Iran-Iraq War | Causes, Summary, Casualties, & Facts

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[{"p":1,"t":293527},{"p":1,"t":277539},{"p":2,"t":909256},{"p":1,"t":452778},{"p":6,"t":108951},{"p":1,"t":1922499},{"p":1,"t":325191},{"p":1,"t":381192},{"p":1,"t":144618},{"p":2,"t":1995932}], "sequence": 1, "topics": {} }); </script> <article class="article-content container-lg qa-content px-0 pt-0 pb-40 py-lg-20 content md-expanded" data-topic-id="293527"> <div class="grid gx-0"> <div class="col-auto"> <div class="topic-left-rail md-article-drawer position-relative d-flex border-right-sm border-left-sm open"> <div class="drawer d-flex flex-column open"> <div class="left-rail-section-content"> <div class="topic-left-rail-header text-truncate bg-gray-50 position-relative text-right d-flex align-items-center"> <div class="tlr-title px-20 py-15 text-left"> <em class="material-icons text-gray-400 d-lg-none" data-icon="toc"></em> <a class="font-serif font-weight-bold text-black link-blue" href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Iran-Iraq-War">Iran-Iraq War</a> </div> <button aria-label="Close" class="js-sections-close-button btn-link btn-sm btn d-lg-none position-absolute top-0 p-10 right-0" > <em class="material-icons font-26" data-icon="close"></em> </button> </div> <div class="section-content pl-10 pr-20 pl-sm-50 pr-sm-60 pl-lg-5 pr-lg-10 pt-10 pt-lg-0 bg-gray-50 clear-catfish-ad"> <div class="toc mb-20"> <div class="font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-15 mb-15 mt-20"> Table of Contents </div> <ul class="list-unstyled my-0" data-level="h1"><li data-target="#ref1"><div class="pl-25"><a class="link-gray-900 w-100" href="/event/Iran-Iraq-War">Introduction & Top Questions</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref344819"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><div class="ml-25"></div><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/event/Iran-Iraq-War#ref344819">Background</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref344820"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/event/Iran-Iraq-War#ref344820">Conflict</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref348638"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/event/Iran-Iraq-War#ref348638">1980–81: Iraqi offensive and Iranian pushback</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref348639"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/event/Iran-Iraq-War#ref348639">1982–87: Iranian offensive, stalemate, and the Tanker War</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref348640"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/event/Iran-Iraq-War#ref348640">1988: Escalation and cease-fire</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref344821"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><div class="ml-25"></div><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/event/Iran-Iraq-War#ref344821">Casualties</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li></ul> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Iran-Iraq-War/additional-info">References & Edit History</a> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="/facts/Iran-Iraq-War">Quick Facts & Related Topics</a> </div> <div class="tlr-media-slider pb-10 mb-30"> <a class="section-header link-gray-900 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mb-10 mx-10" href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Iran-Iraq-War/images-videos">Images & Videos</a> <div class="slider js-slider position-relative d-inline-flex align-items-center mw-100 "> <div class="slider-container js-slider-container overflow-hidden d-flex overflow-hidden text-nowrap ml-15"> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/59/196359-050-2CDDC13A/forces-Iraqi-rocket-launchers-outskirts-Khorramshahr-Iran-October-1980.jpg" 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History of Iran: Iran-Iraq War 1980-1988</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-34353349" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">BBC News - The 'beauty' and the horror of the Iran-Iraq war</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP85T00287R001302000001-7.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Central Intelligence Agency - Iran-Iraq War</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/iran-iraq.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener nofollow">GlobalSecurity.org - Iran-Iraq War / The Imposed War (1980-1988)</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://yciss.info.yorku.ca/files/2012/06/WP05-Workman.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">York Consortium on International and Security Studies - The Social Origins of the Iran-Iraq War (PDF)</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/9/22/legacy-of-iran-iraq-war-still-reverberates-40-years-later" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Al Jazeera - Legacy of Iran-Iraq War still reverberates 40 years later</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4629&context=nwc-review" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">United States Naval War College Digital Commons - Iran and Iraq: An Overview</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.nonproliferation.org/wp-content/uploads/npr/81ali.