">Rosenfeld (2011</a>, p. 282); <a href="#CITEREFWierzbicka2010">Wierzbicka (2010)</a>; and <a href="#CITEREFvan_Kessel1987">van Kessel (1987</a>, p. 117): "today the Anglo-Saxon concept prevails almost everywhere". </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRosenfeld2014" class="citation book cs1">Rosenfeld, Sophia (2014). <a href="/wiki/Common_Sense:_A_Political_History" title="Common Sense: A Political History">Common Sense: A Political History</a>. [S.l.]: Harvard Univ Press. p. 23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674284166" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674284166"><bdi>978-0674284166</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Common+Sense%3A+A+Political+History&rft.place=%5BS.l.%5D&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=Harvard+Univ+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0674284166&rft.aulast=Rosenfeld&rft.aufirst=Sophia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDescartes1901">Descartes (1901)</a> Part I of the Discourse on Method. Note: The term in French is "bon sens" sometimes translated as "good sense". The opening lines in English translation read: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">"Good Sense is, of all things among men, the most equally distributed; for every one thinks himself so abundantly provided with it, that those even who are the most difficult to satisfy in everything else, do not usually desire a larger measure of this quality than they already possess. And in this it is not likely that all are mistaken: the conviction is rather to be held as testifying that the power of judging aright and of distinguishing <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a> from <a href="/wiki/Error" title="Error">Error</a>, which is properly what is called <a href="/w/index.php?title=Good_Sense&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Good Sense (page does not exist)">Good Sense</a> or <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">Reason</a>, is by nature equal in all men; and that the diversity of our opinions, consequently, does not arise from some being endowed with a larger share of Reason than others, but solely from this, that we conduct our thoughts along different ways, and do not fix our attention on the same objects. For to be possessed of a vigorous mind is not enough; the prime requisite is rightly to apply it. The greatest minds, as they are capable of the highest excellencies, are open likewise to the greatest aberrations; and those who travel very slowly may yet make far greater progress, provided they keep always to the straight road, than those who, while they run, forsake it."</blockquote> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHeller-Roazen2008">Heller-Roazen (2008</a>, p. 36) </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGregorić2007">Gregorić (2007</a>, p. 12) </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> There are other places in the works of Aristotle uses the same two words together: <a href="/wiki/De_memoria_et_reminiscentia" class="mw-redirect" title="De memoria et reminiscentia">De memoria et reminiscentia</a> 1450a, <a href="/wiki/De_Partibus_Animalium" class="mw-redirect" title="De Partibus Animalium">De Partibus Animalium</a> IV.10 686a, <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)" title="Metaphysics (Aristotle)">Metaphysics</a> I.1 981b, <a href="/wiki/Historia_Animalium" class="mw-redirect" title="Historia Animalium">Historia Animalium</a> I.3 489a. See <a href="#CITEREFGregorić2007">Gregorić (2007)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> Aristotle lists change, shape, magnitude, number and unity, but he notes that we perceive shape, magnitude, and the rest by first being able to perceive change or movement (Greek uses one word for both: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%BA%CE%AF%CE%BD%CE%B7%CF%83%CE%B9%CF%82#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:κίνησις">κῑ́νησῐς</a>, kī́nēsis), and number is perceived by perceiving a lack of unity. (De Anima 425a16, just before the famous mention of "common sense".) As <a href="#CITEREFLee2011">Lee (2011)</a> explains, Aristotle is talking about what <a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> referred to as "<a href="/wiki/Primary_qualities" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary qualities">primary qualities</a>" (not to be confused with Aristotle's use of the term "primary qualities"). Plato is not so clear. In the equivalent passage in Plato's Theaetetus 185c–d, he talks about what is common in all things, and in specific things, and by which we say that things for example "are" versus "are not"; are "similar" versus "dissimilar"; are the "same" versus being "different"; being one or a higher number; odd or even. </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> These "common sensibles" or koiná are in other words one Platonic-Aristotelian version of what are today called "<a href="/wiki/Universals" class="mw-redirect" title="Universals">universals</a>", although Aristotle distinguishes the koiná perceived by common sense, from the <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_forms" title="Theory of forms">forms</a> or ideas seen by the <a href="/wiki/Nous" title="Nous">noûs</a> (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%BD%CE%BF%E1%BF%A6%CF%82#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:νοῦς">νοῦς</a>). See for example <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnagnostopoulos2013" class="citation cs2">Anagnostopoulos, Georgios, ed. (2013), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4nlfBVrDmlgC&pg=PT215">A Companion to Aristotle</a>, John Wiley & Sons, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1118610633" title="Special:BookSources/978-1118610633"><bdi>978-1118610633</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Aristotle&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1118610633&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4nlfBVrDmlgC%26pg%3DPT215&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988">. </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> De Anima line 425a47, just after the famous mention of "common sense". </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> De Anima column 427a. Plato, in his Theaetatus 185a–c uses the question of how to judge if sound or colour are salty. </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSachs2001">Sachs (2001</a>, p. 132) </li> <li id="cite_note-brann43-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-brann43_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-brann43_17-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrann1991">Brann (1991</a>, p. 43) </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> Approximately <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Plat.+Theaet.+185a&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0171">185a</a>–<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0171%3Atext%3DTheaet.%3Asection%3D187a">187a</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-greg-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-greg_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-greg_19-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGregorić2007">Gregorić (2007)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGregorić2007">Gregorić (2007)</a>, Introduction. </li> <li id="cite_note-hr42-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hr42_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-hr42_21-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-hr42_21-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFHeller-Roazen2008">Heller-Roazen (2008</a>, p. 42). </li> <li id="cite_note-walz-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-walz_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-walz_22-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalzer1998" class="citation cs2">Walzer, Richard (1998), Al-Farabi on the Perfect State, Great Books of the Islamic World, p. 389, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1871031768" title="Special:BookSources/978-1871031768"><bdi>978-1871031768</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Al-Farabi+on+the+Perfect+State&rft.pages=389&rft.pub=Great+Books+of+the+Islamic+World&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-1871031768&rft.aulast=Walzer&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988">. </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGregorić2007">Gregorić (2007</a>, p. 125) </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Posterior_Analytics" title="Posterior Analytics">Posterior Analytics</a> II.19. </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGregorić2007">Gregorić (2007</a>, pp. 5–6). </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGregorić2007">Gregorić (2007)</a>, Part II, chapter 3, which concerns a passage in <a href="/wiki/De_Partibus_Animalium" class="mw-redirect" title="De Partibus Animalium">De Partibus Animalium</a> IV, but also refers to other passages in the corpus. See footnote 28. </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGregorić2007">Gregorić (2007</a>, p. 10). The "cogitative" or "estimative" capacity, vis aestimativa, "enables the animal to extract vital information about its environment from the form processed by the common sense and imagination." </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGregorić2007">Gregorić (2007</a>, p. 11). See below concerning Descartes. </li> <li id="cite_note-Bugter1987-29">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bugter1987_29-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bugter1987_29-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBugter1987">Bugter (1987</a>, p. 84). </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDyson2009" class="citation cs2">Dyson, Henry (2009), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=D1AXMNpIgJ4C">Prolepsis and Ennoia in the Early Stoa</a>, Walter de Gruyter, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3110212297" title="Special:BookSources/978-3110212297"><bdi>978-3110212297</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prolepsis+and+Ennoia+in+the+Early+Stoa&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-3110212297&rft.aulast=Dyson&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DD1AXMNpIgJ4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCooper2001">Cooper (2001)</a>, volume I, part III, section I, first footnote. </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Hans-Georg Gadamer</a> saw Aristotle's rhetorical work as having formed a continuity with his ethical and political work, all sharing a focus upon <a