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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reducing_emissions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Reducing emissions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reducing_emissions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Carbon_removals_and_offsets" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carbon_removals_and_offsets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Carbon removals and offsets </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carbon_removals_and_offsets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Implementation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Implementation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Implementation </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Implementation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Implementation subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Implementation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Scopes_of_emissions_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scopes_of_emissions_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Scopes of emissions sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scopes_of_emissions_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Timeframe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Timeframe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Timeframe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Timeframe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comprehensive_accounting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comprehensive_accounting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Comprehensive accounting </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comprehensive_accounting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Standards_for_products" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> 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vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 United States </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div 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nulové emise – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Čisté nulové emise" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sero_net" title="Sero net – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Sero net" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%88%9C_%EC%A0%9C%EB%A1%9C_%EB%B0%B0%EC%B6%9C" title="순 제로 배출 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="순 제로 배출" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emisi_Net_Zero" title="Emisi Net Zero – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Emisi Net Zero" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%95_%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%A1_%D7%A4%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%98%D7%95%D7%AA" title="נטו אפס פליטות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="נטו אפס פליטות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5_%D8%B5%D9%81%D8%B1_%D8%AE%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%88%DB%8C" title="د خالص صفر خپراوی – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د خالص صفر خپراوی" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Net_zero" title="Net zero – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Net zero" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2" title="Нулевой уровень выбросов – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Нулевой уровень выбросов" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nettonollutsl%C3%A4pp" title="Nettonollutsläpp – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Nettonollutsläpp" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" 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noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Rate of human-caused greenhouse gas emissions</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IEA_WEO_2022_Global_Warming_by_Scenario.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/IEA_WEO_2022_Global_Warming_by_Scenario.png/220px-IEA_WEO_2022_Global_Warming_by_Scenario.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/IEA_WEO_2022_Global_Warming_by_Scenario.png/330px-IEA_WEO_2022_Global_Warming_by_Scenario.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/IEA_WEO_2022_Global_Warming_by_Scenario.png/440px-IEA_WEO_2022_Global_Warming_by_Scenario.png 2x" data-file-width="1079" data-file-height="1320" /></a><figcaption>Estimated global warming by 2100 associated with various scenarios: Green dots: The <a href="/wiki/International_Energy_Agency" title="International Energy Agency">International Energy Agency</a>'s proposal for reducing energy-related emissions to net zero by 2050 is consistent with limiting global warming to 1.5 °C. Yellow dots: Net-zero pledges and other pledges to reduce emissions would limit temperature rise to around 1.7 °C. Blue dots: Since many climate pledges are not backed by policies, policies announced as of 2022 would limit temperature rise to around 2.5 °C. Red dots: Before the 2015 <a href="/wiki/Paris_Agreement" title="Paris Agreement">Paris Agreement</a>, the world was on a trajectory for global warming of 3.5 °C.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> </figcaption></figure>Global net-zero emissions describe the state where <a href="/wiki/Emissions_of_greenhouse_gases" class="mw-redirect" title="Emissions of greenhouse gases">emissions of greenhouse gases</a> due to human activities and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">removals</a> of these gases are in balance over a given period. It is often called simply net zero.<a href="#cite_note-:11-2">[2]</a> In some cases, emissions refers to emissions of all greenhouse gases, and in others it refers only to emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2).<a href="#cite_note-:11-2">[2]</a> To reach net zero targets requires actions to reduce emissions. One example would be by shifting from fossil fuel energy to <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">sustainable energy</a> sources. Organizations often <a href="/wiki/Carbon_offsets_and_credits" title="Carbon offsets and credits">offset</a> their residual emissions by buying <a href="/wiki/Carbon_credits" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon credits">carbon credits</a>. People often use the terms net-zero emissions, carbon neutrality, and climate neutrality with the same meaning.<a href="#cite_note-:13-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-:9-6">[6]</a>: 22–24  However, in some cases, these terms have different meanings from each other.<a href="#cite_note-:13-3">[3]</a> For example, some standards for carbon neutral certification allow a lot of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_offsets_and_credits" title="Carbon offsets and credits">carbon offsetting</a>. But net zero standards require reducing emissions to more than 90% and then only offsetting the remaining 10% or less to fall in line with 1.5 °C targets.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> In the last few years, net zero has become the main framework for <a href="/wiki/Climate_action" title="Climate action">climate action</a>. Many countries and organizations are setting net zero targets.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-9">[9]</a> As of November 2023, around 145 countries had announced or are considering net zero targets, covering close to 90% of global emissions.<a href="#cite_note-:15-10">[10]</a> They include some countries that were resistant to climate action in previous decades.<a href="#cite_note-:16-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-9">[9]</a> Country-level net zero targets now cover 92% of global <a href="/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">GDP</a>, 88% of emissions, and 89% of the world population.<a href="#cite_note-:0-9">[9]</a> 65% of the largest 2,000 publicly traded companies by annual revenue<a href="#cite_note-:0-9">[9]</a> have net zero targets. Among <a href="/wiki/Fortune_500" title="Fortune 500">Fortune 500</a> companies, the percentage is 63%.<a href="#cite_note-:17-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-:18-13">[13]</a> Company targets can result from both voluntary action and <a href="/wiki/Government_regulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Government regulation">government regulation</a>. Net zero claims vary enormously in how credible they are, but most have low credibility despite the increasing number of commitments and targets.<a href="#cite_note-apnews.com-14">[14]</a> While 61% of global <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> emissions are covered by some sort of net zero target, credible targets cover only 7% of emissions. This low credibility reflects a lack of binding regulation. It is also due to the need for continued innovation and investment to make <a href="/wiki/Decarbonization" class="mw-redirect" title="Decarbonization">decarbonization</a> possible.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> To date, 27 countries have enacted domestic net zero legislation. These are laws that legislatures have passed that contain net zero targets or equivalent.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> There is currently no national regulation in place that legally requires companies based in that country to achieve net zero. Several countries, for example Switzerland, are developing such legislation.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_and_scientific_justification">History and scientific justification</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Net-zero_emissions&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History and scientific justification">edit</a>]</div> The idea of net zero came out of research in the late 2000s into how the atmosphere, oceans and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">carbon cycle</a> were reacting to CO2 emissions. This research found that <a href="/wiki/Global_Warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global Warming">global warming</a> will only stop if CO2 emissions are reduced to net zero.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> Net zero was basic to the goals of the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Agreement" title="Paris Agreement">Paris Agreement</a>. This stated that the world must "achieve a balance between anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals by <a href="/wiki/Sinks,_Sources,and_Reservoirs" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinks, Sources,and Reservoirs">sinks</a> of greenhouse gases in the second half of this century". The term "net zero" gained popularity after the <a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a> published its <a href="/wiki/Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_%C2%B0C" title="Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C">Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15)</a> in 2018, this report stated that "Reaching and sustaining net zero global anthropogenic [human-caused] CO2 emissions and declining net non-CO2 <a href="/wiki/Radiative_forcing" title="Radiative forcing">radiative forcing</a> would halt anthropogenic global warming on multi-decadal timescales (high confidence)."