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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Tubular steel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tubular_steel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reinforced_concrete" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reinforced_concrete"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Reinforced concrete</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reinforced_concrete-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fiberglass" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fiberglass"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Fiberglass</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fiberglass-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Carbon_Fiber" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carbon_Fiber"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Carbon Fiber</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carbon_Fiber-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wood" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wood"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Wood</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wood-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_types_of_antenna_supports_and_structures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_types_of_antenna_supports_and_structures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Other types of antenna supports and structures</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Other_types_of_antenna_supports_and_structures-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Other types of antenna supports and structures subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Other_types_of_antenna_supports_and_structures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Poles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Poles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Buildings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Buildings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Buildings</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Buildings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disguised_cell-sites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disguised_cell-sites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Disguised cell-sites</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disguised_cell-sites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mast_radiators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mast_radiators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Mast radiators</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mast_radiators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Telescopic,_pump-up_and_tiltover_towers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Telescopic,_pump-up_and_tiltover_towers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Telescopic, pump-up and tiltover towers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Telescopic,_pump-up_and_tiltover_towers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Balloons_and_kites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Balloons_and_kites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Balloons and kites</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Balloons_and_kites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Drones" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Drones"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7</span> <span>Drones</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Drones-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_special_structures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_special_structures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8</span> <span>Other special structures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_special_structures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Design_features" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Design_features"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Design features</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Design_features-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Design features subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Design_features-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Economic_and_aesthetic_considerations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_and_aesthetic_considerations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Economic and aesthetic considerations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_and_aesthetic_considerations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Masts_for_HF/shortwave_antennas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Masts_for_HF/shortwave_antennas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Masts for HF/shortwave antennas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Masts_for_HF/shortwave_antennas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Access_for_riggers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Access_for_riggers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Access for riggers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Access_for_riggers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aircraft_warning_features" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aircraft_warning_features"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Aircraft warning features</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aircraft_warning_features-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Light_pollution_and_nuisance_lighting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Light_pollution_and_nuisance_lighting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4.1</span> <span>Light pollution and nuisance lighting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Light_pollution_and_nuisance_lighting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wind-induced_oscillations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wind-induced_oscillations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Wind-induced oscillations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wind-induced_oscillations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hazard_to_birds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hazard_to_birds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Hazard to birds</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hazard_to_birds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Catastrophic_collapses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Catastrophic_collapses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Catastrophic collapses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Catastrophic_collapses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Footnotes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Radio masts and towers</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 26 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-26" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">26 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antennemast_og_antennet%C3%A5rn" title="Antennemast og antennetårn – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Antennemast og antennetårn" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sendemast" title="Sendemast – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Sendemast" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torre_de_telecomunicaciones" title="Torre de telecomunicaciones – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Torre de telecomunicaciones" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elsendomasto" title="Elsendomasto – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Elsendomasto" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%DA%A9%D9%84_%D9%85%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="دکل مخابراتی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دکل مخابراتی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tour_de_transmission" title="Tour de transmission – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Tour de transmission" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B0%A9%EC%86%A1%ED%83%91" title="방송탑 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="방송탑" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%A5%D5%BC%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%A5%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%A1%D5%B7%D5%BF%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AF" title="Հեռուստատեսային աշտարակ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հեռուստատեսային աշտարակ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiang_dan_menara_radio" title="Tiang dan menara radio – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Tiang dan menara radio" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sendimastur" title="Sendimastur – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Sendimastur" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torre_di_trasmissione" title="Torre di trasmissione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Torre di trasmissione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%92%D7%93%D7%9C_%D7%AA%D7%A7%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%AA" title="מגדל תקשורת – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מגדל תקשורת" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stiebas_(statinys)" title="Stiebas (statinys) – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Stiebas (statinys)" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ad%C3%B3torony" title="Adótorony – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Adótorony" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiang_dan_menara_radio" title="Tiang dan menara radio – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Tiang dan menara radio" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zendmast" title="Zendmast – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Zendmast" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E6%B3%A2%E5%A1%94" title="電波塔 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="電波塔" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maszt_radiowy" title="Maszt radiowy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Maszt radiowy" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torre_de_telecomunica%C3%A7%C3%B5es" title="Torre de telecomunicações – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Torre de telecomunicações" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE-%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%87%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Антенно-мачтовое сооружение – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Антенно-мачтовое сооружение" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masto" title="Masto – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Masto" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiomast" title="Radiomast – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Radiomast" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radyo_direkleri_ve_kuleleri" title="Radyo direkleri ve kuleleri – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Radyo direkleri ve kuleleri" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%B0" title="Радіовежа – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Радіовежа" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A1p_truy%E1%BB%81n_h%C3%ACnh" title="Tháp truyền hình – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tháp truyền hình" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E6%B3%A2%E5%A1%94" title="電波塔 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="電波塔" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Antennas" title="Category:Antennas">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Antenna_(radio)" title="Antenna (radio)">Antennas</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="margin-bottom:0.5em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Maszt_radiowy_w_Konstantynowie.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Maszt_radiowy_w_Konstantynowie.jpg/120px-Maszt_radiowy_w_Konstantynowie.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Maszt_radiowy_w_Konstantynowie.jpg/250px-Maszt_radiowy_w_Konstantynowie.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Antenna_types" title="Antenna types">Common types</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid#aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dipole_antenna" title="Dipole antenna">Dipole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fractal_antenna" title="Fractal antenna">Fractal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loop_antenna" title="Loop antenna">Loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopole_antenna" title="Monopole antenna">Monopole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_dish" title="Satellite dish">Satellite dish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_antenna" title="Television antenna">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whip_antenna" title="Whip antenna">Whip</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Components</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid#aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balun" title="Balun">Balun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Block_upconverter" title="Block upconverter">Block upconverter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coaxial_cable" title="Coaxial cable">Coaxial cable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterpoise_(ground_system)" title="Counterpoise (ground system)">Counterpoise (ground system)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antenna_feed" title="Antenna feed">Feed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feed_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Feed line">Feed line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-noise_block_downconverter" title="Low-noise block downconverter">Low-noise block downconverter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_radiator" class="mw-redirect" title="Passive radiator">Passive radiator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Receiver_(radio)" class="mw-redirect" title="Receiver (radio)">Receiver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antenna_rotator" title="Antenna rotator">Rotator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stub_(electronics)" title="Stub (electronics)">Stub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmitter" title="Transmitter">Transmitter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antenna_tuner" title="Antenna tuner">Tuner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twin-lead" title="Twin-lead">Twin-lead</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Systems</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid#aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antenna_farm" title="Antenna