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href="#Preface"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Preface</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Preface-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Instauratio_Magna" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Instauratio_Magna"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span><i>Instauratio Magna</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Instauratio_Magna-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Book_I" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Book_I"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Book I</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Book_I-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Idols_(Idola)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Idols_(Idola)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>The Idols (<i><span><i>Idola</i></span></i>)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_Idols_(Idola)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle The Idols (<i><span><i>Idola</i></span></i>) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-The_Idols_(Idola)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Idols_of_the_Tribe_(Idola_tribus)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Idols_of_the_Tribe_(Idola_tribus)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Idols of the Tribe (<i><span><i>Idola tribus</i></span></i>)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Idols_of_the_Tribe_(Idola_tribus)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Idols_of_the_Cave_(Idola_specus)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Idols_of_the_Cave_(Idola_specus)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Idols of the Cave (<i><span><i>Idola specus</i></span></i>)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Idols_of_the_Cave_(Idola_specus)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Idols_of_the_Market_(Idola_fori)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Idols_of_the_Market_(Idola_fori)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Idols of the Market (<i><span><i>Idola fori</i></span></i>)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Idols_of_the_Market_(Idola_fori)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Idols_of_the_Theatre_(Idola_theatri)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Idols_of_the_Theatre_(Idola_theatri)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Idols of the Theatre (<i><span><i>Idola theatri</i></span></i>)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Idols_of_the_Theatre_(Idola_theatri)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Book_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Book_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Book II</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Book_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bacon_and_Descartes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bacon_and_Descartes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Bacon and Descartes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bacon_and_Descartes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Original_contributions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Original_contributions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Original contributions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Original_contributions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><i>Novum Organum</i></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 23 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-23" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">23 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%AF" title="الأورجانون الجديد – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الأورجانون الجديد" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novum_Organum" title="Novum Organum – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Novum Organum" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novum_Organum" title="Novum Organum – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Novum Organum" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novum_Organum" title="Novum Organum – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Novum Organum" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novum_organum" title="Novum organum – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Novum organum" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novum_organum" title="Novum organum – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Novum organum" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%88_%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%BA%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86" title="نو ارغنون – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نو ارغنون" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novum_organum" title="Novum organum – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Novum organum" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novum_Organum" title="Novum Organum – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Novum Organum" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novum_Organum" title="Novum Organum – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Novum Organum" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%85%B8%EB%B6%90_%EC%98%A4%EB%A5%B4%EA%B0%80%EB%88%94" title="노붐 오르가눔 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="노붐 오르가눔" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novum_Organum" title="Novum Organum – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Novum Organum" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%91%D7%95%D7%9D_%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%92%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%9D_%D7%95%D7%94%D7%AA%D7%97%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%92%D7%93%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%94" title="נובום