<a href="#cite_note-:7-19">[19]</a> The idea of net-zero emissions is often confused with "stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere". This is a term that dates from the 1992 <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change" title="United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change">Rio Convention</a>. The two concepts are not the same. This is because the carbon cycle continuously <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">sequesters</a> or absorbs a small percentage of cumulative historical human-caused CO2 emissions into vegetation and the ocean. This happens even after current CO2 emissions are reduced to zero.<a href="#cite_note-:1-20">[20]</a> If the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere were kept constant, some CO2 emissions could continue. However global average surface temperatures would continue to increase for many centuries due to the gradual adjustment of deep ocean temperatures. If CO2 emissions that result directly from human activities are reduced to net zero, the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere would decline. This would be at a rate just fast enough to compensate for this deep ocean adjustment. The result would be approximately constant global average surface temperatures over decades or centuries.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-20">[20]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Types_of_greenhouse_gas">Types of greenhouse gas</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Net-zero_emissions&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Types of greenhouse gas">edit</a>]</div> It will be quicker to reach net-zero emissions for CO2 alone rather than CO2 plus other greenhouse gases like <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nitrous_oxide" title="Nitrous oxide">nitrous oxide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fluorinated_gases" title="Fluorinated gases">fluorinated gases</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:10-22">[22]</a> The net-zero target date for non-CO2 emissions is later partly because <a href="/wiki/Climate_model" title="Climate model">modellers</a> assume that some of these emissions such as methane from farming are harder to phase out.<a href="#cite_note-:10-22">[22]</a> Emissions of <a href="/wiki/Short-lived_climate_pollutant" class="mw-redirect" title="Short-lived climate pollutant">short-lived gases</a> such as methane do not accumulate in the climate system in the same way that CO2 does. Therefore there is no need to reduce them to zero to halt global warming. This is because reductions in emissions of short-lived gases cause an immediate decline in the resulting <a href="/wiki/Radiative_forcing" title="Radiative forcing">radiative forcing</a>. Radiative forcing is the change in the Earth's energy balance that they cause.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> However, these potent but short-lived gases will drive temperatures higher in the short term. This could possibly push the rise in temperature past the 1.5 °C threshold much earlier.<a href="#cite_note-:10-22">[22]</a> A comprehensive net-zero emissions target would include all greenhouse gases. This would ensure that the world would also urgently reduce non-CO2 gases.<a href="#cite_note-:10-22">[22]</a> Some targets aim to reach net-zero emissions only for carbon dioxide. Others aim to reach net-zero emissions of all greenhouse gases.<a href="#cite_note-:13-3">[3]</a> Robust net zero standards state that all greenhouse gases should be covered by a given actor's targets.<a href="#cite_note-:32-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-:42-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-:52-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-:12-27">[27]</a> Some authors say that carbon neutrality strategies focus only on carbon dioxide, but net zero includes all greenhouse gases.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> However some publications, such as the national strategy of France, use the term "carbon neutral" to mean net reductions of all greenhouse gases.<a href="#cite_note-:13-3">[3]</a> The United States has pledged to achieve "net zero" emissions by 2050. As of March 2021 it had not specified which greenhouse gases will be included in its target.<a href="#cite_note-:13-3">[3]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Net-zero_emissions&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Terminology">edit</a>]</div> Countries, local governments, corporations, and financial institutions may all announce pledges for achieving to reach net-zero emissions.<a href="#cite_note-:32-24">[24]</a> In climate change discussions, the terms net zero, carbon neutrality, and climate neutrality are often used as if they mean the same thing.<a href="#cite_note-:13-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-:9-6">[6]</a>: 22–24  In some contexts, however, they have different meanings from each other. The sections below explain this.<a href="#cite_note-:13-3">[3]</a> People often use these terms without rigorous standard definitions.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-:13-3">[3]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Approaches">Approaches</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Net-zero_emissions&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Approaches">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Our_Climate_Goals.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Our_Climate_Goals.png/220px-Our_Climate_Goals.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Our_Climate_Goals.png/330px-Our_Climate_Goals.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Our_Climate_Goals.png/440px-Our_Climate_Goals.png 2x" data-file-width="5032" data-file-height="3394" /></a><figcaption>The terms 'carbon neutral' and 'net zero' are often used interchangeably by politicians, businesses and scientists. Some experts use the terms differently, as illustrated by this graphic.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></figcaption></figure>A given actor may plan to achieve net-zero emissions through a combination of approaches. These would include (1) actions to reduce their own emissions, (2) actions to reduce the emissions of others (third parties), and (3) actions to directly <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere</a> (carbon sinks).<a href="#cite_note-:13-3">[3]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reducing_emissions">Reducing emissions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Net-zero_emissions&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Reducing emissions">edit</a>]</div> Robust net zero standards require actors to reduce their own emissions as much as possible following science-based pathways. They must then balance their residual emissions using removals and offsets.<a href="#cite_note-:32-24">[24]</a>: 12  This typically involves shifting from fossil fuels to <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">sustainable energy</a> sources. Residual emissions are emissions that are not practical to reduce for technological reasons.<a href="#cite_note-:6-32">[32]</a> Experts and net zero frameworks disagree over the exact percentage of residual emissions that may be allowed.<a href="#cite_note-:32-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-:42-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-:52-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-:12-27">[27]</a> Most guidance suggests this should be limited to a small fraction of total emissions. Sector-specific and geographical factors would determine how much.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-:6-32">[32]</a> The Science Based Targets initiative says that residual emissions across most sectors should fall between 5-10% of an organization's baseline emissions. It should be even lower for some sectors with competitive alternatives like the power sector.<a href="#cite_note-:12-27">[27]</a> Sectors such as heavy manufacturing where it is harder to mitigate emissions will probably have a higher percentage of residual emissions by 2050.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> The ISO and <a href="/wiki/BSI_Group" title="BSI Group">British Standards Institution (BSI)</a> publish "carbon neutrality" standards that have higher tolerance for residual emissions than "net zero" standards.<a href="#cite_note-:2-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-:8-37">[37]</a> For example, <a href="/wiki/BSI_PAS_2060" title="BSI PAS 2060">BSI PAS 2060</a> is a British standard for measuring carbon neutrality. According to these standards, carbon neutrality is a short-term target, and net zero is a longer-term target.<a href="#cite_note-:62-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-:02-39">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Carbon_removals_and_offsets">Carbon removals and offsets</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Net-zero_emissions&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Carbon removals and offsets">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">Carbon dioxide removal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_offsets_and_credits" title="Carbon offsets and credits">Carbon offsets and credits</a></div> To balance residual emissions, actors may take direct action to <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">remove carbon dioxide</a> from the atmosphere and sequester it. Alternatively or in addition they can buy <a href="/wiki/Carbon_offsets_and_credits" title="Carbon offsets and credits">carbon credits that "offset" emissions</a>. Carbon credits can be used to fund <a href="/wiki/Carbon_removal" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon removal">carbon removal</a> projects such as <a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a>. Strong standards such as the ISO and BSI "net zero" standards only allow removal-based offsets that have the same permanence as the greenhouse gases that they balance. The term for this concept is "like for like" removals.<a href="#cite_note-:32-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-:42-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-:52-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-:12-27">[27]</a> Permanence means that removals must store greenhouse gases for the same period as the lifetime of the GHG emissions they balance.<a href="#cite_note-:32-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-:42-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-:52-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-:12-27">[27]</a> For example, methane has a lifetime of around 12 years in the atmosphere.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Carbon dioxide lasts between 300 and 1,000 years.