farm">Antenna farm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amateur_radio" title="Amateur radio">Amateur radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_network" title="Cellular network">Cellular network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hotspot_(Wi-Fi)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hotspot (Wi-Fi)">Hotspot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_wireless_network" title="Municipal wireless network">Municipal wireless network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">Radio</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Radio masts and towers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wi-Fi" title="Wi-Fi">Wi-Fi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless" title="Wireless">Wireless</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Safety and regulation</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid#aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_device_radiation_and_health" title="Wireless device radiation and health">Wireless device radiation and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_electronic_devices_and_health" class="mw-redirect" title="Wireless electronic devices and health">Wireless electronic devices and health</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/International_Telecommunication_Union" title="International Telecommunication Union">International Telecommunication Union</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/ITU_Radio_Regulations" title="ITU Radio Regulations">Radio Regulations</a>)</div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Radiocommunication_Conference" title="World Radiocommunication Conference">World Radiocommunication Conference</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><span class="nowrap">Radiation sources / regions</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid#aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antenna_boresight" title="Antenna boresight">Boresight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Focal_cloud" title="Focal cloud">Focal cloud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_plane" title="Ground plane">Ground plane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Main_lobe" title="Main lobe">Main lobe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near_and_far_field" title="Near and far field">Near and far field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Side_lobe" class="mw-redirect" title="Side lobe">Side lobe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertical_plane" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertical plane">Vertical plane</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Characteristics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid#aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Array_gain" title="Array gain">Array gain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Directivity" title="Directivity">Directivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antenna_efficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="Antenna efficiency">Efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_length" title="Electrical length">Electrical length</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antenna_equivalent_radius" title="Antenna equivalent radius">Equivalent radius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antenna_factor" title="Antenna factor">Factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friis_transmission_equation" title="Friis transmission equation">Friis transmission equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antenna_gain" class="mw-redirect" title="Antenna gain">Gain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antenna_height_considerations" class="mw-redirect" title="Antenna height considerations">Height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_pattern" title="Radiation pattern">Radiation pattern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_resistance" title="Radiation resistance">Radiation resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_propagation" title="Radio propagation">Radio propagation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_spectrum" title="Radio spectrum">Radio spectrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signal-to-noise_ratio" title="Signal-to-noise ratio">Signal-to-noise ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spurious_emission" title="Spurious emission">Spurious emission</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Techniques</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid#aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beam_steering" title="Beam steering">Beam steering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beam_tilt" title="Beam tilt">Beam tilt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beamforming" title="Beamforming">Beamforming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_cell" title="Small cell">Small cell</a></li></ul> </div> <ul><li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Bell_Laboratories_Layered_Space-Time" title="Bell Laboratories Layered Space-Time">Bell Laboratories Layered<br />Space-Time (BLAST)</a></div></li> <li>Massive <a href="/wiki/MIMO" title="MIMO">Multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO)</a></li></ul> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconfigurable_antenna" title="Reconfigurable antenna">Reconfiguration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spread_spectrum" title="Spread spectrum">Spread spectrum</a></li></ul> </div> <ul><li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/WSDMA" title="WSDMA">Wideband Space Division<br />Multiple Access (WSDMA)</a></div></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Antennas" title="Template:Antennas"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Antennas" title="Template talk:Antennas"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Antennas" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Antennas"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Radio masts and towers</b> are typically tall structures designed to support <a href="/wiki/Antenna_(radio)" title="Antenna (radio)">antennas</a> for <a href="/wiki/Telecommunication" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunication">telecommunications</a> and <a href="/wiki/Broadcasting" title="Broadcasting">broadcasting</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Television" title="Television">television</a>. There are two main types: guyed and self-supporting structures. They are among the tallest human-made structures. Masts are often named after the broadcasting organizations that originally built them or currently use them. </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Mast_radiator" title="Mast radiator">mast radiator</a> or radiating tower is one in which the metal mast or tower itself is energized and functions as the transmitting antenna. </p> <div style="clear:left;" class=""></div> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio_masts_and_towers&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Terminology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tower_base.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Tower_base.jpg/220px-Tower_base.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Tower_base.jpg/330px-Tower_base.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Tower_base.jpg/440px-Tower_base.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption>A radio mast base showing how virtually all lateral support is provided by the guy-wires</figcaption></figure> <p>The terms "mast" and "tower" are often used interchangeably. However, in structural engineering terms, a <b>tower</b> is a self-supporting or <a href="/wiki/Cantilever" title="Cantilever">cantilevered</a> structure, while a <a href="/wiki/Guyed_mast" title="Guyed mast"><b>mast</b></a> is held up by stays or <a href="/wiki/Guy-wire" title="Guy-wire">guy-wires</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>A <i>mast</i></dt> <dd>is a <a href="/wiki/Guyed_mast" title="Guyed mast">guyed mast</a>, a thin structure without the shear strength to stand unsupported, that uses attached <a href="/wiki/Guy_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Guy line">guy lines</a> for stability. They may be mounted on the ground or on top of buildings. Typical <i>masts</i> are of steel lattice or tubular steel construction. Masts tend to be cheaper to build but require an extended area surrounding them to accommodate the guy wires.</dd></dl> <dl><dt>A <i>tower</i></dt> <dd>is a self-supporting structure, possibly also placed on a rooftop, that accomplishes the same purpose of raising actual radiating antennas to a functional height. Since it does not require land area from which to anchor guy lines, towers are more commonly used in cities where land is in short supply.<sup id="cite_ref-mast_vs_tower_note_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mast_vs_tower_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tokyo_Sky_Tree_2012_%E2%85%A3.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Tokyo_Sky_Tree_2012_%E2%85%A3.JPG/250px-Tokyo_Sky_Tree_2012_%E2%85%A3.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="315" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Tokyo_Sky_Tree_2012_%E2%85%A3.JPG/330px-Tokyo_Sky_Tree_2012_%E2%85%A3.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Tokyo_Sky_Tree_2012_%E2%85%A3.JPG/500px-Tokyo_Sky_Tree_2012_%E2%85%A3.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2608" data-file-height="3733" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Tokyo_Skytree" title="Tokyo Skytree">Tokyo Skytree</a> was, in 2012, the tallest freestanding tower in the world</figcaption></figure> <p>There are a few borderline designs that are partly free-standing and partly guyed, called <i><a href="/wiki/Additionally_guyed_tower" class="mw-redirect" title="Additionally guyed tower">additionally guyed towers</a></i>. Examples: </p> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Gerbrandy_tower" class="mw-redirect" title="Gerbrandy tower">Gerbrandy tower</a></dt> <dd>consists of a self-supporting tower with a guyed mast on top.</dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Blaw-Knox_tower" title="Blaw-Knox tower">Blaw-Knox towers</a></dt> <dd>Those few of the towers still standing do the opposite: They have a guyed lower section surmounted by a freestanding part.</dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Zendstation_Smilde" title="Zendstation Smilde">Zendstation Smilde</a></dt> <dd>is a tall tower with a guyed mast on top with guys which go to ground.</dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Torre_de_Collserola" title="Torre de Collserola">Torre de Collserola</a></dt> <dd>is a guyed tower with a guyed mast on top where the tower portion is not free-standing.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio_masts_and_towers&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_broadcasting" title="History of broadcasting">History of broadcasting</a></div> <p>The first experiments in <a href="/wiki/Radio_communication" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio communication">radio communication</a> were conducted by <a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Guglielmo Marconi</a> beginning in 1894. In 1895–1896 he invented the <a href="/wiki/Monopole_antenna" title="Monopole antenna">vertical monopole or Marconi antenna</a>, which was initially a wire suspended from a tall wooden pole. He found that the higher the antenna was suspended, the further he could transmit, the first recognition of the need for height in antennas. Radio began to be used commercially for <a href="/wiki/Radiotelegraph" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiotelegraph">radiotelegraphic</a> communication around 1900.<sup id="cite_ref-Laport-1952_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Laport-1952-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first 20 years of commercial radio were dominated by <a href="/wiki/Radiotelegraph" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiotelegraph">radiotelegraph</a> stations, transmitting over long distances by using very long <a href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">wavelengths</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Very_low_frequency" title="Very low frequency">very low frequency</a> band – such long waves that they are nearly unused at present. Because the extreme wavelengths were one to several kilometers long, even the tallest feasible antennas by comparison were still <a href="/wiki/Electrical_length" title="Electrical length">too short, electrically</a>, and consequently had inherently very low <a href="/wiki/Radiation_resistance" title="Radiation resistance">radiation resistance</a> (only 5~25 Ohms). In any antenna, low radiation resistance leads to excessive power losses in its surrounding <a href="/wiki/Ground_(electricity)" title="Ground (electricity)">ground system</a>, since the low-resistance antenna cannot effectively compete for power with the high-resistance earth. To partially compensate, <a href="/wiki/Radiotelegraph" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiotelegraph">radiotelegraph</a> stations used huge capacitively top-loaded <a href="/wiki/T-antenna" title="T-antenna">flattop antennas</a> consisting of horizontal wires strung between multiple 100–300 meters (330–980 ft) steel towers to increase efficiency.<sup id="cite_ref-Laport-1952_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Laport-1952-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages:  77–78">(pp 77–78)</span></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wire_T_antenna_station_WBZ_1925.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Wire_T_antenna_station_WBZ_1925.jpg/220px-Wire_T_antenna_station_WBZ_1925.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="284" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Wire_T_antenna_station_WBZ_1925.jpg/330px-Wire_T_antenna_station_WBZ_1925.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Wire_T_antenna_station_WBZ_1925.jpg/440px-Wire_T_antenna_station_WBZ_1925.jpg 2x" data-file-width="824" data-file-height="1064" /></a><figcaption>Multiwire broadcast <a href="/wiki/T-antenna" title="T-antenna">T-antenna</a> of early AM station <a href="/wiki/WBZ_(AM)" title="WBZ (AM)">WBZ</a>, <a href="/wiki/Springfield,_Massachusetts" title="Springfield, Massachusetts">Springfield, Massachusetts</a>, 1925.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/AM_broadcasting" title="AM broadcasting">AM</a> <a href="/wiki/Radio_broadcasting" title="Radio broadcasting">radio broadcasting</a> began around 1920. The allocation of the <a href="/wiki/Medium_wave" title="Medium wave">medium wave</a> frequencies for broadcasting raised the possibility of using single vertical masts without top loading. The antenna used for broadcasting through the 1920s was the <a href="/wiki/T-antenna" title="T-antenna">T-antenna</a>, which consisted of two masts with loading wires on top, strung between them, requiring twice the construction costs and land area of a single mast.