אורגנום והתחיה הגדולה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="נובום אורגנום והתחיה הגדולה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Нов органон – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Нов органон" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%8E%E3%83%B4%E3%83%A0%E3%83%BB%E3%82%AA%E3%83%AB%E3%82%AC%E3%83%8C%E3%83%A0" title="ノヴム・オルガヌム – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ノヴム・オルガヌム" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novum_Organum" title="Novum Organum – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Novum Organum" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novum_Organum" title="Novum Organum – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Novum Organum" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noul_Organon" title="Noul Organon – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Noul Organon" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%9E%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Новый Органон – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Новый Органон" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%86%D8%B1%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%86%D9%86%DB%8C_%D9%86%D9%88%DB%8E" title="ئۆرگانۆنی نوێ – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئۆرگانۆنی نوێ" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novum_Organum" title="Novum Organum – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Novum Organum" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novum_Organum" title="Novum Organum – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Novum Organum" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E5%B7%A5%E5%85%B7%E8%AE%BA%EF%BC%9A%E6%88%96%E8%A7%A3%E9%87%8A%E8%87%AA%E7%84%B6%E7%9A%84%E4%B8%80%E4%BA%9B%E6%8C%87%E5%AF%BC" title="新工具论：或解释自然的一些指导 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="新工具论：或解释自然的一些指导" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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font-style:italic; padding-bottom:0.2em;">Novum Organum <span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Novum+Organum&rft.author=%5B%5BFrancis+Bacon%5D%5D&rft.date=1620&rft.place=England"></span></caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Houghton_EC.B1328.620ib_-_Novum_organum_scientiarum.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The title page illustration of Novum Organum"><img alt="The title page illustration of Novum Organum" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Houghton_EC.B1328.620ib_-_Novum_organum_scientiarum.jpg/220px-Houghton_EC.B1328.620ib_-_Novum_organum_scientiarum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="379" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Houghton_EC.B1328.620ib_-_Novum_organum_scientiarum.jpg/330px-Houghton_EC.B1328.620ib_-_Novum_organum_scientiarum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Houghton_EC.B1328.620ib_-_Novum_organum_scientiarum.jpg/440px-Houghton_EC.B1328.620ib_-_Novum_organum_scientiarum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1618" data-file-height="2789" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">The engraved title page for <i>Novum Organum</i></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Author</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Language</th><td class="infobox-data">Latin</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Subject</th><td class="infobox-data">philosophy, science</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Genre</th><td class="infobox-data">treatise</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Publication date</div></th><td class="infobox-data">1620</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Publication place</th><td class="infobox-data">England</td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <i><b>Novum Organum</b></i>, fully <i><b>Novum Organum, sive Indicia Vera de Interpretatione Naturae</b></i> ("New organon, or true directions concerning the interpretation of nature") or <i><b>Instaurationis Magnae, Pars II</b></i> ("Part II of The Great Instauration"), is a philosophical work by <a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a>, written in <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> and published in 1620. The title is a reference to <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>'s work <i><a href="/wiki/Organon" title="Organon">Organon</a></i>, which was his <a href="/wiki/Treatise" title="Treatise">treatise</a> on <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syllogism" title="Syllogism">syllogism</a>. In <i>Novum Organum</i>, Bacon details a new system of logic he believes to be superior to the old ways of syllogism. This is now known as the <a href="/wiki/Baconian_method" title="Baconian method">Baconian method</a>. </p><p>For Bacon, finding the essence of a thing was a simple process of <a href="/wiki/Reduction_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Reduction (philosophy)">reduction</a>, and the use of <a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">inductive reasoning</a>. In finding the cause of a 'phenomenal nature' such as heat, one must list all of the situations where heat is found. Then another list should be drawn up, listing situations that are similar to those of the first list except for the lack of heat. A third table lists situations where heat can vary. The 'form nature', or cause, of heat must be that which is common to all instances in the first table, is lacking from all instances of the second table and varies by degree in instances of the third table. </p><p>The title page of <i>Novum Organum</i> depicts a <a href="/wiki/Galleon" title="Galleon">galleon</a> passing between the mythical <a href="/wiki/Pillars_of_Hercules" title="Pillars of Hercules">Pillars of Hercules</a> that stand either side of the <a href="/wiki/Strait_of_Gibraltar" title="Strait of Gibraltar">Strait of Gibraltar</a>, marking the exit from the well-charted waters of the Mediterranean into the Atlantic Ocean. The Pillars, as the boundary of the Mediterranean, have been smashed through by <a href="/wiki/Iberians" title="Iberians">Iberian</a> sailors, opening a new world for exploration. Bacon hopes that <a href="/wiki/Empirical" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical">empirical</a> investigation will, similarly, smash the old scientific ideas and lead to greater understanding of the world and heavens. This title page was liberally copied from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Andr%C3%A9s_Garc%C3%ADa_de_C%C3%A9spedes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Andrés García de Céspedes (page does not exist)">Andrés García de Céspedes</a>'s <i>Regimiento de Navegación</i>, published in 1606.