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Middlebury Institute of International Studies at Monterey - James Martin Center for Nonproliferation Studies - Chemical Weapons and the Iran-Iraq War: A Case Study in Noncompliance</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/iran-iraq-war" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Jewish Virtual Library - Iran-Iraq War</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/article/new-borders-old-enemies-the-iran-iraq-war/" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Warfare History Network - New Borders, Old Enemies, The Iran-Iraq War</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/collection/48/iran-iraq-war" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Wilson Center Digital Archive - Iran-Iraq War</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.historynet.com/the-iran-iraq-war-a-bloody-stalemate/" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">HistoryNet - Iran and Iraq Fought a War for 8 Years, Killed Millions and Achieved Nothing</a></li> </ul> </div> <div class="md-websites-ebk-title">Britannica Websites</div> <div class="md-websites-ebk-subtitle">Articles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students.</div> <ul class="list-unstyled bps-topic-web-sites lh-lg"> <li><a class="external" href="https://kids.britannica.com/kids/article/Iran-Iraq-War/399512" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Iran-Iraq War - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/Iran-Iraq-War/574399" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Iran-Iraq War - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="toc-header-marker"></div> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 js-header-ai-ask-button d-none btn-sm btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 mr-0 mr-lg-10 ml-5 ml-sm-10 ml-lg-0 p-10"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> <div class="caption alternate-titles">Also known as: Iraq-Iran War</div> <div class="md-byline module-spacing "> <div class="font-serif font-12"> <span class="written-by text-gray-700"> Written and fact-checked by </span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 qa-editor-popup gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 text-black">Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</span></div> <div class="last-updated font-12 font-serif"> <span class="text-gray-700"> Last Updated: <time datetime="2025-02-15T00:00:00CST" >Feb 15, 2025</time> •</span> <a class="byline-edit-history" href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Iran-Iraq-War/additional-info#history" rel="nofollow">Article History</a> </div></div> </div> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button d-none d-sm-block js-sections-inline-button module-spacing btn d-lg-none"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <div class="d-flex d-sm-none flex-row"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button js-sections-inline-button module-spacing"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 ai-ask-button btn border-2 module-spacing btn-sm js-inline-ai-ask-button btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 p-10 ml-5"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> </div> <div class="js-qf-module qf-module px-40 px-sm-20 py-15 mx-auto module-spacing font-14 bg-gray-50 rounded"> <div class="qf-title font-weight-bold font-14 mb-10 text-center"> Quick Facts</div> <div class="facts-list mt-10"> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Date: </dt> <dd>September 22, 1980 - 1990 </dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Location: </dt> <dd><a href="/place/Iran">Iran</a></dd> <dd><a href="/place/Iraq">Iraq</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Participants: </dt> <dd><a href="/place/Iran">Iran</a></dd> <dd><a href="/place/Iraq">Iraq</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Key People: </dt> <dd><a href="/biography/Saddam-Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Ruhollah-Khomeini">Ruhollah Khomeini</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Qassem-Soleimani">Qassem Soleimani</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>On the Web: </dt> <dd><a href="https://yciss.info.yorku.ca/files/2012/06/WP05-Workman.pdf" target="_blank">York Consortium on International and Security Studies - The Social Origins of the Iran-Iraq War (PDF)</a> (Feb. 15, 2025)</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> <div class="text-center"> <a class="btn btn-sm btn-link p-0" href="/facts/Iran-Iraq-War"> See all related content </a> </div> </div> </div> </div><script type="application/ld+json"> { "@context": "https://schema.org", "@type": "FAQPage", "mainEntity": [ { "@type" : "Question", "name" : "<div>When did the Iran-Iraq War begin?<\/div><em><\/em>", "acceptedAnswer" : { "@type" : "Answer", "text" : "The prolonged military conflict between Iran and Iraq began during the 1980s. Open warfare began on September 22, 1980, when Iraqi armed forces invaded western Iran along the countries\u2019 joint border. Iraq, however, claimed that the war had begun earlier that month, on September 4, when Iran shelled several border posts." } } , { "@type" : "Question", "name" : "<div>Who supported Iran during the Iran-Iraq War?<\/div><em><\/em>", "acceptedAnswer" : { "@type" : "Answer", "text" : "During the Iran-Iraq War, Iran\u2019s only major allies were Syria and Libya. Iraq\u2019s war effort was openly financed by Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and other neighboring Arab states and was tacitly supported by the United States and the Soviet Union." } } , { "@type" : "Question", "name" : "<div>When did Iran accept the United Nations-mediated cease-fire?