<sup id="cite_ref-Laport-1952_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Laport-1952-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages:  77–78">(pp 77–78)</span></sup> In 1924 <a href="/wiki/Stuart_Ballantine" title="Stuart Ballantine">Stuart Ballantine</a> published two historic papers which led to the development of the single mast antenna.<sup id="cite_ref-Laport-1952_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Laport-1952-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages:  77–78">(pp 77–78)</span></sup> In the first he derived the <a href="/wiki/Radiation_resistance" title="Radiation resistance">radiation resistance</a> of a vertical conductor over a <a href="/wiki/Ground_plane" title="Ground plane">ground plane</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ballantine-1924_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ballantine-1924-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages:  833–839">(pp 833–839)</span></sup> He found that the radiation resistance increased to a maximum at a length of <span class="nowrap"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1214402035">.mw-parser-output .sfrac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .sfrac.tion,.mw-parser-output .sfrac .tion{display:inline-block;vertical-align:-0.5em;font-size:85%;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sfrac .num{display:block;line-height:1em;margin:0.0em 0.1em;border-bottom:1px solid}.mw-parser-output .sfrac .den{display:block;line-height:1em;margin:0.1em 0.1em}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num"> 1 </span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den"> 2 </span></span>⁠</span> <a href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">wavelength</a>,</span> so a mast around that length had an <a href="/wiki/Radiation_resistance" title="Radiation resistance">input resistance</a> that was much higher than the ground resistance, reducing the fraction of transmitter power that was lost in the ground system without assistance from a capacitive top-load. In a second paper the same year he showed that the amount of power radiated horizontally in <a href="/wiki/Ground_wave" title="Ground wave">ground waves</a> reached a maximum at a mast height of <span class="nowrap"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035" /><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num"> 5 </span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">8</span></span>⁠</span> <a href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">wavelength</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ballantine-1924_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ballantine-1924-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages:  823–832">(pp 823–832)</span></sup> </span> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hillmorton_radio_masts.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Hillmorton_radio_masts.jpg/220px-Hillmorton_radio_masts.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="290" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Hillmorton_radio_masts.jpg/330px-Hillmorton_radio_masts.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Hillmorton_radio_masts.jpg/440px-Hillmorton_radio_masts.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1167" data-file-height="1537" /></a><figcaption>Masts of the <a href="/wiki/Rugby_Radio_Station" title="Rugby Radio Station">Rugby VLF transmitter</a> near <a href="/wiki/Rugby,_Warwickshire" title="Rugby, Warwickshire">Rugby</a>, England</figcaption></figure> <p>By 1930 the expense of the <a href="/wiki/T-antenna" title="T-antenna">T-antenna</a> led broadcasters to adopt the <a href="/wiki/Mast_radiator" title="Mast radiator">mast radiator</a> antenna, in which the metal structure of the mast itself functions as the antenna.<sup id="cite_ref-Laport-1952_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Laport-1952-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages:  79–81">(pp 79–81)</span></sup> One of the first types used was the diamond cantilever or <a href="/wiki/Blaw-Knox_tower" title="Blaw-Knox tower">Blaw-Knox tower</a>. This had a diamond (<a href="/wiki/Rhombohedral" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhombohedral">rhombohedral</a>) shape which made it rigid, so only one set of <a href="/wiki/Guy_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Guy line">guy lines</a> was needed, at its wide waist. The pointed lower end of the antenna ended in a large ceramic insulator in the form of a ball-and-socket joint on a concrete base, relieving bending moments on the structure. The first, a 665 foot (203 m) half-wave mast was installed at radio station <a href="/wiki/WCBS_(AM)" class="mw-redirect" title="WCBS (AM)">WABC</a>'s 50 <a href="/wiki/Kilowatt" class="mw-redirect" title="Kilowatt">kW</a> transmitter at <a href="/wiki/Wayne,_New_Jersey" title="Wayne, New Jersey">Wayne, New Jersey</a> in 1931.<sup id="cite_ref-Radio-Craft_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Radio-Craft-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Siemens-1931_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Siemens-1931-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the 1930s it was found that the diamond shape of the Blaw-Knox tower had an unfavorable current distribution which increased the power emitted at high angles, causing <a href="/wiki/Multipath_fading" class="mw-redirect" title="Multipath fading">multipath fading</a> in the listening area.<sup id="cite_ref-Laport-1952_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Laport-1952-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages:  79–81">(pp 79–81)</span></sup> By the 1940s the AM broadcast industry had abandoned the Blaw-Knox design for the narrow, uniform cross section lattice mast used today, which had a better radiation pattern. </p><p>The rise of <a href="/wiki/FM_radio" class="mw-redirect" title="FM radio">FM radio</a> and <a href="/wiki/Television_broadcasting" class="mw-redirect" title="Television broadcasting">television broadcasting</a> in the 1940s–1950s created a need for even taller masts. The earlier AM broadcasting used <a href="/wiki/Low_frequency" title="Low frequency">LF</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medium_frequency" title="Medium frequency">MF</a> bands, where radio waves propagate as <a href="/wiki/Ground_wave" title="Ground wave">ground waves</a> which follow the contour of the Earth. The ground-hugging waves allowed the signals to travel beyond the horizon, out to hundreds of kilometers. However the newer FM and TV transmitters used the <a href="/wiki/Very_high_frequency" title="Very high frequency">VHF</a> band, in which radio waves travel by <a href="/wiki/Line-of-sight_propagation" title="Line-of-sight propagation">line-of-sight</a>, so they are limited by the <a href="/wiki/Horizon" title="Horizon">visual horizon</a>. The only way to cover larger areas is to raise the antenna high enough so it has a line-of-sight path to them. </p><p>Until 8 August 1991, the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_radio_mast" title="Warsaw radio mast">Warsaw radio mast</a> was the world's tallest supported structure on land; its collapse left the <a href="/wiki/KVLY/KTHI-TV_mast" class="mw-redirect" title="KVLY/KTHI-TV mast">KVLY / KTHI-TV mast</a> as the tallest. There are over 50 radio structures in the United States that are 600 m (<span style="white-space:nowrap">1<span style="margin-left:0.25em">968.5 ft</span></span>) or taller.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Materials">Materials</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio_masts_and_towers&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Materials"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Steel_lattice">Steel lattice</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio_masts_and_towers&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Steel lattice"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Russian_TV_tower_(Penza).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Russian_TV_tower_%28Penza%29.JPG/250px-Russian_TV_tower_%28Penza%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Russian_TV_tower_%28Penza%29.JPG/330px-Russian_TV_tower_%28Penza%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Russian_TV_tower_%28Penza%29.JPG/500px-Russian_TV_tower_%28Penza%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/3803_KM" title="3803 KM">3803 KM</a>-type TV tower located in <a href="/wiki/Penza" title="Penza">Penza</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The steel lattice is the most widespread form of construction. It provides great strength, low weight and wind resistance, and economy in the use of materials. Lattices of triangular cross-section are most common, and square lattices are also widely used. <a href="/wiki/Guyed_mast" title="Guyed mast">Guyed masts</a> are often used; the supporting <a href="/wiki/Guy_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Guy line">guy lines</a> carry lateral forces such as wind loads, allowing the mast to be very narrow and simply constructed. </p><p>When built as a tower, the structure may be parallel-sided or taper over part or all of its height. When constructed of several sections which taper exponentially with height, in the manner of the <a href="/wiki/Eiffel_Tower" title="Eiffel Tower">Eiffel Tower</a>, the tower is said to be an Eiffelized one. The <a href="/wiki/Crystal_Palace_transmitting_station" title="Crystal Palace transmitting station">Crystal Palace</a> tower in <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> is an example. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tubular_steel">Tubular steel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio_masts_and_towers&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Tubular steel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KBRC_antenna_tower_guy_wires.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/KBRC_antenna_tower_guy_wires.JPG/180px-KBRC_antenna_tower_guy_wires.JPG" decoding="async" width="180" height="414" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/KBRC_antenna_tower_guy_wires.JPG/270px-KBRC_antenna_tower_guy_wires.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/KBRC_antenna_tower_guy_wires.JPG/360px-KBRC_antenna_tower_guy_wires.JPG 2x" data-file-width="370" data-file-height="852" /></a><figcaption>Typical 200 foot (61 m) triangular guyed lattice mast of an AM radio station in <a href="/wiki/Mount_Vernon,_Washington" title="Mount Vernon, Washington">Mount Vernon, Washington</a>, US</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Guyed_mast" title="Guyed mast">Guyed masts</a> are sometimes also constructed out of steel tubes. This construction type has the advantage that cables and other components can be protected from weather inside the tube and consequently the structure may look cleaner. These masts are mainly used for FM-/TV-broadcasting, but sometimes also as mast radiator. The big mast of <a href="/wiki/M%C3%BChlacker_radio_transmitter" title="Mühlacker radio transmitter">Mühlacker transmitting station</a> is a good example of this. A disadvantage of this mast type is that it is much more affected by winds than masts with open bodies. Several tubular guyed masts have collapsed. In the UK, the <a href="/wiki/Emley_Moor" class="mw-redirect" title="Emley Moor">Emley Moor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Waltham_transmitting_station" title="Waltham transmitting station">Waltham</a> TV stations masts collapsed in the 1960s. In Germany the <a href="/wiki/Sender_Bielstein" title="Sender Bielstein">Bielstein transmitter</a> collapsed in 1985. Tubular masts were not built in all countries. In Germany, France, UK, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Japan and the Soviet Union, many tubular guyed masts were built, while there are nearly none in Poland or North America. </p><p>Several tubular guyed masts were built in cities in Russia and Ukraine. These masts featured horizontal crossbars running from the central mast structure to the guys and were built in the 1960s. The crossbars of these masts are equipped with a gangway that holds smaller antennas, though their main purpose is oscillation damping. The design designation of these masts is <a href="/wiki/30107_KM" title="30107 KM">30107 KM</a> and they are exclusively used for FM and TV and are between 150–200-metre (490–660 ft) tall with one exception. The exception being the <a href="/wiki/TV_Tower_Vinnytsia" class="mw-redirect" title="TV Tower Vinnytsia">mast in Vinnytsia</a> which has height of 354 m (1161 ft) and is currently the tallest guyed tubular mast in the world after the <a href="/wiki/Belmont_transmitting_station" title="Belmont transmitting station">Belmont transmitting station</a> was reduced in height in 2010. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reinforced_concrete">Reinforced concrete</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio_masts_and_towers&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Reinforced concrete"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fernsehturm_stuttgart.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Fernsehturm_stuttgart.jpg/250px-Fernsehturm_stuttgart.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="428" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Fernsehturm_stuttgart.jpg/330px-Fernsehturm_stuttgart.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Fernsehturm_stuttgart.jpg/500px-Fernsehturm_stuttgart.jpg 2x" data-file-width="946" data-file-height="1840" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Fernsehturm_Stuttgart" title="Fernsehturm Stuttgart">TV Tower</a> in <a href="/wiki/Stuttgart" title="Stuttgart">Stuttgart</a>, Germany: the first reinforced-concrete TV tower.</figcaption></figure> <p>Reinforced concrete towers are relatively expensive to build but provide a high degree of mechanical rigidity in strong winds. This can be important when antennas with narrow beamwidths are used, such as those used for microwave point-to-point links, and when the structure is to be occupied by people. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Katanga_TV_Tower.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Katanga_TV_Tower.jpg/220px-Katanga_TV_Tower.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="391" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Katanga_TV_Tower.jpg/330px-Katanga_TV_Tower.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Katanga_TV_Tower.jpg/440px-Katanga_TV_Tower.