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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Major theories</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Major_theories-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Major theories subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Major_theories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Substantive" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Substantive"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Substantive</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Substantive-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Correspondence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Correspondence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Correspondence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Correspondence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coherence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coherence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Coherence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coherence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pragmatic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pragmatic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.3</span> <span>Pragmatic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pragmatic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Constructivist" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constructivist"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.4</span> <span>Constructivist</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constructivist-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consensus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consensus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.5</span> <span>Consensus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consensus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Minimalist" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Minimalist"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Minimalist</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Minimalist-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Deflationary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deflationary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Deflationary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deflationary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Redundancy_and_related" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Redundancy_and_related"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1.1</span> <span>Redundancy and related</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Redundancy_and_related-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Performative" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Performative"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Performative</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Performative-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophical_skepticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophical_skepticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.3</span> <span>Philosophical skepticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophical_skepticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pluralist" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pluralist"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Pluralist</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pluralist-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Formal_theories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formal_theories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Formal theories</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Formal_theories-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Formal theories subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Formal_theories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Logic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Logic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Logic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Logic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mathematics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mathematics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Mathematics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mathematics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tarski's_semantics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tarski's_semantics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Tarski's semantics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tarski's_semantics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kripke's_semantics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kripke's_semantics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Kripke's semantics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kripke's_semantics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Folk_beliefs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Folk_beliefs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Folk beliefs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Folk_beliefs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ancient_Greek_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_Greek_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Ancient Greek philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_Greek_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Medieval philosophy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Medieval_philosophy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Medieval philosophy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Medieval_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Avicenna_(980–1037)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Avicenna_(980–1037)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Avicenna (980–1037)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Avicenna_(980–1037)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aquinas_(1225–1274)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aquinas_(1225–1274)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Aquinas (1225–1274)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aquinas_(1225–1274)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Changing_concepts_of_truth_in_the_Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Changing_concepts_of_truth_in_the_Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Changing concepts of truth in the Middle Ages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Changing_concepts_of_truth_in_the_Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Modern philosophy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modern_philosophy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Modern philosophy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Modern_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Kant_(1724–1804)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kant_(1724–1804)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Kant (1724–1804)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kant_(1724–1804)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hegel_(1770–1831)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hegel_(1770–1831)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Hegel (1770–1831)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hegel_(1770–1831)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Schopenhauer_(1788–1860)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Schopenhauer_(1788–1860)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Schopenhauer (1788–1860)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Schopenhauer_(1788–1860)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kierkegaard_(1813–1855)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kierkegaard_(1813–1855)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Kierkegaard (1813–1855)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kierkegaard_(1813–1855)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nietzsche_(1844–1900)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nietzsche_(1844–1900)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Nietzsche (1844–1900)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nietzsche_(1844–1900)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Heidegger_(1889–1976)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Heidegger_(1889–1976)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.6</span> <span>Heidegger (1889–1976)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Heidegger_(1889–1976)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sartre_(1905–1980)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sartre_(1905–1980)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.7</span> <span>Sartre (1905–1980)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sartre_(1905–1980)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Camus_(1913–1960)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Camus_(1913–1960)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.8</span> <span>Camus (1913–1960)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Camus_(1913–1960)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Whitehead_(1861–1947)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Whitehead_(1861–1947)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.9</span> <span>Whitehead (1861–1947)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Whitehead_(1861–1947)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Peirce_(1839–1914)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Peirce_(1839–1914)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.10</span> <span>Peirce (1839–1914)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Peirce_(1839–1914)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nishida_(1870–1945)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nishida_(1870–1945)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.11</span> <span>Nishida (1870–1945)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nishida_(1870–1945)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fromm_(1900–1980)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fromm_(1900–1980)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.12</span> <span>Fromm (1900–1980)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fromm_(1900–1980)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foucault_(1926–1984)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foucault_(1926–1984)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.13</span> <span>Foucault (1926–1984)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foucault_(1926–1984)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Baudrillard_(1929–2007)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Baudrillard_(1929–2007)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.14</span> <span>Baudrillard (1929–2007)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Baudrillard_(1929–2007)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_contemporary_positions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_contemporary_positions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.15</span> <span>Other contemporary positions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_contemporary_positions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theological_views" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theological_views"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Theological views</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Theological_views-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Theological views subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Theological_views-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hinduism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hinduism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Hinduism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hinduism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Buddhism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Buddhism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Buddhism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Buddhism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Christianity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christianity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Christianity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christianity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle See also subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Other_theorists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_theorists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Other theorists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_theorists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reference_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reference_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Reference works</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reference_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Truth</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 138 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-138" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">138 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waarheid" title="Waarheid – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Waarheid" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahrheit" title="Wahrheit – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Wahrheit" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="सत्य – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="सत्य" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%82%D9%8A%D9%82%D8%A9" title="حقيقة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حقيقة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verdat" title="Verdat – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Verdat" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%83%D5%B7%D5%B4%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Ճշմարտութիւն – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Ճշմարտութիւն" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF" title="সত্য – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="সত্য" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verd%C3%A1" title="Verdá – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Verdá" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%88" title="सच्चाई – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="सच्चाई" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अवधी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%C3%B1ete" title="Añete – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Añete" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C9%99qiq%C9%99t" title="Həqiqət – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Həqiqət" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%82%DB%8C%D9%82%D8%AA" title="حقیقت – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="حقیقت" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF" title="সত্য – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সত্য" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chin-l%C3%AD" title="Chin-lí – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Chin-lí" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D3%99%D2%A1%D0%B8%D2%A1%D3%99%D1%82" title="Хәҡиҡәт – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Хәҡиҡәт" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D1%86%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Ісціна – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Ісціна" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D1%8C%D1%86%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Ісьціна – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Ісьціна" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katotoohan" title="Katotoohan – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Katotoohan" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Истина – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Истина" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woarheit" title="Woarheit – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Woarheit" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istina" title="Istina – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Istina" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwirionez" title="Gwirionez – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Gwirionez" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%AE%D0%BD%D1%8D%D0%BD" title="Үнэн – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Үнэн" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veritat" title="Veritat – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Veritat" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%C4%83%D0%BD%D0%BB%C4%83%D1%85" title="Чăнлăх – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Чăнлăх" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pravda" title="Pravda – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Pravda" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chokwadi" title="Chokwadi – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Chokwadi" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwirionedd" title="Gwirionedd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Gwirionedd" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandhed" title="Sandhed – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Sandhed" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahrheit" title="Wahrheit – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Wahrheit" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%B5de" title="Tõde – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Tõde" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BB%CE%AE%CE%B8%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%B1" title="Αλήθεια – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αλήθεια" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verdad" title="Verdad – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Verdad" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vero" title="Vero – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Vero" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egia" title="Egia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Egia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%82%DB%8C%D9%82%D8%AA_(%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87)" title="حقیقت (فلسفه) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="حقیقت (فلسفه)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sachchaai" title="Sachchaai – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Sachchaai" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A9rit%C3%A9" title="Vérité – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Vérité" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wierheid" title="Wierheid – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Wierheid" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ADrinne" title="Fírinne – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Fírinne" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verdade" title="Verdade – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Verdade" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9C%9F%E7%90%86" title="真理 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="真理" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B8%E0%AA%A4%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%AF" title="સત્ય – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="સત્ય" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-guw mw-list-item"><a href="https://guw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nugbo" title="Nugbo – Gun" lang="guw" hreflang="guw" data-title="Nugbo" data-language-autonym="Gungbe" data-language-local-name="Gun" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gungbe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xal mw-list-item"><a href="https://xal.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%AE%D0%BD%D0%BD" title="Үнн – Kalmyk" lang="xal" hreflang="xal" data-title="Үнн" data-language-autonym="Хальмг" data-language-local-name="Kalmyk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Хальмг</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A7%84%EB%A6%AC" title="진리 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="진리" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaskiya" title="Gaskiya – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Gaskiya" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%83%D5%B7%D5%B4%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Ճշմարտություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ճշմարտություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istina" title="Istina – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Istina" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verajo" title="Verajo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Verajo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinaagpayso" title="Kinaagpayso – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Kinaagpayso" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kebenaran" title="Kebenaran – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kebenaran" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veritate" title="Veritate – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Veritate" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sannleikur" title="Sannleikur – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Sannleikur" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verit%C3%A0" title="Verità – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Verità" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%AA" title="אמת – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אמת" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toovenum_(v%C3%A9rit%C3%A9)" title="Toovenum (vérité) – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Toovenum (vérité)" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AD%E1%83%94%E1%83%A8%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="ჭეშმარიტება – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ჭეშმარიტება" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D2%9B%D0%B8%D2%9B%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Ақиқат – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ақиқат" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukweli" title="Ukweli – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Ukweli" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verite" title="Verite – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Verite" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A9rit%C3%A9" title="Vérité – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Vérité" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rast%C3%AE" title="Rastî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Rastî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Чындык – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Чындык" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urit%C3%A0" title="Urità – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Urità" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veritas" title="Veritas – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Veritas" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paties%C4%ABba" title="Patiesība – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Patiesība" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiesa" title="Tiesa – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Tiesa" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waorheid" title="Waorheid – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Waorheid" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veria" title="Veria – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Veria" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veritaa" title="Veritaa – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Veritaa" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igazs%C3%A1g_(filoz%C3%B3fia)" title="Igazság (filozófia) – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Igazság (filozófia)" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%81%E0%A4%9A" title="साँच – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="साँच" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मैथिली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Вистина – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Вистина" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fahamarinana" title="Fahamarinana – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fahamarinana" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%82" title="സത്യം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സത്യം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="सत्य – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="सत्य" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%82%D9%8A%D9%82%D9%87" title="حقيقه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="حقيقه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kebenaran" title="Kebenaran – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kebenaran" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berdade" title="Berdade – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Berdade" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%AE%D0%BD%D1%8D%D0%BD" title="Үнэн – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Үнэн" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dina" title="Dina – Fijian" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Dina" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="Fijian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Na Vosa Vakaviti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waarheid" title="Waarheid – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Waarheid" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="सत्य – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="सत्य" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="सत्य – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="सत्य" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9C%9F%E7%90%86" title="真理 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="真理" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%8A%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3" title="Бакъдерг – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Бакъдерг" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woorhaid" title="Woorhaid – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Woorhaid" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sannhet" title="Sannhet – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Sannhet" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanning" title="Sanning – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Sanning" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A9rita%C3%A9" title="Véritaé – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Véritaé" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nouormand</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veritate" title="Veritate – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Veritate" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Novial</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertat" title="Vertat – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Vertat" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haqiqat" title="Haqiqat – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Haqiqat" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%9A" title="ਸੱਚ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸੱਚ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pfl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pfl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahrheit" title="Wahrheit – Palatine German" lang="pfl" hreflang="pfl" data-title="Wahrheit" data-language-autonym="Pälzisch" data-language-local-name="Palatine German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Pälzisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DA%86" title="سچ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="سچ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%82%DB%8C%D9%82%D8%AA" title="حقیقت – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="حقیقت" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuut" title="Chuut – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Chuut" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vrit%C3%A0" title="Vrità – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Vrità" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waarheid" title="Waarheid – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Waarheid" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prawda" title="Prawda – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Prawda" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verdade" title="Verdade – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Verdade" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adev%C4%83r" title="Adevăr – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Adevăr" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiqap" title="Chiqap – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Chiqap" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Правда – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Правда" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Истина – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Истина" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%B4%D1%8C%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Кырдьык – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Кырдьык" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="सत्यम् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="सत्यम्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%9B" title="ᱥᱚᱛ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱥᱚᱛ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truith" title="Truith – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Truith" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/E_v%C3%ABrteta" title="E vërteta – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="E vërteta" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth" title="Truth – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Truth" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pravda_(filozofia)" title="Pravda (filozofia) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Pravda (filozofia)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resnica" title="Resnica – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Resnica" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Run" title="Run – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Run" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%95%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="ڕاستی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ڕاستی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Истина – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Истина" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istina" title="Istina – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Istina" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Totuus" title="Totuus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Totuus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanning" title="Sanning – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Sanning" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katotohanan" title="Katotohanan – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Katotohanan" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%88" title="உண்மை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="உண்மை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%B9%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Хакыйкать – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Хакыйкать" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%9C%E0%B0%82" title="నిజం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="నిజం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%87" title="ความจริง – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ความจริง" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ger%C3%A7ek" title="Gerçek – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Gerçek" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Істина – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Істина" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DA%86%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C" title="سچائی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="سچائی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caenleix" title="Caenleix – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Caenleix" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vahcuengh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%A2n_l%C3%BD" title="Chân lý – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Chân lý" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AF%A6" title="實 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="實" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamatooran" title="Kamatooran – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Kamatooran" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9C%9F%E7%90%86" title="真理 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="真理" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%AA" title="אמת – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="אמת" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9C%9F" title="真 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="真" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teis%C4%ABb%C4%97" title="Teisībė – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Teisībė" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" 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sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="padding-top:0.8em;">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding-bottom:0.5em;"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="padding:0.5em 0.5em 0.5em; display:block; background-color: #efefef;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_epistemology" title="Outline of epistemology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Epistemology" title="Category:Epistemology">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_epistemology_articles" title="Index of epistemology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Schools</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogmatism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dogmatism">Dogmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infallibilism" title="Infallibilism">Infallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinitism" title="Infinitism">Infinitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perspectivism" title="Perspectivism">Perspectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of science)">Structuralism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);border-top:1px solid #A2A9B1; padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Concepts</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_knowledge_and_action" title="Unity of knowledge and action">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">Belief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief#Full_and_partial" title="Belief">Credence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Certainty" title="Certainty">Certainty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data" title="Data">Data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">Experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_(epistemology)" title="Justification (epistemology)">Justification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_(philosophy)" title="Meaning (philosophy)">Meaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">Rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">Reason</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wisdom" title="Wisdom">Wisdom</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);border-top:1px solid #A2A9B1; padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Domains</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_epistemology" title="Applied epistemology">Applied epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_epistemology" title="Formal epistemology">Formal epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical epistemology">Historical epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaepistemology" title="Metaepistemology">Metaepistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">Social epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_epistemology" title="Virtue epistemology">Virtue epistemology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);border-top:1px solid #A2A9B1; padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Epistemologists</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Empiricus" title="Sextus Empiricus">Sextus Empiricus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Gettier" title="Edmund Gettier">Edmund Gettier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Yangming" title="Wang Yangming">Wang Yangming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">more...</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);border-top:1px solid #A2A9B1; padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Related fields</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_cognition" title="Epistemic cognition">Epistemic cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_modal_logic" title="Epistemic modal logic">Epistemic logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">Philosophy of perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Epistemology_sidebar" title="Template:Epistemology sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Epistemology_sidebar" title="Template talk:Epistemology sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Epistemology_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Epistemology sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table><p><b>Truth</b> or <b>verity</b> is the <a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">property</a> of being in accord with <a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">fact</a> or <a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">reality</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Merriam-Webster-def_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Merriam-Webster-def-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In everyday language, it is typically ascribed to things that aim to represent reality or otherwise correspond to it, such as <a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">beliefs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">propositions</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Declarative_sentence" class="mw-redirect" title="Declarative sentence">declarative sentences</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-SEP_Truth_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SEP_Truth-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Truth is usually held to be the opposite of <a href="/wiki/False_statement" title="False statement">false statement</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">concept</a> of truth is discussed and debated in various contexts, including <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Art" title="Art">art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a>. Most human activities depend upon the concept, where its nature as a concept is assumed rather than being a subject of discussion, including <a href="/wiki/Journalism" title="Journalism">journalism</a> and everyday life. Some philosophers view the concept of truth as basic, and unable to be explained in any terms that are more easily understood than the concept of truth itself.<sup id="cite_ref-SEP_Truth_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SEP_Truth-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most commonly, truth is viewed as the correspondence of <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a> or <a href="/wiki/Thought" title="Thought">thought</a> to a mind-independent world. This is called the <a href="/wiki/Correspondence_theory_of_truth" title="Correspondence theory of truth">correspondence theory of truth</a>. </p><p>Various theories and views of truth continue to be debated among scholars, philosophers, and theologians.<sup id="cite_ref-SEP_Truth_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SEP_Truth-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PUP32014_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PUP32014-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are many different questions about the nature of truth which are still the subject of contemporary debates. These include the question of defining truth; whether it is even possible to give an informative definition of truth; identifying things as <a href="/wiki/Truth-bearer" title="Truth-bearer">truth-bearers</a> capable of being true or false; if truth and falsehood are <a href="/wiki/Principle_of_bivalence" title="Principle of bivalence">bivalent</a>, or if there are other truth values; identifying the <a href="/wiki/Criteria_of_truth" title="Criteria of truth">criteria of truth</a> that allow us to identify it and to distinguish it from falsehood; the role that truth plays in constituting <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a>; and, if truth is always <a href="/wiki/Universality_(philosophy)" title="Universality (philosophy)">absolute</a> or if it can be <a href="/wiki/Knowledge_relativity" class="mw-redirect" title="Knowledge relativity">relative</a> to one's perspective. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition_and_etymology">Definition and etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition and etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Veritas" title="Veritas">Veritas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aletheia" title="Aletheia">Aletheia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tryggvi" class="mw-redirect" title="Tryggvi">Tryggvi</a></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="treowe"></span> The English word <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/truth" class="extiw" title="wikt:truth">truth</a></i> is derived from <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a> <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">tríewþ, tréowþ, trýwþ</i></span>, <a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a> <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">trewþe</i></span>, cognate to <a href="/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German">Old High German</a> <span title="Old High German (ca. 750-1050)-language text"><i lang="goh">triuwida</i></span>, <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a> <span title="Old Norse-language text"><i lang="non">tryggð</i></span>. Like <i>troth</i>, it is a <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/-th" class="extiw" title="wikt:-th">-th</a></i> nominalisation of the adjective <i>true</i> (Old English <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">tréowe</i></span>). </p><p>The English word <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/true" class="extiw" title="wikt:true">true</a></i> is from Old English (<a href="/wiki/West_Sexaon_dialect_(Old_English)" class="mw-redirect" title="West Sexaon dialect (Old English)">West Saxon</a>) <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">(ge)tríewe, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/treowe" class="extiw" title="wikt:treowe">tréowe</a></i></span>, cognate to <a href="/wiki/Old_Saxon" title="Old Saxon">Old Saxon</a> <span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">(gi)trûui</i></span>, <a href="/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German">Old High German</a> <span title="Old High German (ca. 750-1050)-language text"><i lang="goh">(ga)triuwu</i></span> (<a href="/wiki/Modern_German" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern German">Modern German</a> <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">treu</i></span> "faithful"), <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a> <span title="Old Norse-language text"><i lang="non">tryggr</i></span>, <a href="/wiki/Gothic_language" title="Gothic language">Gothic</a> <span title="Gothic-language text"><i lang="got">triggws</i></span>,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> all from a <a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Germanic">Proto-Germanic</a> <i>*trewwj-</i> "having <a href="/wiki/Good_faith" title="Good faith">good faith</a>", perhaps ultimately from PIE *dru- "tree", on the notion of "steadfast as an oak" (e.g., Sanskrit [[[:wikt:दारु#Sanskrit|dā́ru]]] <span style="color:#d33">Error: {{Lang}}: Non-latn text/Latn script subtag mismatch (<a href="/wiki/Category:Lang_and_lang-xx_template_errors" title="Category:Lang and lang-xx template errors">help</a>)</span> "(piece of) wood").<sup id="cite_ref-Truth_from_Online_Etymology_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Truth_from_Online_Etymology-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Old Norse <i><span title="Icelandic-language text"><i lang="is">trú</i></span></i>, "faith, word of honour; religious faith, belief"<sup id="cite_ref-:0_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (archaic English <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/troth" class="extiw" title="wikt:troth">troth</a></i> "loyalty, <a href="/wiki/Honesty" title="Honesty">honesty</a>, good faith", compare <i><span title="Icelandic-language text"><i lang="is"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%C3%81satr%C3%BA" class="extiw" title="wikt:Ásatrú">Ásatrú</a></i></span></i>). </p><p>Thus, "truth" involves both the quality of "faithfulness, fidelity, loyalty, sincerity, veracity",<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that of "agreement with <a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">fact</a> or <a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">reality</a>", in Anglo-Saxon expressed by <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/s%C5%8D%C3%BE" class="extiw" title="wikt:sōþ">sōþ</a></i> (Modern English <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sooth" class="extiw" title="wikt:sooth">sooth</a></i>). </p><p>All Germanic languages besides English have introduced a terminological distinction between truth "fidelity" and truth "factuality". To express "factuality", <a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North Germanic</a> opted for nouns derived from <span title="North Germanic languages collective text"><i lang="gmq">sanna</i></span> "to assert, affirm", while continental <a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West Germanic</a> (German and Dutch) opted for continuations of <span title="West Germanic languages collective text"><i lang="gmw">wâra</i></span> "faith, trust, pact" (cognate to Slavic <i>věra</i> "(religious) faith", but influenced by Latin <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Veritas" title="Veritas">verus</a></i></span>). <a href="/wiki/Romance_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Romance language">Romance languages</a> use terms following the Latin <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Veritas" title="Veritas">veritas</a></i></span>, while the Greek <span title="Greek-language text"><i lang="el-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Aletheia" title="Aletheia">aletheia</a></i></span>, Russian <span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pravda" class="extiw" title="wikt:pravda">pravda</a></i></span>, South Slavic <i>istina</i> and Sanskrit <span title="Sanskrit-language text"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Sat_(Sanskrit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sat (Sanskrit)">sat</a></i></span> (related to English <i>sooth</i> and North Germanic <span title="North Germanic languages collective text"><i lang="gmq">sanna</i></span>) have separate etymological origins. </p><p>In some modern contexts, the word "truth" is used to refer to fidelity to an original or standard. It can also be used in the context of being "true to oneself" in the sense of acting with <a href="/wiki/Authenticity_(philosophy)" title="Authenticity (philosophy)">authenticity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Merriam-Webster-def_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Merriam-Webster-def-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Major_theories">Major theories</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Major theories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Statue_of_Truth.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Statue_of_Truth.jpg/220px-Statue_of_Truth.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Statue_of_Truth.jpg/330px-Statue_of_Truth.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Statue_of_Truth.jpg/440px-Statue_of_Truth.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2488" data-file-height="3320" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Walter_Seymour_Allward" title="Walter Seymour Allward">Walter Seymour Allward</a>'s <i>Veritas</i> (Truth) outside <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Canada" title="Supreme Court of Canada">Supreme Court of Canada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ottawa,_Ontario" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottawa, Ontario">Ottawa, Ontario</a> <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The question of what is a proper basis for deciding how words, symbols, ideas and beliefs may properly be considered true, whether by a single person or an entire society, is dealt with by the five most prevalent substantive <b>theories of truth</b> listed below. Each presents perspectives that are widely shared by published scholars.