href="/wiki/Phronesis" title="Phronesis">phrónēsis</a> (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%86%CF%81%CF%8C%CE%BD%CE%B7%CF%83%CE%B9%CF%82#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:φρόνησις">φρόνησῐς</a>, <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> ''practical wisdom''), and a connection to what Vico saw in the concept of common sense. See <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArthos2011" class="citation cs2">Arthos, John (2011), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4lE268UbRQsC">"Gadamer's dialogical imperative: Linking Socratic dialogue to Aristotle's PHRONESIS"</a>, in Wierciński, Andrzej (ed.), Gadamer's Hermeneutics and the Art of Conversation, LIT Verlag Münster, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3643111722" title="Special:BookSources/978-3643111722"><bdi>978-3643111722</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gadamer%27s+dialogical+imperative%3A+Linking+Socratic+dialogue+to+Aristotle%27s+PHRONESIS&rft.btitle=Gadamer%27s+Hermeneutics+and+the+Art+of+Conversation&rft.pub=LIT+Verlag+M%C3%BCnster&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-3643111722&rft.aulast=Arthos&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4lE268UbRQsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988"> and <a href="#CITEREFSchaeffer1990">Schaeffer (1990</a>, p. 113). </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> ἀνάγκη διὰ τῶν κοινῶν ποιεῖσθαι τὰς πίστεις καὶ τοὺς λόγους <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0059%3Abekker+page%3D1355a">Rhetoric 1355a</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBugter1987">Bugter (1987</a>, p. 90). </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0120:book=1:section=12&highlight=communis%2Csensus">De Oratore, I, 3, 12</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHeller-Roazen2008">Heller-Roazen (2008</a>, p. 33). </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBugter1987">Bugter (1987</a>, pp. 91–92). </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBugter1987">Bugter (1987</a>, p. 93). </li> <li id="cite_note-rethink-39"><a href="#cite_ref-rethink_39-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHeller-Roazen2008">Heller-Roazen (2008</a>, p. 32). </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis1967">Lewis (1967</a>, p. 146) </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFvan_Holthoon1987">van Holthoon (1987)</a>, chapter 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDescartes1901">Descartes (1901)</a> Chapter: MEDITATION II.: Of the Nature of the Human Mind; and that It is More Easily Known than the Body. </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDescartes1901">Descartes (1901)</a> Chapter: MEDITATION VI.: Of the Existence of Material Things, and of the Real Distinction Between the Mind and Body of Man. </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrann1991">Brann (1991</a>, p. 75) </li> <li id="cite_note-rosenfeld21-45">^ <a href="#cite_ref-rosenfeld21_45-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-rosenfeld21_45-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRosenfeld2011">Rosenfeld (2011</a>, p. 21). </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> See <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeijenhorst2002" class="citation cs2">Leijenhorst, Cees (2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mKFXRA2HPkoC&pg=PA83">The Mechanisation of Aristotelianism: The Late Aristotelian Setting of Thomas Hobbes' Natural Philosophy</a>, Brill, p. 83, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004117297" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004117297"><bdi>978-9004117297</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mechanisation+of+Aristotelianism%3A+The+Late+Aristotelian+Setting+of+Thomas+Hobbes%27+Natural+Philosophy&rft.pages=83&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-9004117297&rft.aulast=Leijenhorst&rft.aufirst=Cees&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmKFXRA2HPkoC%26pg%3DPA83&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988">. Hobbes (like Gassendi) wrote scornfully of the complex old distinctions, and in particular the medieval concept of sensible "species" (a concept derived from Aristotle's perceptibles): <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Some say the Senses receive the Species of things, and deliver them to the Common-sense; and the Common Sense delivers them over to the Fancy, and the Fancy to the Memory, and the Memory to the Judgement, like handing of things from one to another, with many words making nothing understood. (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHobbes" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-long-vol">Hobbes, Thomas, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oll.libertyfund.org/title/585/89820/2025312">"II.: of imagination"</a>, The English Works of Thomas Hobbes of Malmesbury; Now First Collected and Edited by Sir William Molesworth, Bart., 11 vols., vol. 3 (<a href="/wiki/Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)">Leviathan</a>), London: Bohn</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=II.%3A+of+imagination&rft.btitle=The+English+Works+of+Thomas+Hobbes+of+Malmesbury%3B+Now+First+Collected+and+Edited+by+Sir+William+Molesworth%2C+Bart.%2C+11+vols.&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Bohn&rft.aulast=Hobbes&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foll.libertyfund.org%2Ftitle%2F585%2F89820%2F2025312&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988">).</blockquote> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSpruit1995">Spruit (1995</a>, pp. 403–404). </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRosenfeld2011">Rosenfeld (2011)</a>, p. 282. English is unusual in keeping one term that unites the classical and modern meanings, and philosophical and everyday meanings, so clearly. Italian has senso comune and also buon senso; German has gemeiner Verstand, gesunder Menschenverstand, and Gemeinsinn, used by Kant and others. French also has sens commun, used by <a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Gilson" title="Étienne Gilson">Étienne Gilson</a> and others. See <a href="#CITEREFWierzbicka2010">Wierzbicka (2010)</a>, who also notes that according to Gilson, Descartes himself always referred to bon sens as bona mens in Latin, never sensus communis (p. 340). </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilson1925" class="citation cs2">Gilson, Etienne (1925), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dDpKI8JoLPAC&pg=PA82">"Première Partie; Commentaire Historique"</a>, Discours de la méthode, p. 82, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9782711601806" title="Special:BookSources/9782711601806"><bdi>9782711601806</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Premi%C3%A8re+Partie%3B+Commentaire+Historique&rft.btitle=Discours+de+la+m%C3%A9thode&rft.pages=82&rft.date=1925&rft.isbn=9782711601806&rft.aulast=Gilson&rft.aufirst=Etienne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdDpKI8JoLPAC%26pg%3DPA82&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHeller-Roazen2008">Heller-Roazen (2008</a>, p. 30) </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFvan_Kessel1987">van Kessel (1987)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchaeffer1990">Schaeffer (1990</a>, p. 52). </li> <li id="cite_note-gil1-53">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gil1_53-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-gil1_53-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-gil1_53-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFGilson1939">Gilson (1939)</a>, chapter 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhang2011" class="citation cs2">Zhang, Longxi (2011-12-07), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LUeeHSwEWCcC&pg=PA131">The Concept of Humanity in an Age of Globalization</a>, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, p. 131, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783862349180" title="Special:BookSources/9783862349180"><bdi>9783862349180</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Concept+of+Humanity+in+an+Age+of+Globalization&rft.pages=131&rft.pub=Vandenhoeck+%26+Ruprecht&rft.date=2011-12-07&rft.isbn=9783862349180&rft.aulast=Zhang&rft.aufirst=Longxi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLUeeHSwEWCcC%26pg%3DPA131&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBacon" class="citation cs2">Bacon, Francis, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130629183522/http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/phl302/texts/bacon/bacon_essays.html">On Truth</a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/phl302/texts/bacon/bacon_essays.html">the original</a> on 2013-06-29, retrieved 2013-09-19</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+Truth&rft.aulast=Bacon&rft.aufirst=Francis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foregonstate.edu%2Finstruct%2Fphl302%2Ftexts%2Fbacon%2Fbacon_essays.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHume1987">Hume (1987)</a> Chapter: ESSAY XVIII: THE SCEPTIC </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGadamer1989">Gadamer (1989</a>, pp. 19–26). </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCooper2001">Cooper (2001)</a>, Volume I, Part III, section 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> Although Greek, this term koinonoēmosúnē is from the Meditations of the Roman emperor-philosopher, Marcus Aurelius, and was possibly coined by him. Shaftesbury and others[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a>] suspected it is a Stoic term. </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHutcheson2002" class="citation cs2">Hutcheson, Francis (2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oll.libertyfund.org/title/885/65922/1605681">"section i: A general Account of our several Senses and Desires, Selfish or Publick"</a>, An Essay on the Nature and Conduct of the Passions and Affections, with Illustrations on the Moral Sense, ed. Aaron Garrett, Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, retrieved 2013-07-25</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=section+i%3A+A+general+Account+of+our+several+Senses+and+Desires%2C+Selfish+or+Publick&rft.btitle=An+Essay+on+the+Nature+and+Conduct+of+the+Passions+and+Affections%2C+with+Illustrations+on+the+Moral+Sense%2C+ed.