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> tag across the bottom – <i>Multi pertransibunt & augebitur scientia</i> – is taken from the <a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a> (<a href="/wiki/Book_of_Daniel" title="Book of Daniel">Daniel</a> 12:4). It means: "Many will travel and knowledge will be increased". </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bacon_and_the_scientific_method">Bacon and the scientific method</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Novum_Organum&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Bacon and the scientific method"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Baconian_method" title="Baconian method">Baconian method</a></div> <p>Bacon's work was instrumental in the historical development of the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a>. His technique bears a resemblance to the modern formulation of the scientific method in the sense that it is centered on experimental research. Bacon's emphasis on the use of artificial experiments to provide additional observances of a phenomenon is one reason that he is often considered "the Father of the Experimental Philosophy" (for example famously by <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a>). On the other hand, so-called modern scientific method, which is a pluralistic hodge-podge, obviously does not follow Bacon's methods in its details, but more in the spirit of billing itself as "methodical and experimental," and so his position in this regard can be disputed.<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Importantly though, Bacon set the scene for science to develop various methodologies and ideologies, because he made the case against older Aristotelian approaches to science, arguing that method was needed because of the natural biases and weaknesses of the human mind, including the natural bias it has to seek metaphysical explanations which are not based on real observations. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Preface">Preface</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Novum_Organum&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Preface"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Bacon begins the work with a rejection of pure <i><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">a priori</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">deduction</a> as a means of discovering <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">truth</a> in <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a>. Of his philosophy, he states: </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Francisci_Baconi,_baronis_de_Verulamio_Novum_organum_scientiarum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Francisci_Baconi%2C_baronis_de_Verulamio_Novum_organum_scientiarum.jpg/220px-Francisci_Baconi%2C_baronis_de_Verulamio_Novum_organum_scientiarum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Francisci_Baconi%2C_baronis_de_Verulamio_Novum_organum_scientiarum.jpg/330px-Francisci_Baconi%2C_baronis_de_Verulamio_Novum_organum_scientiarum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Francisci_Baconi%2C_baronis_de_Verulamio_Novum_organum_scientiarum.jpg/440px-Francisci_Baconi%2C_baronis_de_Verulamio_Novum_organum_scientiarum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Front page of a 1779 copy of <i>Novum organum.</i></figcaption></figure> <blockquote><p>Now my plan is as easy to describe as it is difficult to effect. For it is to establish degrees of certainty, take care of the sense by a kind of reduction, but to reject for the most part the work of the mind that follows upon sense; in fact I mean to open up and lay down a new and certain pathway from the perceptions of the senses themselves to the mind.</p></blockquote> <p>The emphasis on beginning with <a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">observation</a> pervades the entire work. In fact, it is in the idea that natural philosophy must begin with the senses that we find the revolutionary part of Bacon's philosophy, and its consequent philosophical method, <a href="/wiki/Eliminative_induction" class="mw-redirect" title="Eliminative induction">eliminative induction</a>, is one of Bacon's most lasting contributions to science and philosophy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Instauratio_Magna"><i>Instauratio Magna</i></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Novum_Organum&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Instauratio Magna"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Novum organum</i> was actually published as part of a much larger work, <i>Instauratio Magna</i> ("The Great Instauration"). The word <i>instauration</i> was intended to show that the state of <a href="/wiki/Human_knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Human knowledge">human knowledge</a> was to simultaneously press forward while also returning to that enjoyed by man before the Fall. Originally intending <i>Instauratio Magna</i> to contain six parts (of which <i>Novum organum</i> constituted the second), Bacon did not come close to completing this series, as parts V and VI were never written at all. <i>Novum organum</i>, written in Latin and consisting of two books of <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/aphorism" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:aphorism">aphorisms</a>, was included in the volume that Bacon published in 1620; however, it was also unfinished, as Bacon promised several additions to its content which ultimately remained unprinted. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Book_I">Book I</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Novum_Organum&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Book I"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Bacon titled this first book <i>Aphorismi de Interpretatione Naturae et Regno Hominis</i> ("Aphorisms Concerning the Interpretation of Nature, and the Kingdom of Man"). </p><p>In the first book of aphorisms, Bacon criticizes the current state of natural philosophy. The object of his assault consists largely in the <a href="/wiki/Syllogism" title="Syllogism">syllogism</a>, a method that he believes to be completely inadequate in comparison to what Bacon calls "true <i>Induction</i>": </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The syllogism is made up of propositions, propositions of words, and words are markers of notions. Thus if the notions themselves (and this is the heart of the matter) are confused, and recklessly abstracted from things, nothing built on them is sound. The only hope therefore lies in true <a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning"><i>Induction</i></a>.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>aph. 14</cite></div></blockquote> <p>In many of his aphorisms, Bacon reiterates the importance of inductive reasoning. Induction, methodologically prior to deduction, entails beginning with particular cases observed by the senses and then attempting to discover the general axioms from those observations. Thus, induction presupposes the possibility of intelligent sensory observation. Deduction, on the other hand, begins with general axioms ("highest" or "middle"), which might be viewed as first principles or as inductively derived principles, on the basis of which it is possible to derive a systematic, i.e., scientific, knowledge of things. Bacon claims that there are two, and only two, distinct modes of induction and that the second allegedly distinct mode -- which he claims will be a 'new' way or method, supposedly newly discovered or invented by himself -- will be much better than the old one: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>There are and can only be two ways of investigating and discovering truth. The one rushes up from the sense and particulars to axioms of the highest generality and, from these principles and their indubitable truth, goes on to infer and discover middle axioms; and this is the way in current use. The other way draws axioms from the sense and particulars by climbing steadily and by degrees so that it reaches the ones of highest generality last of all; and this is the true but still untrodden way.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>aph. 19</cite></div></blockquote> <p>After many similar aphoristic reiterations of these important concepts, Bacon presents his famous Idols. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Idols_(Idola)"><span id="The_Idols_.28Idola.29"></span>The Idols (<i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Idola</i></span></i>) <span class="anchor" id="The_Idols"></span></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Novum_Organum&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: The Idols (Idola)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Novum organum</i>, as suggested by its name, is focused just as much on a rejection of received doctrine as it is on a forward-looking progression. In Bacon's Idols are found his most critical examination of man-made impediments which mislead the mind's objective reasoning. They appear in previous works but were never fully fleshed out until their formulation in <i>Novum organum</i>: </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Idols_of_the_Tribe_(Idola_tribus)"><span id="Idols_of_the_Tribe_.28Idola_tribus.29"></span><a href="/wiki/Idols_of_the_Tribe" class="mw-redirect" title="Idols of the Tribe">Idols of the Tribe</a> (<i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Idola tribus</i></span></i>)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Novum_Organum&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Idols of the Tribe (Idola tribus)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>"Idols of the Tribe are rooted in human nature itself and in the very tribe or race of men. For people falsely claim that human sense is the measure of things, whereas in fact all perceptions of sense and mind are built to the scale of man and not the universe." (Aphorism 41.) </p><p>Bacon includes in this idol the predilection of the human imagination to presuppose otherwise unsubstantiated regularities in nature. An example might be the common historical astronomical assumption that <a href="/wiki/Planetary_motion" class="mw-redirect" title="Planetary motion">planets move in perfect circles</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Idols_of_the_Cave_(Idola_specus)"><span id="Idols_of_the_Cave_.28Idola_specus.29"></span><a href="/wiki/Idols_of_the_Cave" class="mw-redirect" title="Idols of the Cave">Idols of the Cave</a> (<i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Idola specus</i></span></i>)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Novum_Organum&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Idols of the Cave (Idola specus)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>These "belong to the particular individual. For everyone has (besides vagaries of human nature in general) his own special cave or den which scatters and discolours the light of nature. Now this comes either of his own unique and singular nature; or his education and association with others, or the books he reads and the several authorities of those whom he cultivates and admires, or the different impressions as they meet in the soul, be the soul possessed and prejudiced, or steady and settled, or the like; so that the human spirit (as it is allotted to particular individuals) is evidently a variable thing, all muddled, and so to speak a creature of chance..." (Aphorism 42). </p><p>This type of idol stems from the particular life experiences of the individual. Variable educations can lead the individual to a preference for specific concepts or methods, which then corrupt their subsequent philosophies. Bacon himself gives the example of Aristotle, "who made his natural philosophy a mere slave to his logic". (Aphorism 54.) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Idols_of_the_Market_(Idola_fori)"><span id="Idols_of_the_Market_.28Idola_fori.29"></span><a href="/wiki/Idols_of_the_Market" class="mw-redirect" title="Idols of the Market">Idols of the Market</a> (<i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Idola fori</i></span></i>)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Novum_Organum&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Idols of the Market (Idola fori)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>These are "derived as if from the mutual agreement and association of the human race, which I call Idols of the Market on account of men's commerce and partnerships. For men associate through conversation, but words are applied according to the capacity of ordinary people. Therefore shoddy and inept application of words lays siege to the intellect in wondrous ways" (Aphorism 43). </p><p>Bacon considered these "the greatest nuisances of them all" (Aphorism 59). Because humans reason through the use of words they are particularly dangerous, because the received definitions of words, which are often falsely derived, can cause confusion. He outlines two subsets of this kind of idol and provides examples (Aphorism 60). </p> <ul><li>First, there are those words which spring from fallacious theories, such as the <a href="/wiki/Fire_(classical_element)" title="Fire (classical element)">element of fire</a> or the concept of a <a href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">first mover</a>. These are easy to dismantle because their inadequacy can be traced back to the fault of their derivation in a faulty theory.</li> <li>Second, there are those words that are the result of imprecise <a href="/wiki/Abstraction" title="Abstraction">abstraction</a>. Earth, for example, is a vague term that may include many different substances the commonality of which is questionable. These terms are often used elliptically, or from a lack of information or definition of the term.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Idols_of_the_Theatre_(Idola_theatri)"><span id="Idols_of_the_Theatre_.28Idola_theatri.29"></span><a href="/wiki/Idols_of_the_Theatre" class="mw-redirect" title="Idols of the Theatre">Idols of the Theatre</a> (<i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Idola theatri</i></span></i>)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Novum_Organum&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Idols of the Theatre (Idola theatri)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>"Lastly, there are the Idols which have misguided into men's souls from the dogmas of the philosophers and misguided laws of demonstration as well; I call these Idols of the Theatre, for in my eyes the philosophies received and discovered are so many stories made up and acted out stories which have created sham worlds worth of the stage." (Aphorism 44.) </p><p>These idols manifest themselves in the unwise acceptance of certain philosophical dogmas, namely Aristotle's sophistical natural philosophy (named specifically in Aphorism 63) which was corrupted by his passion for logic, and Plato's superstitious philosophy, which relied too heavily on theological principles. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Book_II">Book II</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Novum_Organum&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Book II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After enumerating the shortcomings of the current and past natural philosophies, Bacon can now present his own philosophy and methods. Bacon retains the Aristotelian causes, but redefines them in interesting ways. While traditionally the final cause was held as most important among the four (material, formal, efficient, and final), Bacon claims that it is the least helpful and in some cases actually detrimental to the sciences (aph. 2). For Bacon, it is the formal cause which is both the most illusive and most valuable, although each of the causes provides certain practical devices. By forms and formal causes, Bacon means the universal laws of nature. To these Bacon attaches an almost occult like power: </p> <blockquote><p>But he who knows forms grasps the unity of nature beneath the surface of materials which are very unlike. Thus is he able to identify and bring about things that have never been done before, things of the kind which neither the vicissitudes of nature, nor hard experimenting, nor pure accident could ever have actualised, or human thought dreamed of. And thus from the discovery of the forms flows true speculation and unrestricted operation (aphorism 3)</p></blockquote> <p>In this second book, Bacon offers an example of the process that of what he calls true induction. In this example, Bacon attempts to grasp the form of heat. </p><p>The first step he takes is the surveying of all known instances where the nature of heat appears to exist. To this compilation of observational data Bacon gives the name <i>Table of Essence and Presence.