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2250" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Katanga TV tower, a reinforced-concrete tower in <a href="/wiki/Jabalpur" title="Jabalpur">Jabalpur</a>, Madhya Pradesh, India.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the 1950s, AT&T built numerous concrete towers, more resembling silos than towers, for its first transcontinental microwave route.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> most towers constructed for point-to-point microwave links are built of <a href="/wiki/Reinforced_concrete" title="Reinforced concrete">reinforced concrete</a>, while in the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">UK</a> most are <a href="/wiki/Lattice_tower" title="Lattice tower">lattice towers</a>. </p><p>Concrete towers can form prestigious landmarks, such as the <a href="/wiki/CN_Tower" title="CN Tower">CN Tower</a> in <a href="/wiki/Toronto" title="Toronto">Toronto</a>, Canada. In addition to accommodating technical staff, these buildings may have public areas such as observation decks or restaurants. </p><p>The Katanga TV tower near <a href="/wiki/Jabalpur" title="Jabalpur">Jabalpur</a>, Madhya Pradesh, in central India hosts a high-power transmitter for the public broadcasters <a href="/wiki/Doordarshan" title="Doordarshan">Doordarshan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prasar_Bharati" title="Prasar Bharati">Prasar Bharati</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Fernsehturm_Stuttgart" title="Fernsehturm Stuttgart">Stuttgart TV tower</a> was the first tower in the world to be built in reinforced concrete. It was designed in 1956 by the local civil engineer <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Leonhardt" title="Fritz Leonhardt">Fritz Leonhardt</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fiberglass">Fiberglass</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio_masts_and_towers&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Fiberglass"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Fiberglass" title="Fiberglass">Fiberglass</a> poles are occasionally used for low-power non-directional beacons or medium-wave broadcast transmitters. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Carbon_Fiber">Carbon Fiber</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio_masts_and_towers&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Carbon Fiber"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Carbon fibre monopoles and towers have traditionally been too expensive but recent developments in the way the carbon fibre tow is spun have resulted in solutions that offer strengths exceeding steel (10 times) for a fraction of the weight (70% less<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) which has allowed monopoles and towers to be built in locations that were too expensive or difficult to access with the heavy lifting equipment that is needed for a steel structure. </p><p> Overall a carbon fiber structure is 40 - 50% faster to be erected compared to traditional building materials.</p><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bratislava,_Star%C3%A9_Mesto,_Slav%C3%ADn,_pohled_na_vys%C3%ADla%C4%8D_Kamz%C3%ADk.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Bratislava%2C_Star%C3%A9_Mesto%2C_Slav%C3%ADn%2C_pohled_na_vys%C3%ADla%C4%8D_Kamz%C3%ADk.jpg/220px-Bratislava%2C_Star%C3%A9_Mesto%2C_Slav%C3%ADn%2C_pohled_na_vys%C3%ADla%C4%8D_Kamz%C3%ADk.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="418" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Bratislava%2C_Star%C3%A9_Mesto%2C_Slav%C3%ADn%2C_pohled_na_vys%C3%ADla%C4%8D_Kamz%C3%ADk.jpg/330px-Bratislava%2C_Star%C3%A9_Mesto%2C_Slav%C3%ADn%2C_pohled_na_vys%C3%ADla%C4%8D_Kamz%C3%ADk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Bratislava%2C_Star%C3%A9_Mesto%2C_Slav%C3%ADn%2C_pohled_na_vys%C3%ADla%C4%8D_Kamz%C3%ADk.jpg/440px-Bratislava%2C_Star%C3%A9_Mesto%2C_Slav%C3%ADn%2C_pohled_na_vys%C3%ADla%C4%8D_Kamz%C3%ADk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Kamz%C3%ADk_TV_Tower" title="Kamzík TV Tower">Kamzík TV Tower</a>, overlooking <a href="/wiki/Bratislava" title="Bratislava">Bratislava</a>, Slovakia.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wood">Wood</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio_masts_and_towers&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Wood"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As of 2022<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Radio_masts_and_towers&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, wood, previously an uncommon material for telecommunications tower construction, has started to become increasingly common. In 2022, a wood telecommunications tower – the first of its kind in Italy – replaced a previously-existing steel structure to blend in with its wooded surroundings.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the most commonly cited reasons telecom companies opt for wood is because it is the only material in the industry that is <a href="/wiki/Climate_Positive_Development_Program" title="Climate Positive Development Program">climate positive</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For this reason, some utility pole distributors started to offer wood towers to meet the growing demands of 5G infrastructure. In the United States, for example, wood utility pole distributor Bell Lumber & Pole began developing products for the <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_industry" title="Telecommunications industry">telecommunications industry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_types_of_antenna_supports_and_structures">Other types of antenna supports and structures</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio_masts_and_towers&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Other types of antenna supports and structures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Poles">Poles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio_masts_and_towers&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Poles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Shorter masts may consist of a self-supporting or guyed wooden pole, similar to a telegraph pole. Sometimes self-supporting tubular <a href="/wiki/Galvanized_steel" class="mw-redirect" title="Galvanized steel">galvanized steel</a> poles are used: these may be termed monopoles. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Buildings">Buildings</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio_masts_and_towers&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Buildings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In some cases, it is possible to install transmitting antennas on the roofs of tall buildings. In <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a>, for instance, there are transmitting antennas on the <a href="/wiki/Empire_State_Building" title="Empire State Building">Empire State Building</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Willis_Tower" title="Willis Tower">Willis Tower</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prudential_Tower" title="Prudential Tower">Prudential Tower</a>, <a href="/wiki/4_Times_Square" title="4 Times Square">4 Times Square</a>, and <a href="/wiki/One_World_Trade_Center" title="One World Trade Center">One World Trade Center</a>. The <a href="/wiki/List_of_tenants_in_1_World_Trade_Center_(1971%E2%80%932001)" class="mw-redirect" title="List of tenants in 1 World Trade Center (1971–2001)">North Tower</a> of the original <a href="/wiki/World_Trade_Center_(1973%E2%80%932001)" title="World Trade Center (1973–2001)">World Trade Center</a> also had a 110-metre (360 ft) telecommunications antenna atop its roof, constructed in 1978–1979, and began transmission in 1980. When the buildings collapsed, several local TV and radio stations were knocked off the air until backup transmitters could be put into service.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such facilities also exist in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>, particularly for portable radio services and low-power <a href="/wiki/Frequency_modulation" title="Frequency modulation">FM</a> radio stations. In <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>, the <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a> erected in 1936 a mast for broadcasting early television on one of the towers of a Victorian building, the <a href="/wiki/Alexandra_Palace" title="Alexandra Palace">Alexandra Palace</a>. It is still in use. </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Finishing_cross_view.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Finishing_cross_view.JPG/220px-Finishing_cross_view.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Finishing_cross_view.JPG/330px-Finishing_cross_view.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Finishing_cross_view.JPG/440px-Finishing_cross_view.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="3072" /></a><figcaption>This 100-foot (30 m) tall cross conceals equipment for <a href="/wiki/T-Mobile_US" title="T-Mobile US">T-Mobile</a> at Epiphany Lutheran Church in <a href="/wiki/Lake_Worth,_Florida" class="mw-redirect" title="Lake Worth, Florida">Lake Worth, Florida</a>, US. Completed in December 2009.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disguised_cell-sites">Disguised cell-sites</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio_masts_and_towers&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Disguised cell-sites"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Disguised cell sites sometimes can be introduced into environments that require a low-impact visual outcome, by being made to look like trees, chimneys or other common structures. </p><p>Many people view bare <a href="/wiki/Cell_site" title="Cell site">cellphone towers</a> as ugly and an intrusion into their neighbourhoods. Even though people increasingly depend upon cellular communications, they are opposed to the bare towers spoiling otherwise scenic views. Many companies offer to 'hide' cellphone towers in, or as, trees, church towers, flag poles, water tanks and other features.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are many providers that offer these services as part of the normal tower installation and maintenance service. These are generally called "stealth towers" or "stealth installations", or simply <a href="/wiki/Cell_site#Camouflage" title="Cell site">concealed cell sites</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wuzhen_Xizha_2009-17.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Wuzhen_Xizha_2009-17.jpg/250px-Wuzhen_Xizha_2009-17.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Wuzhen_Xizha_2009-17.jpg/500px-Wuzhen_Xizha_2009-17.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="2112" /></a><figcaption>Communications tower, at the horizon on the right, <a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">camouflaged</a> as a tall tree.</figcaption></figure> <p>The level of detail and realism achieved by disguised cellphone towers is remarkably high; for example, such towers disguised as trees are nearly indistinguishable from the real thing.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such towers can be placed unobtrusively in <a href="/wiki/National_parks" class="mw-redirect" title="National parks">national parks</a> and other such protected places, such as towers disguised as <a href="/wiki/Cactus" title="Cactus">cacti</a> in United States' <a href="/wiki/Coronado_National_Forest" title="Coronado National Forest">Coronado National Forest</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Even when disguised, however, such towers can create controversy; a tower doubling as a flagpole attracted controversy in 2004 in relation to the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Presidential_Election,_2004" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Presidential Election, 2004">U.S. presidential campaign of that year</a>, and highlighted the sentiment that such disguises serve more to allow the installation of such towers in subterfuge, away from public scrutiny, rather than to serve towards the beautification of the landscape.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style></p><table class="box-Original_research plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Original_research" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This Radio masts and towers <b>possibly contains <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" title="Wikipedia:No original research">original research</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Radio_masts_and_towers&action=edit">improve it</a> by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verifying</a> the claims made and adding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a>. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2007</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mast_radiators">Mast radiators</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio_masts_and_towers&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Mast radiators"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mast_radiator" title="Mast radiator">Mast radiator</a></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Mast_radiator" title="Mast radiator">mast radiator</a> or mast antenna is a radio tower or mast in which the <i>whole structure</i> is an antenna. Mast antennas are the transmitting antennas typical for <a href="/wiki/Long_wave" class="mw-redirect" title="Long wave">long</a> or <a href="/wiki/Medium_wave" title="Medium wave">medium wave</a> broadcasting. </p><p> Structurally, the only difference is that some mast radiators require the mast base to be insulated from the ground. In the case of an insulated tower, there will usually be one insulator supporting each leg. <a href="/wiki/Folded_unipole_antenna" title="Folded unipole antenna">Some mast antenna designs</a> do not require insulation, however, so base insulation is not an essential feature. </p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Woldegk_Sendeturm_Helpterberg_2011-05-06_181.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Woldegk_Sendeturm_Helpterberg_2011-05-06_181.JPG/220px-Woldegk_Sendeturm_Helpterberg_2011-05-06_181.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="309" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Woldegk_Sendeturm_Helpterberg_2011-05-06_181.JPG/330px-Woldegk_Sendeturm_Helpterberg_2011-05-06_181.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Woldegk_Sendeturm_Helpterberg_2011-05-06_181.JPG/440px-Woldegk_Sendeturm_Helpterberg_2011-05-06_181.