+Aaron+Garrett&rft.place=Indianapolis&rft.pub=Liberty+Fund&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Hutcheson&rft.aufirst=Francis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foll.libertyfund.org%2Ftitle%2F885%2F65922%2F1605681&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988">. </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> Chapter II, "OF PRINCIPLES ADVERSE TO THAT OF UTILITY", in "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oll.libertyfund.org/title/278/20719/941780">An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation</a>". </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGadamer1989">Gadamer (1989</a>, p. 25) </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGadamer1989">Gadamer (1989</a>, pp. 25–27) </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGadamer1989">Gadamer (1989</a>, p. 27) </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGadamer1989">Gadamer (1989</a>, p. 30) </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGadamer1989">Gadamer (1989</a>, pp. 27–30) </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchaeffer1990">Schaeffer (1990</a>, p. 3). </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchaeffer1990">Schaeffer (1990)</a>, chapter 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> As remarked by several commentators such as Croce and <a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Leo Strauss</a>, during this period citation of Tacitus is referred to as <a href="/wiki/Tacitean" class="mw-redirect" title="Tacitean">Taciteanism</a>, and was often a veiled way of showing the influence of <a href="/wiki/Machiavelli" class="mw-redirect" title="Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a>. Citing Plato on the other hand, shows the typical rejection in this period of Aristotle and scholasticism, but not classical learning in its entirety. </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVico1968">Vico (1968)</a>, I.ii "Elements" (§§141-146) and I.iv "Method" (§§347-350). </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBayer1990" class="citation cs2">Bayer (1990), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130921055102/http://www.cklawreview.com/wp-content/uploads/vol83no3/Bayer.pdf">"Vico's principle of sensus communis and forensic eloquence"</a> (PDF), Chicago-Kent Law Review, 83 (3), archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cklawreview.com/wp-content/uploads/vol83no3/Bayer.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2013-09-21, retrieved 2013-07-25</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chicago-Kent+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Vico%27s+principle+of+sensus+communis+and+forensic+eloquence&rft.volume=83&rft.issue=3&rft.date=1990&rft.au=Bayer&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cklawreview.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2Fvol83no3%2FBayer.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988">. Also see <a href="#CITEREFSchaeffer1990">Schaeffer (1990)</a>, p. 3, and Gadamer. </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCuneoWoudenberg2004" class="citation cs2">Cuneo; Woudenberg, eds. (2004), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DpQAg6CTl3QC&pg=PA85">The Cambridge companion to Thomas Reid</a>, Cambridge University Press, p. 85, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521012089" title="Special:BookSources/9780521012089"><bdi>9780521012089</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+companion+to+Thomas+Reid&rft.pages=85&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780521012089&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDpQAg6CTl3QC%26pg%3DPA85&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKant1914">Kant (1914)</a>. Key German terms are added in square brackets. See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.korpora.org/Kant/aa05/293.html">German text</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurnham" class="citation cs2">Burnham, Douglas, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/kantaest/">Kant's Aesthetics</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kant%27s+Aesthetics&rft.aulast=Burnham&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fkantaest%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRosenfeld2011">Rosenfeld (2011)</a>, p. 312, note 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGadamer1989">Gadamer (1989</a>, pp. 32–34). Note: The source makes it clear that "English" includes Scottish authors. </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGadamer1989">Gadamer (1989</a>, pp. 34–41) </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGadamer1989">Gadamer (1989</a>, p. 43) </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBernstein1983" class="citation cs2">Bernstein, Richard (1983), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=guJ0-eBoFAEC">Beyond Objectivism and Relativism: Science, Hermeneutics, and Praxis</a>, University of Pennsylvania Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0812205503" title="Special:BookSources/978-0812205503"><bdi>978-0812205503</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beyond+Objectivism+and+Relativism%3A+Science%2C+Hermeneutics%2C+and+Praxis&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0812205503&rft.aulast=Bernstein&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DguJ0-eBoFAEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988">, p. 120. </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/phen-con/">"Phenomenal Conservatism | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Phenomenal+Conservatism+%26%23124%3B+Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fphen-con%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_HauteBirmingham1995" class="citation cs2">van Haute; Birmingham, eds. (1995), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BK9OTGZ62NEC">Dissensus Communis: Between Ethics and Politics</a>, Kok Pharos, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789039004036" title="Special:BookSources/9789039004036"><bdi>9789039004036</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dissensus+Communis%3A+Between+Ethics+and+Politics&rft.pub=Kok+Pharos&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=9789039004036&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBK9OTGZ62NEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenjamin1992" class="citation cs2">Benjamin, Andrew, ed. (1992), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qy17kj4oFocC">Judging Lyotard</a>, Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781134940622" title="Special:BookSources/9781134940622"><bdi>9781134940622</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Judging+Lyotard&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=9781134940622&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dqy17kj4oFocC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMootz2011" class="citation cs2">Mootz (2011-06-16), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nIj4Gi11pJgC">"Gadamer's Rhetorical Conception of Hermeneutics as the key to developing a Critical Hermeneutics"</a>, in Mootz III, Francis J.; Taylor, George H. (eds.), Gadamer and Ricoeur: Critical Horizons for Contemporary Hermeneutics, A&C Black, p. 84, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781441175991" title="Special:BookSources/9781441175991"><bdi>9781441175991</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gadamer%27s+Rhetorical+Conception+of+Hermeneutics+as+the+key+to+developing+a+Critical+Hermeneutics&rft.btitle=Gadamer+and+Ricoeur%3A+Critical+Horizons+for+Contemporary+Hermeneutics&rft.pages=84&rft.pub=A%26C+Black&rft.date=2011-06-16&rft.isbn=9781441175991&rft.au=Mootz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnIj4Gi11pJgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStiver2001" class="citation cs2">Stiver, Dan (2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_KoqK3bl2MAC&pg=PA149">Theology After Ricoeur: New Directions in Hermeneutical Theology</a>, Westminster John Knox Press, p. 149, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780664222437" title="Special:BookSources/9780664222437"><bdi>9780664222437</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theology+After+Ricoeur%3A+New+Directions+in+Hermeneutical+Theology&rft.pages=149&rft.pub=Westminster+John+Knox+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780664222437&rft.aulast=Stiver&rft.aufirst=Dan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_KoqK3bl2MAC%26pg%3DPA149&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVessey2011" class="citation cs2">Vessey (2011-06-16), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nIj4Gi11pJgC">"Paul Ricoeur's and Hans-Georg Gadamer's diverging reflections on recognition"</a>, in Mootz III, Francis J.; Taylor, George H. (eds.), Gadamer and Ricoeur: Critical Horizons for Contemporary Hermeneutics, A&C Black, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781441175991" title="Special:BookSources/9781441175991"><bdi>9781441175991</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Paul+Ricoeur%27s+and+Hans-Georg+Gadamer%27s+diverging+reflections+on+recognition&rft.btitle=Gadamer+and+Ricoeur%3A+Critical+Horizons+for+Contemporary+Hermeneutics&rft.pub=A%26C+Black&rft.date=2011-06-16&rft.isbn=9781441175991&rft.au=Vessey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnIj4Gi11pJgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDauenhauer1998" class="citation cs2">Dauenhauer, Bernard (1998), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ifdWn6SuswMC">Paul Ricoeur: The Promise and Risk of Politics</a>, Rowman and Littlefield, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780585177724" title="Special:BookSources/9780585177724"><bdi>9780585177724</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Paul+Ricoeur%3A+The+Promise+and+Risk+of+Politics&rft.pub=Rowman+and+Littlefield&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9780585177724&rft.aulast=Dauenhauer&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DifdWn6SuswMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchaeffer1990">Schaeffer (1990)</a>, chapters 5–7. </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> See for example <a href="/wiki/Albert_O._Hirschman" title="Albert O. Hirschman">Albert O. Hirschman</a>, "Against Parsimony: Three Easy Ways of Complicating Some Categories of Economic Discourse." Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 37, <abbr title="number">no.</abbr> 8 (May 1984): 11–28. </li> <li id="cite_note-murph-89">^ <a href="#cite_ref-murph_89-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-murph_89-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAran_Murphy2004" class="citation cs2">Aran Murphy, Francesca (2004), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ix8sIb9w1tsC">Art and Intellect in the Philosophy of Etienne Gilson</a>, University of Missouri Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780826262387" title="Special:BookSources/9780826262387"><bdi>9780826262387</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Art+and+Intellect+in+the+Philosophy+of+Etienne+Gilson&rft.pub=University+of+Missouri+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780826262387&rft.aulast=Aran+Murphy&rft.aufirst=Francesca&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIx8sIb9w1tsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_sense&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAristotle" class="citation cs2">Aristotle, <a href="/wiki/On_the_Soul" title="On the Soul">De Anima</a></cite>. The <a href="/wiki/Loeb_Classical_Library" title="Loeb Classical Library">Loeb Classical Library</a> edition of 1986 used the 1936 translation of W.S Hett, and the standardised Greek text of <a href="/wiki/August_Immanuel_Bekker" title="August Immanuel Bekker">August Immanuel Bekker</a>. The more recent translation by Joe Sachs (see below) attempts to be more literal.