</i> The next table, the <i>Table of Absence in Proximity</i>, is essentially the opposite—a compilation of all the instances in which the nature of heat is not present. Because these are so numerous, Bacon enumerates only the most relevant cases. Lastly, Bacon attempts to categorise the instances of the nature of heat into various degrees of intensity in his <i>Table of Degrees.</i> The aim of this final table is to eliminate certain instances of heat which might be said to be the form of heat, and thus get closer to an approximation of the true form of heat. Such elimination occurs through comparison. For example, the observation that both a fire and boiling water are instances of heat allows us to exclude light as the true form of heat, because light is present in the case of the fire but not in the case of the boiling water. Through this comparative analysis, Bacon intends to eventually extrapolate the true form of heat, although it is clear that such a goal is only gradually approachable by degrees. Indeed, the hypothesis that is derived from this eliminative induction, which Bacon names <i>The First Vintage</i>, is only the starting point from which additional <a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">empirical evidence</a> and experimental analysis can refine our conception of a formal cause. </p><p>The "Baconian method" does not end at the <i>First Vintage</i>. Bacon described numerous classes of Instances with Special Powers, cases in which the phenomenon one is attempting to explain is particularly relevant. These instances, of which Bacon describes 27 in <i>Novum Organum</i>, aid and accelerate the process of induction. They are "labour-saving devices or shortcuts intended to accelerate or make more rigorous the search for forms by providing logical reinforcement to induction."<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aside from the First Vintage and the Instances with Special Powers, Bacon enumerates additional "aids to the intellect" which presumably are the next steps in his "method." In Aphorism 21 of Book II, Bacon lays out the subsequent series of steps in proper induction: including <i>Supports to Induction</i>, <i>Rectification of Induction</i>, <i>Varying the Inquiry according to the Nature of the Subject</i>, <i>Natures with Special Powers</i>, <i>Ends of Inquiry</i>, <i>Bringing Things down to Practice</i>, <i>Preparatives to Inquiry</i> and <i>Ascending and Descending Scale of Axioms.</i> These additional aids, however, were never explained beyond their initial limited appearance in <i>Novum Organum</i>. It is likely that Bacon intended them to be included in later parts of <i>Instauratio magna</i> and simply never got to writing about them. </p><p>As mentioned above, this second book of <i>Novum organum</i> was far from complete and indeed was only a small part of a massive, also unfinished work, the <i>Instauratio magna.</i> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bacon_and_Descartes">Bacon and Descartes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Novum_Organum&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Bacon and Descartes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Bacon is often studied through a comparison to his contemporary <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a>. Both thinkers were, in a sense, some of the first to question the philosophical authority of the ancient Greeks. Bacon and Descartes both believed that a critique of preexisting natural philosophy was necessary, but their respective critiques proposed radically different approaches to natural philosophy. Two over-lapping movements developed; "one was rational and theoretical in approach and was headed by Rene Descartes; the other was practical and empirical and was led by Francis Bacon."<sup id="cite_ref-CantorKlein_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CantorKlein-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were both profoundly concerned with the extent to which humans can come to knowledge, and yet their methods of doing so projected diverging paths. </p><p>On the one hand, Descartes begins with a doubt of anything which cannot be known with absolute certainty and includes in this realm of doubt the impressions of sense perception, and thus, "all sciences of corporal things, such as physics and astronomy."<sup id="cite_ref-CantorKlein_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CantorKlein-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He thus attempts to provide a metaphysical principle (this becomes the <a href="/wiki/Cogito_ergo_sum" class="mw-redirect" title="Cogito ergo sum">Cogito</a>) which cannot be doubted, on which further truths must be deduced. In this method of deduction, the philosopher begins by examining the most general axioms (such as the <i>Cogito</i>), and then proceeds to determine the truth about particulars from an understanding of those general axioms. </p><p>Conversely, Bacon endorsed the opposite method of Induction, in which the particulars are first examined, and only then is there a gradual ascent to the most general axioms. While Descartes doubts the ability of the senses to provide us with accurate information, Bacon doubts the ability of the mind to deduce truths by itself as it is subjected to so many intellectual obfuscations, Bacon's "Idols." In his first aphorism of <i>New organum</i>, Bacon states: </p><p>"Man, the servant and interpreter of nature, does and understands only as much as he has observed, by fact or mental activity, concerning the order of nature; beyond that he has neither knowledge nor power." </p><p>So, in a basic sense the central difference between the philosophical methods of Descartes and those of Bacon can be reduced to an argument between deductive and inductive reasoning and whether to trust or doubt the senses. However, there is another profound difference between the two thinkers' positions on the accessibility of Truth. Descartes professed to be aiming at absolute Truth. It is questionable whether Bacon believed such a Truth can be achieved. In his opening remarks, he proposes "to establish progressive stages of certainty." For Bacon, a measure of truth was its power to allow predictions of natural phenomena (although Bacon's forms come close to what we might call "Truth," because they are universal, immutable laws of nature). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Original_contributions">Original contributions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Novum_Organum&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Original contributions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An interesting characteristic of Bacon's apparently scientific tract was that, although he amassed an overwhelming body of <a href="/wiki/Empirical_data" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical data">empirical data</a>, he did not make any original discoveries. Indeed, that was never his intention, and such an evaluation of Bacon's legacy may wrongfully lead to an unjust comparison with Newton. Bacon never claimed to have brilliantly revealed new unshakable truths about nature—in fact, he believed that such an endeavour is not the work of single minds but that of whole generations by gradual degrees toward reliable knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> In many ways, Bacon's contribution to the advancement of human knowledge lies not in the fruit of his scientific research but in the reinterpretation of the methods of natural philosophy. His innovation is summarised in <i>The Oxford Francis Bacon</i>:</p><blockquote><p>Before Bacon where else does one find a meticulously articulated view of natural philosophy as an enterprise of instruments and experiment, and enterprise designed to restrain discursive reason and make good the defects of the senses? Where else in the literature before Bacon does one come across a stripped-down natural-historical programme of such enormous scope and scrupulous precision, and designed to serve as the basis for a complete reconstruction of human knowledge which would generate new, vastly productive sciences through a form of eliminative induction supported by various other procedures including deduction? Where else does one find a concept of scientific research which implies an institutional framework of such proportions that it required generations of permanent state funding to sustain it? And all this accompanied by a thorough, searching, and devastating attack on ancient and not-so-ancient philosophies, and by a provisional natural philosophy anticipating the results of the new philosophy?"<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Novum_Organum&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/The_Four_Great_Errors" title="The Four Great Errors">The Four Great Errors</a> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Novum_Organum&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCañizares-Esguerra2004" class="citation journal cs1">Cañizares-Esguerra, Jorge (2004). "Iberian Science in the Renaissance: Ignored How Much Longer?". <i>Perspectives on Science</i>. <b>12</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">86–</span>124. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2F106361404773843355">10.1162/106361404773843355</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:202639341">202639341</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Perspectives+on+Science&rft.atitle=Iberian+Science+in+the+Renaissance%3A+Ignored+How+Much+Longer%3F&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E86-%3C%2Fspan%3E124&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1162%2F106361404773843355&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A202639341%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Ca%C3%B1izares-Esguerra&rft.aufirst=Jorge&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANovum+Organum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oxford-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Rees, Graham and Maria Wakely <i>The Instauratio Magna, Part II: Novum organum and Associated Texts.</i> Oxford: Clarendon, 2004.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CantorKlein-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CantorKlein_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CantorKlein_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cantor, Norman F., and Peter L. Klein. <i>Seventeenth-Century Rationalism: Bacon and Descartes.</i> Massachusetts: Blaisdell, 1969. Print</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Novum_Organum&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output 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title="Francis Bacon bibliography">Complete bibliography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alice_Barnham" title="Alice Barnham">Alice Barnham</a> (wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Bacon_(Lord_Keeper)" title="Nicholas Bacon (Lord Keeper)">Nicholas Bacon</a> (father)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Bacon" title="Anne Bacon">Anne Bacon</a> (mother)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bacon%27s_cipher" title="Bacon's cipher">Bacon's cipher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baconian_theory_of_Shakespeare_authorship" title="Baconian theory of Shakespeare authorship">Baconian theory of Shakespeare authorship</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/An_Examination_of_the_Philosophy_of_Bacon" title="An Examination of the Philosophy of Bacon">An Examination of the Philosophy of Bacon</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occult_theories_about_Francis_Bacon" title="Occult theories about Francis Bacon">Occult theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_and_Bacon" title="Romanticism and Bacon">Romanticism and Bacon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q585046#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata934" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks 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