<sup id="cite_ref-EPT_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EPT-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 309–330">: 309–330 </span></sup> </p><p>Theories other than the most prevalent substantive theories are also discussed. According to a survey of professional philosophers and others on their philosophical views which was carried out in November 2009 (taken by 3226 respondents, including 1803 philosophy faculty members and/or PhDs and 829 philosophy graduate students) 45% of respondents accept or lean toward correspondence theories, 21% accept or lean toward deflationary theories and 14% <a href="/wiki/Epistemic_theories_of_truth" title="Epistemic theories of truth">epistemic theories</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Substantive">Substantive</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Substantive"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Correspondence">Correspondence</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Correspondence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Correspondence_theory_of_truth" title="Correspondence theory of truth">Correspondence theory of truth</a></div> <p>Correspondence theories emphasize that true beliefs and true statements correspond to the actual state of affairs.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This type of theory stresses a relationship between thoughts or statements on one hand, and things or objects on the other. It is a traditional model tracing its origins to <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greek</a> philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This class of theories holds that the truth or the falsity of a representation is determined in principle entirely by how it relates to "things" according to whether it accurately describes those "things". A classic example of correspondence theory is the statement by the thirteenth century philosopher and theologian <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a>: "<i><a href="/wiki/Veritas_est_adaequatio_rei_et_intellectus" class="mw-redirect" title="Veritas est adaequatio rei et intellectus">Veritas est adaequatio rei et intellectus</a></i>" ("Truth is the adequation of things and <a href="/wiki/Intellect" title="Intellect">intellect</a>"), which Aquinas attributed to the ninth century <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonist" class="mw-redirect" title="Neoplatonist">Neoplatonist</a> <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Israeli_ben_Solomon" title="Isaac Israeli ben Solomon">Isaac Israeli</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:4_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aquinas also restated the theory as: "A judgment is said to be true when it conforms to the external reality".<sup id="cite_ref-:5_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Correspondence theory centres heavily around the assumption that truth is a matter of accurately copying what is known as "<a href="/wiki/Objective_reality" class="mw-redirect" title="Objective reality">objective reality</a>" and then representing it in thoughts, words, and other symbols.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many modern theorists have stated that this ideal cannot be achieved without analysing additional factors.<sup id="cite_ref-EPT_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EPT-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:6_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, language plays a role in that all languages have words to represent concepts that are virtually undefined in other languages. The <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a> word <i><a href="/wiki/Zeitgeist" title="Zeitgeist">Zeitgeist</a></i> is one such example: one who speaks or understands the language may "know" what it means, but any translation of the word apparently fails to accurately capture its full meaning (this is a problem with many abstract words, especially those derived in <a href="/wiki/Agglutinative_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Agglutinative languages">agglutinative languages</a>). Thus, some words add an additional parameter to the construction of an accurate <a href="/wiki/Truth_predicate" title="Truth predicate">truth predicate</a>. Among the philosophers who grappled with this problem is <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Tarski" title="Alfred Tarski">Alfred Tarski</a>, whose <a href="/wiki/Semantic_theory_of_truth" title="Semantic theory of truth">semantic theory</a> is summarized further on.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Proponents of several of the theories below have gone further to assert that there are yet other issues necessary to the analysis, such as interpersonal power struggles, community interactions, personal biases, and other factors involved in deciding what is seen as truth. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Coherence">Coherence</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Coherence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Coherence_theory_of_truth" title="Coherence theory of truth">Coherence theory of truth</a></div> <p>For coherence theories in general, truth requires a proper fit of elements within a whole system. Very often, coherence is taken to imply something more than simple logical consistency; often there is a demand that the propositions in a coherent system lend mutual inferential support to each other. So, for example, the completeness and comprehensiveness of the underlying set of concepts is a critical factor in judging the validity and usefulness of a coherent system.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A pervasive tenet of coherence theories is the idea that truth is primarily a property of whole systems of propositions, and can be ascribed to individual propositions only according to their coherence with the whole. Among the assortment of perspectives commonly regarded as coherence theory, theorists differ on the question of whether coherence entails many possible true systems of thought or only a single absolute system. </p><p>Some variants of coherence theory are claimed to describe the essential and intrinsic properties of <a href="/wiki/Formal_system" title="Formal system">formal systems</a> in logic and mathematics.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Formal reasoners are content to contemplate <a href="/wiki/Independence_(mathematical_logic)" title="Independence (mathematical logic)">axiomatically independent</a> and sometimes mutually contradictory systems side by side, for example, the various <a href="/wiki/Noneuclidean_geometry" class="mw-redirect" title="Noneuclidean geometry">alternative geometries</a>. On the whole, coherence theories have been rejected for lacking justification in their application to other areas of truth, especially with respect to assertions about the <a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">natural world</a>, <a href="/wiki/Empirical" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical">empirical</a> data in general, assertions about practical matters of psychology and society, especially when used without support from the other major theories of truth.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Coherence theories distinguish the thought of <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalist</a> philosophers, particularly of <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel</a>, along with the British philosopher <a href="/wiki/F._H._Bradley" title="F. H. Bradley">F. H. Bradley</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They have found a resurgence also among several proponents of <a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">logical positivism</a>, notably <a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carl_Hempel" class="mw-redirect" title="Carl Hempel">Carl Hempel</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pragmatic">Pragmatic</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Pragmatic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_theory_of_truth" title="Pragmatic theory of truth">Pragmatic theory of truth</a></div> <p>The three most influential forms of the <i>pragmatic theory of truth</i> were introduced around the turn of the 20th century by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a>. Although there are wide differences in viewpoint among these and other proponents of pragmatic theory, they hold in common that truth is verified and confirmed by the results of putting one's concepts into practice.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Peirce defines it: "Truth is that concordance of an abstract statement with the ideal limit towards which endless investigation would tend to bring scientific belief, which concordance the abstract statement may possess by virtue of the confession of its inaccuracy and one-sidedness, and this confession is an essential ingredient of truth."<sup id="cite_ref-Peirce_Truth_and_Falsity_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peirce_Truth_and_Falsity-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This statement stresses Peirce's view that ideas of approximation, incompleteness, and partiality, what he describes elsewhere as <i><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">fallibilism</a></i> and "reference to the future", are essential to a proper conception of truth. Although Peirce uses words like <i>concordance</i> and <i>correspondence</i> to describe one aspect of the pragmatic <a href="/wiki/Sign_relation" title="Sign relation">sign relation</a>, he is also quite explicit in saying that definitions of truth based on mere correspondence are no more than <i>nominal</i> definitions, which he accords a lower status than <i>real</i> definitions. </p><p>James' version of pragmatic theory, while complex, is often summarized by his statement that "the 'true' is only the expedient in our way of thinking, just as the 'right' is only the expedient in our way of behaving."<sup id="cite_ref-WJP_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WJP-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By this, James meant that truth is a <i>quality</i>, the value of which is confirmed by its effectiveness when applying concepts to practice (thus, "pragmatic"). </p><p>Dewey, less broadly than James but more broadly than Peirce, held that <a href="/wiki/Inquiry" title="Inquiry">inquiry</a>, whether scientific, technical, sociological, philosophical, or cultural, is self-corrective over time <i>if</i> openly submitted for testing by a community of inquirers in order to clarify, justify, refine, and/or refute proposed truths.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Though not widely known, a new variation of the pragmatic theory was defined and wielded successfully from the 20th century forward. Defined and named by <a href="/wiki/William_Ernest_Hocking" title="William Ernest Hocking">William Ernest Hocking</a>, this variation is known as "negative pragmatism". Essentially, what works may or may not be true, but what fails cannot be true because the truth always works.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Philosopher of science <a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Richard Feynman</a> also subscribed to it: "We never are definitely right, we can only be sure we are wrong."<sup id="cite_ref-FeynmanThe_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FeynmanThe-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This approach incorporates many of the ideas from Peirce, James, and Dewey. For Peirce, the idea of "endless investigation would tend to bring about scientific belief" fits negative pragmatism in that a negative pragmatist would never stop testing. As Feynman noted, an idea or theory "could never be proved right, because tomorrow's experiment might succeed in proving wrong what you thought was right."<sup id="cite_ref-FeynmanThe_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FeynmanThe-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, James and Dewey's ideas also ascribe truth to repeated testing which is "self-corrective" over time. </p><p>Pragmatism and negative pragmatism are also closely aligned with the <a href="/wiki/Coherence_theory_of_truth" title="Coherence theory of truth">coherence theory of truth</a> in that any testing should not be isolated but rather incorporate knowledge from all human endeavors and experience. The universe is a whole and integrated system, and testing should acknowledge and account for its diversity. As Feynman said, "...<span class="nowrap"> </span>if it disagrees with experiment, it is wrong."<sup id="cite_ref-FeynmanThe_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FeynmanThe-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 150">: 150 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Constructivist">Constructivist</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Constructivist"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivist epistemology</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">Social constructivism</a> holds that truth is constructed by social processes, is historically and culturally specific, and that it is in part shaped through the power struggles within a community. Constructivism views all of our knowledge as "constructed," because it does not reflect any external "transcendent" realities (as a pure correspondence theory might hold). Rather, perceptions of truth are viewed as contingent on convention, human perception, and social experience. It is believed by constructivists that representations of physical and biological reality, including <a href="/wiki/Race_(classification_of_human_beings)" class="mw-redirect" title="Race (classification of human beings)">race</a>, <a href="/wiki/Human_sexuality" title="Human sexuality">sexuality</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">gender</a>, are socially constructed. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Giambattista Vico</a> was among the first to claim that history and culture were man-made. Vico's <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemological</a> orientation unfolds in one axiom: <i>verum ipsum factum</i>—"truth itself is constructed". <a href="/wiki/Hegel" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegel">Hegel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marx" class="mw-redirect" title="Marx">Marx</a> were among the other early proponents of the premise that truth is, or can be, socially constructed. Marx, like many critical theorists who followed, did not reject the existence of objective truth, but rather distinguished between true knowledge and knowledge that has been distorted through power or ideology. For Marx, scientific and true knowledge is "in accordance with the dialectical understanding of history" and ideological knowledge is "an epiphenomenal expression of the relation of material forces in a given economic arrangement".<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (March 2019)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Consensus">Consensus</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Consensus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Consensus_theory_of_truth" title="Consensus theory of truth">Consensus theory of truth</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Consensus_theory_of_truth" title="Consensus theory of truth">Consensus theory</a> holds that truth is whatever is agreed upon, or in some versions, might come to be agreed upon, by some specified group. Such a group might include all human beings, or a <a href="/wiki/Subset" title="Subset">subset</a> thereof consisting of more than one person. </p><p>Among the current advocates of consensus theory as a useful accounting of the concept of "truth" is the philosopher <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Habermas maintains that truth is what would be agreed upon in an <a href="/wiki/Ideal_speech_situation" title="Ideal speech situation">ideal speech situation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among the current strong critics of consensus theory is the philosopher <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Rescher" title="Nicholas Rescher">Nicholas Rescher</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Minimalist">Minimalist</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Minimalist"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Deflationary">Deflationary</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Deflationary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Deflationary_theory_of_truth" title="Deflationary theory of truth">Deflationary theory of truth</a></div> <p>Modern developments in the field of philosophy have resulted in the rise of a new thesis: that the term <i>truth</i> does not denote a real property of sentences or propositions. This thesis is in part a response to the common use of <i>truth predicates</i> (e.g., that some particular thing "...<span class="nowrap"> </span>is true") which was particularly prevalent in philosophical discourse on truth in the first half of the 20th century. From this point of view, to assert that "'2 + 2 = 4' is true" is logically equivalent to asserting that "2 + 2 = 4", and the phrase "is true" is—philosophically, if not practically (see: "Michael" example, below)—completely dispensable in this and every other context. In common parlance, truth predicates are not commonly heard, and it would be interpreted as an unusual occurrence were someone to utilize a truth predicate in an everyday conversation when asserting that something is true. Newer perspectives that take this discrepancy into account, and work with sentence structures as actually employed in common discourse, can be broadly described: </p> <ul><li>as <i>deflationary</i> theories of truth, since they attempt to deflate the presumed importance of the words "true" or <i>truth</i>,</li> <li>as <i>disquotational</i> theories, to draw attention to the disappearance of the quotation marks in cases like the above example, or</li> <li>as <i>minimalist</i> theories of truth.<sup id="cite_ref-EPT_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EPT-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Whichever term is used, deflationary theories can be said to hold in common that "the predicate 'true' is an expressive convenience, not the name of a property requiring deep analysis."<sup id="cite_ref-EPT_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EPT-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Once we have identified the truth predicate's formal features and utility, deflationists argue, we have said all there is to be said about truth. Among the theoretical concerns of these views is to explain away those special cases where it <i>does</i> appear that the concept of truth has peculiar and interesting properties. (See, e.g., <a href="/wiki/Semantic_paradox" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantic paradox">Semantic paradoxes</a>, and below.) </p><p>The scope of deflationary principles is generally limited to representations that resemble sentences. They do not encompass a broader range of entities that are typically considered true or otherwise. In addition, some deflationists point out that the concept employed in "...<span class="nowrap"> </span>is true" formulations does enable us to express things that might otherwise require infinitely long sentences; for example, one cannot express confidence in Michael's accuracy by asserting the endless sentence: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r996643573">.mw-parser-output .block-indent{padding-left:3em;padding-right:0;overflow:hidden}</style><div class="block-indent"><i>Michael says, 'snow is white' and snow is white, or he says 'roses are red' and roses are red or he says<span class="nowrap"> </span>... etc.</i></div> <p>This assertion can instead be succinctly expressed by saying: <i>What Michael says is true</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Redundancy_and_related">Redundancy and related</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Redundancy and related"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Redundancy_theory_of_truth" title="Redundancy theory of truth">Redundancy theory of truth</a></div> <p>An early variety of deflationary theory is the <a href="/wiki/Redundancy_theory_of_truth" title="Redundancy theory of truth">redundancy theory of truth</a>, so-called because—in examples like those above, e.g. "snow is white [is true]"—the concept of "truth" is redundant and need not have been articulated; that is, it is merely a word that is traditionally used in conversation or writing, generally for emphasis, but not a word that actually equates to anything in reality. This theory is commonly attributed to <a href="/wiki/Frank_P._Ramsey" class="mw-redirect" title="Frank P. Ramsey">Frank P. Ramsey</a>, who held that the use of words like <i>fact</i> and <i>truth</i> was nothing but a <a href="/wiki/Periphrasis" title="Periphrasis">roundabout</a> way of asserting a proposition, and that treating these words as separate problems in isolation from judgment was merely a "linguistic muddle".<sup id="cite_ref-EPT_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EPT-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A variant of redundancy theory is the "disquotational" theory, which uses a modified form of the logician <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Tarski" title="Alfred Tarski">Alfred Tarski</a>'s <a href="#Semantic_theory_of_truth">schema</a>: proponents observe that to say that "'P' is true" <i>is</i> to assert "P". A version of this theory was defended by <a href="/wiki/C._J._F._Williams" title="C. J. F. Williams">C. J. F. Williams</a> (in his book <i>What is Truth?</i>). Yet another version of deflationism is the prosentential theory of truth, first developed by Dorothy Grover, Joseph Camp, and <a href="/wiki/Nuel_Belnap" title="Nuel Belnap">Nuel Belnap</a> as an elaboration of Ramsey's claims. They argue that utterances such as "that's true", when said in response to (e.g.) "it's raining", are "<a href="/wiki/Prosentence" class="mw-redirect" title="Prosentence">prosentences</a>"—expressions that merely repeat the content of other expressions. In the same way that <i>it</i> means the same as <i>my dog</i> in the statement "my dog was hungry, so I fed it", <i>that's true</i> is supposed to mean the same as <i>it's raining</i> when the former is said in reply to the latter. </p><p>As noted above, proponents of these ideas do not necessarily follow Ramsey in asserting that truth is not a <i>property;</i> rather, they can be understood to say that, for instance, the assertion "P" <i>may well</i> involve a substantial truth—it is only the redundancy involved in statements such as "that's true" (i.e., a prosentence) which is to be minimized.<sup id="cite_ref-EPT_8-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EPT-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Performative">Performative</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Performative"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Attributed to philosopher <a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a> is the performative theory of truth which holds that to say "'Snow is white' is true" is to perform the <a href="/wiki/Speech_act" title="Speech act">speech act</a> of signaling one's agreement with the claim that snow is white (much like nodding one's head in agreement). The idea that some statements are more actions than communicative statements is not as odd as it may seem. For example, when a wedding couple says "I do" at the appropriate time in a wedding, they are performing the act of taking the other to be their lawful wedded spouse. They are not <i>describing</i> themselves as taking the other, but actually <i>doing</i> so (perhaps the most thorough analysis of such "illocutionary acts" is <a href="/wiki/J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">J. L. Austin</a>, most notably in <i><a href="/wiki/How_to_Do_Things_With_Words" class="mw-redirect" title="How to Do Things With Words">How to Do Things With Words</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). </p><p>Strawson holds that a similar analysis is applicable to all speech acts, not just illocutionary ones: "To say a statement is true is not to make a statement about a statement, but rather to perform the act of agreeing with, accepting, or endorsing a statement. When one says 'It's true that it's raining,' one asserts no more than 'It's raining.' The function of [the statement] 'It's true that<span class="nowrap"> </span>...' is to agree with, accept, or endorse the statement that 'it's raining.