<\/div><em><\/em>", "acceptedAnswer" : { "@type" : "Answer", "text" : "In August 1988, Iran\u2019s deteriorating economy and recent Iraqi gains on the battlefield compelled Iran to accept a United Nations-mediated cease-fire that it had previously resisted." } } , { "@type" : "Question", "name" : "<div>What is the estimate of total casualties in the Iran-Iraq War?<\/div><em><\/em>", "acceptedAnswer" : { "@type" : "Answer", "text" : "The number of casualties in the Iran-Iraq War ranges from 1,000,000 to twice that number. The number killed on both sides was perhaps 500,000, with Iran suffering the greatest losses. It is estimated that between 50,000 and 100,000 Kurds were killed by Iraqi forces during the series of campaigns that took place in 1988." } } ] } </script> <div class="top-questions qa-accordion d-flex flex-column module-spacing"><div class="font-weight-bold font-14 mb-5"> Top Questions </div><div id="intent-accordion" class="md-intent-accordion"><div class="top-question bg-gray-50 rounded" data-value="1"><h3 class="accordion--question font-14 font-weight-normal cursor-pointer rounded"><div class="pe-none d-flex justify-content-between align-items-center"><div>When did the Iran-Iraq War begin?</div><em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_more"></em></div></h3><div class="accordion--answer hidden p-15 pt-5 font-16 mb-5"><div class="accordion--answer-copy"><p>The prolonged military conflict between Iran and Iraq began during the 1980s. Open warfare began on September 22, 1980, when Iraqi armed forces invaded western Iran along the countries’ joint border. Iraq, however, claimed that the war had begun earlier that month, on September 4, when Iran shelled several border posts.</p></div></div></div><div class="top-question bg-gray-50 rounded" data-value="2"><h3 class="accordion--question font-14 font-weight-normal cursor-pointer rounded"><div class="pe-none d-flex justify-content-between align-items-center"><div>Who supported Iran during the Iran-Iraq War?</div><em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_more"></em></div></h3><div class="accordion--answer hidden p-15 pt-5 font-16 mb-5"><div class="accordion--answer-copy"><p>During the Iran-Iraq War, Iran’s only major allies were Syria and Libya. Iraq’s war effort was openly financed by Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and other neighboring Arab states and was tacitly supported by the United States and the Soviet Union.</p></div></div></div><div class="top-question bg-gray-50 rounded" data-value="3"><h3 class="accordion--question font-14 font-weight-normal cursor-pointer rounded"><div class="pe-none d-flex justify-content-between align-items-center"><div>When did Iran accept the United Nations-mediated cease-fire?</div><em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_more"></em></div></h3><div class="accordion--answer hidden p-15 pt-5 font-16 mb-5"><div class="accordion--answer-copy"><p>In August 1988, Iran’s deteriorating economy and recent Iraqi gains on the battlefield compelled Iran to accept a United Nations-mediated cease-fire that it had previously resisted.</p></div></div></div><div class="top-question bg-gray-50 rounded" data-value="4"><h3 class="accordion--question font-14 font-weight-normal cursor-pointer rounded"><div class="pe-none d-flex justify-content-between align-items-center"><div>What is the estimate of total casualties in the Iran-Iraq War?</div><em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_more"></em></div></h3><div class="accordion--answer hidden p-15 pt-5 font-16 mb-5"><div class="accordion--answer-copy"><p>The number of casualties in the Iran-Iraq War ranges from 1,000,000 to twice that number. The number killed on both sides was perhaps 500,000, with Iran suffering the greatest losses. It is estimated that between 50,000 and 100,000 Kurds were killed by Iraqi forces during the series of campaigns that took place in 1988.</p></div></div></div><button class="show-more-button js-toggle-top-questions btn btn-unstyled font-14 d-flex pr-10 rounded-sm"><em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_more"></em></button></div></div><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref1"><span class="marker PREMOD1 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph"><strong><span id="ref44050"></span>Iran-Iraq War</strong>, (1980–88), prolonged military conflict between <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Iran" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Iran</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Iraq" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Iraq</a> during the 1980s. Open <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/war" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">warfare</a> began on September 22, 1980, when Iraqi armed forces invaded western Iran along the countries’ joint border, though Iraq claimed that the war had begun earlier that month, on September 4, when Iran shelled a number of border posts. Fighting was ended by a 1988 cease-fire, though the resumption of normal diplomatic relations and the withdrawal of troops did not take place until the signing of a formal peace agreement on August 16, 1990.