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1765" data-file-height="2476" /></a><figcaption>Helpterberg Radio Tower</figcaption></figure> <p><br /> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Telescopic,_pump-up_and_tiltover_towers"><span id="Telescopic.2C_pump-up_and_tiltover_towers"></span>Telescopic, pump-up and tiltover towers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio_masts_and_towers&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Telescopic, pump-up and tiltover towers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cell_on_wheels" class="mw-redirect" title="Cell on wheels">Cell on wheels</a></div> <p>A special form of the radio tower is the <i>telescopic mast</i>. These can be erected very quickly. Telescopic masts are used predominantly in setting up temporary radio links for reporting on major news events, and for temporary communications in emergencies. They are also used in tactical military networks. They can save money by needing to withstand high winds only when raised, and as such are widely used in <a href="/wiki/Amateur_radio" title="Amateur radio">amateur radio</a>. </p><p>Telescopic masts consist of two or more concentric sections and come in two principal types: </p> <ul><li>Pump-up masts are often used on vehicles, and are raised to their full height pneumatically or hydraulically. They are usually only strong enough to support fairly small antennas.</li> <li>Telescopic lattice masts are raised by means of a winch, which may be powered by hand or an electric motor. These tend to cater for greater heights and loads than the pump-up type. When retracted, the whole assembly can sometimes be lowered to a horizontal position by means of a second tiltover winch. This enables antennas to be fitted and adjusted at ground level before winching the mast up.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Balloons_and_kites">Balloons and kites</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio_masts_and_towers&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Balloons and kites"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A tethered <a href="/wiki/Balloon" title="Balloon">balloon</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Kite_flying" class="mw-redirect" title="Kite flying">kite</a> can serve as a temporary support. It can carry an antenna or a wire (for VLF, LW or MW) up to an appropriate height. Such an arrangement is used occasionally by military agencies or radio amateurs. The American broadcasters <a href="/wiki/TV_Mart%C3%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="TV Martí">TV Martí</a> broadcast a television program to <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a> by means of such a balloon. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Drones">Drones</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio_masts_and_towers&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Drones"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2013, interest began in using <a href="/wiki/Unmanned_aerial_vehicle" title="Unmanned aerial vehicle">unmanned aerial vehicles</a> (drones) for telecom purposes.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_special_structures">Other special structures</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio_masts_and_towers&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Other special structures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_spans#Antenna_spans_across_valleys" title="List of spans">List of spans § Antenna spans across valleys</a></div> <p>For two <a href="/wiki/Very_low_frequency" title="Very low frequency">VLF</a> transmitters wire antennas spun across deep valleys are used. The wires are supported by small masts or towers or rock anchors. The same technique was also used at <a href="/wiki/Criggion_radio_station" class="mw-redirect" title="Criggion radio station">Criggion radio station</a>. </p><p>For ELF transmitters <a href="/wiki/Ground_dipole" title="Ground dipole">ground dipole</a> antennas are used. Such structures require no tall masts. They consist of two electrodes buried deep in the ground at least a few dozen kilometres apart. From the transmitter building to the electrodes, overhead feeder lines run. These lines look like power lines of the 10 kV level, and are installed on similar pylons. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Design_features">Design features</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio_masts_and_towers&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Design features"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_and_aesthetic_considerations">Economic and aesthetic considerations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio_masts_and_towers&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Economic and aesthetic considerations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Felsenegg_-_Girstel_IMG_3263.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Felsenegg_-_Girstel_IMG_3263.jpg/200px-Felsenegg_-_Girstel_IMG_3263.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Felsenegg_-_Girstel_IMG_3263.jpg/300px-Felsenegg_-_Girstel_IMG_3263.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Felsenegg_-_Girstel_IMG_3263.jpg/400px-Felsenegg_-_Girstel_IMG_3263.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Felsenegg-Girstel_TV-tower" class="mw-redirect" title="Felsenegg-Girstel TV-tower">Felsenegg-Girstel TV-tower</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Limmattal_-_Swisscom-Tower_-_Uetlibergturm_IMG_1652.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Limmattal_-_Swisscom-Tower_-_Uetlibergturm_IMG_1652.JPG/250px-Limmattal_-_Swisscom-Tower_-_Uetlibergturm_IMG_1652.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Limmattal_-_Swisscom-Tower_-_Uetlibergturm_IMG_1652.JPG/500px-Limmattal_-_Swisscom-Tower_-_Uetlibergturm_IMG_1652.JPG 1.5x" data-file-width="3606" data-file-height="2404" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Uetliberg_TV-tower" class="mw-redirect" title="Uetliberg TV-tower">Uetliberg TV-tower</a></figcaption></figure> <ul><li>The cost of a mast or tower is roughly proportional to the square of its height.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>A guyed mast is cheaper to build than a self-supporting tower of equal height.</li> <li>A guyed mast needs additional land to accommodate the guys, and is thus best suited to rural locations where land is relatively cheap. An unguyed tower will fit into a much smaller plot.</li> <li>A steel lattice tower is cheaper to build than a concrete tower of equal height.</li> <li>Two small towers may be less intrusive, visually, than one big one, especially if they look identical.</li> <li>Towers look less ugly if they and the antennas mounted on them appear symmetrical.</li> <li>Concrete towers can be built with aesthetic design considerations. They are sometimes built in prominent places and include observation decks or restaurants.</li></ul> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AmateurRadioAntenna.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/AmateurRadioAntenna.JPG/200px-AmateurRadioAntenna.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="360" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/AmateurRadioAntenna.JPG/300px-AmateurRadioAntenna.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/AmateurRadioAntenna.JPG/400px-AmateurRadioAntenna.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1557" data-file-height="2799" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Radio_amateur" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio amateur">radio amateur</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Do_it_yourself" title="Do it yourself">do it yourself</a> steel-lattice tower</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Antenne-webcam-grosser-feldberg001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Antenne-webcam-grosser-feldberg001.jpg/250px-Antenne-webcam-grosser-feldberg001.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Antenne-webcam-grosser-feldberg001.jpg/330px-Antenne-webcam-grosser-feldberg001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Antenne-webcam-grosser-feldberg001.jpg/500px-Antenne-webcam-grosser-feldberg001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2136" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bergwacht" title="Bergwacht">Bergwacht</a> antenna with a webcam mounted to aid in <a href="/wiki/Weather_forecasting" title="Weather forecasting">weather forecasting</a> and observations of the <a href="/wiki/Gro%C3%9Fer_Feldberg" title="Großer Feldberg">Großer Feldberg</a> plateau.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Masts_for_HF/shortwave_antennas"><span id="Masts_for_HF.2Fshortwave_antennas"></span>Masts for HF/shortwave antennas</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio_masts_and_towers&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Masts for HF/shortwave antennas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For transmissions in the <a href="/wiki/Shortwave" class="mw-redirect" title="Shortwave">shortwave</a> range, there is little to be gained by raising the antenna more than a half to three quarters of a <a href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">wavelength</a> above ground level, and at lower frequencies and longer wavelengths, the height becomes infeasibly great (greater than 85 metres (279 ft)). Shortwave transmitters rarely use masts taller than about 100 metres. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Access_for_riggers">Access for riggers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio_masts_and_towers&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Access for riggers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Because masts, towers and the antennas mounted on them require maintenance, access to the whole of the structure is necessary. Small structures are typically accessed with a <a href="/wiki/Ladder" title="Ladder">ladder</a>. Larger structures, which tend to require more frequent maintenance, may have stairs and sometimes a lift, also called a service elevator. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aircraft_warning_features">Aircraft warning features</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio_masts_and_towers&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Aircraft warning features"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> Tall structures in excess of certain legislated heights are often equipped with <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_warning_lights" class="mw-redirect" title="Aircraft warning lights">aircraft warning lamps</a>, usually red, to warn pilots of the structure's existence. In the past, ruggedized and under-run filament lamps were used to maximize the bulb life. Alternatively, neon lamps were used. Nowadays such lamps tend to use <a href="/wiki/Light-emitting_diode" title="Light-emitting diode">LED</a> arrays.</p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jamshoro_Cellular_Tower.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Jamshoro_Cellular_Tower.jpg/250px-Jamshoro_Cellular_Tower.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Jamshoro_Cellular_Tower.jpg/330px-Jamshoro_Cellular_Tower.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Jamshoro_Cellular_Tower.jpg/500px-Jamshoro_Cellular_Tower.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3024" data-file-height="4032" /></a><figcaption>Radio tower in <a href="/wiki/Jamshoro" title="Jamshoro">Jamshoro</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Height requirements vary across states and countries, and may include additional rules such as requiring a white flashing strobe in the daytime and pulsating red fixtures at night. Structures over a certain height may also be required to be painted with <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_warning_paint" class="mw-redirect" title="Aircraft warning paint">contrasting color schemes</a> such as white and orange or white and red to make them more visible against the sky. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Light_pollution_and_nuisance_lighting">Light pollution and nuisance lighting</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio_masts_and_towers&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Light pollution and nuisance lighting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In some countries where <a href="/wiki/Light_pollution" title="Light pollution">light pollution</a> is a concern, tower heights may be restricted so as to reduce or eliminate the need for aircraft warning lights. For example, in the United States the <a href="/wiki/1996_Telecommunications_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="1996 Telecommunications Act">1996 Telecommunications Act</a> allows local jurisdictions to set maximum heights for towers, such as limiting tower height to below 200 feet (61 m) and therefore not requiring aircraft illumination under US <a href="/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission" title="Federal Communications Commission">Federal Communications Commission</a> (FCC) rules. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wind-induced_oscillations">Wind-induced oscillations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio_masts_and_towers&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Wind-induced oscillations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One problem with radio masts is the danger of wind-induced oscillations. This is particularly a concern with steel tube construction. One can reduce this by building cylindrical shock-mounts into the construction. One finds such shock-mounts, which look like cylinders thicker than the mast, for example, at the radio masts of <a href="/wiki/VLF_transmitter_DHO38" title="VLF transmitter DHO38">DHO38</a> in <a href="/wiki/Saterland" title="Saterland">Saterland</a>. There are also constructions, which consist of a free-standing tower, usually from <a href="/wiki/Reinforced_concrete" title="Reinforced concrete">reinforced concrete</a>, onto which a guyed radio mast is installed. One example is the <a href="/wiki/Gerbrandy_Tower" title="Gerbrandy Tower">Gerbrandy Tower</a> in <a href="/wiki/Lopik" title="Lopik">Lopik</a>, Netherlands. Further towers of this building method can be found near <a href="/wiki/Zendstation_Smilde" title="Zendstation Smilde">Smilde</a>, Netherlands and the <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernsehturm_Waldenburg" class="extiw" title="de:Fernsehturm Waldenburg">Fernsehturm</a> in <a href="/wiki/Waldenburg,_Baden-W%C3%BCrttemberg" title="Waldenburg, Baden-Württemberg">Waldenburg</a>, Germany. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">Radio</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wireless_tower.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Wireless_tower.svg/60px-Wireless_tower.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="59" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Wireless_tower.svg/120px-Wireless_tower.