<span style="padding-right:.15em;">'</span>" <sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Philosophical_skepticism">Philosophical skepticism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Philosophical skepticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Philosophical skepticism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Certainty" title="Certainty">Certainty</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Philosophical skepticism</a> is generally any <a href="/wiki/Doubt" title="Doubt">doubt</a> of one or more items of <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a> or <a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">belief</a> which ascribe truth to their assertions and propositions.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The primary target of philosophical skepticism is <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a>, but it can be applied to any domain, such as the <a href="/wiki/Supernatural" title="Supernatural">supernatural</a>, morality (<a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">moral skepticism</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Religious_skepticism" title="Religious skepticism">religion</a> (skepticism about the existence of God).<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Philosophical skepticism comes in various forms. <a href="/wiki/Radical_skepticism" title="Radical skepticism">Radical forms of skepticism</a> deny that knowledge or rational belief is possible and urge us to <a href="/wiki/Epoche" class="mw-redirect" title="Epoche">suspend judgment</a> regarding ascription of truth on many or all controversial matters. More moderate forms of skepticism claim only that nothing can be known with certainty, or that we can know little or nothing about the "big questions" in life, such as whether God exists or whether there is an afterlife. <a href="/wiki/Religious_skepticism" title="Religious skepticism">Religious skepticism</a> is "doubt concerning basic religious principles (such as immortality, providence, and revelation)".<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a> concerns testing beliefs for reliability, by subjecting them to <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/systematic" class="extiw" title="wikt:systematic">systematic</a> investigation using the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a>, to discover <a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">empirical evidence</a> for them. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pluralist">Pluralist</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Pluralist"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pluralist_theories_of_truth" title="Pluralist theories of truth">Pluralist theories of truth</a></div> <p>Several of the major theories of truth hold that there is a particular property the having of which makes a belief or proposition true. Pluralist theories of truth assert that there may be more than one property that makes propositions true: ethical propositions might be true by virtue of coherence. Propositions about the physical world might be true by corresponding to the objects and properties they are about. </p><p>Some of the pragmatic theories, such as those by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Peirce</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a>, included aspects of correspondence, coherence and constructivist theories.<sup id="cite_ref-Peirce_Truth_and_Falsity_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peirce_Truth_and_Falsity-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-WJP_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WJP-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Crispin_Wright" title="Crispin Wright">Crispin Wright</a> argued in his 1992 book <i>Truth and Objectivity</i> that any predicate which satisfied certain platitudes about truth qualified as a truth predicate. In some discourses, Wright argued, the role of the truth predicate might be played by the notion of superassertibility.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Michael_Lynch_(philosopher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Lynch (philosopher)">Michael Lynch</a>, in a 2009 book <i>Truth as One and Many</i>, argued that we should see truth as a functional property capable of being multiply manifested in distinct properties like correspondence or coherence.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Formal_theories">Formal theories</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Formal theories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Logic">Logic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Logic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Logical_truth" title="Logical truth">Logical truth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Criteria_of_truth" title="Criteria of truth">Criteria of truth</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Truth_value" title="Truth value">Truth value</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a> is concerned with the patterns in <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a> that can help tell if a <a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">proposition</a> is true or not. Logicians use <a href="/wiki/Formal_language" title="Formal language">formal languages</a> to express the truths they are concerned with, and as such there is only truth under some <a href="/wiki/Interpretation_(logic)" title="Interpretation (logic)">interpretation</a> or truth within some <a href="/wiki/Logical_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Logical system">logical system</a>. </p><p>A logical truth (also called an analytic truth or a necessary truth) is a statement that is true in all possible worlds<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or under all possible interpretations, as contrasted to a <i><a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">fact</a></i> (also called a <i><a href="/wiki/Analytic-synthetic_distinction" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytic-synthetic distinction">synthetic claim</a></i> or a <i><a href="/wiki/Necessary_and_sufficient_condition" class="mw-redirect" title="Necessary and sufficient condition">contingency</a></i>), which is only true in this <a href="/wiki/World_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="World (philosophy)">world</a> as it has historically unfolded. A proposition such as "If p and q, then p" is considered to be a logical truth because of the meaning of the <a href="/wiki/Symbol_(formal)" title="Symbol (formal)">symbols</a> and <a href="/wiki/Well-formed_formula" title="Well-formed formula">words</a> in it and not because of any fact of any particular world. They are such that they could not be untrue. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Degree_of_truth" title="Degree of truth">Degrees</a> of <a href="/wiki/Truth_values" class="mw-redirect" title="Truth values">truth</a> in logic may be represented using two or more discrete values, as with <a href="/wiki/Principle_of_bivalence" title="Principle of bivalence">bivalent logic</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Boolean_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Boolean logic">binary logic</a>), <a href="/wiki/Three-valued_logic" title="Three-valued logic">three-valued logic</a>, and other forms of <a href="/wiki/Finite-valued_logic" title="Finite-valued logic">finite-valued logic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Truth in logic can be represented using numbers comprising a <a href="/wiki/Continuous_or_discrete_variable" title="Continuous or discrete variable">continuous</a> range, typically between 0 and 1, as with <a href="/wiki/Fuzzy_logic" title="Fuzzy logic">fuzzy logic</a> and other forms of <a href="/wiki/Infinite-valued_logic" title="Infinite-valued logic">infinite-valued logic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In general, the concept of representing truth using more than two values is known as <a href="/wiki/Many-valued_logic" title="Many-valued logic">many-valued logic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mathematics">Mathematics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Mathematics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="Truth_in_mathematics"></span> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Model_theory" title="Model theory">Model theory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Proof_theory" title="Proof theory">Proof theory</a></div> <p>There are two main approaches to truth in mathematics. They are the <i><a href="/wiki/Model_theory" title="Model theory">model theory of truth</a></i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Proof_theory" title="Proof theory">proof theory of truth</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historically, with the nineteenth century development of <a href="/wiki/Boolean_algebra_(logic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Boolean algebra (logic)">Boolean algebra</a>, mathematical models of logic began to treat "truth", also represented as "T" or "1", as an arbitrary constant. "Falsity" is also an arbitrary constant, which can be represented as "F" or "0". In <a href="/wiki/Propositional_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Propositional logic">propositional logic</a>, these symbols can be manipulated according to a set of <a href="/wiki/Axioms" class="mw-redirect" title="Axioms">axioms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rules_of_inference" class="mw-redirect" title="Rules of inference">rules of inference</a>, often given in the form of <a href="/wiki/Truth_table" title="Truth table">truth tables</a>. </p><p>In addition, from at least the time of <a href="/wiki/Hilbert%27s_program" title="Hilbert's program">Hilbert's program</a> at the turn of the twentieth century to the proof of <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6del%27s_incompleteness_theorems" title="Gödel's incompleteness theorems">Gödel's incompleteness theorems</a> and the development of the <a href="/wiki/Church%E2%80%93Turing_thesis" title="Church–Turing thesis">Church–Turing thesis</a> in the early part of that century, true statements in mathematics were <a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">generally assumed</a> to be those statements that are provable in a formal axiomatic system.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The works of <a href="/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%B6del" title="Kurt Gödel">Kurt Gödel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a>, and others shook this assumption, with the development of statements that are true but cannot be proven within the system.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two examples of the latter can be found in <a href="/wiki/Hilbert%27s_problems" title="Hilbert's problems">Hilbert's problems</a>. Work on <a href="/wiki/Hilbert%27s_10th_problem" class="mw-redirect" title="Hilbert's 10th problem">Hilbert's 10th problem</a> led in the late twentieth century to the construction of specific <a href="/wiki/Diophantine_equations" class="mw-redirect" title="Diophantine equations">Diophantine equations</a> for which it is undecidable whether they have a solution,<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or even if they do, whether they have a finite or infinite number of solutions. More fundamentally, <a href="/wiki/Hilbert%27s_first_problem" class="mw-redirect" title="Hilbert's first problem">Hilbert's first problem</a> was on the <a href="/wiki/Continuum_hypothesis" title="Continuum hypothesis">continuum hypothesis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gödel and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Cohen_(mathematician)" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul Cohen (mathematician)">Paul Cohen</a> showed that this hypothesis cannot be proved or disproved using the standard <a href="/wiki/Axiom" title="Axiom">axioms</a> of <a href="/wiki/Set_theory" title="Set theory">set theory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the view of some, then, it is equally reasonable to take either the continuum hypothesis or its negation as a new axiom. </p><p>Gödel thought that the ability to perceive the truth of a mathematical or logical proposition is a matter of <a href="/wiki/Logical_intuition" title="Logical intuition">intuition</a>, an ability he admitted could be ultimately beyond the scope of a formal theory of logic or mathematics<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and perhaps best considered in the realm of human <a href="/wiki/Comprehension_(logic)" title="Comprehension (logic)">comprehension</a> and communication. But he commented, "The more I think about language, the more it amazes me that people ever understand each other at all".<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tarski's_semantics"><span id="Tarski.27s_semantics"></span>Tarski's semantics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Tarski's semantics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Semantic_theory_of_truth" title="Semantic theory of truth">Semantic theory of truth</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Semantic_theory_of_truth" title="Semantic theory of truth">semantic theory of truth</a> has as its general case for a given language: </p> <dl><dd>'P' is true if and only if P</dd></dl> <p>where 'P' refers to the sentence (the sentence's name), and P is just the sentence itself. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Tarski%27s_theory_of_truth" class="mw-redirect" title="Tarski's theory of truth">Tarski's theory of truth</a> (named after <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Tarski" title="Alfred Tarski">Alfred Tarski</a>) was developed for formal languages, such as <a href="/wiki/Formal_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal logic">formal logic</a>. Here he restricted it in this way: no language could contain its own truth predicate, that is, the expression <i>is true</i> could only apply to sentences in some other language. The latter he called an <i>object language</i>, the language being talked about. (It may, in turn, have a truth predicate that can be applied to sentences in still another language.) The reason for his restriction was that languages that contain their own truth predicate will contain <a href="/wiki/Liar_paradox" title="Liar paradox">paradoxical</a> sentences such as, "This sentence is not true". As a result, Tarski held that the semantic theory could not be applied to any natural language, such as English, because they contain their own truth predicates. <a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Donald Davidson</a> used it as the foundation of his <a href="/wiki/Truth-conditional_semantics" title="Truth-conditional semantics">truth-conditional semantics</a> and linked it to <a href="/wiki/Radical_interpretation" title="Radical interpretation">radical interpretation</a> in a form of <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">coherentism</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a> is credited with noticing the existence of such paradoxes even in the best symbolic formations of mathematics in his day, in particular the paradox that came to be named after him, <a href="/wiki/Russell%27s_paradox" title="Russell's paradox">Russell's paradox</a>. Russell and <a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Whitehead</a> attempted to solve these problems in <i><a href="/wiki/Principia_Mathematica" title="Principia Mathematica">Principia Mathematica</a></i> by putting statements into a hierarchy of <a href="/wiki/Type_theory" title="Type theory">types</a>, wherein a statement cannot refer to itself, but only to statements lower in the hierarchy. This in turn led to new orders of difficulty regarding the precise natures of types and the structures of conceptually possible <a href="/wiki/Type_system" title="Type system">type systems</a> that have yet to be resolved to this day. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kripke's_semantics"><span id="Kripke.27s_semantics"></span>Kripke's semantics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Kripke's semantics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Semantic_theory_of_truth" title="Semantic theory of truth">Semantic theory of truth</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Kripke%27s_theory_of_truth" class="mw-redirect" title="Kripke's theory of truth">Kripke's theory of truth</a> (named after <a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a>) contends that a natural language can in fact contain its own truth predicate without giving rise to contradiction. He showed how to construct one as follows: </p> <ul><li>Beginning with a subset of sentences of a natural language that contains no occurrences of the expression "is true" (or "is false"). So, <i>The barn is big</i> is included in the subset, but not "<i>The barn is big</i> is true", nor problematic sentences such as "<i>This sentence</i> is false".</li> <li>Defining truth just for the sentences in that subset.</li> <li>Extending the definition of truth to include sentences that predicate truth or falsity of one of the original subset of sentences. So "<i>The barn is big</i> is true" is now included, but not either "<i>This sentence</i> is false" nor "'<i>The barn is big</i> is true' is true".</li> <li>Defining truth for all sentences that predicate truth or falsity of a member of the second set. Imagine this process repeated infinitely, so that truth is defined for <i>The barn is big</i>; then for "<i>The barn is big</i> is true"; then for "'<i>The barn is big</i> is true' is true", and so on.</li></ul> <p>Truth never gets defined for sentences like <i>This sentence is false</i>, since it was not in the original subset and does not predicate truth of any sentence in the original or any subsequent set. In Kripke's terms, these are "ungrounded." Since these sentences are never assigned either truth or falsehood even if the process is carried out infinitely, Kripke's theory implies that some sentences are neither true nor false. This contradicts the <a href="/wiki/Principle_of_bivalence" title="Principle of bivalence">principle of bivalence</a>: every sentence must be either true or false. Since this principle is a key premise in deriving the <a href="/wiki/Liar_paradox" title="Liar paradox">liar paradox</a>, the paradox is dissolved.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Proof_sketch_for_G%C3%B6del%27s_first_incompleteness_theorem" title="Proof sketch for Gödel's first incompleteness theorem">proof sketch for Gödel's first incompleteness theorem</a> shows self-reference cannot be avoided naively<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Is this paragraph implying that Kripke semantics attempt to "naively avoid self-reference"? I am pretty certain that Kripke was well aware of, and deeply understood both Godel's and Tarski's work relevant to these questions, given that he was a mathematical logician in the period several decades after Godel's and Tarski's foundational publications. So all things being equal, unless another commensurate expert is claiming that Kripke is doing this, it shouldn't be assumed that he is -- in which case a citation to the expert, and where their opinion is expressed, is needed. (November 2022)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="Which of Godel's publications is this referring to? (November 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>, since propositions about seemingly unrelated objects can have an informal self-referential meaning; in Gödel's work, these objects are integer numbers, and they have an informal meaning regarding propositions<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Great, but what part of Kripke semantics relies on (something equivalent to) first-order Peano arithmetic, which as far as I understand is the context where the Goedel numbering method (which this paragraph is seemingly referencing) is relevant. And based on this informal discussion, it's unclear to me whether the author is conflating object language and metalanguage. (November 2022)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. In fact, this idea — manifested by the <a href="/wiki/Diagonal_lemma" title="Diagonal lemma">diagonal lemma</a>—is the basis for <a href="/wiki/Tarski%27s_undefinability_theorem" title="Tarski's undefinability theorem">Tarski's theorem</a> that truth cannot be consistently defined.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Again Saul Kripke is a mathematical logician, he was obviously aware of diagonal arguments (also relevant to Cantor's theorem, most generalized by Lawvere's theorem), so the basis for assuming that he proposed a system of formal semantics that doesn't make sense in light of a diagonal argument seems highly dubious. That might not be what this paragraph is claiming, but again I don't understand what it is claiming. (November 2022)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>It has thus been claimed<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that Kripke's system indeed leads to contradiction<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="The material near this tag is possibly inaccurate or nonfactual. (November 2022)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Truth#Dubious" title="Talk:Truth">discuss</a></i>]</sup>: while its truth predicate is only partial, it does give truth value (true/false) to propositions such as the one built in Tarski's proof,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="Based on what I understand of Kripke semantics based on Goldblatt's book, this seems likely to be incorrect, because propositions can either not be given any truth values, or be given one truth value in one part of the poset (partially ordered set) and another truth value in another part of the poset. So this really sounds to me like a misinterpretation of both partial orders in general (which need not be total orders a.k.a. linear orders) as well as Kripke semantics in particular. (November 2022)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Truth#Dubious" title="Talk:Truth">discuss</a></i>]</sup> and is therefore inconsistent. While there is still a debate on whether Tarski's proof can be implemented to every similar partial truth system,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="What is a "partial truth system"? (I.e. the precise mathematical definition?) And in what metalanguage/metalogic are people trying to prove the consistency of these "partial truth systems" in? Also, no one has shown ZFC to be consistent - does that mean this paragraph is claiming that the foundations of mathematics are dubious? Maybe they are, but it's not clear to me either way what this is claiming. E.g. is it conflating "consistency" or "completeness" of a theory (expressed in a given logic) with "consistency" or "completeness" of a given logic? (November 2022)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> none have been shown to be consistent by <a href="/wiki/Consistency_proof" class="mw-redirect" title="Consistency proof">acceptable methods</a> used in <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_logic" title="Mathematical logic">mathematical logic</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Kripke_semantics" title="Kripke semantics">Kripke's semantics</a> are related to the use of <a href="/wiki/Topos" title="Topos">topoi</a> and other concepts from <a href="/wiki/Category_theory" title="Category theory">category theory</a> in the study of <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_logic" title="Mathematical logic">mathematical logic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They provide a choice of formal semantics for <a href="/wiki/Intuitionistic_logic" title="Intuitionistic logic">intuitionistic logic</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Folk_beliefs">Folk beliefs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Folk beliefs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Truth_predicate" title="Truth predicate">truth predicate</a> "<i>P</i> is true" has great practical value in human language, allowing <i>efficient</i> endorsement or impeaching of claims made by others, to emphasize the truth or falsity of a statement, or to enable various indirect (<a href="/wiki/Gricean" class="mw-redirect" title="Gricean">Gricean</a>) conversational implications.