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrann1991" class="citation cs2">Brann, Eva (1991), The World of the Imagination: Sum and Substance, Rowman & Littlefield</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+World+of+the+Imagination%3A+Sum+and+Substance&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Brann&rft.aufirst=Eva&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBugter1987" class="citation cs2">Bugter (1987), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kOa9q2iK2LkC">"Sensus Communis in the works of M. Tullius Cicero"</a>, in van Holthoon; Olson (eds.), Common Sense: The Foundations for Social Science, University Press of America, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780819165046" title="Special:BookSources/9780819165046"><bdi>9780819165046</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sensus+Communis+in+the+works+of+M.+Tullius+Cicero&rft.btitle=Common+Sense%3A+The+Foundations+for+Social+Science&rft.pub=University+Press+of+America&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=9780819165046&rft.au=Bugter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkOa9q2iK2LkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDescartes1901" class="citation cs2">Descartes, Réné (1901), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oll.libertyfund.org/?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%3Ftitle=1698&chapter=142003&layout=html&Itemid=27">The Method, Meditations and Philosophy of Descartes, translated from the Original Texts, with a new introductory Essay, Historical and Critical by John Veitch and a Special Introduction by Frank Sewall</a>, Washington: M. Walter Dunne, retrieved 2013-07-25</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Method%2C+Meditations+and+Philosophy+of+Descartes%2C+translated+from+the+Original+Texts%2C+with+a+new+introductory+Essay%2C+Historical+and+Critical+by+John+Veitch+and+a+Special+Introduction+by+Frank+Sewall&rft.place=Washington&rft.pub=M.+Walter+Dunne&rft.date=1901&rft.aulast=Descartes&rft.aufirst=R%C3%A9n%C3%A9&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foll.libertyfund.org%2F%3Foption%3Dcom_staticxt%26staticfile%3Dshow.php%253Ftitle%3D1698%26chapter%3D142003%26layout%3Dhtml%26Itemid%3D27&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDescartes1970" class="citation cs2">Descartes, Rene (1970), "Letter to Mersenne, 21 April 1941", in Kenny, Anthony (ed.), Descartes: Philosophical Letters, Oxford University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Letter+to+Mersenne%2C+21+April+1941&rft.btitle=Descartes%3A+Philosophical+Letters&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Descartes&rft.aufirst=Rene&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988"> Translated by Anthony Kenny. Descartes discusses his use of the notion of the common sense in the sixth meditation.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDescartes1989" class="citation cs2">Descartes, Rene (1989), Passions of the Soul, Hackett</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Passions+of+the+Soul&rft.pub=Hackett&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Descartes&rft.aufirst=Rene&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988">. Translated by Stephen H. Voss.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGadamer1989" class="citation cs2">Gadamer, Hans-Georg (1989), Truth and Method, 2nd rev. ed., trans. Joel Weinsheimer and Donald G. Marshall, New York: Continuum</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Truth+and+Method%2C+2nd+rev.+ed.%2C+trans.+Joel+Weinsheimer+and+Donald+G.+Marshall&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Continuum&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Gadamer&rft.aufirst=Hans-Georg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilson1939" class="citation cs2">Gilson, Etienne (1939), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=moqzCK7iUiMC">Thomist Realism and the Critique of Knowledge</a>, Ignatius Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781586176853" title="Special:BookSources/9781586176853"><bdi>9781586176853</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thomist+Realism+and+the+Critique+of+Knowledge&rft.pub=Ignatius+Press&rft.date=1939&rft.isbn=9781586176853&rft.aulast=Gilson&rft.aufirst=Etienne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmoqzCK7iUiMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGregorić2007" class="citation cs2">Gregorić, Pavel (2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ij76dYyhmwIC">Aristotle on the Common Sense</a>, Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780191608490" title="Special:BookSources/9780191608490"><bdi>9780191608490</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aristotle+on+the+Common+Sense&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780191608490&rft.aulast=Gregori%C4%87&rft.aufirst=Pavel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIj76dYyhmwIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeller-Roazen2008" class="citation cs2">Heller-Roazen, Daniel (2008), Nichols; Kablitz; Calhoun (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4SfC_hpKccUC">Rethinking the Medieval Senses</a>, Johns Hopkins University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780801887369" title="Special:BookSources/9780801887369"><bdi>9780801887369</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rethinking+the+Medieval+Senses&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780801887369&rft.aulast=Heller-Roazen&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4SfC_hpKccUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_Holthoon1987" class="citation cs2">van Holthoon (1987), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kOa9q2iK2LkC">"The common sense of Rousseau"</a>, in van Holthoon; Olson (eds.), Common Sense: The Foundations for Social Science, University Press of America, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780819165046" title="Special:BookSources/9780819165046"><bdi>9780819165046</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+common+sense+of+Rousseau&rft.btitle=Common+Sense%3A+The+Foundations+for+Social+Science&rft.pub=University+Press+of+America&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=9780819165046&rft.au=van+Holthoon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkOa9q2iK2LkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_HolthoornOlson1987" class="citation cs2">van Holthoorn; Olson (1987), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kOa9q2iK2LkC">"Introduction"</a>, in van Holthoon; Olson (eds.), Common Sense: The Foundations for Social Science, University Press of America, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780819165046" title="Special:BookSources/9780819165046"><bdi>9780819165046</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Common+Sense%3A+The+Foundations+for+Social+Science&rft.pub=University+Press+of+America&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=9780819165046&rft.au=van+Holthoorn&rft.au=Olson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkOa9q2iK2LkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHume1987" class="citation cs2">Hume, David (1987), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oll.libertyfund.org/title/704/137512/2621342">Essays Moral, Political, Literary, edited and with a Foreword, Notes, and Glossary by Eugene F. Miller, with an appendix of variant readings from the 1889 edition by T.H. Green and T.H. Grose</a>, Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, retrieved 2013-07-25</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essays+Moral%2C+Political%2C+Literary%2C+edited+and+with+a+Foreword%2C+Notes%2C+and+Glossary+by+Eugene+F.+Miller%2C+with+an+appendix+of+variant+readings+from+the+1889+edition+by+T.H.+Green+and+T.H.+Grose&rft.place=Indianapolis&rft.pub=Liberty+Fund&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Hume&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foll.libertyfund.org%2Ftitle%2F704%2F137512%2F2621342&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHume1902" class="citation cs2">Hume, David (1902), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oll.libertyfund.org/title/341/61946/605918">Enquiries Concerning the Human Understanding and Concerning the Principles of Morals by David Hume, ed. L. A. Selby-Bigge, M.A. 2nd ed.</a>, Oxford: Clarendon Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Enquiries+Concerning+the+Human+Understanding+and+Concerning+the+Principles+of+Morals+by+David+Hume%2C+ed.+L.+A.+Selby-Bigge%2C+M.A.+2nd+ed.&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1902&rft.aulast=Hume&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foll.libertyfund.org%2Ftitle%2F341%2F61946%2F605918&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHundert1987" class="citation cs2">Hundert (1987), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kOa9q2iK2LkC">"Enlightenment and the decay of common sense"</a>, in van Holthoon; Olson (eds.), Common Sense: The Foundations for Social Science, University Press of America, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780819165046" title="Special:BookSources/9780819165046"><bdi>9780819165046</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Enlightenment+and+the+decay+of+common+sense&rft.btitle=Common+Sense%3A+The+Foundations+for+Social+Science&rft.pub=University+Press+of+America&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=9780819165046&rft.au=Hundert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkOa9q2iK2LkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKant1914" class="citation cs2">Kant, Immanuel (1914), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oll.libertyfund.org/title/1217/97537/2159414">"§ 40.: Of Taste as a kind of sensus communis"</a>, Kant's Critique of Judgement, translated with Introduction and Notes by J.H. Bernard (2nd ed. revised), London: Macmillan, retrieved 2013-07-25</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%C2%A7+40.%3A+Of+Taste+as+a+kind+of+sensus+communis&rft.btitle=Kant%27s+Critique+of+Judgement%2C+translated+with+Introduction+and+Notes+by+J.H.