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> Accordingly, removals that balance carbon dioxide must last much longer than removals that balance methane. Carbon credits can also fund initiatives that aim to avoid emissions. One example would be <a href="/wiki/Efficient_energy_use" title="Efficient energy use">energy efficiency</a> retrofits or <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">renewable energy</a> projects. Avoided emissions offsets result from actions that reduce emissions relative to a baseline or status quo. But they do not remove emissions from the atmosphere. Weak standards such as ISO and BSI "carbon neutrality" standards allow organizations to use avoided-emissions carbon credits. They do not specify how permanent or durable a credit must be.<a href="#cite_note-:2-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-:8-37">[37]</a> <a href="/wiki/Carbon_offsets_and_credits" title="Carbon offsets and credits">Carbon offsetting</a> has been criticized on several fronts. One important concern is that offsets may delay active emissions reductions.<a href="#cite_note-:72-42">[42]</a> In a 2007 report from the <a href="/wiki/Transnational_Institute" title="Transnational Institute">Transnational Institute</a>, Kevin Smith likened carbon offsets to medieval indulgences. He said they allowed people to pay "offset companies to absolve them of their carbon sins."<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> He said this permits a "business as usual" attitude that stifles required major changes. Many people have criticized offsets for playing a part in <a href="/wiki/Greenwashing" title="Greenwashing">greenwashing</a>. This argument appeared in a 2021 watchdog ruling against <a href="/wiki/Shell_plc" title="Shell plc">Shell</a>.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> Loose regulation of claims by carbon offsetting schemes combined with the difficulties in calculating greenhouse gas sequestration and emissions reductions has also given rise to criticism. This argument is that this can result in schemes that do not adequately offset emissions in reality.<a href="#cite_note-:72-42">[42]</a> There have been moves to create better regulation. The United Nations has operated a certification process for carbon offsets since 2001. This is called the Clean Development Mechanism.<a href="#cite_note-auto2-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> It aims to stimulate "sustainable development and emission reductions, while giving industrialized countries some flexibility in how they meet their emission reduction limitation targets."<a href="#cite_note-auto2-45">[45]</a> The UK Government's Climate Change Committee says reported emissions reductions or removals may have happened anyway or. not last into the future. This is despite an improvement in standards globally and in the UK.<a href="#cite_note-:72-42">[42]</a> There has also been criticisms of non-native and monocultural forest plantations as carbon offsets. This is because of their "limited—and at times negative—effects on native biodiversity" and other <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_service" title="Ecosystem service">ecosystem services</a>.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> Most of the carbon credits on the voluntary market today do not meet UN, UNFCCC, ISO or SBTi standards for permanent carbon dioxide removals.<a href="#cite_note-:32-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-:42-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-:52-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-:12-27">[27]</a> So significant investment in carbon capture and permanent geological storage will probably be necessary to achieve net-zero targets by mid-century.<a href="#cite_note-:52-26">[26]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Implementation">Implementation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Net-zero_emissions&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Implementation">edit</a>]</div> Since 2015, there has been significant growth in the number of actors pledging net-zero emissions. Many standards have emerged that interpret the net zero concept and aim to measure progress towards net zero targets.<a href="#cite_note-:32-24">[24]</a>: 38  Some of these standards are more robust than others. Some people have criticized weak standards for facilitating <a href="/wiki/Greenwashing" title="Greenwashing">greenwashing</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:32-24">[24]</a>: 38  The <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">UN</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change" title="United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change">UNFCCC</a>, <a href="/wiki/International_Organization_for_Standardization" title="International Organization for Standardization">International Organization for Standardization</a> (ISO), and the <a href="/wiki/Science_Based_Targets_initiative" title="Science Based Targets initiative">Science Based Targets initiative</a> (SBTi) promote more robust standards.<a href="#cite_note-:12-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-:32-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-:42-25">[25]</a> The "United Nations High-Level Expert Group" on the net-zero emissions commitments of non-state entities has made several recommendations for <a href="/wiki/Non-state_actor" title="Non-state actor">non-state actors</a>. Non-state actors include cities, regional governments, financial institutions, and corporations. One of these is not financing new fossil fuel development. Another is supporting strong climate policy. And another is ensuring that business activities and investments do not contribute to <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:32-24">[24]</a>: 12–13  65% of the largest 2,000 publicly traded companies by annual revenue<a href="#cite_note-:0-9">[9]</a> have net zero targets. Among <a href="/wiki/Fortune_500" title="Fortune 500">Fortune 500</a> companies the percentage is 63%.<a href="#cite_note-:17-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-:18-13">[13]</a> Company targets can result from both voluntary action and <a href="/wiki/Government_regulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Government regulation">government regulation</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scopes_of_emissions_sources">Scopes of emissions sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Net-zero_emissions&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Scopes of emissions sources">edit</a>]</div> The Greenhouse Gas Protocol is a group of standards that are the most common in GHG accounting.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> These standards reflect a number of accounting principles. They include relevance, completeness, consistency, transparency, and accuracy.<a href="#cite_note-:14-49">[49]</a>: 8–9  The standards divide emissions into three scopes: <ul><li>Scope 1 covers all direct GHG emissions within a corporate boundary (owned or controlled by a company).<a href="#cite_note-:14-49">[49]</a>: 25  It includes fuel burned by the company, use of company vehicles, and <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_emission" title="Fugitive emission">fugitive emissions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:14-49">[49]</a>: 27 </li> <li>Scope 2 covers indirect GHG emissions from consumption of purchased electricity, heat, cooling or steam.<a href="#cite_note-:14-49">[49]</a>: 27–29  As of 2010, at least one third of global GHG emissions are Scope 2.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></li> <li>Scope 3 emission sources include emissions from suppliers and product users (also known as the "value chain"). Transportation of goods, and other indirect emissions are also part of this scope.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> Scope 3 emissions were estimated to represent 75% of all emissions reported to the Carbon Disclosure Project, though that percentage varies widely amongst business sectors.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></li></ul> Corporate net zero targets vary in how widely they cover emissions related to the company's activities. This can greatly affect the volume of emissions that are counted.<a href="#cite_note-:13-3">[3]</a> Some oil companies, for instance, claim that their operations (Scopes 1 and 2) produce net-zero emissions.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> These claims do not cover the emissions produced when the oil is burned by its customers, which are 70 - 90% of oil-related emissions. This is because they count as Scope 3 emissions.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> Robust net zero standards require Scope 3 emissions to be counted,<a href="#cite_note-:32-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-:52-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-:12-27">[27]</a> but "carbon neutrality" standards do not.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Timeframe">Timeframe</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Net-zero_emissions&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Timeframe">edit</a>]</div> To achieve net zero, actors are encouraged to set net zero targets for 2050 or earlier.<a href="#cite_note-:32-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-:42-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-:52-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-:12-27">[27]</a> Long-term net zero targets should be supplemented by interim targets for every one to five years.<a href="#cite_note-:32-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-:42-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-:52-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-:12-27">[27]</a> The UN, UNFCCC, ISO, and SBTi all say that organizations should prioritize early, front-loaded emissions reduction. They say they should aim to halve emissions by 2030.<a href="#cite_note-:32-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-:42-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-:52-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-:12-27">[27]</a> Specific emissions reduction targets and pathways may look different for different sectors. Some may be able to decarbonize more quickly and easily than others.<a href="#cite_note-:32-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-:42-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-:52-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-:12-27">[27]</a> Many companies often claim a commitment to reach net-zero emissions by the year 2050. These promises are often made at the corporate level. Both governments and international agencies encourage businesses to contribute to a national, or international, net zero pledge. The <a href="/wiki/International_Energy_Agency" title="International Energy Agency">International Energy Agency</a> says that global investment in low carbon substitutes for fossil fuels needs to reach US$4 trillion annually by 2030 for the world to get to net zero by 2050.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> Some analyses have raised concerns that net zero cannot be achieved worldwide by 2050.