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Individuals or societies will sometime punish "false" statements to deter falsehoods;<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the oldest surviving law text, the <a href="/wiki/Code_of_Ur-Nammu" title="Code of Ur-Nammu">Code of Ur-Nammu</a>, lists penalties for false accusations of sorcery or adultery, as well as for committing <a href="/wiki/Perjury" title="Perjury">perjury</a> in court. Even four-year-old children can pass simple "<a href="/wiki/Theory_of_mind#False-belief_task" title="Theory of mind">false belief</a>" tests and successfully assess that another individual's belief diverges from reality in a specific way;<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by adulthood there are strong implicit intuitions about "truth" that form a "folk theory" of truth. These intuitions include:<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Capture (<i>T</i>-in): If <i>P</i>, then <i>P</i> is true</li> <li>Release (<i>T</i>-out): If <i>P</i> is true, then <i>P</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_noncontradiction" title="Law of noncontradiction">Noncontradiction</a>: A statement cannot be both true and false</li> <li>Normativity: It is usually good to believe what is true</li> <li>False beliefs: The notion that believing a statement does not necessarily make it true</li></ul> <p>Like many folk theories, the folk theory of truth is useful in everyday life but, upon deep analysis, turns out to be technically self-contradictory; in particular, any <a href="/wiki/Formal_system" title="Formal system">formal system</a> that fully obeys "capture and release" semantics for truth (also known as the <i><a href="/wiki/T-schema" title="T-schema">T-schema</a></i>), and that also respects classical logic, is provably <a href="/wiki/Inconsistent" class="mw-redirect" title="Inconsistent">inconsistent</a> and succumbs to the <a href="/wiki/Liar_paradox" title="Liar paradox">liar paradox</a> or to a similar contradiction.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ancient_Greek_philosophy">Ancient Greek philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Ancient Greek philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Aletheia" title="Aletheia">Aletheia</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a>', <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>'s and <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>'s ideas about truth are seen by some as consistent with <a href="/wiki/Correspondence_theory_of_truth" title="Correspondence theory of truth">correspondence theory</a>. In his <i><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)" title="Metaphysics (Aristotle)">Metaphysics</a></i>, Aristotle stated: "To say of what is that it is not, or of what is not that it is, is false, while to say of what is that it is, and of what is not that it is not, is true".<sup id="cite_ref-StanfordCorr_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordCorr-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a> proceeds to say of Aristotle:<sup id="cite_ref-StanfordCorr_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordCorr-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>...<span class="nowrap"> </span>Aristotle sounds much more like a genuine correspondence theorist in the <i>Categories</i> (12b11, 14b14), where he talks of "underlying things" that make statements true and implies that these "things" (pragmata) are logically structured situations or facts (viz., his sitting, his not sitting). Most influential is his claim in <i>De Interpretatione</i> (16a3) that thoughts are "likenesses" (homoiosis) of things. Although he nowhere defines truth in terms of a thought's likeness to a thing or fact, it is clear that such a definition would fit well into his overall philosophy of mind.<span class="nowrap"> </span>...</p></blockquote> <p>Similar statements can also be found in Plato's dialogues (<i><a href="/wiki/Cratylus_(dialogue)" title="Cratylus (dialogue)">Cratylus</a></i> 385b2, <i><a href="/wiki/Sophist_(dialogue)" title="Sophist (dialogue)">Sophist</a></i> 263b).<sup id="cite_ref-StanfordCorr_70-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordCorr-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some Greek philosophers maintained that truth was either not accessible to mortals, or of greatly limited accessibility, forming early <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">philosophical skepticism</a>. Among these were <a href="/wiki/Xenophanes" title="Xenophanes">Xenophanes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pyrrho" title="Pyrrho">Pyrrho</a>, the founder of <a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a>, who argued that there was no criterion of truth. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureans</a> believed that all sense perceptions were true,<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:252_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:252-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that errors arise in how we judge those perceptions. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoics</a> conceived truth as accessible from <a href="/wiki/Phantasiai" title="Phantasiai">impressions</a> via <a href="/wiki/Katalepsis" title="Katalepsis">cognitive grasping</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Medieval_philosophy">Medieval philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Medieval philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Avicenna_(980–1037)"><span id="Avicenna_.28980.E2.80.931037.29"></span>Avicenna (980–1037)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Avicenna (980–1037)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">early Islamic philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> (Ibn Sina) defined truth in his work <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kitab_Al-Shifa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kitab Al-Shifa (page does not exist)">Kitab Al-Shifa</a> <i><a href="/wiki/The_Book_of_Healing" title="The Book of Healing">The Book of Healing</a></i>, Book I, Chapter 8, as: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>What corresponds in the mind to what is outside it.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> elaborated on his definition of truth later in Book VIII, Chapter 6: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The truth of a thing is the property of the being of each thing which has been established in it.<sup id="cite_ref-Aertsen_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aertsen-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>This definition is but a rendering of the <a href="/wiki/Medieval" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval">medieval</a> Latin translation of the work by Simone van Riet.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A modern translation of the original Arabic text states: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Truth is also said of the veridical belief in the existence [of something].<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aquinas_(1225–1274)"><span id="Aquinas_.281225.E2.80.931274.29"></span>Aquinas (1225–1274)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Aquinas (1225–1274)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Reevaluating Avicenna, and also Augustine and Aristotle, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> stated in his <i>Disputed Questions on Truth</i>: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>A natural thing, being placed between two intellects, is called <i>true</i> insofar as it conforms to either. It is said to be true with respect to its conformity with the divine intellect insofar as it fulfills the end to which it was ordained by the divine intellect<span class="nowrap"> </span>... With respect to its conformity with a human intellect, a thing is said to be true insofar as it is such as to cause a true estimate about itself.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Thus, for Aquinas, the truth of the human intellect (logical truth) is based on the truth in things (ontological truth).<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following this, he wrote an elegant re-statement of Aristotle's view in his <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/summa/1016.htm">Summa I.16.1</a>: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Veritas est adæquatio intellectus et rei.</p><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><p>(Truth is the conformity of the intellect and things.)</p></blockquote><p> Aquinas also said that real things participate in the act of being of the <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">Creator God</a> who is Subsistent Being, Intelligence, and Truth. Thus, these beings possess the light of intelligibility and are knowable. These things (beings; <a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">reality</a>) are the foundation of the truth that is found in the human mind, when it acquires knowledge of things, first through the <a href="/wiki/Sense" title="Sense">senses</a>, then through the <a href="/wiki/Understanding" title="Understanding">understanding</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Judgement" title="Judgement">judgement</a> done by <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a>. For Aquinas, human <a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">intelligence</a> ("intus", within and "legere", to read) has the capability to reach the <a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">essence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">existence</a> of things because it has a non-material, <a href="/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">spiritual</a> element, although some moral, educational, and other elements might interfere with its capability. </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Changing_concepts_of_truth_in_the_Middle_Ages">Changing concepts of truth in the Middle Ages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Changing concepts of truth in the Middle Ages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Richard_Firth_Green" title="Richard Firth Green">Richard Firth Green</a> examined the concept of truth in the later Middle Ages in his <i>A Crisis of Truth</i>, and concludes that roughly during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Richard_II_of_England" title="Richard II of England">Richard II of England</a> the very meaning of the concept changes. The idea of the oath, which was so much part and parcel of for instance <a href="/wiki/Romance_(heroic_literature)" class="mw-redirect" title="Romance (heroic literature)">Romance literature</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> changes from a subjective concept to a more objective one (in <a href="/wiki/Derek_Pearsall" title="Derek Pearsall">Derek Pearsall</a>'s summary).<sup id="cite_ref-pearsall_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pearsall-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whereas truth (the "trouthe" of <i><a href="/wiki/Sir_Gawain_and_the_Green_Knight" title="Sir Gawain and the Green Knight">Sir Gawain and the Green Knight</a></i>) was first "an ethical truth in which truth is understood to reside in persons", in Ricardian England it "transforms<span class="nowrap"> </span>... into a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_truth&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Political truth (page does not exist)">political truth</a> in which truth is understood to reside in documents".<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_philosophy">Modern philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Modern philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kant_(1724–1804)"><span id="Kant_.281724.E2.80.931804.29"></span>Kant (1724–1804)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Kant (1724–1804)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> endorses a definition of truth along the lines of the correspondence theory of truth.<sup id="cite_ref-StanfordCorr_70-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordCorr-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kant writes in the <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i>: "The nominal definition of truth, namely that it is the agreement of cognition with its object, is here granted and presupposed".<sup id="cite_ref-Kant-1781_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kant-1781-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He denies that this correspondence definition of truth provides us with a test or criterion to establish which judgements are true. He states in his logic lectures:<sup id="cite_ref-Kant-1801_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kant-1801-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>...<span class="nowrap"> </span>Truth, it is said, consists in the agreement of cognition with its object. In consequence of this mere nominal definition, my cognition, to count as true, is supposed to agree with its object. Now I can compare the object with my cognition, however, only <i>by cognizing it</i>. Hence my cognition is supposed to confirm itself, which is far short of being sufficient for truth. For since the object is outside me, the cognition in me, all I can ever pass judgement on is whether my cognition of the object agrees with my cognition of the object.</p><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><p> The ancients called such a circle in explanation a <i>diallelon</i>. And actually the logicians were always reproached with this mistake by the sceptics, who observed that with this definition of truth it is just as when someone makes a statement before a court and in doing so appeals to a witness with whom no one is acquainted, but who wants to establish his credibility by maintaining that the one who called him as witness is an honest man. The accusation was grounded, too. Only the solution of the indicated problem is impossible without qualification and for every man.<span class="nowrap"> </span>...</p></blockquote> <p>This passage makes use of his distinction between nominal and real definitions. A nominal definition explains the meaning of a linguistic expression. A real definition describes the essence of certain <a href="/wiki/Object_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Object (philosophy)">objects</a> and enables us to determine whether any given item falls within the definition.<sup id="cite_ref-Vanzo-Kant_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vanzo-Kant-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kant holds that the definition of truth is merely nominal and, therefore, we cannot employ it to establish which judgements are true. According to Kant, the ancient skeptics were critical of the logicians for holding that, by means of a merely nominal definition of truth, they can establish which judgements are true. They were trying to do something that is "impossible without qualification and for every man".<sup id="cite_ref-Kant-1801_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kant-1801-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hegel_(1770–1831)"><span id="Hegel_.281770.E2.80.931831.29"></span>Hegel (1770–1831)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Hegel (1770–1831)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/G._W._F._Hegel" class="mw-redirect" title="G. W. F. Hegel">G. W. F. Hegel</a> distanced his philosophy from empiricism by presenting truth as a self-moving process, rather than a matter of merely subjective thoughts. Hegel's truth is analogous to an organism in that it is self-determining according to its own inner logic: "Truth is its own self-movement within itself."<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Schopenhauer_(1788–1860)"><span id="Schopenhauer_.281788.E2.80.931860.29"></span>Schopenhauer (1788–1860)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Schopenhauer (1788–1860)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a <a href="/wiki/Judgment" class="mw-redirect" title="Judgment">judgment</a> is a combination or separation of two or more <a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">concepts</a>. If a judgment is to be an expression of <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a>, it must have a <a href="/wiki/Principle_of_sufficient_reason" title="Principle of sufficient reason">sufficient reason</a> or ground by which the judgment could be called true. <i>Truth is the reference of a judgment to something different from itself which is its sufficient reason (ground)</i>. Judgments can have material, formal, transcendental, or metalogical truth. A judgment has <i>material</i> truth if its concepts are based on intuitive perceptions that are generated from sensations. If a judgment has its reason (ground) in another judgment, its truth is called logical or <i>formal</i>. If a judgment, of, for example, pure mathematics or pure science, is based on the forms (space, time, causality) of intuitive, empirical knowledge, then the judgment has <i>transcendental</i> truth. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kierkegaard_(1813–1855)"><span id="Kierkegaard_.281813.E2.80.931855.29"></span>Kierkegaard (1813–1855)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Kierkegaard (1813–1855)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When <a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a>, as his character <i>Johannes Climacus</i>, ends his writings: <i>My thesis was, subjectivity, heartfelt is the truth</i>, he does not advocate for <a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">subjectivism</a> in its extreme form (the theory that something is true simply because one believes it to be so), but rather that the objective approach to matters of personal truth cannot shed any light upon that which is most essential to a person's life. Objective truths are concerned with the facts of a person's being, while subjective truths are concerned with a person's way of being. Kierkegaard agrees that objective truths for the study of subjects like mathematics, science, and history are relevant and necessary, but argues that objective truths do not shed any light on a person's inner relationship to existence. At best, these truths can only provide a severely narrowed perspective that has little to do with one's actual experience of life.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While objective truths are final and static, subjective truths are continuing and dynamic. The truth of one's existence is a living, inward, and subjective experience that is always in the process of becoming. The values, morals, and spiritual approaches a person adopts, while not denying the existence of objective truths of those beliefs, can only become truly known when they have been inwardly appropriated through subjective experience. Thus, Kierkegaard criticizes all systematic philosophies which attempt to know life or the truth of existence via theories and objective knowledge about reality. As Kierkegaard claims, human truth is something that is continually occurring, and a human being cannot find truth separate from the subjective experience of one's own existing, defined by the values and fundamental essence that consist of one's way of life.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nietzsche_(1844–1900)"><span id="Nietzsche_.281844.E2.80.931900.29"></span>Nietzsche (1844–1900)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Nietzsche (1844–1900)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a> believed the search for truth, or 'the will to truth', was a consequence of the <i><a href="/wiki/Will_to_power" title="Will to power">will to power</a></i> of philosophers. He thought that truth should be used as long as it promoted life and the <i>will to power</i>, and he thought untruth was better than truth if it had this life enhancement as a consequence. As he wrote in <i><a href="/wiki/Beyond_Good_and_Evil" title="Beyond Good and Evil">Beyond Good and Evil</a></i>, "The falseness of a judgment is to us not necessarily an objection to a judgment<span class="nowrap"> </span>... The question is to what extent it is life-advancing, life-preserving, species-preserving, perhaps even species-breeding<span class="nowrap"> </span>..." (aphorism 4). He proposed the <i>will to power</i> as a truth only because, according to him, it was the most life-affirming and sincere perspective one could have. </p><p>Robert Wicks discusses Nietzsche's basic view of truth as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>...<span class="nowrap"> </span>Some scholars regard Nietzsche's 1873 unpublished essay, "On Truth and Lies in a Nonmoral Sense" ("<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Über Wahrheit und Lüge im außermoralischen Sinn</i></span>") as a keystone in his thought. In this essay, Nietzsche rejects the idea of universal constants, and claims that what we call "truth" is only "a mobile army of metaphors, metonyms, and anthropomorphisms." His view at this time is that arbitrariness completely prevails within human experience: concepts originate via the very artistic transference of nerve stimuli into images; "truth" is nothing more than the invention of fixed conventions for merely practical purposes, especially those of repose, security and consistence.<span class="nowrap"> </span>...</p></blockquote> <p>Separately Nietzsche suggested that an ancient, metaphysical belief in the divinity of Truth lies at the heart of and has served as the foundation for the entire subsequent <a href="/wiki/Western_intellectual_tradition" class="mw-redirect" title="Western intellectual tradition">Western intellectual tradition</a>: "But you will have gathered what I am getting at, namely, that it is still a metaphysical faith on which our faith in science rests—that even we knowers of today, we godless anti-metaphysicians still take <i>our</i> fire too, from the flame lit by the thousand-year old faith, the Christian faith which was also Plato's faith, that God is Truth; that Truth is 'Divine'<span class="nowrap"> </span>..."<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Moreover, Nietzsche challenges the notion of objective truth, arguing that truths are human creations and serve practical purposes. He wrote, "Truths are illusions about which one has forgotten that this is what they are."<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He argues that truth is a human invention, arising from the artistic transference of nerve stimuli into images, serving practical purposes like repose, security, and consistency; formed through metaphorical and rhetorical devices, shaped by societal conventions and forgotten origins:<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><blockquote><p>"What, then, is truth? A mobile army of metaphors, metonyms, and anthropomorphisms – in short, a sum of human relations which have been enhanced, transposed, and embellished poetically and rhetorically<span class="nowrap"> </span>..."</p></blockquote> <p>Nietzsche argues that truth is always filtered through individual perspectives and shaped by various interests and biases. In "On the Genealogy of Morality," he asserts, "There are no facts, only interpretations."<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He suggests that truth is subject to constant reinterpretation and change, influenced by shifting cultural and historical contexts as he writes in "Thus Spoke Zarathustra" that "I say unto you: one must still have chaos in oneself to be able to give birth to a dancing star."<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the same book, Zarathustra proclaims, "Truths are illusions which we have forgotten are illusions; they are metaphors that have become worn out and have been drained of sensuous force, coins which have lost their embossing and are now considered as metal and no longer as coins."