</p><span class="marker MOD1 mod-inline"></span></section> <span class="marker h2"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref344819"> <h2 class="h1">Background</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD2 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="28054" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media" data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/83/35483-004-2283BCD6/Saddam-Hussein-1983.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/293527/28054"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/83/35483-004-2283BCD6/Saddam-Hussein-1983.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/83/35483-004-2283BCD6/Saddam-Hussein-1983.jpg?w=300" alt="Saddam Hussein" data-width="347" data-height="450" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/83/35483-004-2283BCD6/Saddam-Hussein-1983.jpg" data-href="/media/1/293527/28054">Saddam Hussein</a><span>Saddam Hussein, 1983.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">In the late 1960s the United Kingdom announced its intention to withdraw from the Persian Gulf, setting in motion a geopolitical reconfiguration of the region. Long-standing territorial disagreements between Iran and Iraq were reignited and remained a source of tension throughout the 1970s. With Iraq’s new <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Baath-Party" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Baʿath</a> regime facing instability at home, its <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/de-facto" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">de facto</a> ruler, <span id="ref44051"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saddam-Hussein" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Saddam Hussein</a>, conceded some of the country’s claims in 1975 in exchange for the cessation of Iranian meddling in Iraq. The primary <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="concession" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/concession" data-type="MW">concession</a> was the eastern bank of the <span id="ref44052"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Shatt-Al-Arab" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Shaṭṭ Al-ʿArab</a> (Persian: Arvand Rūd), a river formed by the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="confluence" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/confluence" data-type="MW">confluence</a> of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Tigris-Euphrates-river-system" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Tigris and Euphrates rivers</a> that had high strategic value as a principal waterway for the countries’ maritime commerce.</p><span class="marker MOD2 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD3 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="220551" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media" data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/15/194515-050-E95A2064/Ruhollah-Khomeini.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/293527/220551"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/15/194515-050-E95A2064/Ruhollah-Khomeini.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/15/194515-050-E95A2064/Ruhollah-Khomeini.jpg?w=300" alt="Ruhollah Khomeini" data-width="1071" data-height="1600" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/15/194515-050-E95A2064/Ruhollah-Khomeini.jpg" data-href="/media/1/293527/220551">Ruhollah Khomeini</a><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">The <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Iranian-Revolution" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Iranian Revolution</a> of 1978–79 brought the 1975 agreements into questionable standing. Border clashes began occurring from time to time while signs of Iranian interference in Iraq were pronounced. Leaders of Iran’s Islamic republic indicated their desire to “export” the revolution’s concept of Islamic governance guided by <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shii" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Shiʿi</a> clergy. Ruhollah Khomeini, the ideological architect of the revolution, had already found an audience for his ideas in Iraq when he was living there during his exile. In April 1980 the deputy <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/prime-minister" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">prime minister</a> of Iraq, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Tariq-Aziz" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Tariq Aziz</a>, survived an <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/assassination" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">assassination</a> attempt by Iraqi Shiʿis <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="sympathetic" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/sympathetic" data-type="EB">sympathetic</a> to the Iranian Revolution.</p><a class="link-module shadow-sm d-block qa-quiz-module" href="/quiz/a-history-of-war" data-link-module-iframe-link=""> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/45/171645-131-FB9DD0D9/D-Day-soldiers-American-rifles-grenades-beachheads-bunker-June-6-1944.jpg" alt="D-Day. American soldiers fire rifles, throw grenades and wade ashore on Omaha Beach next to a German bunker during D Day landing. 