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> On average, approximately 29% of companies in EU member states have formulated a respective target to achieve net zero or have already reached this goal. However, these numbers can vary significantly across different industries, countries, and firm sizes.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> External pressures, such as companies' exposure to risks associated with climate change and its perception as a problem, can influence a company's ambition to adopt specific targets and strategies.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Comprehensive_accounting">Comprehensive accounting</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Net-zero_emissions&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Comprehensive accounting">edit</a>]</div> The guidance from standards institutions says that organizations should choose a base year to measure emissions reductions against. This should be representative of their typical greenhouse gas profile.<a href="#cite_note-:12-27">[27]</a> They should explain the choice of baseline and how they will account for changes in conditions since the baseline.<a href="#cite_note-:52-26">[26]</a> <a href="/wiki/Financial_institution" title="Financial institution">Financial organizations</a> should also include emissions within their <a href="/wiki/Portfolio_(finance)" title="Portfolio (finance)">portfolio</a>. This should include all organizations they have financed, invested in, or insured.<a href="#cite_note-:32-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-:42-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-:52-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-:12-27">[27]</a> Countries and regions should include both territorial emissions released within their boundaries and <a href="/wiki/Consumption_emissions_of_greenhouse_gases" class="mw-redirect" title="Consumption emissions of greenhouse gases">consumption emissions</a> related to products and services imported and consumed within their boundaries.<a href="#cite_note-:32-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-:42-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-:52-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-:12-27">[27]</a> Cities and countries pose a challenge when it comes to calculating emissions. This is because the production of products and services within their boundaries might be linked to either internal consumption or exports. At the same time the population also consumes imported products and services. So it is important to state explicitly whether emissions are counted at the location of production or consumption. This helps to prevent double counting. The lengthy manufacturing chains of a globalised market might make this challenging. There are additional challenges with looking at renewable energy systems and electric vehicle batteries. This is because the necessary embodied energy and other effects of raw material extraction are often significant when measuring life-cycle emissions. However the local emissions at the place they are used may be small.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Standards_for_products">Standards for products</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Net-zero_emissions&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Standards for products">edit</a>]</div> Leading standards and guidance allow official accreditation bodies to certify products as carbon neutral but not as net zero.<a href="#cite_note-:52-26">[26]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] The rationale behind this is that until organizations and their <a href="/wiki/Supply_chain" title="Supply chain">supply chains</a> are on track for net zero, allowing a product to claim to be net zero at this point would be disingenuous and lead to greenwashing.<a href="#cite_note-:52-26">[26]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Financial_impact">Financial impact</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Net-zero_emissions&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Financial impact">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:World_potential_GDP_benefit_under_net_zero_by_2050_(IMF).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/World_potential_GDP_benefit_under_net_zero_by_2050_%28IMF%29.svg/220px-World_potential_GDP_benefit_under_net_zero_by_2050_%28IMF%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/World_potential_GDP_benefit_under_net_zero_by_2050_%28IMF%29.svg/330px-World_potential_GDP_benefit_under_net_zero_by_2050_%28IMF%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/World_potential_GDP_benefit_under_net_zero_by_2050_%28IMF%29.svg/440px-World_potential_GDP_benefit_under_net_zero_by_2050_%28IMF%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="835" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  Net GDP benefit</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Chronic damages avoided</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Acute damages avoided</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Costs of mitigation</div><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>Percentage change in world GDP in a net zero scenario. The solid line shows the increase in GDP that would result from efforts to reduce emissions to net zero.</figcaption></figure> The International Monetary Fund estimates that compared to current government policies, shifting policies to bring emissions to net zero by 2050 would result in global <a href="/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">gross domestic product</a> (GDP) being 7 percent higher. In its estimates, the cost of emissions reductions in 2050 is less than 2% of world GDP, and the cost savings from reducing the <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">effects of climate change</a> are approximately 9% of world GDP.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Credibility">Credibility</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Net-zero_emissions&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Credibility">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Status_of_net-zero_carbon_emissions_targets_map.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Status_of_net-zero_carbon_emissions_targets_map.png/220px-Status_of_net-zero_carbon_emissions_targets_map.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Status_of_net-zero_carbon_emissions_targets_map.png/330px-Status_of_net-zero_carbon_emissions_targets_map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Status_of_net-zero_carbon_emissions_targets_map.png/440px-Status_of_net-zero_carbon_emissions_targets_map.png 2x" data-file-width="3400" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption>Status of net-zero carbon emissions targets as of October, 2023. The inclusion criteria for net-zero commitments may vary from country to country.</figcaption></figure> More and more nations and private and public-sector organizations are committing to net zero. But the credibility of these claims remains low.<a href="#cite_note-apnews.com-14">[14]</a> There is no binding regulation requiring a transition to net zero. So the overwhelming majority of net zero commitments have been made on a voluntary basis.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> The lack of an enforcement mechanism surrounding these claims means that many are dubious. In many sectors such as steel, cement, and chemicals, the pathway to reaching net zero in terms of technology remains unclear.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> Further investment in research and innovation and further regulation will probably be necessary if net zero claims are to become more credible. <a href="/wiki/Tzeporah_Berman" title="Tzeporah Berman">Tzeporah Berman</a>, chair of the <a href="/wiki/Fossil_Fuel_Non-Proliferation_Treaty_Initiative" title="Fossil Fuel Non-Proliferation Treaty Initiative">Fossil Fuel Non-Proliferation Treaty Initiative</a>, has criticized net zero claims by fossil fuel companies, describing them "delusional and based on bad science".<a href="#cite_note-Guard2-66">[66]</a> A consortium of climate scientists has tracked net zero commitments. Their research found that net pledges drafted in law or policy documentation have grown from 7% of countries in 2020 to 75% in 2023. However, very few have met the minimum requirements for a "decent pledge". The UN Race to Zero campaign calls them "starting line criteria". This states that they must have a "plan and published evidence of action taken towards reaching the target" besides a stated pledge.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_role_of_carbon_credits">The role of carbon credits</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Net-zero_emissions&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: The role of carbon credits">edit</a>]</div> One of the main reasons for the low credibility of many net zero claims is their heavy reliance on carbon credits. Carbon credits are often used for offsetting. They reduce or remove emissions of carbon dioxide or other <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gases</a> in order to compensate for emissions made elsewhere.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> Many fossil fuel companies have made commitments to be net zero by 2050.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> At the same time they continue to increase greenhouse gas emissions by extracting and producing fossil fuels.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> They claim that they will use carbon credits and carbon capture technology in order to continue extracting and burning fossil fuels. The UN has condemned such pledges as dangerous examples of greenwashing.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Net-zero_emissions&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Criticism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Carbon_offsets_and_credits#Limitations_and_drawbacks" title="Carbon offsets and credits">Carbon offsets and credits § Limitations and drawbacks</a></div> Climate scientists James Dyke, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Watson_(chemist)" title="Robert Watson (chemist)">Bob Watson</a>, and Wolfgang Knorr argue that the concept of net zero has been harmful for emissions reductions. This is because it allows actors to defer present-day emissions reductions by relying on future, unproved technological fixes. Examples are carbon offsetting, carbon dioxide removal and <a href="/wiki/Geoengineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Geoengineering">geoengineering</a>. "The problems come when it is assumed that these [technological fixes] can be deployed at vast scale. This effectively serves as a blank cheque for the continued burning of fossil fuels and the acceleration of <a href="/wiki/Habitat_destruction" title="Habitat destruction">habitat destruction</a>", they said. By tracing the history of previous failures in <a href="/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change" title="Politics of climate change">climate policy</a> at reducing emissions from 1988 to 2021, they said they "[arrive] at the painful realisation that the idea of net zero has licensed a recklessly cavalier 'burn now, pay later' approach which has seen carbon emissions continue to soar". They concluded: "Current net zero policies will not keep warming to within 1.5 °C because they were never intended to. They were and still are driven by a need to protect business as usual, not the climate. If we want to keep people safe then large and sustained cuts to carbon emissions need to happen now. [...] The time for wishful thinking is over."