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="507" data-file-height="595" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Forms</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">Radio</a> (overland)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_radio" title="Satellite radio">Satellite radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_radio" title="Internet radio">Internet radio</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Uses and forms</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Talk_radio" title="Talk radio">Talk radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_talk_radio" title="Internet talk radio">Internet talk radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_radio" title="Music radio">Music radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Call-in" class="mw-redirect" title="Call-in">Call-in (radio)</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Developments</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radio_station" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio station">Radio station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most-listened-to_radio_programs" title="List of most-listened-to radio programs">Most listened-to programs</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Physics and engineering</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radio_waves" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio waves">Radio waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_tower" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio tower">Radio tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_signal" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio signal">Radio signal</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Radio_sidebar" title="Template:Radio sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Radio_sidebar" title="Template talk:Radio sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Radio_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Radio sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hazard_to_birds">Hazard to birds</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio_masts_and_towers&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Hazard to birds"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Towerkill" title="Towerkill">Towerkill</a></div> <p>Radio, television and cell towers have been documented to pose a hazard to birds. Reports have been issued documenting known bird fatalities and calling for research to find ways to minimize the hazard that communications towers can pose to birds.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There have also been instances of rare birds nesting in cell towers and thereby preventing repair work due to legislation intended to protect them.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Catastrophic_collapses">Catastrophic collapses</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio_masts_and_towers&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Catastrophic collapses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_catastrophic_collapses_of_radio_masts_and_towers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of catastrophic collapses of radio masts and towers">List of catastrophic collapses of radio masts and towers</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Nuvola_apps_ksim.png/28px-Nuvola_apps_ksim.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Nuvola_apps_ksim.png/42px-Nuvola_apps_ksim.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Nuvola_apps_ksim.png/56px-Nuvola_apps_ksim.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Electronics" title="Portal:Electronics">Electronics portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/28px-Telecom-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/42px-Telecom-icon.svg.png 1.5x, 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.reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-mast_vs_tower_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mast_vs_tower_note_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Broadcast engineers in the U.K. use the same terminology as the U.S., but terminology "mast" and "tower" as used in English speaking countries makes a different distinction from their use in continental Europe: The distinction in the terminology in non-English speaking countries is based on how the structure is kept aloft; in English speaking countries, the distinction is more over whether the structure seems relatively big or small. <dl><dd></dd></dl> In the U.S., structures called <i>masts</i> are typically relatively small, un-guyed structures, while larger structures, whether guyed or un-guyed, are referred to as <i>towers</i>. The U.S. <a href="/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission" title="Federal Communications Commission">Federal Communications Commission</a> regulations, for example, use <i>tower</i> to describe structures used for radio or television transmission, regardless of whether it is guyed or not. </span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio_masts_and_towers&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 12em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antenna_(radio)" title="Antenna (radio)">Antenna (radio)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_on_wheels" class="mw-redirect" title="Cell on wheels">Cell on wheels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_site" title="Cell site">Cell site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folded_unipole_antenna" title="Folded unipole antenna">Folded unipole antenna</a> (a newer type of mast antenna)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lattice_tower" title="Lattice tower">Lattice tower</a> (also lists radio towers built of wood)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mast_radiator" title="Mast radiator">Mast radiator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Measurement_tower" title="Measurement tower">Measurement tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_cell_sites" title="Mobile cell sites">Mobile cell sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_RF_safety_monitor" title="Personal RF safety monitor">Personal RF safety monitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T-antenna" title="T-antenna">T-antenna</a> (an old type of mast antenna)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Targeting_Towers" class="mw-redirect" title="Targeting Towers">Targeting Towers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecom_infrastructure_sharing" title="Telecom infrastructure sharing">Telecom infrastructure sharing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tower_array" title="Tower array">Tower array</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmitter_station" title="Transmitter station">Transmitter station</a></li></ul> </div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio_masts_and_towers&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://telecomtowers.typepad.com/blog/2010/10/telecom-tower-types.html">"Telecom Tower Types"</a>. <i>Telecom Tower Manufacturer</i>. Honekai Media. 31 October 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Coronado National Forest / Tucson, AZ. <i>Marlaine Services</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Marlaine+Services&rft.atitle=Sabino+Canyon+Recreational+Area&rft.aulast=Wunderlich&rft.aufirst=Marv&rft.au=Wunderlich%2C+Elaine&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.marlaine.com%2Fpersonal%2FTucson%2FSabinoCanyon%2FSabino.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio+masts+and+towers" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFConway" class="citation web cs1">Conway, Bruce. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070217033709/http://www.lightwatcher.com/culturejam/stealth_towers.html">"Stealth cell towers and the 2004 U.S. Presidential Elections"</a>. <i>Lightwatcher</i>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.earthjustice.org/sites/default/files/library/reports/ABC_towerkillweb.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 12 July 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 September</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Communication+towers%3A+A+deadly+hazard+to+birds&rft.pub=American+Bird+Conservancy&rft.date=2000-06&rft.aulast=Shire&rft.aufirst=Gavin+G.&rft.au=Brown%2C+Karen&rft.au=Winegrad%2C+Gerald&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.earthjustice.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Flibrary%2Freports%2FABC_towerkillweb.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio+masts+and+towers" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fws.gov/migratorybirds/CurrentBirdIssues/Hazards/towers/towers.htm">Avian Collisions at Communication Towers: Sources of information</a> (Report). <a href="/wiki/U.S._Fish_and_Wildlife_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service">U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service</a>. June 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 August</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Avian+Collisions+at+Communication+Towers%3A+Sources+of+information&rft.pub=U.S.+Fish+and+Wildlife+Service&rft.date=2009-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fws.gov%2Fmigratorybirds%2FCurrentBirdIssues%2FHazards%2Ftowers%2Ftowers.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio+masts+and+towers" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-hampshire-22144488">"Nesting falcon hits Vodafone customers in Southampton"</a>. BBC News. 15 April 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 May</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nesting+falcon+hits+Vodafone+customers+in+Southampton&rft.pub=BBC+News&rft.date=2013-04-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fuk-england-hampshire-22144488&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio+masts+and+towers" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRay2013" class="citation news cs1">Ray, Bill (17 April 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theregister.co.uk/2013/04/17/falcon/">"Angry Birds fire back: Vulture cousins menace U.K. city's mobiles"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Register" title="The Register">The Register</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 May</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Register&rft.atitle=Angry+Birds+fire+back%3A+Vulture+cousins+menace+U.K.+city%27s+mobiles&rft.date=2013-04-17&rft.aulast=Ray&rft.aufirst=Bill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theregister.co.uk%2F2013%2F04%2F17%2Ffalcon%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio+masts+and+towers" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio_masts_and_towers&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSreevidyaSubramanian2003" class="citation journal cs1">Sreevidya, S.; Subramanian, N. (September 2003). "Aesthetic appraisal to antenna towers". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Architectural_Engineering" title="Journal of Architectural Engineering">Journal of Architectural Engineering</a></i>. <b>9</b> (3). <a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Civil_Engineers" title="American Society of Civil Engineers">American Society of Civil Engineers</a>: <span class="nowrap">102–</span>108. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1061%2F%28ASCE%291076-0431%282003%299%3A3%28102%29">10.1061/(ASCE)1076-0431(2003)9:3(102)</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Architectural+Engineering&rft.atitle=Aesthetic+appraisal+to+antenna+towers&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E102-%3C%2Fspan%3E108&rft.date=2003-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1061%2F%28ASCE%291076-0431%282003%299%3A3%28102%29&rft.aulast=Sreevidya&rft.aufirst=S.&rft.au=Subramanian%2C+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio+masts+and+towers" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAmerican_Society_of_Civil_Engineers._Subcommittee_on_Guyed_Transmission_Structures1997" class="citation journal cs1">American Society of Civil Engineers. Subcommittee on Guyed Transmission Structures (1997). "Design of Guyed Electrical Transmission Structures". <i>ASCE Manuals and Reports on Engineering Practice</i>. <b>91</b> (91). American Society of Civil Engineers.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ASCE+Manuals+and+Reports+on+Engineering+Practice&rft.atitle=Design+of+Guyed+Electrical+Transmission+Structures&rft.volume=91&rft.issue=91&rft.date=1997&rft.au=American+Society+of+Civil+Engineers.+Subcommittee+on+Guyed+Transmission+Structures&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio+masts+and+towers" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780784402849" title="Special:BookSources/9780784402849">9780784402849</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio_masts_and_towers&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/60px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Antenna_towers" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Antenna towers">Antenna towers</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wireless2.fcc.gov/UlsApp/AsrSearch/asrRegistrationSearch.jsp">"All U.S. towers over 200 feet"</a>. <i>wireless.fcc.gov</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=wireless.fcc.gov&rft.atitle=All+U.S.+towers+over+200+feet&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwireless2.fcc.gov%2FUlsApp%2FAsrSearch%2FasrRegistrationSearch.jsp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio+masts+and+towers" class="Z3988"></span> — Towers transmitting on certain frequencies, or having transmitters over a certain power, must be registered in the US. This is the online directory.</li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 25em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation audio-visual cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tx.mb21.co.uk/gallery/"><i>Broadcast transmission sites in the U.K.</i></a> <i>Transmission Gallery</i> (photos).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Broadcast+transmission+sites+in+the+U.K.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftx.mb21.co.uk%2Fgallery%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio+masts+and+towers" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060114035155/http://tx.mb21.co.uk/features/construction/index.asp">"Constructing stayed masts"</a>. <i>Transmission Gallery</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tx.mb21.co.uk/features/construction/index.asp">the original</a> on 14 January 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Transmission+Gallery&rft.atitle=Constructing+stayed+masts&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftx.mb21.co.uk%2Ffeatures%2Fconstruction%2Findex.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio+masts+and+towers" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFybush" class="citation audio-visual cs1">Fybush, Scott. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fybush.com"><i>international tower photographer who has documented thousands of towers in his travels</i></a>. <i>fybush.com</i> (photos).