1 of 5 Allied beachheads est. in Normandy, France. The Normandy Invasion of World War II launched June 6, 1944." class="rounded-sm mr-15" width="70" /> <div class="line-clamp clamp-5"> <div class="module-title bg-green">Britannica Quiz</div> <div class="font-weight-semi-bold mt-5">A History of War</div> </div> </a><span class="marker MOD3 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD4 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Meanwhile, Iran’s new government—then at loggerheads with the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/United-States" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">United States</a> over the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Iran-hostage-crisis" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">seizure of the U.S. embassy</a> in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Tehran" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Tehrān</a> by Iranian militants—was in apparent isolation and disorder, and its regular armed forces were gutted and demoralized. Saddam, who had considered the 1975 agreements lopsided, saw in this an opportune moment to reassert territorial claims he had previously conceded, notably the Shaṭṭ Al-ʿArab. He made additional demands as well, including some form of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Arab" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Arab</a> self-determination in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Khuzestan" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Khūzestān</a>, a rich oil-producing border region in Iran that was inhabited largely by ethnic Arabs. He also demanded that Iran <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="relinquish" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/relinquish" data-type="EB">relinquish</a> control of the islands of Abū Mūsa and Greater and Lesser Ṭunb, Persian Gulf islands which were controlled by the Arab sheikhdoms of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Sharjah" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Sharjah</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Ras-al-Khaimah" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Ras al-Khaimah</a>, respectively, under the British protectorate. They had been seized by Iran in 1971 when the protectorate ended.</p><span class="marker MOD4 mod-inline"></span> </section> <span class="marker h3"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref344820"> <h2 class="h1">Conflict</h2> <section data-level="2" id="ref348638"> <h2 class="h2">1980–81: Iraqi offensive and Iranian pushback</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD5 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="255050" data-asm-type="video"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media" data-type="video" video-id="222438"><a data-id="222438" class="gtm-assembly-link d-flex justify-content-center" style="--aspect-ratio: 16/9" href="/video/did-you-know-Iran-Iraq-War/-255050"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/38/222438-138-5A9AD0D4/did-you-know-Iran-Iraq-War.jpg?w=800&h=450&c=crop" alt="What happened during the Iran-Iraq War?" loading="lazy"><script type="application/json"> { "sources": [ { "file" : "//content.jwplatform.com/manifests/7d7Gu1Dn.m3u8" } ], "image": "https://cdn.britannica.com/38/222438-138-5A9AD0D4/did-you-know-Iran-Iraq-War.jpg" ,"tracks": [ { "file" : "//assets-jpcust.jwpsrv.com/tracks/kEP49oc6", "label": "English" } ] ,"adfile": "//content.jwplatform.com/manifests/ap6MCByD.m3u8" } </script><div class="btn btn-xl btn-white btn-circle position-absolute shadow" style="top: 50%; transform: translateY(-50%)"><em class="material-icons" data-icon="play_arrow"></em></div></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><span class="md-assembly-title font-weight-bold mr-5 d-inline font-sans-serif md-video-caption" video-control="222438">What happened during the Iran-Iraq War?</span><span>Learn more about the Iran-Iraq War.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div><a class="font-14 mt-10 d-inline-block" href="/event/Iran-Iraq-War/images-videos">See all videos for this article</a></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">In September 1980 the Iraqi army carefully advanced along a broad front into Khūzestān, taking Iran by surprise. Iraq’s troops captured the city of <span id="ref44053"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Khorramshahr" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Khorramshahr</a> but failed to take the important oil-refining centre of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Abadan" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Ābādān</a>. By December 1980 the Iraqi offensive had bogged down about 50–75 miles (80–120 km) inside Iran after meeting unexpectedly strong Iranian resistance. The zeal of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islamic-Revolutionary-Guard-Corps" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps</a> (IRGC), an Iranian state militia initially tasked with safeguarding the Islamic Revolution from internal threats, proved effective: a victory by the militia in April 1981 convinced the Iranian leadership to amplify its role in combat and promote its development. In the months ahead Iraqi forces were compelled to give ground, and in September Iranian forces pushed the Iraqis back across Iran’s <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Karun-River" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Kārūn River</a>.