<a href="#cite_note-Conversation1-73">[73]</a> In his 2021 report, Dangerous Distractions, economist Marc Lee said that net zero had the potential to be a dangerous distraction that reduced political pressure to reduce emissions. <a href="#cite_note-CCPA2-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-CCPA1-75">[75]</a> "A net zero target means less incentive to get to 'real zero' emissions from fossil fuels, an escape hatch that perpetuates business as usual and delays more meaningful climate action," he said. "Rather than gambling on carbon removal technologies of the future, Canada should plan for a managed <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_phase-out" title="Fossil fuel phase-out">wind down of fossil fuel production</a> and invest public resources in bona fide solutions like renewables and a <a href="/wiki/Just_transition" title="Just transition">just transition</a> from fossil fuels," he said.<a href="#cite_note-CCPA1-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-CCPA2-74">[74]</a> At the <a href="/wiki/2022_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference" title="2022 United Nations Climate Change Conference">2022 United Nations Climate Change Conference</a> (COP27), the High-Level Expert Group on the net-zero emissions commitments of non-state entities of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> formed the previous March by <a href="/wiki/Secretary-General_of_the_United_Nations" title="Secretary-General of the United Nations">U.N. Secretary-General</a> <a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Guterres" title="António Guterres">António Guterres</a> and chaired by former <a href="/wiki/Minister_of_Environment_and_Climate_Change" title="Minister of Environment and Climate Change">Canadian Minister of Environment and Climate Change</a> <a href="/wiki/Catherine_McKenna" title="Catherine McKenna">Catherine McKenna</a> released a report that stated that the carbon neutrality pledges of many <a href="/wiki/Corporation" title="Corporation">corporations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Local_government" title="Local government">local governments</a>, <a href="/wiki/Administrative_division" title="Administrative division">regional governments</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Financial_institution" title="Financial institution">financial institutions</a> around the world often amount to nothing more than <a href="/wiki/Greenwashing" title="Greenwashing">greenwashing</a> and provided 10 recommendations to ensure greater credibility and accountability for carbon neutrality pledges such as requiring non-state actors to publicly disclose and report verifiable information (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_inventory" title="Greenhouse gas inventory">greenhouse gas inventories</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">carbon footprint</a> <a href="/wiki/Carbon_accounting" title="Carbon accounting">accounting</a> in <a href="/wiki/Prospectus_(finance)" title="Prospectus (finance)">prospectus</a> for <a href="/wiki/Security_(finance)" title="Security (finance)">financial securities</a>) that substantiates compliance with such pledges.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> After the release of the report, Net Zero Tracker, a research consortium that includes the NewClimate Institute, the <a href="/wiki/Energy_and_Climate_Intelligence_Unit" title="Energy and Climate Intelligence Unit">Energy and Climate Intelligence Unit</a>, the Data-Driven EnviroLab of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_North_Carolina_at_Chapel_Hill" title="University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill">University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Myles_Allen" title="Myles Allen">Net Zero Initiative</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">University of Oxford</a> issued a report evaluating the climate neutrality pledges of 116 of 713 regional governments, of 241 of 1,177 cities with populations greater than 500,000, and of 1,156 of 2,000 <a href="/wiki/Public_company" title="Public company">publicly listed companies</a> in the <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions">25 countries with the greatest emissions</a> (whose pledges cover more than 90% of the <a href="/wiki/Gross_world_product" title="Gross world product">gross world product</a>) by the recommendations of the UN report and found that many these pledges were largely unsubstantiated and more than half of cities had no plan for tracking and reporting compliance with pledges.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Equity_and_impact">Equity and impact</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Net-zero_emissions&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Equity and impact">edit</a>]</div> The concept of net zero has attracted criticism for the impact it could have on equity and distribution. The use of removals or carbon credits for offsetting has been particularly controversial. This is because of the possibility that offset projects themselves could have harmful effects. The ISO Net Zero Guidelines say that net zero strategies should align with the <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goals" title="Sustainable Development Goals">United Nations Sustainable Development Goals</a>.This is in order to "support equity and global transition to a net-zero economy, and any subsequent UN global goals which supersede the 2030 SDGs."<a href="#cite_note-:52-26">[26]</a> The UNFCCC's Race to Zero campaign says emissions reductions and removals should "safeguard the rights of the most vulnerable people and communities". It says that organizations should disclose how they will support communities affected by climate impacts and climate transition.<a href="#cite_note-:42-25">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Country_examples">Country examples</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Net-zero_emissions&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Country examples">edit</a>]</div> As of November 2023, around 145 countries had announced or are considering net zero targets, covering close to 90% of global emissions.<a href="#cite_note-:15-10">[10]</a> They include some countries that were resistant to climate action in previous decades.<a href="#cite_note-:16-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-9">[9]</a> Country-level net zero targets now cover 92% of global <a href="/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">GDP</a>, 88% of emissions and 89% of the world population.<a href="#cite_note-:0-9">[9]</a> According to World Population Review, a number of countries have net zero, or net negative carbon emissions: <a href="/wiki/Bhutan" title="Bhutan">Bhutan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Comoros" title="Comoros">Comoros</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gabon" title="Gabon">Gabon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guyana" title="Guyana">Guyana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Panama" title="Panama">Panama</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Suriname" title="Suriname">Suriname</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:5-81">[81]</a> However, according to the World Resources Institute, all of these countries have net positive greenhouse gas emissions.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> These countries generally have a high level of forestation.<a href="#cite_note-:5-81">[81]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="European_Union">European Union</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Net-zero_emissions&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: European Union">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/European_Green_Deal" title="European Green Deal">European Green Deal</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=European_Green_Deal&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CO2_emissions_EU.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/CO2_emissions_EU.svg/220px-CO2_emissions_EU.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/CO2_emissions_EU.svg/330px-CO2_emissions_EU.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/CO2_emissions_EU.svg/440px-CO2_emissions_EU.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Development of CO2 emissions in the European Union.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Co-emissions-per-capita_(2).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Co-emissions-per-capita_%282%29.png/220px-Co-emissions-per-capita_%282%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Co-emissions-per-capita_%282%29.png/330px-Co-emissions-per-capita_%282%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Co-emissions-per-capita_%282%29.png/440px-Co-emissions-per-capita_%282%29.png 2x" data-file-width="3400" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption>CO2 emissions per capita in the European Union.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CO2_emission_pie_chart.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/CO2_emission_pie_chart.svg/220px-CO2_emission_pie_chart.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/CO2_emission_pie_chart.svg/330px-CO2_emission_pie_chart.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/CO2_emission_pie_chart.svg/440px-CO2_emission_pie_chart.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="540" data-file-height="540" /></a><figcaption>Global <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions" title="List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions">carbon dioxide emissions</a> by jurisdiction (as of 2015)</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/European_Green_Deal" title="European Green Deal">European Green Deal</a>, approved in 2020, is a set of policy initiatives by the <a href="/wiki/European_Commission" title="European Commission">European Commission</a> with the overarching aim of making the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> (EU) climate neutral in 2050.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-European_Green_Deal_:0-84">[84]</a> The plan is to review each existing law on its climate merits, and also introduce new legislation on the <a href="/wiki/Circular_economy" title="Circular economy">circular economy</a> (CE), <a href="/wiki/Building_renovation" class="mw-redirect" title="Building renovation">building renovation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>, farming and <a href="/wiki/Innovation" title="Innovation">innovation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-European_Green_Deal_:0-84">[84]</a> The president of the European Commission, <a href="/wiki/Ursula_von_der_Leyen" title="Ursula von der Leyen">Ursula von der Leyen</a>, stated that the European Green Deal would be Europe's "man on the moon moment".