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=international+tower+photographer+who+has+documented+thousands+of+towers+in+his+travels&rft.aulast=Fybush&rft.aufirst=Scott&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fybush.com&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio+masts+and+towers" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBosscher" class="citation audio-visual cs1">Bosscher, Tom. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060501065954/http://www.broadcast.net/~sbe102/towers.html"><i>Western Michigan's website on towers of Michigan</i></a>. <i>broadcast.net/~sbe102</i> (photos). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.broadcast.net/~sbe102/towers.html">the original</a> on 1 May 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Western+Michigan%27s+website+on+towers+of+Michigan&rft.aulast=Bosscher&rft.aufirst=Tom&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.broadcast.net%2F~sbe102%2Ftowers.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio+masts+and+towers" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFitzpatrick" class="citation audio-visual cs1">Fitzpatrick, Mike. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.necrat.us"><i>contains tower pictures from New England, New York, and beyond</i></a>. <i>NECRAT.US tower based website</i> (photos).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=contains+tower+pictures+from+New+England%2C+New+York%2C+and+beyond&rft.aulast=Fitzpatrick&rft.aufirst=Mike&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.necrat.us&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio+masts+and+towers" class="Z3988"></span> — contains tower pictures from New England, New York, and beyond</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ser.net.tr">"Turkish towers"</a>. <i>ser.net.tr</i> (in Turkish).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ser.net.tr&rft.atitle=Turkish+towers&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ser.net.tr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio+masts+and+towers" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.n0hr.com/ham_radio_tower.htm">"Amateur radio tower construction project"</a>. <i>n0hr.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=n0hr.com&rft.atitle=Amateur+radio+tower+construction+project&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.n0hr.com%2Fham_radio_tower.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio+masts+and+towers" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.windpole.com">"Displays over <span style="white-space:nowrap">12<span style="margin-left:0.25em">000</span></span> towers at least 80 meters tall, used in wind resource assessment"</a>. <i>windpole.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=windpole.com&rft.atitle=Displays+over+%3Cspan+style%3D%22white-space%3Anowrap%22%3E12%3Cspan+style%3D%22margin-left%3A0.25em%22%3E000%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3E+towers+at+least+80+meters+tall%2C+used+in+wind+resource+assessment&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.windpole.com&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio+masts+and+towers" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://perso.wanadoo.fr/tvignaud/">"French towers"</a>. <i>wanadoo.fr</i> (in French).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=wanadoo.fr&rft.atitle=French+towers&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fperso.wanadoo.fr%2Ftvignaud%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio+masts+and+towers" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20020219140503/http://www.mobar.org/journal/2001/julaug/oflaherty.htm">"The legal landscape when a tower collapses"</a>. <i>mobar.org/journal/2001</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mobar.org/journal/2001/julaug/oflaherty.htm">the original</a> on 19 February 2002.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=mobar.org%2Fjournal%2F2001&rft.atitle=The+legal+landscape+when+a+tower+collapses&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mobar.org%2Fjournal%2F2001%2Fjulaug%2Foflaherty.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio+masts+and+towers" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMoore" class="citation audio-visual cs1">Moore, Richard. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20121209120811/http://www.the-moores.co.uk/MediaGallery/Default.aspx?directory=56"><i>U.K. TV and radio transmission sites</i></a>. <i>Anorak Zone photo gallery (the-moores.co.uk)</i> (photos). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.the-moores.co.uk/MediaGallery/Default.aspx?directory=56">the original</a> on 9 December 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=U.K.+TV+and+radio+transmission+sites&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.the-moores.co.uk%2FMediaGallery%2FDefault.aspx%3Fdirectory%3D56&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio+masts+and+towers" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080916075900/http://www.mobilemastinfo.com/information/fact_sheets/mobile_phones_and_base_stations.htm">"Mobile phone masts & radio base station planning U.K."</a> <i>mobilemastinfo.com</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mobilemastinfo.com/information/fact_sheets/mobile_phones_and_base_stations.htm">the original</a> on 16 September 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=mobilemastinfo.com&rft.atitle=Mobile+phone+masts+%26+radio+base+station+planning+U.K.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mobilemastinfo.com%2Finformation%2Ffact_sheets%2Fmobile_phones_and_base_stations.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio+masts+and+towers" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation audio-visual cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.troyb.net/portfolio/towers.html"><i>Various communication masts & towers near Atlanta, Georgia</i></a>. <i>troyb.net</i> (photos).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Various+communication+masts+%26+towers+near+Atlanta%2C+Georgia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.troyb.net%2Fportfolio%2Ftowers.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio+masts+and+towers" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thebigtower.com/live/INDEX/Index.htm">"UK masts and towers"</a>. <i>thebigtower.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=thebigtower.com&rft.atitle=UK+masts+and+towers&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thebigtower.com%2Flive%2FINDEX%2FIndex.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio+masts+and+towers" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://maps.spench.net/rf/">"Searchable map of all registered transmitters in Australia"</a>. <i>maps.spench.net/rf</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=maps.spench.net%2Frf&rft.atitle=Searchable+map+of+all+registered+transmitters+in+Australia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmaps.spench.net%2Frf%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadio+masts+and+towers" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output 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mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Tallest_buildings_and_structures" title="Template:Tallest buildings and structures"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Tallest_buildings_and_structures" title="Template talk:Tallest buildings and structures"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Tallest_buildings_and_structures" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Tallest buildings and structures"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Tallest_buildings_and_structures278" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_and_structures" title="List of tallest buildings and structures">Tallest buildings and structures</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_world%27s_tallest_buildings" title="History of the world's tallest buildings">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skyscraper" title="Skyscraper">Skyscraper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storey" title="Storey">Storey</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings" title="List of tallest buildings">Buildings</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Africa" title="List of tallest buildings in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Asia" title="List of tallest buildings in Asia">Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_and_structures_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="List of tallest buildings and structures in the Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Southeast_Asia" title="List of tallest buildings in Southeast Asia">Southeast</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Europe" title="List of tallest buildings in Europe">Europe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_the_Balkans" title="List of tallest buildings in the Balkans">Balkans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_the_Baltic_states" title="List of tallest buildings in the Baltic states">Baltic states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Scandinavia" title="List of tallest buildings in Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Oceania" title="List of tallest buildings in Oceania">Oceania</a></li> <li>The Americas <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_North_America" title="List of tallest buildings in North America">North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Central_America" title="List of tallest buildings in Central America">Central America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Latin_America" title="List of tallest buildings in Latin America">Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_South_America" title="List of tallest buildings in South America">South America</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_by_country" title="List of tallest buildings by country">By country</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Albania" title="List of tallest buildings in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Algeria" title="List of tallest buildings in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Argentina" title="List of tallest buildings in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Australia" title="List of tallest buildings in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Austria" title="List of tallest buildings in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Azerbaijan" title="List of tallest buildings in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Bangladesh" title="List of tallest buildings in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Bolivia" title="List of tallest buildings in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="List of tallest buildings in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Brazil" title="List of tallest buildings in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Bulgaria" title="List of tallest buildings in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Cambodia" title="List of tallest buildings in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Canada" title="List of tallest buildings in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Chile" title="List of tallest buildings in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_China" title="List of tallest buildings in China">China</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Hong_Kong" title="List of tallest buildings in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Macau" title="List of tallest buildings in Macau">Macau</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Colombia" title="List of tallest buildings in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Croatia" title="List of tallest buildings in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Cyprus" title="List of tallest buildings in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="List of tallest buildings in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Denmark" title="List of tallest buildings in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Ecuador" title="List of tallest buildings in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Estonia" title="List of tallest buildings in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Finland" title="List of tallest buildings in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_France" title="List of tallest buildings in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Georgia_(country)" title="List of tallest buildings in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Germany" title="List of tallest buildings in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_and_structures_in_Greece" title="List of tallest buildings and structures in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Iceland" class="mw-redirect" title="List of tallest buildings in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_India" title="List of tallest buildings in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Indonesia" title="List of tallest buildings in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Iran" title="List of tallest buildings in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Ireland" title="List of tallest buildings in Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Israel" title="List of tallest buildings in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Italy" title="List of tallest buildings in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_Japan" title="List of tallest structures in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Kazakhstan" title="List of tallest buildings in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Kenya" title="List of tallest buildings in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Kosovo" title="List of tallest buildings in Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Kuwait" title="List of tallest buildings in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Latvia" title="List of tallest buildings in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Lebanon" title="List of tallest buildings in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Lithuania" title="List of tallest buildings in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Malaysia" title="List of tallest buildings in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Malta" title="List of tallest buildings in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Mexico" title="List of tallest buildings in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Monaco" title="List of tallest buildings in Monaco">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Mongolia" title="List of tallest buildings in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Morocco" title="List of tallest buildings in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Myanmar" title="List of tallest buildings in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_the_Netherlands" title="List of tallest buildings