+Bernard+%282nd+ed.+revised%29&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1914&rft.aulast=Kant&rft.aufirst=Immanuel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foll.libertyfund.org%2Ftitle%2F1217%2F97537%2F2159414&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_Kessel1987" class="citation cs2">van Kessel (1987), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kOa9q2iK2LkC">"Common Sense between Bacon and Vico: Scepticism in England and Italy"</a>, in van Holthoon; Olson (eds.), Common Sense: The Foundations for Social Science, University Press of America, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780819165046" title="Special:BookSources/9780819165046"><bdi>9780819165046</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Common+Sense+between+Bacon+and+Vico%3A+Scepticism+in+England+and+Italy&rft.btitle=Common+Sense%3A+The+Foundations+for+Social+Science&rft.pub=University+Press+of+America&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=9780819165046&rft.au=van+Kessel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkOa9q2iK2LkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee2011" class="citation cs2">Lee, Mi-Kyoung (2011), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_cIkTLLkxOgC&pg=PA15">"The distinction between primary and secondary qualities in ancient Greek philosophy"</a>, in Nolan, Lawrence (ed.), Primary and Secondary Qualities: The Historical and Ongoing Debate, Oxford, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-955615-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-955615-1"><bdi>978-0-19-955615-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+distinction+between+primary+and+secondary+qualities+in+ancient+Greek+philosophy&rft.btitle=Primary+and+Secondary+Qualities%3A+The+Historical+and+Ongoing+Debate&rft.pub=Oxford&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-19-955615-1&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Mi-Kyoung&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_cIkTLLkxOgC%26pg%3DPA15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis1967" class="citation cs2">Lewis, C. S. (1967), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Siem4vFffHcC">Studies in words</a>, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521398312" title="Special:BookSources/9780521398312"><bdi>9780521398312</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+words&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=9780521398312&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=C.+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSiem4vFffHcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoore1925" class="citation cs2">Moore, George Edward (1925), A defense of common sense</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+defense+of+common+sense&rft.date=1925&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=George+Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Oettinger, M. Friedrich Christoph. 1861. Cited in Gadamer (1989).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeters_Agnew2008" class="citation cs2">Peters Agnew, Lois (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ONwh2N_OmhkC">Outward, Visible Propriety: Stoic Philosophy and Eighteenth-century British Rhetorics</a>, University of South Carolina Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781570037672" title="Special:BookSources/9781570037672"><bdi>9781570037672</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Outward%2C+Visible+Propriety%3A+Stoic+Philosophy+and+Eighteenth-century+British+Rhetorics&rft.pub=University+of+South+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9781570037672&rft.aulast=Peters+Agnew&rft.aufirst=Lois&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DONwh2N_OmhkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReid1983" class="citation cs2">Reid, Thomas (1983), "An Inquiry into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common Sense", in Beanblosom; Lehrer (eds.), Thomas Reid's Inquiry and Essays, New York: Hackett</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=An+Inquiry+into+the+Human+Mind+on+the+Principles+of+Common+Sense&rft.btitle=Thomas+Reid%27s+Inquiry+and+Essays&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Hackett&rft.date=1983&rft.aulast=Reid&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosenfeld2011" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Sophia_Rosenfeld" title="Sophia Rosenfeld">Rosenfeld, Sophia</a> (2011), <a href="/wiki/Common_Sense:_A_Political_History" title="Common Sense: A Political History">Common Sense: A Political History</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674061286" title="Special:BookSources/9780674061286"><bdi>9780674061286</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Common+Sense%3A+A+Political+History&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780674061286&rft.aulast=Rosenfeld&rft.aufirst=Sophia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSachs2001" class="citation cs2">Sachs, Joe (2001), Aristotle's On the Soul and On Memory and Recollection, Green Lion Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-888009-17-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-888009-17-0"><bdi>978-1-888009-17-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aristotle%27s+On+the+Soul+and+On+Memory+and+Recollection&rft.pub=Green+Lion+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-888009-17-0&rft.aulast=Sachs&rft.aufirst=Joe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchaeffer1990" class="citation cs2">Schaeffer (1990), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zjZvKWqIX6MC">Sensus Communis: Vico, Rhetoric, and the Limits of Relativism</a>, Duke University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0822310266" title="Special:BookSources/978-0822310266"><bdi>978-0822310266</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sensus+Communis%3A+Vico%2C+Rhetoric%2C+and+the+Limits+of+Relativism&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0822310266&rft.au=Schaeffer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzjZvKWqIX6MC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCooper2001" class="citation cs2">Cooper, Anthony Ashley (2001), den Uyl, Douglas (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oll.libertyfund.org/title/812">Characteristicks of Men, Manners, Opinions, Times</a>, Indianapolis: Liberty Fund</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Characteristicks+of+Men%2C+Manners%2C+Opinions%2C+Times&rft.place=Indianapolis&rft.pub=Liberty+Fund&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Cooper&rft.aufirst=Anthony+Ashley&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foll.libertyfund.org%2Ftitle%2F812&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpruit1994" class="citation cs2">Spruit, Leen (1994), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WCQscTB4xI8C">Species Intelligibilis: From Perception to Knowledge. I. Classical roots and medieval discussions</a>, Brill, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004098831" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004098831"><bdi>978-9004098831</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Species+Intelligibilis%3A+From+Perception+to+Knowledge.+I.+Classical+roots+and+medieval+discussions&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-9004098831&rft.aulast=Spruit&rft.aufirst=Leen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWCQscTB4xI8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpruit1995" class="citation cs2">Spruit, Leen (1995), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CUb572-eZ_8C">Species Intelligibilis: From Perception to Knowledge. II. Renaissance controversies, later scholasticism, and the elimination of the intelligible species in modern philosophy</a>, Brill, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004103962" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004103962"><bdi>978-9004103962</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Species+Intelligibilis%3A+From+Perception+to+Knowledge.+II.+Renaissance+controversies%2C+later+scholasticism%2C+and+the+elimination+of+the+intelligible+species+in+modern+philosophy&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-9004103962&rft.aulast=Spruit&rft.aufirst=Leen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCUb572-eZ_8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Stebbins, Robert A. Leisure's Legacy: Challenging the Common Sense View of Free Time. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017.</li> <li>Vico, Giambattista. On the Study Methods of our Time, trans. Elio Gianturco. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1990.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVico1968" class="citation cs2">Vico, Giambattista (1968), The New Science of Giambattista Vico (3rd ed.), Cornell University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Science+of+Giambattista+Vico&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Vico&rft.aufirst=Giambattista&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988">. Translated by Bergin and Fisch.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVoltaire1901" class="citation cs2">Voltaire (1901), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oll.libertyfund.org/title/353/54663/634126">"COMMON SENSE"</a>, The Works of Voltaire. A Contemporary Version. A Critique and Biography by John Morley, notes by Tobias Smollett, trans. William F. Fleming, vol. IV, New York: E.R. DuMont</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=COMMON+SENSE&rft.btitle=The+Works+of+Voltaire.+A+Contemporary+Version.+A+Critique+and+Biography+by+John+Morley%2C+notes+by+Tobias+Smollett%2C+trans.+William+F.+Fleming&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=E.R.