<a href="#cite_note-European_Green_Deal_:0-84">[84]</a> On 13 December 2019, the <a href="/wiki/European_Council" title="European Council">European Council</a> decided to press ahead with the plan, with an opt-out for <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a>.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> On 15 January 2020, the <a href="/wiki/European_Parliament" title="European Parliament">European Parliament</a> voted to support the deal as well, with requests for higher ambition.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> A year later, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=European_Climate_Law&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European Climate Law (page does not exist)">European Climate Law</a> was passed, which legislated that greenhouse gas emissions should be 55% lower in 2030 compared to 1990. The <a href="/wiki/Fit_for_55" title="Fit for 55">Fit for 55</a> package is a large set of proposed legislation detailing how the European Union plans to reach this target.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> The <a href="/wiki/European_Commission" title="European Commission">European Commission</a>'s climate change strategy, launched in 2020, is focused on a promise to make Europe a <a href="/wiki/Carbon_neutrality" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon neutrality">net-zero</a> emitter of <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gases</a> by 2050 and to demonstrate that economies will develop without increasing resource usage. However, the Green Deal has measures to ensure that nations that are already reliant on <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuels" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil fuels">fossil fuels</a> are not left behind in the transition to renewable energy.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> The green transition is a top priority for Europe. The EU Member States want to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 55% by 2030 from 1990 levels, and become climate neutral by 2050.<a href="#cite_note-European_Green_Deal_eib.org-91">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="India">India</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Net-zero_emissions&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: India">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Carbon_neutrality_in_India" title="Carbon neutrality in India">Carbon neutrality in India</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carbon_neutrality_in_India&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <a href="/wiki/Carbon_neutrality_in_India" title="Carbon neutrality in India">Carbon neutrality in India</a> refers to reducing <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Greenhouse gas emissions by India">India's greenhouse gas emissions</a> to the point where <a href="/wiki/Carbon_emissions" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon emissions">carbon emissions</a> are neutral compared to the absorption of carbon dioxide, and often called "net zero". Like the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbon_neutrality_in_the_United_States" title="Carbon neutrality in the United States">United States</a> and countries worldwide, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> has implemented <a href="/wiki/Carbon_neutrality" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon neutrality">carbon neutrality</a> measures and law reform at both federal and state levels: <ul><li>India has set a goal of reducing carbon emissions by 50% by 2030 and for the entire economy to be net zero by <a href="/wiki/2070" class="mw-redirect" title="2070">2070</a>.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a></li> <li>The Energy Conservation (Amendment) Act 2022, which empowers the <a href="/wiki/Central_Government_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Government of India">central government</a> to specify a carbon credit trading scheme.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Nationally_determined_contribution" title="Nationally determined contribution">Nationally Determined Contributions</a> (NDCs), which set out India's emissions reduction targets for 2030.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a></li> <li>The Long-Term Low-Carbon Development Strategy (LTLEDS), which outlines India's long-term vision for <a href="/wiki/Decarbonisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Decarbonisation">decarbonisation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a></li> <li>The Sustainable Energy Policy, which sets out the government's policies to promote renewable energy and energy efficiency.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a></li> <li>The National Electric Mobility Mission Plan, which aims to promote <a href="/wiki/Electric_vehicles_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Electric vehicles in India">electric vehicles in India</a>.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a></li></ul></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Net-zero_emissions&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: United States">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Carbon_neutrality_in_the_United_States" title="Carbon neutrality in the United States">Carbon neutrality in the United States</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carbon_neutrality_in_the_United_States&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <a href="/wiki/Carbon_neutrality_in_the_United_States" title="Carbon neutrality in the United States">Carbon neutrality in the United States</a> refers to reducing <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States" title="Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States">U.S. greenhouse gas emissions</a> to the point where <a href="/wiki/Carbon_emissions" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon emissions">carbon emissions</a> are neutral compared to the absorption of carbon dioxide, and often called "net zero". Like the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>, and countries worldwide, the United States has implemented <a href="/wiki/Carbon_neutrality" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon neutrality">carbon neutrality</a> measures and law reform at both federal and state levels: <ul><li>the Presidency has set a goal of reducing carbon emissions by 50% to 52% compared to 2005 levels by 2030, a carbon free power sector by 2035, and for the entire economy to be net zero by <a href="/wiki/2050" class="mw-redirect" title="2050">2050</a>.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a></li> <li>by April 2023, 22 states, plus Washington DC and Puerto Rico had set legislative or executive targets for clean power production.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a></li> <li>all cars or light vehicles will have zero emissions (i.e. no <a href="/wiki/ICE_ban" class="mw-redirect" title="ICE ban">internal combustion engine</a> with gas or diesel) by 2035 in light duty vehicles, and no longer be bought by federal government by 2027.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a></li> <li>the <a href="/wiki/California_Air_Resources_Board" title="California Air Resources Board">California Air Resources Board</a> voted in 2022 to draft new rules banning gas furnaces and water heaters, and requiring zero emission appliances in 2030.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> By 2022, four states have gas bans in new buildings.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a></li></ul></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Net-zero_emissions&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/44px-Climate_change_icon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/59px-Climate_change_icon.png 2x" data-file-width="1112" data-file-height="1056" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Climate_change" title="Portal:Climate change">Climate change portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">Carbon footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_Neutral_Cities_Alliance" title="Carbon Neutral Cities Alliance">Carbon Neutral Cities Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_Neutrality_Coalition" title="Carbon Neutrality Coalition">Carbon Neutrality Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-carbon_economy" title="Low-carbon economy">Low-carbon economy</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Net-zero_emissions&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div 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Earth's atmosphere">Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change" title="Scientific consensus on climate change">Scientific consensus on climate change</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Sources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_and_climate_change" title="Deforestation and climate change">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">Fossil fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">Greenhouse gases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">Greenhouse gas emissions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_accounting" title="Carbon accounting">Carbon accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">Carbon footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_leakage" title="Carbon leakage">Carbon leakage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_agriculture" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture">from agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_wetlands" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from wetlands">from wetlands</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_energy_supply_and_consumption" title="World energy supply and consumption">World energy supply and consumption</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">History</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_climate_change_policy_and_politics" title="History of climate change policy and politics">History of climate change policy and politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_climate_change_science" title="History of climate change science">History of climate change science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svante_Arrhenius" title="Svante Arrhenius">Svante Arrhenius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hansen" title="James Hansen">James Hansen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_David_Keeling" title="Charles David Keeling">Charles David Keeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Climate_Change_conference" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Climate Change conference">United Nations Climate Change conferences</a></li> <li>Years in climate change <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2019_in_climate_change" title="2019 in climate change">2019</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_in_climate_change" title="2020 in climate change">2020</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_in_climate_change" title="2021 