</p><span class="marker MOD5 mod-inline"></span> </section> <section data-level="2" id="ref348639"> <h2 class="h2">1982–87: Iranian offensive, stalemate, and the Tanker War</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD6 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">In May 1982 Iranian forces recaptured Khorramshahr. Iraq voluntarily withdrew its forces from all captured Iranian territory soon after and began seeking a peace agreement with Iran.</p><span class="marker MOD6 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD7 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">But under the leadership of <span id="ref44054"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ruhollah-Khomeini" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Ruhollah Khomeini</a>, who saw Saddam as an obstacle to the Islamic Revolution, Iran remained <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="intransigent" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/intransigent" data-type="MW">intransigent</a> and continued the war in an effort to overthrow the Iraqi leader. In July Iranian forces invaded Iraq’s <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Basra" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Al-Baṣrah</a> province. Iraq’s defenses solidified once its troops were defending their own soil, and the war settled down into a stalemate with a static, entrenched front running just inside and along Iraq’s border.</p><div class="module-spacing"> <DIV class="marketing-INLINE_SUBSCRIPTION marketing-content" data-marketing-id="INLINE_SUBSCRIPTION"><style> .student-promo-banner-wrapper { container-type: inline-size; margin-bottom: 15px; } @container (min-width: 475px) { .student-promo-banner { flex-direction: row; } .student-promo-banner-img-wrapper { margin-bottom: 0; margin-right: 10px; justify-content: flex-start; } .student-promo-banner-text-wrapper { text-align: left; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 10px; } .student-promo-banner-button-wrapper { margin-right: 0; } }</style> <div class="student-promo-banner-wrapper"> <div class="student-promo-banner d-flex flex-column align-items-center bg-blue rounded p-20"> <div class="student-promo-banner-img-wrapper mb-20 mr-0 d-flex justify-content-center"> <img class="rounded" style="max-width: 100px; min-width: 80px" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/marketing/BlueThistle.webp" /> </div> <div class="student-promo-banner-text-wrapper ml-0 mb-10 text-center text-white"> <div class="h2 mb-10">Get Unlimited Access</div> <div class="h4 font-weight-semi-bold">Try Britannica Premium for free and discover more.</div> </div> <div class="student-promo-banner-button-wrapper d-flex justify-content-center align-items-center ml-auto mr-auto"> <a class="btn btn-m btn-orange" href="https://premium.britannica.com/premium-membership/?utm_source=premium&utm_medium=inline-cta&utm_campaign=august-2024">Subscribe</a> </div> </div> </div> </DIV></div><span class="marker MOD7 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD8 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Iran repeatedly launched fruitless infantry attacks, using human assault waves composed partly of untrained and unarmed conscripts (often young boys snatched from the streets), which were repelled by the superior firepower and air power of the Iraqis. Both nations engaged in <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="sporadic" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/sporadic" data-type="EB">sporadic</a> air and missile attacks against each other’s cities and military and oil installations.</p><span class="marker MOD8 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD9 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Despite the conflict being focused in oil-rich regions, the disruption to the global oil flow had been hitherto minimal. But in 1984, with no end to the war in sight, the two countries began attacking each other’s oil-tanker shipping in the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Persian-Gulf" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Persian Gulf</a>. Iran also attacked tankers headed to and from <span id="ref44055"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Kuwait" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Kuwait</a> and other Gulf states, prompting the United States and several western European nations to station warships in the Persian Gulf to ensure the flow of oil to the rest of the world. The so-called Tanker War, which included strikes on more than 100 oil tankers, marked an increase in international interest and involvement in the conflict.</p><span class="marker MOD9 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD10 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The oil-exporting <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="capacity" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/capacity" data-type="EB">capacity</a> of both nations was severely reduced at various times as a result of air strikes and pipeline shutoffs, and the consequent reduction in their income and foreign-currency earnings brought the countries’ economic development programs to a near standstill. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Iraq-War" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Iraq’s war</a> effort was openly financed by <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Saudi-Arabia" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Saudi Arabia</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Kuwait" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Kuwait</a>, and other neighbouring Arab states and was tacitly supported by the United States and the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Soviet-Union" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Soviet Union</a>, while Iran’s only major allies were <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Syria" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Syria</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Libya" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Libya</a>.</p><span class="marker MOD10 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD11 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">In 1987 the military balance began to favour Iraq, which had raised an army of about one million and had obtained state-of-the-art arms from <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/France" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">France</a> and the Soviet Union, including thousands of artillery pieces, tanks, and armoured personnel carriers and hundreds of combat aircraft. This arsenal (enormous for a country of some 18 million inhabitants) was <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="bolstered" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bolstered" data-type="MW">bolstered</a> by the addition of substantial quantities of <span id="ref763236"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/chemical-weapon" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">chemical weapons</a>, which the regime acquired or produced throughout the 1980s. At the same time, Iraq committed substantial resources in an attempt to develop or purchase other <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/weapon-of-mass-destruction" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">weapons of mass destruction</a> (WMD), including biological and nuclear arms.</p><span class="marker MOD11 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD12 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">In July 1987 the UN Security Council had unanimously passed Resolution 598, urging Iraq and Iran to accept a cease-fire, withdraw their forces to internationally recognized boundaries, and settle their frontier disputes by negotiations held under UN <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="auspices" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/auspices" data-type="MW">auspices</a>. Iraq agreed to <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="abide" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/abide" data-type="MW">abide</a> by the terms if Iran <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="reciprocated" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/reciprocated" data-type="MW">reciprocated</a>. Iran, however, demanded <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="amendments" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/amendments" data-type="MW">amendments</a> condemning Iraq as the aggressor in the war (which would have held them liable for paying war reparations) and calling on all foreign navies to leave the gulf.</p><span class="marker MOD12 mod-inline"></span> </section> <section data-level="2" id="ref348640"> <h2 class="h2">1988: Escalation and cease-fire</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD13 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">In early 1988 Iranian forces, in cooperation with Iraqi <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kurd" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Kurds</a>, threatened the area from <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Kirkuk" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Kirkūk</a> to the Turkish border and penetrated to the towns of Hājj ʿUmrān and Ḥalabjah in Iraq’s northeastern provinces. They met with stiff resistance in the north, however. Using chemical weapons, Iraqi forces killed as any as 5,000 Kurdish civilians in and around Ḥalabjah in March 1988.</p><span class="marker MOD13 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD14 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Military operations in the gulf resumed, and in April 1988 Iraq—this time using chemical weapons against the Iranian troops—recaptured the Fāw peninsula. Later it liberated the districts of Salamcha and Majnūn, and in July Iraqi forces once again penetrated deep into Iran. That same month <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Iran-Air-flight-655" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Iran Air flight 655</a>, a passenger plane, was shot down by a U.S. missile cruiser after being mistaken for a fighter jet. The tragedy, which left 290 dead, <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="accentuated" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/accentuated" data-type="EB">accentuated</a> the heavy toll the war had taken on civilians in Iran. Now war-weary, Iran finally accepted <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/United-Nations" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">United Nations</a> Resolution 598 on July 20, and the cease-fire came into force on August 20, 1988.