+DuMont&rft.date=1901&rft.au=Voltaire&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foll.libertyfund.org%2Ftitle%2F353%2F54663%2F634126&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWierzbicka2010" class="citation cs2">Wierzbicka, Anna (2010), Experience, Evidence, and Sense: The Hidden Cultural Legacy of English, Oxford University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Experience%2C+Evidence%2C+and+Sense%3A+The+Hidden+Cultural+Legacy+of+English&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Wierzbicka&rft.aufirst=Anna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_sense&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoates1996" class="citation cs2">Coates, John (1996), The Claims of Common Sense: Moore, Wittgenstein, Keynes and the Social Sciences, <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521412568" title="Special:BookSources/9780521412568"><bdi>9780521412568</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Claims+of+Common+Sense%3A+Moore%2C+Wittgenstein%2C+Keynes+and+the+Social+Sciences&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9780521412568&rft.aulast=Coates&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLedwig2007" class="citation cs2">Ledwig, Marion (2007), Common Sense: Its History, Method, and Applicability, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Lang_(publishing_company)" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter Lang (publishing company)">Peter Lang</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780820488844" title="Special:BookSources/9780820488844"><bdi>9780820488844</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Common+Sense%3A+Its+History%2C+Method%2C+and+Applicability&rft.pub=Peter+Lang&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780820488844&rft.aulast=Ledwig&rft.aufirst=Marion&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCarthyLifschitz1990" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/John_McCarthy_(computer_scientist)" title="John McCarthy (computer scientist)">McCarthy, John</a>; Lifschitz, Vladimir (1990), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/formalizingcommo00mcca">Formalizing Common Sense</a>, Intellect Books, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780893915353" title="Special:BookSources/9780893915353"><bdi>9780893915353</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Formalizing+Common+Sense&rft.pub=Intellect+Books&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=9780893915353&rft.aulast=McCarthy&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Lifschitz%2C+Vladimir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fformalizingcommo00mcca&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+sense" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Common_sense" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Common sense">Common sense</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/common_sense" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/common sense">common sense</a> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Aristotelianism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Aristotelianism" title="Template:Aristotelianism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Aristotelianism" title="Template talk:Aristotelianism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Aristotelianism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Aristotelianism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Aristotelianism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Term_logic" title="Term logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyceum_(classical)" title="Lyceum (classical)">Lyceum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideas and interests</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_intellect" title="Active intellect">Active intellect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiperistasis" title="Antiperistasis">Antiperistasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arete" title="Arete">Arete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category_of_being" class="mw-redirect" title="Category of being">Category of being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catharsis" title="Catharsis">Catharsis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correspondence_theory_of_truth" title="Correspondence theory of truth">Correspondence theory of truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">Essence</a>–<a href="/wiki/Accident_(philosophy)" title="Accident (philosophy)">accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">Eudaimonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_causes" title="Four causes">Four causes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_future_contingents" title="Problem of future contingents">Future contingents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genus%E2%80%93differentia_definition" title="Genus–differentia definition">Genus–differentia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hexis" title="Hexis">Hexis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hylomorphism" title="Hylomorphism">Hylomorphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexis_(Aristotle)" title="Lexis (Aristotle)">Lexis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnanimity" title="Magnanimity">Magnanimity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimesis#Aristotle" title="Mimesis">Mimesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minima_naturalia" title="Minima naturalia">Minima naturalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moderate_realism" title="Moderate realism">Moderate realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mythos_(Aristotle)" title="Mythos (Aristotle)">Mythos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philia" title="Philia">Philia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horror_vacui_(physics)" title="Horror vacui (physics)">Horror vacui (physics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rational_animal" title="Rational animal">Rational animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phronesis" title="Phronesis">Phronesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potentiality_and_actuality" title="Potentiality and actuality">Potentiality and actuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">Substance theory</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hypokeimenon" title="Hypokeimenon">hypokeimenon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ousia" title="Ousia">ousia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syllogism" title="Syllogism">Syllogism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telos" title="Telos">Telos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporal_finitism" title="Temporal finitism">Temporal finitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quiddity" title="Quiddity">Quiddity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haecceity" title="Haecceity">Haecceity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">Unmoved mover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_realist_philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Aristotelian realist philosophy of mathematics">Mathematical realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Works_of_Aristotle" title="Works of Aristotle">Works</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Organon" title="Organon">Organon</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Categories_(Aristotle)" title="Categories (Aristotle)">Categories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Interpretation" title="On Interpretation">On Interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prior_Analytics" title="Prior Analytics">Prior Analytics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_Analytics" title="Posterior Analytics">Posterior Analytics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topics_(Aristotle)" title="Topics (Aristotle)">Topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophistical_Refutations" title="Sophistical Refutations">Sophistical Refutations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_physics" title="Aristotelian physics">Physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)" title="Physics (Aristotle)">Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Heavens" title="On the Heavens">On the Heavens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Generation_and_Corruption" title="On Generation and Corruption">On Generation and Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteorology_(Aristotle)" title="Meteorology (Aristotle)">Meteorology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Soul" title="On the Soul">On the Soul</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_biology" title="Aristotle's biology">On Animals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Animals" title="History of Animals">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parts_of_Animals" title="Parts of Animals">Parts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movement_of_Animals" title="Movement of Animals">Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progression_of_Animals" title="Progression of Animals">Progression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generation_of_Animals" title="Generation of Animals">Generation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Metaphysics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)" title="Metaphysics (Aristotle)">Metaphysics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_ethics" title="Aristotelian ethics">Ethics</a> and politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudemian_Ethics" title="Eudemian Ethics">Eudemian Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Athenians_(Aristotle)" title="Constitution of the Athenians (Aristotle)">Constitution of the Athenians</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rhetoric and poetics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_(Aristotle)" title="Rhetoric (Aristotle)">Rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poetics_(Aristotle)" title="Poetics (Aristotle)">Poetics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Parva_Naturalia" title="Parva Naturalia">Parva Naturalia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sense_and_Sensibilia_(Aristotle)" title="Sense and Sensibilia (Aristotle)">Sense and Sensibilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Memory" title="On Memory">On Memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Sleep" title="On Sleep">On Sleep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Dreams" title="On Dreams">On Dreams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Divination_in_Sleep" title="On Divination in Sleep">On Divination in Sleep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Length_and_Shortness_of_Life" title="On Length and Shortness of Life">On Length and Shortness of Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Youth,_Old_Age,_Life_and_Death,_and_Respiration" title="On Youth, Old Age, Life and Death, and Respiration">On Youth, Old Age, Life and Death, and Respiration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lost</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protrepticus_(Aristotle)" title="Protrepticus (Aristotle)">Protrepticus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Aristotle" title="Pseudo-Aristotle">Pseudepigrapha</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/On_Breath" title="On Breath">On Breath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Colors" title="On Colors">On Colors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Plants" title="On Plants">On Plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Indivisible_Lines" title="On Indivisible Lines">On Indivisible