in climate change">2021</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_in_climate_change" title="2022 in climate change">2022</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_in_climate_change" title="2023 in climate change">2023</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_in_climate_change" title="2024 in climate change">2024</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Effects_and_issues" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects and issues</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Physical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrupt_climate_change" title="Abrupt climate change">Abrupt climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anoxic_event" title="Anoxic event">Anoxic event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_methane_emissions" title="Arctic methane emissions">Arctic methane emissions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_sea_ice_decline" title="Arctic sea ice decline">Arctic sea ice decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation" title="Atlantic meridional overturning circulation">Atlantic meridional overturning circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">Drought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_weather" title="Extreme weather">Extreme weather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">Flood</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_flooding" title="Coastal flooding">Coastal flooding</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_wave" title="Heat wave">Heat wave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_heatwave" title="Marine heatwave">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">Urban heat island</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_oceans" title="Effects of climate change on oceans">Oceans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_deoxygenation" title="Ocean deoxygenation">deoxygenation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_heat_content" title="Ocean heat content">heat content</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">sea surface temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_stratification" title="Ocean stratification">stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_temperature" title="Ocean temperature">temperature</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permafrost#Impacts_of_climate_change" title="Permafrost">Permafrost thaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850" title="Retreat of glaciers since 1850">Retreat of glaciers since 1850</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Season_creep" title="Season creep">Season creep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">Tipping points in the climate system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclones_and_climate_change" title="Tropical cyclones and climate change">Tropical cyclones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_the_water_cycle" title="Effects of climate change on the water cycle">Water cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_wildfires" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change and wildfires">Wildfires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Flora and fauna</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_biomes" title="Effects of climate change on biomes">Biomes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mass_mortality_event" title="Mass mortality event">Mass mortality event</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_birds" title="Climate change and birds">Birds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change" title="Extinction risk from climate change">Extinction risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_dieback" title="Forest dieback">Forest dieback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_invasive_species" title="Climate change and invasive species">Invasive species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life#Climate_change" title="Human impact on marine life">Marine life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_plant_biodiversity" title="Effects of climate change on plant biodiversity">Plant biodiversity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Social and economic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_agriculture" title="Effects of climate change on agriculture">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock" title="Effects of climate change on livestock">Livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and agriculture in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_children" title="Climate change and children">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_cities" title="Climate change and cities">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_civilizational_collapse" title="Climate change and civilizational collapse">Civilizational collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_crime" title="Climate change and crime">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_areas_depopulated_due_to_climate_change" title="List of areas depopulated due to climate change">Depopulation of settlements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_landmarks_destroyed_or_damaged_by_climate_change" title="List of landmarks destroyed or damaged by climate change">Destruction of cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_and_climate_change" title="Disability and climate change">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_analysis_of_climate_change" title="Economic analysis of climate change">Economic impacts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and insurance in the United States">U.S. insurance industry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_fisheries" title="Climate change and fisheries">Fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_gender" title="Climate change and gender">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health" title="Effects of climate change on human health">Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_mental_health" title="Effects of climate change on mental health">Mental health</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_and_climate_change" title="Human rights and climate change">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_Indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change and Indigenous peoples">Indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases" title="Climate change and infectious diseases">Infectious diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_migration" title="Climate migration">Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_poverty" title="Climate change and poverty">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_impact_of_climate_change" title="Psychological impact of climate change">Psychological impacts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_security" title="Climate security">Security and conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_flooding" title="Urban flooding">Urban flooding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_security" title="Water security">Water security</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Template:Climate_change_regions" title="Template:Climate change regions">By country and region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Africa" title="Climate change in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Americas" title="Climate change in the Americas">Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Antarctica" title="Climate change in Antarctica">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Arctic" title="Climate change in the Arctic">Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Asia" title="Climate change in Asia">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Australia" title="Climate change in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Caribbean" title="Climate change in the Caribbean">Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Europe" title="Climate change in Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Middle_East_and_North_Africa" title="Climate change in the Middle East and North Africa">Middle East and North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_small_island_countries" title="Effects of climate change on small island countries">Small island countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Climate_change_by_country" title="Category:Climate change by country">by individual country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Mitigation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Mitigation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Economic_analysis_of_climate_change" title="Economic analysis of climate change">Economics and finance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_budget" title="Carbon budget">Carbon budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_emission_trading" title="Carbon emission trading">Carbon emission trading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_offsets_and_credits" title="Carbon offsets and credits">Carbon offsets and credits</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gold_Standard_(carbon_offset_standard)" title="Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)">Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_price" title="Carbon price">Carbon price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_tax" title="Carbon tax">Carbon tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_debt" title="Climate debt">Climate debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_finance" title="Climate finance">Climate finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_risk_insurance" title="Climate risk insurance">Climate risk insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Co-benefits_of_climate_change_mitigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-benefits of climate change mitigation">Co-benefits of climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_climate_change_mitigation" title="Economics of climate change mitigation">Economics of climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_divestment" title="Fossil fuel divestment">Fossil fuel divestment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Climate_Fund" title="Green Climate Fund">Green Climate Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-carbon_economy" title="Low-carbon economy">Low-carbon economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_zero_emissions" class="mw-redirect" title="Net zero emissions">Net zero emissions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Energy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">Carbon capture and storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_transition" title="Energy transition">Energy transition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_phase-out" title="Fossil fuel phase-out">Fossil fuel phase-out</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">Sustainable energy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Preserving and enhancing <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon sinks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_carbon" title="Blue carbon">Blue carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">Carbon dioxide removal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">Carbon sequestration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_air_capture" title="Direct air capture">Direct air capture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_farming" title="Carbon farming">Carbon farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate-smart_agriculture" title="Climate-smart agriculture">Climate-smart agriculture</a></li> <li>Forest management <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">afforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration#Forestry" title="Carbon sequestration">forestry for carbon sequestration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/REDD_and_REDD%2B" title="REDD and REDD+">REDD and REDD+</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use,_land-use_change,_and_forestry" title="Land use, land-use change, and forestry">Land use, land-use change, and forestry</a> (LULUCF and AFOLU)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Personal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Individual_action_on_climate_change" title="Individual action on climate change">Individual action on climate change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant-based_diet" title="Plant-based diet">Plant-based diet</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Society_and_adaptation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Society and <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">adaptation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_action_on_climate_change" title="Business action on climate change">Business action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_action" title="Climate action">Climate action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_emergency_declaration" title="Climate emergency declaration">Climate emergency declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_movement" title="Climate movement">Climate movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/School_Strike_for_Climate" class="mw-redirect" title="School Strike for Climate">School Strike for Climate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_denial" title="Climate change denial">Denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_grief" title="Ecological grief">Ecological grief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_governance" title="Climate governance">Governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_justice" title="Climate justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_litigation" title="Climate change litigation">Litigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change" title="Politics of climate change">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_opinion_on_climate_change" title="Public opinion on climate change">Public opinion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_climate_change" title="Women in climate change">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">Adaptation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation_strategies_on_the_German_coast" title="Climate change adaptation strategies on the German coast">Adaptation strategies on the German coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_capacity" title="Adaptive capacity">Adaptive capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster_risk_reduction" title="Disaster risk reduction">Disaster risk reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem-based_adaptation" title="Ecosystem-based adaptation">Ecosystem-based adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Flood control">Flood control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loss_and_damage_(climate_change)" title="Loss and damage (climate change)">Loss and damage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managed_retreat" title="Managed retreat">Managed retreat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_resilience" title="Climate resilience">Resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_risk" title="Climate risk">Risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_vulnerability" title="Climate change vulnerability">Vulnerability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Adaptation_Fund" title="The Adaptation Fund">The Adaptation Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Adaptation_Programme_of_Action" title="National Adaptation Programme of Action">National Adaptation Programme of Action</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_communication" title="Climate communication">Communication</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_Change_Performance_Index" title="Climate Change Performance Index">Climate Change Performance Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_crisis" title="Climate crisis">Climate crisis (term)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_spiral" title="Climate spiral">Climate spiral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_education" title="Climate change education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_coverage_of_climate_change" title="Media coverage of climate change">Media coverage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_popular_culture" title="Climate change in popular culture">Popular culture depictions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_art" title="Climate change art">art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_fiction" title="Climate fiction">fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_climate_change_video_games" class="mw-redirect" title="List of climate change video games">video games</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warming_stripes" title="Warming stripes">Warming stripes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">International agreements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glasgow_Climate_Pact" title="Glasgow Climate Pact">Glasgow Climate Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol" title="Kyoto Protocol">Kyoto Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Agreement" title="Paris Agreement">Paris Agreement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative_Mechanisms_under_Article_6_of_the_Paris_Agreement" title="Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement">Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationally_determined_contribution" title="Nationally determined contribution">Nationally determined contributions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goal_13" title="Sustainable Development Goal 13">Sustainable Development Goal 13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change" title="United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change">United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Background_and_theory" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Background and theory</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Measurements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_surface_temperature" title="Global surface temperature">Global surface temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_temperature_record" class="mw-redirect" title="Instrumental temperature record">Instrumental temperature record</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proxy_(climate)" title="Proxy (climate)">Proxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_temperature_measurement" title="Satellite temperature measurement">Satellite temperature measurement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo">Albedo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">Carbon cycle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_carbon_cycle" title="Atmospheric carbon cycle">atmospheric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_pump" title="Biological pump">biologic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_carbon_cycle" title="Oceanic carbon cycle">oceanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permafrost_carbon_cycle" title="Permafrost carbon cycle">permafrost</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">Carbon sink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_sensitivity" title="Climate sensitivity">Climate sensitivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_variability_and_change" title="Climate variability and change">Climate variability and change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_feedback" title="Cloud feedback">Cloud feedback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_forcing" class="mw-redirect" title="Cloud forcing">Cloud forcing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fixed_anvil_temperature_hypothesis" title="Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis">Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryosphere" title="Cryosphere">Cryosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_energy_budget" title="Earth's energy budget">Earth's energy budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_event_attribution" title="Extreme event attribution">Extreme event attribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_feedbacks" title="Climate change feedbacks">Feedbacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_warming_potential" title="Global warming potential">Global warming potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illustrative_model_of_greenhouse_effect_on_climate_change" title="Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change">Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_forcing" title="Orbital forcing">Orbital forcing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiative_forcing" title="Radiative forcing">Radiative forcing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Research and modelling</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_scenario" title="Climate change scenario">Climate change scenario</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_model" title="Climate model">Climate model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coupled_Model_Intercomparison_Project" title="Coupled Model Intercomparison Project">Coupled Model Intercomparison Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">IPCC Sixth Assessment Report</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Representative_Concentration_Pathway" title="Representative Concentration Pathway">Representative Concentration Pathway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shared_Socioeconomic_Pathways" title="Shared Socioeconomic Pathways">Shared Socioeconomic Pathways</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/16px-Climate_change_icon.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/24px-Climate_change_icon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/32px-Climate_change_icon.png 2x" data-file-width="1112" data-file-height="1056" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Climate_change" title="Portal:Climate change">Climate change portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" 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