in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Nigeria" title="List of tallest buildings in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_North_Korea" title="List of tallest buildings in North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_North_Macedonia" title="List of tallest buildings in North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Norway" title="List of tallest buildings in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Panama_City" title="List of tallest buildings in Panama City">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Pakistan" title="List of tallest buildings in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Peru" title="List of tallest buildings in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_the_Philippines" title="List of tallest structures in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Poland" title="List of tallest buildings in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Portugal" title="List of tallest buildings in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Romania" title="List of tallest buildings in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Russia" title="List of tallest buildings in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="List of tallest buildings in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_Serbia#Buildings" title="List of tallest structures in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Singapore" title="List of tallest buildings in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Slovenia" title="List of tallest buildings in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Slovakia" title="List of tallest buildings in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_South_Africa" title="List of tallest buildings in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_South_Korea" title="List of tallest buildings in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Spain" title="List of tallest buildings in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Sweden" title="List of tallest buildings in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Switzerland" title="List of tallest buildings in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Taiwan" title="List of tallest buildings in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Tanzania" title="List of tallest buildings in Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_Thailand" title="List of tallest structures in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Turkey" title="List of tallest buildings in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Ukraine" title="List of tallest buildings in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="List of tallest buildings in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of tallest buildings in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_the_United_States" title="List of tallest buildings in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Uruguay" title="List of tallest buildings in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Venezuela" title="List of tallest buildings in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Vietnam" title="List of tallest buildings in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Zimbabwe" title="List of tallest buildings in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_buildings_with_100_floors_or_more" title="List of buildings with 100 floors or more">100+ floors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_architects_of_supertall_buildings" title="List of architects of supertall buildings">Architects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_by_height_to_roof" class="mw-redirect" title="List of tallest buildings by height to roof">Buildings by height to roof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_with_the_most_skyscrapers" title="List of cities with the most skyscrapers">Cities with most skyscrapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_with_the_most_skyscrapers" title="List of countries with the most skyscrapers">Countries with most skyscrapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_church_buildings" title="List of tallest church buildings">Churches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_designed_by_women" title="List of tallest buildings designed by women">Designed by women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_Eastern_Orthodox_church_buildings" title="List of tallest Eastern Orthodox church buildings">Eastern Orthodox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_mosques" title="List of tallest mosques">Mosques</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_educational_buildings" title="List of tallest educational buildings">Educational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_future_tallest_buildings" class="mw-redirect" title="List of future tallest buildings">Future</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_hospitals" title="List of tallest hospitals">Hospitals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_hotels" title="List of tallest hotels">Hotels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most_expensive_buildings" title="List of most expensive buildings">Most expensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_residential_buildings" title="List of tallest residential buildings">Residential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_skyscrapers_by_floor_area" title="List of skyscrapers by floor area">Skyscrapers by floor area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_by_city" title="List of tallest buildings by city">Tallest buildings by city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_twin_buildings_and_structures" title="List of tallest twin buildings and structures">Twin buildings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_voluntarily_demolished_buildings" title="List of tallest voluntarily demolished buildings">Voluntarily demolished</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_wooden_buildings" title="List of tallest wooden buildings">Wood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_early_skyscrapers" title="List of early skyscrapers">Early skyscrapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_supertall_skyscrapers" title="List of supertall skyscrapers">Supertall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_megatall_skyscrapers" title="List of megatall skyscrapers">Megatall</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures" title="List of tallest structures">Structures</a><br />(of any type)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_Africa" title="List of tallest structures in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li>Asia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_the_Middle_East" title="List of tallest structures in the Middle East">West Asia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_Europe" title="List of tallest structures in Europe">Europe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_built_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of tallest structures built in the Soviet Union">former Soviet Union</a></li></ul></li> <li>The Americas <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_South_America" title="List of tallest structures in South America">South America</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_by_country" title="List of tallest structures by country">By country</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_and_structures_in_Afghanistan" title="List of tallest buildings and structures in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_Albania" title="List of tallest structures in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_Algeria" title="List of tallest structures in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_Armenia" title="List of tallest structures in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_Australia" title="List of tallest structures in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_Austria" title="List of tallest structures in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_Bahrain" title="List of tallest structures in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_Belgium" title="List of tallest structures in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_Bulgaria" title="List of tallest structures in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_Canada" title="List of tallest structures in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_China" title="List of tallest structures in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="List of tallest structures in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_Denmark" title="List of tallest structures in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_and_structures_in_Egypt" title="List of tallest buildings and structures in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_Estonia" title="List of tallest structures in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_Finland" title="List of tallest structures in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_France" title="List of tallest structures in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_Germany" title="List of tallest structures in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_and_structures_in_Greece" title="List of tallest buildings and structures in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_Hungary" title="List of tallest structures in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_Iceland" class="mw-redirect" title="List of tallest structures in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_India" title="List of tallest structures in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_Indonesia" title="List of tallest structures in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_Iran" title="List of tallest structures in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_Ireland" title="List of tallest structures in Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_Italy" title="List of tallest structures in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_Japan" title="List of tallest structures in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_Kosovo" title="List of tallest structures in Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_Luxembourg" title="List of tallest structures in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_Myanmar" title="List of tallest structures in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_the_Netherlands" title="List of tallest structures in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_New_Zealand" title="List of tallest structures in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_Norway" title="List of tallest structures in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_the_Philippines" title="List of tallest structures in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_Poland" title="List of tallest structures in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_Portugal" title="List of tallest structures in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_Romania" title="List of tallest structures in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_tallest_structures_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="List of the tallest structures in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_Serbia" title="List of tallest structures in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_Slovakia" title="List of tallest structures in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_South_Africa" title="List of tallest structures in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_Spain" title="List of tallest structures in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_Sri_Lanka" title="List of tallest structures in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_Sweden" title="List of tallest structures in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_Switzerland" title="List of tallest structures in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_Tunisia" title="List of tallest structures in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_Turkey" title="List of tallest structures in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_Turkmenistan" title="List of tallest structures in Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of tallest structures in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_the_United_States" title="List of tallest structures in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_in_Uzbekistan" title="List of tallest structures in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_%E2%80%93_300_to_400_metres" title="List of tallest structures – 300 to 400 metres">300 to 400 metres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_%E2%80%93_400_to_500_metres" title="List of tallest structures – 400 to 500 metres">400 to 500 metres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_built_before_the_20th_century" title="List of tallest structures built before the 20th century">Before the 20th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_bridges" title="List of tallest bridges">Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_chimneys" title="List of tallest chimneys">Chimneys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_crosses_in_the_world" title="List of tallest crosses in the world">Crosses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_dams" title="List of tallest dams">Dams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_flagpoles_by_height" title="List of flagpoles by height">Flagpoles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Ferris_wheels" title="List of Ferris wheels">Ferris wheels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_freestanding_structures" title="List of tallest freestanding structures">Freestanding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_lighthouses" title="List of tallest lighthouses">Lighthouses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_statues" title="List of tallest statues">Statues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_tallest_statues_in_India" title="List of the tallest statues in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_tallest_statues_in_Mexico" title="List of the tallest statues in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_tallest_statues_in_Sri_Lanka" title="List of the tallest statues in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_tallest_statues_in_the_United_States" title="List of the tallest statues in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_towers" title="List of tallest towers">Towers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_twin_buildings_and_structures" title="List of tallest twin buildings and structures">Twin structures</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related<br />topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div 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