Lines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Melissus,_Xenophanes,_and_Gorgias" title="On Melissus, Xenophanes, and Gorgias">On Melissus, Xenophanes, and Gorgias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Universe" title="On the Universe">On the Universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Things_Heard" title="On Things Heard">On Things Heard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiognomonics" title="Physiognomonics">Physiognomonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Marvellous_Things_Heard" title="On Marvellous Things Heard">On Marvellous Things Heard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanics_(Aristotle)" title="Mechanics (Aristotle)">Mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problems_(Aristotle)" title="Problems (Aristotle)">Problems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Situations_and_Names_of_Winds" title="The Situations and Names of Winds">The Situations and Names of Winds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Virtues_and_Vices" title="On Virtues and Vices">On Virtues and Vices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_(Aristotle)" title="Economics (Aristotle)">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_to_Alexander" title="Rhetoric to Alexander">Rhetoric to Alexander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magna_Moralia" title="Magna Moralia">Magna Moralia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Followers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Peripatetic_school" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristoxenus" title="Aristoxenus">Aristoxenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clearchus_of_Soli" title="Clearchus of Soli">Clearchus of Soli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dicaearchus" title="Dicaearchus">Dicaearchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudemus_of_Rhodes" title="Eudemus of Rhodes">Eudemus of Rhodes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strato_of_Lampsacus" title="Strato of Lampsacus">Strato of Lampsacus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyco_of_Troas" title="Lyco of Troas">Lyco of Troas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristo_of_Ceos" title="Aristo of Ceos">Aristo of Ceos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critolaus" title="Critolaus">Critolaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_of_Tyre" title="Diodorus of Tyre">Diodorus of Tyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erymneus" title="Erymneus">Erymneus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andronicus_of_Rhodes" title="Andronicus of Rhodes">Andronicus of Rhodes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Islamic_Golden_Age" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Jewish" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Jewish</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Scholasticism" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Lombard" title="Peter Lombard">Peter Lombard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albertus_Magnus" title="Albertus Magnus">Albertus Magnus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Duns Scotus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_of_Spain" title="Peter of Spain">Peter of Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacopo_Zabarella" title="Jacopo Zabarella">Jacopo Zabarella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietro_Pomponazzi" title="Pietro Pomponazzi">Pietro Pomponazzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Cremonini_(philosopher)" title="Cesare Cremonini (philosopher)">Cesar Cremonini</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Modern" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Henry_Newman" title="John Henry Newman">Newman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Adolf_Trendelenburg" title="Friedrich Adolf Trendelenburg">Trendelenburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Brentano" title="Franz Brentano">Brentano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortimer_J._Adler" title="Mortimer J. Adler">Adler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Foot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Smith" title="Wolfgang Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosalind_Hursthouse" title="Rosalind Hursthouse">Hursthouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_of_the_Greek_Classics" title="Transmission of the Greek Classics">Transmission of the Greek Classics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commentaries_on_Aristotle" title="Commentaries on Aristotle">Commentaries on Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabasis_paradox" title="Metabasis paradox">Metabasis paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_views_on_women" title="Aristotle's views on women">Views on women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_wheel_paradox" title="Aristotle's wheel paradox">Wheel paradox</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Aristotle" title="Category:Aristotle">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/10px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/15px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/21px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Epistemology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Epistemology" title="Template:Epistemology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Epistemology" title="Template talk:Epistemology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Epistemology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Epistemology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Epistemology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">Epistemologists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Alston" title="William Alston">William Alston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Audi" title="Robert Audi">Robert Audi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurence_BonJour" title="Laurence BonJour">Laurence BonJour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Gilles Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keith_DeRose" title="Keith DeRose">Keith DeRose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Dretske" title="Fred Dretske">Fred Dretske</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Gettier" title="Edmund Gettier">Edmund Gettier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Goldman" title="Alvin Goldman">Alvin Goldman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Goodman" title="Nelson Goodman">Nelson Goodman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Paul Grice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anil_Gupta_(philosopher)" title="Anil Gupta (philosopher)">Anil Gupta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Haack" title="Susan Haack">Susan Haack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_D._Klein" title="Peter D. Klein">Peter Klein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Kornblith" title="Hilary Kornblith">Hilary Kornblith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McDowell" title="John McDowell">John McDowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Robert Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duncan_Pritchard" title="Duncan Pritchard">Duncan Pritchard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Pryor" title="James Pryor">James Pryor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Thomas Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilfrid_Sellars" title="Wilfrid Sellars">Wilfrid Sellars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susanna_Siegel" title="Susanna Siegel">Susanna Siegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Sosa" title="Ernest Sosa">Ernest Sosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Williamson" title="Timothy Williamson">Timothy Williamson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Epistemological_theories" title="Category:Epistemological theories">Theories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_epistemology" title="Feminist epistemology">Feminist epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_holism" title="Semantic holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinitism" title="Infinitism">Infinitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innatism" title="Innatism">Innatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_realism" title="Naïve realism">Naïve realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalized epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reliabilism" title="Reliabilism">Reliabilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_and_indirect_realism" title="Direct and indirect realism">Representational realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental idealism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Concepts_in_epistemology" title="Category:Concepts in epistemology">Concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">A priori knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">A posteriori knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">Belief</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Common sense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Descriptive knowledge">Descriptive knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploratory_thought" title="Exploratory thought">Exploratory thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_injustice" title="Epistemic injustice">Epistemic injustice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_virtue" title="Epistemic virtue">Epistemic virtue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gettier_problem" title="Gettier problem">Gettier problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_(epistemology)" title="Justification (epistemology)">Justification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privileged_access" class="mw-redirect" title="Privileged access">Privileged access</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_other_minds" title="Problem of other minds">Problem of other minds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedural_knowledge" title="Procedural knowledge">Procedural knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regress_argument" class="mw-redirect" title="Regress argument">Regress argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicity" title="Simplicity">Simplicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_epistemology_articles" title="Index of epistemology articles">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_epistemology" title="Outline of epistemology">Outline of epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_epistemology" title="Formal epistemology">Formal epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaepistemology" title="Metaepistemology">Metaepistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">Philosophy of perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">Social epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_epistemology" title="Virtue epistemology">Virtue epistemology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Epistemology" title="Category:Epistemology">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy/Epistemology" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy/Epistemology">Task Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_stubs" title="Category:Philosophy stubs">Stubs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Philosophy" title="Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Philosophy">Discussion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:<ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/12px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/19px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/25px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/21px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/42px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society</a></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q332880#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4132689-1">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85028999">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11945881x">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11945881x">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007543390305171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Common_sense&oldid=1253059201">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Common_sense&oldid=1253059201</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Aristotelianism" title="Category:Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Belief" title="Category:Belief">Belief</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Concepts_in_epistemology" title="Category:Concepts in epistemology">Concepts in epistemology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Consensus_reality" title="Category:Consensus reality">Consensus reality</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Folklore" title="Category:Folklore">Folklore</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:German_philosophy" title="Category:German philosophy">German philosophy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Rhetoric" title="Category:Rhetoric">Rhetoric</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_French-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing French-language text">Articles containing French-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Ancient_Greek_(to_1453)-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text">Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Latin-language text">Articles containing Latin-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1:_long_volume_value" title="Category:CS1: long volume value">CS1: long volume value</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Italian-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Italian-language text">Articles containing Italian-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_German-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing German-language text">Articles containing German-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_specifically_marked_weasel-worded_phrases" title="Category:All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases">All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_specifically_marked_weasel-worded_phrases_from_October_2022" title="Category:Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from October 2022">Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from October 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_indefinitely_move-protected_pages" title="Category:Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages">Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_July_2024" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from July 2024">Articles with unsourced statements from July 2024</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 24 October 2024, at 04:36 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Common_sense&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-7fc47fc68d-9w9xr","wgBackendResponseTime":175,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.899","walltime":"2.163","ppvisitednodes":{"value":11851,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":236967,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":14600,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":14,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":8,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":233794,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1904.353 1 -total"," 25.22% 480.357 1 Template:Reflist"," 18.68% 355.739 55 Template:Citation"," 15.72% 299.367 112 Template:Lang"," 8.24% 156.914 67 Template:Harvtxt"," 7.03% 133.893 1 Template:Group_intelligence"," 6.71% 127.847 1 Template:Sidebar"," 5.82% 110.862 1 Template:Cite_book"," 5.13% 97.604 1 Template:Short_description"," 4.97% 94.630 53 Template:Transliteration"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.225","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":22550278,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAnagnostopoulos2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAran_Murphy2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAristotle\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFArthos2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBacon\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBayer1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBenjamin1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBernstein1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrann1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBugter1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurnham\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoates1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCooper2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCuneoWoudenberg2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDauenhauer1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDescartes1901\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDescartes1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDescartes1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDyson2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGadamer1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGilson1925\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGilson1939\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGregorić2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeller-Roazen2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHobbes\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHume1902\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHume1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHundert1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHutcheson2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKant1914\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLedwig2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLee2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeijenhorst2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCarthyLifschitz1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoore1925\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMootz2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeters_Agnew2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReid1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosenfeld2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosenfeld2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSachs2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchaeffer1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpruit1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpruit1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStiver2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVessey2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVico1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVoltaire1901\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalzer1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWierzbicka2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhang2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_HauteBirmingham1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_Holthoon1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_HolthoornOlson1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_Kessel1987\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Abbr\"] = 1,\n [\"About\"] = 1,\n [\"Annotated link\"] = 10,\n [\"Aristotelianism\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 13,\n [\"Citation\"] = 55,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 1,\n [\"Cn\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Common Sense\"] = 1,\n [\"Distinguish\"] = 1,\n [\"Em\"] = 2,\n [\"Epistemology\"] = 1,\n [\"Group intelligence\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvcoltxt\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvtxt\"] = 67,\n [\"Lang\"] = 112,\n [\"Langx\"] = 5,\n [\"Literal translation\"] = 5,\n [\"Not a typo\"] = 2,\n [\"Portal bar\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-move\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Transliteration\"] = 53,\n [\"Who\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikiquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Wiktionary\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","280","21.2"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","120","9.1"],["?","100","7.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","100","7.6"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","80","6.1"],["(for generator)","60","4.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","60","4.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","40","3.0"],["argument_wrapper \u003CModule:Citation/CS1:803\u003E","40","3.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::plain","40","3.0"],["[others]","400","30.3"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-7fc47fc68d-j6nkj","timestamp":"20241128173746","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Common sense","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Common_sense","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q332880","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q332880","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-04-20T21:30:58Z","dateModified":"2024-10-24T04:36:46Z","headline":"set of widely accepted beliefs"}</script> </body> </html>