</p><span class="marker MOD14 mod-inline"></span> </section> </section> <span class="marker h4"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref344821"> <h2 class="h1">Casualties</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD15 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The war had been one of the most destructive conflicts of the late 20th century. The total number of combatants on both sides is unclear, but both countries were fully mobilized, and most men of military age were under arms. The number of casualties was enormous but equally uncertain. Estimates of total casualties range from 1,000,000 to twice that number. The number killed on both sides was perhaps 500,000, with Iran suffering the greatest losses. It is estimated that between 50,000 and 100,000 <span id="ref950609"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kurd" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Kurds</a> were killed by Iraqi forces during the series of campaigns code-named Anfāl (Arabic: “Spoils”) that took place in 1988 (<em>see</em> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kurd" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Kurd</a>).</p><div class="one-good-fact-module"> </div><span class="marker MOD15 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD16 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">In August 1990, while Iraq was preoccupied with its invasion of Kuwait (<em>see</em> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Persian-Gulf-War" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Persian Gulf War</a>), Iraq and Iran restored diplomatic relations, and Iraq agreed to Iranian terms for the settlement of the war: the withdrawal of Iraqi troops from occupied Iranian territory, division of <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="sovereignty" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/sovereignty" data-type="MW">sovereignty</a> over the Shaṭṭ Al-ʿArab waterway, and a prisoner-of-war exchange. The final exchange of prisoners was not completed until March 2003.</p><span class="marker MOD16 mod-inline"></span> <span class="md-signature"><a href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</a></span> </section><span class="md-signature">This article was most recently revised and updated by <a href="/editor/Adam-Zeidan/12409087">Adam Zeidan</a>.</span><span class="marker end-of-content"></span><span class="marker after-article"></span></div> <div id="chatbot-root"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ai-dialog-placeholder"></div> </div> </div> <aside class="col-md-da-320"></aside> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article> </div> </div> </div> </div> </main> <div id="md-footer"></div> <noscript><iframe src="//www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-5W6NC8" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript> <script type="text/javascript" id="_informizely_script_tag"> var IzWidget = IzWidget || {}; (function (d) { var scriptElement = d.createElement('script'); scriptElement.type = 'text/javascript'; scriptElement.async = true; scriptElement.src = "https://insitez.blob.core.windows.net/site/f780f33e-a610-4ac2-af81-3eb184037547.js"; var node = d.getElementById('_informizely_script_tag'); node.parentNode.insertBefore(scriptElement, node); } )(document); </script>  <script> window.ap3c = window.ap3c || {}; var ap3c = window.ap3c; ap3c.cmd = ap3c.cmd || []; ap3c.cmd.push(function() { ap3c.init('ZO4siT4cLwnykPnzZWJtd3Byb2Q', 'https://engage.email.britannica.com/'); ap3c.track({v: 0}); }); ap3c.activity = function(act) { ap3c.act = (ap3c.act || []); ap3c.act.push(act); }; var s, t; s = document.createElement('script'); s.type = 'text/javascript'; s.src = "https://engage.email.britannica.com/app.js"; t = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; t.parentNode.insertBefore(s, t); </script> <script class="marketing-page-info" type="application/json"> {"pageType":"Topic","templateName":"DESKTOP","pageNumber":1,"pagesTotal":1,"pageId":293527,"pageLength":1429,"initialLoad":true,"lastPageOfScroll":false} </script> <script class="marketing-content-info" type="application/json"> [] </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-133/js/libs/jquery-3.5.0.min.js?v=3.133.9"></script> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel Code Splitting"> (function() { $.ajax({ dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: 'https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-133/dist/topic-page.js?v=3.133.9' }); })(); </script> <script class="analytics-metadata" type="application/json"> {"leg":"D","adLeg":"D","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"Topic","pageSubtype":null,"articleTemplateType":"LARGE","gisted":false,"pageNumber":1,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":true} </script> <script type="text/javascript"> EBStat={accountId:-1,hostnameOverride:'webstats.eb.com',domain:'www.britannica.com', json:''}; </script> <script type="text/javascript"> ( function() { $.ajax( { dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: '//www.britannica.com/webstats/mendelstats.js?v=1' } ) .done( function() { try {writeStat(null,EBStat);} catch(err){} } ); })(); </script> <div id="bc-fixed-dialogue"></div> </body> </html>

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Iran-Iraq War | Causes, Summary, Casualties, & Facts | Britannica