<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Heidegger_(1889–1976)"><span id="Heidegger_.281889.E2.80.931976.29"></span>Heidegger (1889–1976)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Heidegger (1889–1976)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Other philosophers take this common meaning to be secondary and derivative. According to <a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a>, the original meaning and <a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">essence</a> of truth in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a> was unconcealment, or the revealing or bringing of what was previously hidden into the open, as indicated by the original Greek term for truth, <span title="Greek-language text"><i lang="el-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Aletheia" title="Aletheia">aletheia</a></i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On this view, the conception of truth as correctness is a later derivation from the concept's original essence, a development Heidegger traces to the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> term <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Veritas" title="Veritas">veritas</a></i></span>. Owing to the primacy of <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontology</a> in Heidegger's philosophy, he considered this truth to lie within Being itself, and already in <i><a href="/wiki/Being_and_Time" title="Being and Time">Being and Time</a></i> (1927) had identified truth with "<a href="/wiki/Heideggerian_terminology" title="Heideggerian terminology">being-truth</a>" or the "truth of Being" and partially with the Kantian <a href="/wiki/Thing-in-itself" title="Thing-in-itself">thing-in-itself</a> in an epistemology essentially concerning a mode of <i><a href="/wiki/Dasein" title="Dasein">Dasein</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sartre_(1905–1980)"><span id="Sartre_.281905.E2.80.931980.29"></span>Sartre (1905–1980)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Sartre (1905–1980)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Being_and_Nothingness" title="Being and Nothingness">Being and Nothingness</a></i> (1943), partially following Heidegger, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a> identified our knowledge of the truth as a relation between the <a href="/wiki/Being_in_itself" title="Being in itself">in-itself</a> and <a href="/wiki/For-itself" class="mw-redirect" title="For-itself">for-itself</a> of <a href="/wiki/Being" class="mw-redirect" title="Being">being</a> - yet simultaneously closely connected in this vein to the data available to the material personhood, in the body, of an individual in their interaction with the world and others - with Sartre's description that "the world is human" allowing him to postulate all truth as strictly <i>understood</i> by <a href="/wiki/Self-consciousness" title="Self-consciousness">self-consciousness</a> as self-consciousness <i>of</i> something,<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a view also preceded by <a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Henri Bergson</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Time_and_Free_Will" title="Time and Free Will">Time and Free Will</a></i> (1889), the reading of which Sartre had credited for his interest in philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This first <a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">existentialist</a> theory, more fully fleshed out in Sartre's essay <i>Truth and Existence</i> (1948), which already demonstrates a more radical departure from Heidegger in its emphasis on the primacy of the idea, already formulated in <i>Being and Nothingness</i>, of <a href="/wiki/Existence_precedes_essence" title="Existence precedes essence">existence as preceding essence</a> in its role in the formulation of truth, has nevertheless been critically examined as <a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">idealist</a> rather than <a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">materialist</a> in its departure from more traditional idealist epistemologies such as those of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek philosophy</a> in Plato and Aristotle, and staying as does Heidegger with Kant.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Later, in the <i><a href="/wiki/Search_for_a_Method" title="Search for a Method">Search for a Method</a></i> (1957), in which Sartre used a unification of existentialism and <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> that he would later formulate in the <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Dialectical_Reason" title="Critique of Dialectical Reason">Critique of Dialectical Reason</a></i> (1960), Sartre, with his growing emphasis on the <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegelian</a> totalisation of <a href="/wiki/Historicity" title="Historicity">historicity</a>, posited a conception of truth still defined by its process of relation to a container giving it material meaning, but with specfiic reference to a role in this broader totalisation, for "subjectivity is neither everything nor nothing; it represents a moment in the objective process (that in which externality is internalised), and this moment is perpetually eliminated only to be perpetually reborn": "For us, truth is something which becomes, it <i>has</i> and <i>will have</i> become. It is a totalisation which is forever being totalised. Particular facts do not signify anything; they are neither true nor false so long as they are not related, through the mediation of various partial totalities, to the totalisation in process." Sartre describes this as a "<i><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">realistic</a></i> epistemology", developed out of <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a>'s ideas but with such a development only possible in an existentialist light, as with the theme of the whole work.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In an early segment of the lengthy two-volume <i>Critique</i> of 1960, Sartre continued to describe truth as a "totalising" "truth of history" to be interpreted by a "Marxist historian", whilst his break with Heidegger's epistemological ideas is finalised in the description of a seemingly antinomous "<a href="/wiki/Dualism_in_cosmology" title="Dualism in cosmology">dualism</a> of Being and Truth" as the essence of a truly Marxist epistemology.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Camus_(1913–1960)"><span id="Camus_.281913.E2.80.931960.29"></span>Camus (1913–1960)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Camus (1913–1960)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The well-regarded French philosopher <a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Albert Camus</a> wrote in his famous essay, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Myth_of_Sisyphus" title="The Myth of Sisyphus">The Myth of Sisyphus</a></i> (1942), that "there are truths but no truth", in fundamental agreement with Nietzsche's <a href="/wiki/Perspectivism" title="Perspectivism">perspectivism</a>, and favourably cites Kierkergaad in posing that "no truth is absolute or can render satisfactory an existence that is impossible in itself".<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later, in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Rebel_(book)" title="The Rebel (book)">The Rebel</a></i> (1951), he declared, akin to Sartre, that "the very lowest form of truth" is "the truth of history",<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but describes this in the context of its abuse and like Kierkergaad in the <i><a href="/wiki/Concluding_Unscientific_Postscript_to_Philosophical_Fragments" title="Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments">Concluding Unscientific Postscript</a></i> he criticizes Hegel in holding a historical attitude "which consists of saying: 'This is truth, which appears to us, however, to be error, but which is true precisely because it happens to be error. As for proof, it is not I, but history, at its conclusion, that will furnish it.'"<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Whitehead_(1861–1947)"><span id="Whitehead_.281861.E2.80.931947.29"></span>Whitehead (1861–1947)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Whitehead (1861–1947)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a>, a British mathematician who became an American philosopher, said: "There are no whole truths; all truths are half-truths. It is trying to treat them as whole truths that plays the devil".<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The logical progression or connection of this line of thought is to conclude that truth can lie, since <a href="/wiki/Half-truth" title="Half-truth">half-truths</a> are deceptive and may lead to a false conclusion. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Peirce_(1839–1914)"><span id="Peirce_.281839.E2.80.931914.29"></span>Peirce (1839–1914)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Peirce (1839–1914)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Pragmatists" class="mw-redirect" title="Pragmatists">Pragmatists</a> like <a href="/wiki/C._S._Peirce" class="mw-redirect" title="C. S. Peirce">C. S. Peirce</a> take truth to have some manner of essential relation to human practices for inquiring into and <a href="/wiki/Discovering" class="mw-redirect" title="Discovering">discovering</a> truth, with Peirce himself holding that truth is what human <a href="/wiki/Inquiry" title="Inquiry">inquiry</a> would find out on a matter, if our practice of inquiry were taken as far as it could profitably go: "The opinion which is fated to be ultimately agreed to by all who investigate, is what we mean by the truth<span class="nowrap"> </span>..."<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nishida_(1870–1945)"><span id="Nishida_.281870.E2.80.931945.29"></span>Nishida (1870–1945)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Nishida (1870–1945)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to <a href="/wiki/Kitaro_Nishida" title="Kitaro Nishida">Kitaro Nishida</a>, "knowledge of things in the world begins with the differentiation of unitary consciousness into knower and known and ends with self and things becoming one again. Such unification takes form not only in knowing but in the valuing (of truth) that directs knowing, the willing that directs action, and the feeling or emotive reach that directs sensing."<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fromm_(1900–1980)"><span id="Fromm_.281900.E2.80.931980.29"></span>Fromm (1900–1980)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Fromm (1900–1980)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Erich Fromm</a> finds that trying to discuss truth as "absolute truth" is sterile and that emphasis ought to be placed on "optimal truth". He considers truth as stemming from the survival imperative of grasping one's environment physically and intellectually, whereby young children instinctively seek truth so as to orient themselves in "a strange and powerful world". The accuracy of their perceived approximation of the truth will therefore have direct consequences on their ability to deal with their environment. Fromm can be understood to define truth as a functional approximation of reality. His vision of optimal truth is described partly in <i>Man for Himself: An Inquiry into the Psychology of Ethics</i> (1947), from which excerpts are included below. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>...<span class="nowrap"> </span>the dichotomy between 'absolute = perfect' and 'relative = imperfect' has been superseded in all fields of scientific thought, where "it is generally recognized that there is no absolute truth but nevertheless that there are objectively valid laws and principles".</p><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><p>[...] In that respect, "a scientifically or rationally valid statement means that the power of reason is applied to all the available data of observation without any of them being suppressed or falsified for the sake of the desired result". The history of science is "a history of inadequate and incomplete statements, and every new insight makes possible the recognition of the inadequacies of previous propositions and offers a springboard for creating a more adequate formulation."</p><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><p>[...] As a result "the history of thought is the history of an ever-increasing approximation to the truth. Scientific knowledge is not absolute but optimal; it contains the optimum of truth attainable in a given historical period." Fromm furthermore notes that "different cultures have emphasized various aspects of the truth" and that increasing interaction between cultures allows for these aspects to reconcile and integrate, increasing further the approximation to the truth.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foucault_(1926–1984)"><span id="Foucault_.281926.E2.80.931984.29"></span>Foucault (1926–1984)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Foucault (1926–1984)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Truth, says <a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a>, is problematic when any attempt is made to see truth as an "objective" quality. He prefers not to use the term truth itself but "Regimes of Truth". In his historical investigations he found truth to be something that was itself a part of, or embedded within, a given power structure. Thus Foucault's view shares much in common with the concepts of <a href="#Nietzsche_(1844–1900)">Nietzsche</a>. Truth for Foucault is also something that shifts through various <a href="/wiki/Episteme" title="Episteme">episteme</a> throughout history.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Baudrillard_(1929–2007)"><span id="Baudrillard_.281929.E2.80.932007.29"></span>Baudrillard (1929–2007)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Baudrillard (1929–2007)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Jean Baudrillard</a> considered truth to be largely simulated, that is pretending to have something, as opposed to dissimulation, pretending to not have something. He took his cue from <a href="/wiki/Iconoclasm" title="Iconoclasm">iconoclasts</a> whom he claims knew that images of God demonstrated that God did not exist.<sup id="cite_ref-Baudrillard_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baudrillard-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Baudrillard wrote in "Precession of the Simulacra": </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd>The <a href="/wiki/Simulacrum" title="Simulacrum">simulacrum</a> is never that which conceals the truth—it is the truth which conceals that there is none. The simulacrum is true.</dd> <dd>—Ecclesiastes<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>Some examples of <a href="/wiki/Simulacra" class="mw-redirect" title="Simulacra">simulacra</a> that Baudrillard cited were: that prisons simulate the "truth" that society is free; scandals (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Watergate_scandal" title="Watergate scandal">Watergate</a>) simulate that corruption is corrected; Disney simulates that the U.S. itself is an adult place. Though such examples seem extreme, such extremity is an important part of Baudrillard's theory. For a less extreme example, movies usually end with the bad being punished, humiliated, or otherwise failing, thus affirming for viewers the concept that the good end happily and the bad unhappily, a narrative which implies that the status quo and established power structures are largely legitimate.<sup id="cite_ref-Baudrillard_113-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baudrillard-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_contemporary_positions">Other contemporary positions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Other contemporary positions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Truthmaker_theory" title="Truthmaker theory">Truthmaker theory</a> is "the branch of <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a> that explores the relationships between what is true and what <a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">exists</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-Asay_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Asay-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is different from substantive theories of truth in the sense that it does not aim at giving a definition of what truth is. Instead, it has the goal of <i>determining</i> how truth depends on being.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theological_views">Theological views</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Theological views"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output 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.mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Primary_sources plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Primary_sources" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>relies excessively on <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">references</a> to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">primary sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please improve this article by adding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">secondary or tertiary sources</a>. <br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Truth%22">"Truth"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Truth%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Truth%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Truth%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Truth%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Truth%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Religious_views_on_truth" title="Religious views on truth">Religious views on truth</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hinduism">Hinduism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Hinduism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>, truth is defined as "unchangeable", "that which has no distortion", "that which is beyond distinctions of time, space, and person", "that which pervades the universe in all its constancy". The human body, therefore, is not completely true as it changes with time, for example. There are many references, properties and explanations of truth by Hindu sages that explain varied facets of truth, such as the national motto of <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>: "<a href="/wiki/Satyameva_Jayate" title="Satyameva Jayate">Satyameva Jayate</a>" (Truth alone triumphs), as well as "Satyam muktaye" (Truth liberates), "Satya' is 'Parahit'artham' va'unmanaso yatha'rthatvam' satyam" (Satya is the benevolent use of words and the mind for the welfare of others or in other words responsibilities is truth too), "When one is firmly established in speaking truth, the fruits of action become subservient to him (patanjali yogasutras, sutra number 2.36), "The face of truth is covered by a golden bowl. <i>Unveil it, O Pusan (Sun), so that I who have truth as my duty (satyadharma) may see it!</i>" (Brhadaranyaka V 15 1–4 and the brief IIsa Upanisad 15–18), Truth is superior to silence (<a href="/wiki/Manusmriti" title="Manusmriti">Manusmriti</a>), etc. Combined with other words, satya acts as a modifier, like <i>ultra</i> or <i>highest</i>, or more literally <i>truest</i>, connoting <i>purity and excellence</i>. For example, satyaloka is the "highest heaven" and Satya Yuga is the "golden age" or best of the four cyclical cosmic ages in Hinduism, and so on. The Buddha, the 9th incarnation of Bhagwan Vishnu, quoted as such - Three things cannot be long hidden: the sun, the moon and the truth. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Buddhism">Buddhism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Buddhism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>, particularly in the <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a> tradition, the notion of truth is often divided into the <a href="/wiki/Two_truths_doctrine" title="Two truths doctrine">two truths doctrine</a>, which consists of <a href="/wiki/Samvriti" class="mw-redirect" title="Samvriti">relative or conventional truth</a> and ultimate truth. The former refers to truth that is based on common understanding among ordinary people and is accepted as a practical basis for communication of higher truths. Ultimate truth necessarily transcends logic in the sphere of ordinary experience, and recognizes such phenomena as illusory. <a href="/wiki/M%C4%81dhyamaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Mādhyamaka">Mādhyamaka</a> philosophy asserts that any doctrine can be analyzed with both divisions of truth. Affirmation and negation belong to relative and absolute truth respectively. Political law is regarded as relative, while religious law is absolute. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Christianity">Christianity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Christianity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:What-is-truth02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/What-is-truth02.jpg/170px-What-is-truth02.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/What-is-truth02.jpg/255px-What-is-truth02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/What-is-truth02.jpg/340px-What-is-truth02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="685" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption><i>What is Truth?</i> by <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Ge" title="Nikolai Ge">Nikolai Ge</a>, depicting <a href="/wiki/John_18:38" title="John 18:38">John 18:38</a>, in which <a href="/wiki/Pilate" class="mw-redirect" title="Pilate">Pilate</a> asks <a href="/wiki/Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Christ">Christ</a> "What is truth?"</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> has a <a href="/wiki/Soteriology" title="Soteriology">soteriological</a> view of truth. According to the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> in <a href="/wiki/John_14:6" class="mw-redirect" title="John 14:6">John 14:6</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> is quoted as having said "I am the way, the truth and the life: no man cometh unto the Father, but by me". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output 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.div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asha" title="Asha">Asha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Degree_of_truth" title="Degree of truth">Degree of truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disposition" title="Disposition">Disposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eclecticism" title="Eclecticism">Eclecticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_theories_of_truth" title="Epistemic theories of truth">Epistemic theories of truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagination" title="Imagination">Imagination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_(probability_theory)" title="Independence (probability theory)">Independence (probability theory)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invariant_(mathematics)" title="Invariant (mathematics)">Invariant (mathematics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McNamara_fallacy" title="McNamara fallacy">McNamara fallacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_science" title="Normative science">Normative science</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Truth_and_Lies_in_a_Nonmoral_Sense" title="On Truth and Lies in a Nonmoral Sense">On Truth and Lies in a Nonmoral Sense</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perspectivism" title="Perspectivism">Perspectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_symbol_system" title="Physical symbol system">Physical symbol system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_opinion" title="Public opinion">Public opinion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_views_on_truth" title="Religious views on truth">Religious views on truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revision_theory" title="Revision theory">Revision theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slingshot_argument" title="Slingshot argument">Slingshot argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Subjectivity">Subjectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tautology_(logic)" title="Tautology (logic)">Tautology (logic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tautology_(rhetoric)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tautology (rhetoric)">Tautology (rhetoric)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_justification" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of justification">Theory of justification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth_prevails" title="Truth prevails">Truth prevails</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truthiness" title="Truthiness">Truthiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_the_proposition" title="Unity of the proposition">Unity of the proposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verisimilitude" title="Verisimilitude">Verisimilitude</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_theorists">Other theorists</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Other theorists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brand_Blanshard" title="Brand Blanshard">Brand Blanshard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hartry_Field" title="Hartry Field">Hartry Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Horwich" title="Paul Horwich">Paul Horwich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Joachim" class="mw-redirect" title="Harold Joachim">Harold Joachim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Merriam-Webster-def-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Merriam-Webster-def_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Merriam-Webster-def_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://m-w.com/dictionary/truth">truth</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091229155658/http://m-w.com/dictionary/truth">Archived</a> 2009-12-29 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, 2005</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SEP_Truth-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SEP_Truth_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SEP_Truth_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SEP_Truth_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth/">"Truth"</a>. <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220120210351/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth/">Archived</a> from the original on 20 January 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Truth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Ftruth%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PUP32014-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PUP32014_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlexis_G._Burgess_and_John_P._Burgess2011" class="citation book cs1">Alexis G. Burgess and John P. Burgess (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press.princeton.edu/titles/9460.html"><i>Truth</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(hardcover)</span> (1st ed.). Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-14401-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-14401-6"><bdi>978-0-691-14401-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131358/http://press.princeton.edu/titles/9460.html">Archived</a> from the original on 6 October 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 October</span> 2014</span>. <q>a concise introduction to current philosophical debates about truth</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Truth&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-691-14401-6&rft.au=Alexis+G.+Burgess+and+John+P.+Burgess&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpress.princeton.edu%2Ftitles%2F9460.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see <a href="/wiki/Holtzmann%27s_law" title="Holtzmann's law">Holtzmann's law</a> for the <i>-ww-</i> : <i>-gg-</i> alternation.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Truth_from_Online_Etymology-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Truth_from_Online_Etymology_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEtymology" class="citation web cs1">Etymology, Online. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/">"Online Etymology"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070713125946/http://www.etymonline.com/">Archived</a> from the original on 13 July 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 November</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Online+Etymology&rft.aulast=Etymology&rft.aufirst=Online&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.northvegr.org/zoega/h442.php">A Concise Dictionary of Old Icelandic</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070930210807/http://www.northvegr.org/zoega/h442.php">Archived</a> 2007-09-30 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>, Geir T. Zoëga (1910), Northvegr.org</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/OED" class="mw-redirect" title="OED">OED</a> on <i>true</i> has "Steadfast in adherence to a commander or friend, to a principle or cause, to one's promises, faith, etc.; firm in allegiance; faithful, loyal, constant, trusty; honest, honourable, upright, virtuous, trustworthy; free from deceit, sincere, truthful" besides "Conformity with fact; agreement with reality; accuracy, correctness, verity; Consistent with fact; agreeing with the reality; representing the thing as it is; real, genuine; rightly answering to the description; properly so called; not counterfeit, spurious, or imaginary."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EPT-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EPT_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EPT_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EPT_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EPT_8-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EPT_8-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EPT_8-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>, Supp., "Truth", auth: Michael Williams, pp. 572–573 (Macmillan, 1996)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Blackburn, Simon, and Simmons, Keith (eds., 1999), <i>Truth</i>, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Includes papers by James, Ramsey, Russell, Tarski, and more recent work.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:1_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaleWrightMiller1997" class="citation book cs1">Hale, Bob; Wright, Crispin; Miller, Alexander, eds. (1997). <i>A Companion to the Philosophy of Language</i> (1999 reprint ed.). Oxford: Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-21326-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-21326-0"><bdi>978-0-631-21326-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/40839879">40839879</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Philosophy+of+Language&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=1999+reprint&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F40839879&rft.isbn=978-0-631-21326-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline;"><ul style="display:inline;"><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;display:inline; margin:0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Heal, Jane (1997). "13. Radical Interpretation". <i>A Companion to the Philosophy of Language</i>. "Chapter postscript" by Alexander Miller. Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 299−323. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781118972090.ch13">10.1002/9781118972090.ch13</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-97471-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-97471-1"><bdi>978-1-118-97471-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=13.+Radical+Interpretation&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Philosophy+of+Language&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=299%E2%88%92323&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781118972090.ch13&rft.isbn=978-1-118-97471-1&rft.aulast=Heal&rft.aufirst=Jane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;margin-top:.5em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Richard, Mark (1997). "14. Propositional Attitudes". <i>A Companion to the Philosophy of Language</i>. Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 324–356.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=14.+Propositional+Attitudes&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Philosophy+of+Language&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=324-356&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Richard&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></div></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philpapers.org/surveys/results.pl?affil=All+respondents&areas0=0&areas_max=1&grain=medium">"The PhilPapers Surveys – Preliminary Survey results"</a>. <i>The PhilPapers Surveys</i>. Philpapers.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120320074244/http://philpapers.org/surveys/results.pl?affil=All+respondents&areas0=0&areas_max=1&grain=medium">Archived</a> from the original on 20 March 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 May</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+PhilPapers+Surveys&rft.atitle=The+PhilPapers+Surveys+%E2%80%93+Preliminary+Survey+results&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Fsurveys%2Fresults.pl%3Faffil%3DAll%2Brespondents%26areas0%3D0%26areas_max%3D1%26grain%3Dmedium&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:2_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>, Vol.2, "Correspondence Theory of Truth", auth.: <a href="/wiki/Arthur_N._Prior" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur N. Prior">Arthur N. Prior</a>, p. 223 (Macmillan, 1969). Prior uses <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a>'s wording in defining correspondence theory. According to Prior, Russell was substantially responsible for helping to make correspondence theory widely known under this name.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>, Vol.2, "Correspondence Theory of Truth", auth.: Arthur N. Prior, pp. 223–224 (Macmillan, 1969).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:3_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>, Vol. 2, "Correspondence Theory of Truth", auth.: Arthur N. Prior, Macmillan, 1969, p. 224.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth-correspondence">"Correspondence Theory of Truth", in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191031140950/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth-correspondence/">Archived</a> 2019-10-31 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:4_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas Aquinas, <i><a href="/wiki/Summa_Theologiae" class="mw-redirect" title="Summa Theologiae">Summa Theologiae</a></i>, I. Q.16, A.2 arg. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:5_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth-correspondence">"Correspondence Theory of Truth", in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191031140950/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth-correspondence/">Archived</a> 2019-10-31 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (citing <i>De Veritate</i> Q.1, A.1–3 and <i><a href="/wiki/Summa_Theologiae" class="mw-redirect" title="Summa Theologiae">Summa Theologiae</a></i>, I. Q.16).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>See, e.g.,</i> Bradley, F.H., "On Truth and Copying", in Blackburn, <i>et al.</i> (eds., 1999),<i>Truth</i>, 31–45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:6_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>, Vol.2, "Correspondence Theory of Truth", auth: Arthur N. Prior, pp. 223 <i>ff</i>. Macmillan, 1969. See especially, section on "Moore's Correspondence Theory", 225–226, "Russell's Correspondence Theory", 226–227, "Remsey and Later Wittgenstein", 228–229, "Tarski's Semantic Theory", 230–231.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>, Vol.2, "Correspondence Theory of Truth", auth: Arthur N. Prior, pp. 223 <i>ff</i>. Macmillan, 1969. See the section on "Tarski's Semantic Theory", 230–231.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a>, for instance, assembled a controversial but quite coherent system in the early 19th century, whose validity and usefulness continues to be debated even today. Similarly, the systems of <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spinoza" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinoza">Spinoza</a> are characteristic systems that are internally coherent but controversial in terms of their utility and validity.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>, Vol.2, "Coherence Theory of Truth", auth: <a href="/wiki/Alan_R._White" title="Alan R. White">Alan R. White</a>, pp. 130–131 (Macmillan, 1969)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>, Vol.2, "Coherence Theory of Truth", auth: Alan R. White, pp. 131–133, <i>see</i> esp., section on "Epistemological assumptions" (Macmillan, 1969)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>, Vol.2, "Coherence Theory of Truth", auth: Alan R. White, p. 130</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>, Vol. 5, "Pragmatic Theory of Truth", 427 (Macmillan, 1969).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Peirce_Truth_and_Falsity-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Peirce_Truth_and_Falsity_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Peirce_Truth_and_Falsity_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Peirce, C.S. (1901), "Truth and Falsity and Error" (in part), pp. 716–720 in <a href="/wiki/James_Mark_Baldwin" title="James Mark Baldwin">James Mark Baldwin</a>, ed., <i>Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology</i>, v. 2. Peirce's section is entitled "<i>Logical</i>", beginning on p. 718, column 1, and ending on p. 720 with the initials "(C.S.P.)", see Google Books <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/beginningthirdr00randgoog/page/n748">Eprint</a>. Reprinted, <i><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce_bibliography#CP" title="Charles Sanders Peirce bibliography">Collected Papers</a></i> v. 5, pp. 565–573.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WJP-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WJP_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WJP_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">James, William, <i>The Meaning of Truth, A Sequel to 'Pragmatism',</i> (1909).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>, Vol.2, "Dewey, John", by <a href="/wiki/Richard_J._Bernstein" title="Richard J. Bernstein">Richard J. Bernstein</a>, p. 383 (Macmillan, 1969)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sahakian, W.S. & Sahakian, M.L., Ideas of the Great Philosophers, New York: Barnes & Noble, 1966, <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/item/66-23155">66--23155</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FeynmanThe-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FeynmanThe_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FeynmanThe_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FeynmanThe_30-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeynman1994" class="citation book cs1">Feynman, Richard Phillips (1994) [First published 1965]. <i>The Character of Physical Law</i>. New York: Modern Library. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-679-60127-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-679-60127-2"><bdi>978-0-679-60127-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Character+of+Physical+Law&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Modern+Library&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-679-60127-2&rft.aulast=Feynman&rft.aufirst=Richard+Phillips&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMay,_Todd1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Todd_May_(philosopher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Todd May (philosopher)">May, Todd</a> (1993). <i>Between Genealogy and Epistemology: Psychology, Politics, and Knowledge in the Thought of Michel Foucault</i>. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0271027821" title="Special:BookSources/978-0271027821"><bdi>978-0271027821</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/26553016">26553016</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Between+Genealogy+and+Epistemology%3A+Psychology%2C+Politics%2C+and+Knowledge+in+the+Thought+of+Michel+Foucault&rft.place=University+Park&rft.pub=Pennsylvania+State+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F26553016&rft.isbn=978-0271027821&rft.au=May%2C+Todd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>See, e.g.</i>, Habermas, Jürgen, <i>Knowledge and Human Interests</i> (English translation, 1972).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>See, e.g.</i>, Habermas, Jürgen, <i>Knowledge and Human Interests</i> (English translation, 1972), esp. Part III, pp. 187 <i>ff</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rescher, Nicholas, <i>Pluralism: Against the Demand for Consensus</i> (1995).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Blackburn, Simon, and Simmons, Keith (eds., 1999), <i>Truth</i> in the Introductory section of the book.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Kirkham" title="Richard Kirkham">Richard Kirkham</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theories_of_Truth:_A_Critical_Introduction" class="mw-redirect" title="Theories of Truth: A Critical Introduction">Theories of Truth: A Critical Introduction</a>, MIT Press, 1992.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ramsey, F.P. (1927), "Facts and Propositions", Aristotelian Society Supplementary Volume 7, 153–170. Reprinted, pp. 34–51 in F.P. Ramsey, Philosophical Papers, David Hugh Mellor (ed.), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1990</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Le Morvan, Pierre. (2004) "Ramsey on Truth and Truth on Ramsey", <i>The British Journal for the History of Philosophy</i> 12(4), pp. 705–718.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. L. Austin, "How to Do Things With Words". Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1975</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>, Vol. 6: <i>Performative Theory of Truth</i>, auth: Gertrude Ezorsky, p. 88 (Macmillan, 1969)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/skepticism">"skepticism"</a>. <i>The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia</i>. n.d. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120713170158/http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Skeptikoi">Archived</a> from the original on 13 July 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 June</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=skepticism&rft.btitle=The+Columbia+Electronic+Encyclopedia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fencyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com%2Fskepticism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span> Citing: <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Popkin, R. H. (1968). <i>The History of Skepticism from Erasmus to Descartes</i> (revised ed.).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Skepticism+from+Erasmus+to+Descartes&rft.edition=revised&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Popkin&rft.aufirst=R.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Stough, C. L. (1969). <i>Greek Skepticism</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Greek+Skepticism&rft.date=1969&rft.aulast=Stough&rft.aufirst=C.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Burnyeat, M., ed. (1983). <i>The Skeptical Tradition</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Skeptical+Tradition&rft.date=1983&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Stroud, B. (1984). <i>The Significance of Philosophical Skepticism</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Significance+of+Philosophical+Skepticism&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Stroud&rft.aufirst=B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Philosophical views are typically classed as skeptical when they involve advancing some degree of doubt regarding claims that are elsewhere taken for granted." <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/s/skepcont.htm">utm.edu</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090113210019/http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/s/skepcont.htm">Archived</a> 2009-01-13 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreco2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Greco_(philosopher)" title="John Greco (philosopher)">Greco, John</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ozv0lftrUeEC"><i>The Oxford Handbook of Skepticism</i></a>. Oxford University Press, US. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518321-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518321-4"><bdi>978-0-19-518321-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Skepticism&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press%2C+US&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-19-518321-4&rft.aulast=Greco&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOzv0lftrUeEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/skepticism">"Definition of SKEPTICISM"</a>. <i>Merriam-Webster</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190424142033/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/skepticism">Archived</a> from the original on 24 April 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 February</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Merriam-Webster&rft.atitle=Definition+of+SKEPTICISM&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fskepticism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Truth and Objectivity, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1992.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Truth as One and Many (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Tractatus_Logico-Philosophicus" title="Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus">Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus</a></i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKretzmann1968" class="citation book cs1">Kretzmann, Norman (1968). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fW5rlSy-5D8C&pg=PA42">"IV, section=2. 'Infinitely Many' and 'Finitely Many'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>William of Sherwood's Treatise on Syncategorematic Words</i>. University of Minnesota Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8166-5805-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8166-5805-3"><bdi>978-0-8166-5805-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=IV%2C+section%3D2.+%27Infinitely+Many%27+and+%27Finitely+Many%27&rft.btitle=William+of+Sherwood%27s+Treatise+on+Syncategorematic+Words&rft.pub=University+of+Minnesota+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=978-0-8166-5805-3&rft.aulast=Kretzmann&rft.aufirst=Norman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfW5rlSy-5D8C%26pg%3DPA42&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2010" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Nicholas J.J. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www-personal.usyd.edu.au/~njjsmith/papers/smith-many-valued-logics.pdf">"Article 2.6"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Many-Valued Logics</i>. Routledge. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180408200831/http://www-personal.usyd.edu.au/~njjsmith/papers/smith-many-valued-logics.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 8 April 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 May</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Article+2.6&rft.btitle=Many-Valued+Logics&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Nicholas+J.J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww-personal.usyd.edu.au%2F~njjsmith%2Fpapers%2Fsmith-many-valued-logics.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMancosuZachBadesa2004" class="citation book cs1">Mancosu, Paolo; Zach, Richard; Badesa, Calixto (2004). "9. The Development of Mathematical Logic from Russell to Tarski 1900-1935" §7.2 "Many-valued logics". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0jXavKsArnIC"><i>The Development of Modern Logic</i></a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 418–420. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-972272-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-972272-3"><bdi>978-0-19-972272-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=9.+The+Development+of+Mathematical+Logic+from+Russell+to+Tarski+1900-1935%22+%C2%A77.2+%22Many-valued+logics&rft.btitle=The+Development+of+Modern+Logic&rft.pages=418-420&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-19-972272-3&rft.aulast=Mancosu&rft.aufirst=Paolo&rft.au=Zach%2C+Richard&rft.au=Badesa%2C+Calixto&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0jXavKsArnIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarrido2012" class="citation web cs1">Garrido, Angel (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.edusoft.ro/brain/index.php/brain/article/viewFile/308/390">"A Brief History of Fuzzy Logic"</a>. Revista EduSoft. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180517152622/https://www.edusoft.ro/brain/index.php/brain/article/viewFile/308/390">Archived</a> from the original on 17 May 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 May</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+Fuzzy+Logic&rft.pub=Revista+EduSoft&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Garrido&rft.aufirst=Angel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.edusoft.ro%2Fbrain%2Findex.php%2Fbrain%2Farticle%2FviewFile%2F308%2F390&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span>, Editorial</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRescher1968" class="citation book cs1">Rescher, Nicholas (1968). "Many-Valued Logic". <i>Topics in Philosophical Logic</i>. Humanities Press Synthese Library volume 17. pp. 54–125. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-017-3546-9_6">10.1007/978-94-017-3546-9_6</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-481-8331-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-481-8331-9"><bdi>978-90-481-8331-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Many-Valued+Logic&rft.btitle=Topics+in+Philosophical+Logic&rft.pages=54-125&rft.pub=Humanities+Press+Synthese+Library+volume+17&rft.date=1968&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-94-017-3546-9_6&rft.isbn=978-90-481-8331-9&rft.aulast=Rescher&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Penelope Maddy; <i>Realism in Mathematics</i>; Series: Clarendon Paperbacks; Paperback: 216 pages; Publisher: Oxford University Press, US (1992); 978-0-19-824035-8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Elliott Mendelson; <i>Introduction to Mathematical Logic</i>; Series: Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications; Hardcover: 469 pages; Publisher: Chapman and Hall/CRC; 5 edition (August 11, 2009); 978-1-58488-876-5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>See, e.g.,</i> Chaitin, Gregory L., <i>The Limits of Mathematics</i> (1997) esp. 89 <i>ff</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">M. Davis. "Hilbert's Tenth Problem is Unsolvable." <i>American Mathematical Monthly</i> 80, pp. 233–269, 1973</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yandell, Benjamin H.. <i>The Honors Class. Hilbert's Problems and Their Solvers</i> (2002).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chaitin, Gregory L., <i>The Limits of Mathematics</i> (1997) 1–28, 89 <i>ff</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRavitch1998" class="citation web cs1">Ravitch, Harold (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.friesian.com/goedel/chap-2.htm">"On Gödel's Philosophy of Mathematics"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180228005628/http://friesian.com/goedel/chap-2.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 28 February 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 May</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=On+G%C3%B6del%27s+Philosophy+of+Mathematics&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Ravitch&rft.aufirst=Harold&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.friesian.com%2Fgoedel%2Fchap-2.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSolomon1998" class="citation web cs1">Solomon, Martin (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://calculemus.org/lect/07logika/godel-solomon.html">"On Kurt Gödel's Philosophy of Mathematics"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304030146/http://www.calculemus.org/lect/07logika/godel-solomon.html">Archived</a> from the original on 4 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 May</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=On+Kurt+G%C3%B6del%27s+Philosophy+of+Mathematics&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Solomon&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcalculemus.org%2Flect%2F07logika%2Fgodel-solomon.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang1997" class="citation book cs1">Wang, Hao (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?isbn=0262261251"><i>A Logical Journey: From Gödel to Philosophy</i></a>. The MIT Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Logical+Journey%3A+From+G%C3%B6del+to+Philosophy&rft.pub=The+MIT+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Hao&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fisbn%3D0262261251&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span> (A discussion of Gödel's views on <a href="/wiki/Logical_intuition" title="Logical intuition">logical intuition</a> is woven throughout the book; the quote appears on page 75.)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kripke, Saul. "Outline of a Theory of Truth", Journal of Philosophy, 72 (1975), 690–716</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Keith Simmons, <i>Universality and the Liar: An Essay on Truth and the Diagonal Argument</i>, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1993</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldblatt1983" class="citation book cs1">Goldblatt, Robert (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/9622076"><i>Topoi, the categorial analysis of logic</i></a> (revised ed.). Amsterdam: Sole distributors for the U.S.A. and Canada, Elsevier North-Holland. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-444-86711-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-444-86711-2"><bdi>0-444-86711-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/9622076">9622076</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Topoi%2C+the+categorial+analysis+of+logic&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.edition=revised&rft.pub=Sole+distributors+for+the+U.S.A.+and+Canada%2C+Elsevier+North-Holland&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F9622076&rft.isbn=0-444-86711-2&rft.aulast=Goldblatt&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F9622076&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScharp2013" class="citation book cs1">Scharp, Kevin (2013). "6: What is the Use?". <i>Replacing truth</i> (First ed.). Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-965385-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-965385-0"><bdi>978-0-19-965385-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=6%3A+What+is+the+Use%3F&rft.btitle=Replacing+truth&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=Oxford+Univ.+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-19-965385-0&rft.aulast=Scharp&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/truth-philosophy-and-logic">"truth | philosophy and logic"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190605223755/https://www.britannica.com/topic/truth-philosophy-and-logic">Archived</a> from the original on 5 June 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 July</span> 2017</span>. <q>Truth is important. Believing what is not true is apt to spoil a person's plans and may even cost him his life. Telling what is not true may result in legal and social penalties.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=truth+%7C+philosophy+and+logic&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Ftruth-philosophy-and-logic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wellman, Henry M., David Cross, and Julanne Watson. "Meta‐analysis of theory‐of‐mind development: the truth about false belief." Child development 72.3 (2001): 655–684.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lynch, Michael P. "Alethic functionalism and our folk theory of truth." Synthese 145.1 (2005): 29–43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bueno, Otávio, and Mark Colyvan. "Logical non-apriorism and the law of non-contradiction." The law of non-contradiction: New philosophical essays (2004): 156–175.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-StanfordCorr-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordCorr_70-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordCorr_70-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordCorr_70-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordCorr_70-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">David, Marion (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth-correspondence/#1">"Correspondence Theory of Truth"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140225071446/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth-correspondence/#1">Archived</a> 2014-02-25 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> in <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAsmis2009" class="citation book cs1">Asmis, Elizabeth (2009). "Epicurean empiricism". In Warren, James (ed.). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani00warr_995"><i>The Cambridge Companion to Epicureanism</i></a></span>. Cambridge University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani00warr_995/page/n93">84</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Epicurean+empiricism&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Epicureanism&rft.pages=84&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Asmis&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcambridgecompani00warr_995&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:252-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:252_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Keefe2010" class="citation book cs1">O'Keefe, Tim (2010). <i>Epicureanism</i>. University of California Press. pp. 97–98.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Epicureanism&rft.pages=97-98&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=O%27Keefe&rft.aufirst=Tim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Osman Amin (2007), "Influence of Muslim Philosophy on the West", <i>Monthly Renaissance</i> 17 (11).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Aertsen-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Aertsen_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jan A. Aertsen (1988), <i>Nature and Creature: Thomas Aquinas's Way of Thought</i>, p. 152. Brill, 978-90-04-08451-3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimone_van_Riet" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Simone van Riet. <i>Liber de philosophia prima, sive Scientia divina</i> (in Latin). p. 413.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Liber+de+philosophia+prima%2C+sive+Scientia+divina&rft.pages=413&rft.au=Simone+van+Riet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAvicenna2005" class="citation book cs1"><i>Avicenna: The Metaphysics of The Healing</i>. Translated by Marmura, Michael E. Introduction and annotation by Michael E. Marmura. Brigham Young University Press. 2005. p. 284. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-934893-77-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-934893-77-0"><bdi>978-0-934893-77-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Avicenna%3A+The+Metaphysics+of+The+Healing&rft.pages=284&rft.pub=Brigham+Young+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-934893-77-0&rft.au=Avicenna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Disputed Questions on Truth</i>, 1, 2, c, reply to Obj. 1. Trans. Mulligan, McGlynn, Schmidt, <i>Truth</i>, vol. I, pp. 10–12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Veritas supra ens fundatur" (Truth is founded on being). <i>Disputed Questions on Truth</i>, 10, 2, reply to Obj. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRock2006" class="citation journal cs1">Rock, Catherine A. (2006). 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"Medieval Literature and Historical Enquiry". <i><a href="/wiki/Modern_Language_Review" title="Modern Language Review">Modern Language Review</a></i>. <b>99</b> (4): xxxi–xlii. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3738608">10.2307/3738608</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3738608">3738608</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:155446847">155446847</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+Language+Review&rft.atitle=Medieval+Literature+and+Historical+Enquiry&rft.volume=99&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=xxxi-xlii&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A155446847%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3738608%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3738608&rft.aulast=Pearsall&rft.aufirst=Derek&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFowler2003" class="citation journal cs1">Fowler, Elizabeth (2003). 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Translated and edited by Paul Guyer and Allen W. Wood (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), A58/B82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kant-1801-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kant-1801_83-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kant-1801_83-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kant, Immanuel (1801), <i>The Jäsche Logic</i>, in <i>Lectures on Logic</i>. Translated and edited by J. Michael Young (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 557–558.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Vanzo-Kant-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Vanzo-Kant_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alberto Vanzo, "Kant on the Nominal Definition of Truth", <i>Kant-Studien</i>, 101 (2010), pp. 147–166.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Die Wahrheit ist die Bewegung ihrer an ihr selbst." <i><a href="/wiki/The_Phenomenology_of_Spirit" title="The Phenomenology of Spirit">The Phenomenology of Spirit</a></i>, Preface, ¶ 48</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason</i>, §§ 29–33</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kierkegaard, Søren. <i>Concluding Unscientific Postscript</i>. Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1992</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Watts, Michael. <i>Kierkegaard</i>, Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2003</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert Wicks, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/nietzsche/#EarWri187187">"Friedrich Nietzsche – Early Writings: 1872–1876"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180904231138/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/nietzsche/#EarWri187187">Archived</a> 2018-09-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (Spring 2008 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNietzscheWilliamsNauckhoff2001" class="citation book cs1">Nietzsche, Friedrich; Williams, Bernard; Nauckhoff, Josefine (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Vf8KETLiKXMC&q=%22even+we+knowers+of+today%22&pg=PA201"><i>Nietzsche: The Gay Science: With a Prelude in German Rhymes and an Appendix of Songs</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-63645-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-63645-2"><bdi>978-0-521-63645-2</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nietzsche%3A+The+Gay+Science%3A+With+a+Prelude+in+German+Rhymes+and+an+Appendix+of+Songs&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-521-63645-2&rft.aulast=Nietzsche&rft.aufirst=Friedrich&rft.au=Williams%2C+Bernard&rft.au=Nauckhoff%2C+Josefine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVf8KETLiKXMC%26q%3D%2522even%2Bwe%2Bknowers%2Bof%2Btoday%2522%26pg%3DPA201&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNietzsche2006" class="citation book cs1">Nietzsche, Friedrich (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wMzu8j4D1SYC&q=god+is+truth&pg=PA112"><i>Nietzsche: 'On the Genealogy of Morality' and Other Writings Student Edition</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-46121-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-46121-4"><bdi>978-1-139-46121-4</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nietzsche%3A+%27On+the+Genealogy+of+Morality%27+and+Other+Writings+Student+Edition&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-139-46121-4&rft.aulast=Nietzsche&rft.aufirst=Friedrich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwMzu8j4D1SYC%26q%3Dgod%2Bis%2Btruth%26pg%3DPA112&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNietzsche1997" class="citation book cs1">Nietzsche, Friedrich (1997). <i>Beyond Good and Evil</i>. Dover Publications. p. 46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0486298689" title="Special:BookSources/978-0486298689"><bdi>978-0486298689</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beyond+Good+and+Evil&rft.pages=46&rft.pub=Dover+Publications&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0486298689&rft.aulast=Nietzsche&rft.aufirst=Friedrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNietzsche1976" class="citation book cs1">Nietzsche, Friedrich (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qZAmAQAAIAAJ"><i>The Portable Nietzsche</i></a>. Penguin Books. p. 46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0140150629" title="Special:BookSources/978-0140150629"><bdi>978-0140150629</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Portable+Nietzsche&rft.pages=46&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0140150629&rft.aulast=Nietzsche&rft.aufirst=Friedrich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqZAmAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNietzsche1887" class="citation book cs1">Nietzsche, Friedrich (1887). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rttCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA73"><i>On the Genealogy of Morality</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 73. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199537082" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199537082"><bdi>978-0199537082</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+the+Genealogy+of+Morality&rft.pages=73&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1887&rft.isbn=978-0199537082&rft.aulast=Nietzsche&rft.aufirst=Friedrich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrttCAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA73&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNietzsche1883" class="citation book cs1">Nietzsche, Friedrich (1883). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ezSQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT121"><i>Thus Spoke Zarathustra</i></a>. Penguin UK. p. 46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780140441185" title="Special:BookSources/9780140441185"><bdi>9780140441185</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thus+Spoke+Zarathustra&rft.pages=46&rft.pub=Penguin+UK&rft.date=1883&rft.isbn=9780140441185&rft.aulast=Nietzsche&rft.aufirst=Friedrich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DezSQDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT121&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNietzsche1883" class="citation book cs1">Nietzsche, Friedrich (1883). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ezSQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT121"><i>Thus Spoke Zarathustra</i></a>. Penguin UK. p. 121. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780140441185" title="Special:BookSources/9780140441185"><bdi>9780140441185</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thus+Spoke+Zarathustra&rft.pages=121&rft.pub=Penguin+UK&rft.date=1883&rft.isbn=9780140441185&rft.aulast=Nietzsche&rft.aufirst=Friedrich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DezSQDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT121&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeidegger" class="citation web cs1">Heidegger, Martin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aphelis.net/wp-content/uploads/2011/02/Martin-Heidegger-On-the-Essence-of-Truth.pdf">"On the Essence of Truth"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>aphelis.net</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 October</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=aphelis.net&rft.atitle=On+the+Essence+of+Truth&rft.aulast=Heidegger&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Faphelis.net%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2011%2F02%2FMartin-Heidegger-On-the-Essence-of-Truth.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150626101634/http://www.ontology.co/heidegger-aletheia.htm">"Martin Heidegger on Aletheia (Truth) as Unconcealment"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ontology.co/heidegger-aletheia.htm">the original</a> on 26 June 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 August</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Martin+Heidegger+on+Aletheia+%28Truth%29+as+Unconcealment&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ontology.co%2Fheidegger-aletheia.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeidegger1962" class="citation book cs1">Heidegger, Martin (1962). <i>Being and Time</i> (1st ed.). Oxford: Basil Blackswell. pp. 256–274.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Being+and+Time&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=256-274&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Basil+Blackswell&rft.date=1962&rft.aulast=Heidegger&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSartre1956" class="citation book cs1">Sartre, Jean-Paul (1956). <i>Being and Nothingness: An Essay on Phenomenological Ontolgoy</i> (1st ed.). New York: Philosophical Library.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Being+and+Nothingness%3A+An+Essay+on+Phenomenological+Ontolgoy&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Philosophical+Library&rft.date=1956&rft.aulast=Sartre&rft.aufirst=Jean-Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSartre2004" class="citation book cs1">Sartre, Jean-Paul (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/56549324"><i>The imaginary : a phenomenological psychology of the imagination</i></a>. Arlette Elkaïm-Sartre, Jonathan Webber. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-203-64410-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-203-64410-7"><bdi>0-203-64410-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/56549324">56549324</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+imaginary+%3A+a+phenomenological+psychology+of+the+imagination&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F56549324&rft.isbn=0-203-64410-7&rft.aulast=Sartre&rft.aufirst=Jean-Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F56549324&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilder1995" class="citation journal cs1">Wilder, Kathleen (1995). "Truth and existence: The idealism in Sartre's theory of truth". <i>International Journal of Philosophical Studies</i>. <b>3</b> (1): 91–109. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09672559508570805">10.1080/09672559508570805</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Philosophical+Studies&rft.atitle=Truth+and+existence%3A+The+idealism+in+Sartre%27s+theory+of+truth&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=91-109&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09672559508570805&rft.aulast=Wilder&rft.aufirst=Kathleen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSartre1963" class="citation book cs1">Sartre, Jean-Paul (1963). <i>Search for a Method</i> (1st ed.). New York: Knopf.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Search+for+a+Method&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Knopf&rft.date=1963&rft.aulast=Sartre&rft.aufirst=Jean-Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkirke2014" class="citation cs2">Skirke, Christian (28 April 2014), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/obo/9780195396577-0192">"Jean-Paul Sartre"</a>, <i>Philosophy</i>, Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fobo%2F9780195396577-0192">10.1093/obo/9780195396577-0192</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-539657-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-539657-7"><bdi>978-0-19-539657-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 February</span> 2023</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy&rft.atitle=Jean-Paul+Sartre&rft.date=2014-04-28&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fobo%2F9780195396577-0192&rft.isbn=978-0-19-539657-7&rft.aulast=Skirke&rft.aufirst=Christian&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1093%2Fobo%2F9780195396577-0192&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSartre2004" class="citation book cs1">Sartre, Jean-Paul (2004). <i>Critique of Dialectical Reason</i>. London: Verso. pp. 15–41.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Critique+of+Dialectical+Reason&rft.place=London&rft.pages=15-41&rft.pub=Verso&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Sartre&rft.aufirst=Jean-Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCamus2020" class="citation book cs1">Camus, Albert (2020). <i>The Myth of Sisyphus and Other Essays</i> (1st ed.). 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London: Penguin Group. p. 180.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rebel&rft.place=London&rft.pages=180&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Penguin+Group&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Camus&rft.aufirst=Albert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCamus2013" class="citation book cs1">Camus, Albert (2013). <i>The Rebel</i> (3rd ed.). London: Penguin Group. p. 90.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rebel&rft.place=London&rft.pages=90&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Penguin+Group&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Camus&rft.aufirst=Albert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alfred North Whitehead, <i>Dialogues</i>, 1954: Prologue.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.peirce.org/writings/p119.html">"How to Make Our Ideas Clear"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181003203035/http://www.peirce.org/writings/p119.html">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 August</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+to+Make+Our+Ideas+Clear&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.peirce.org%2Fwritings%2Fp119.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Maraldo, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/nishida-kitaro/#2.2">Nishida Kitarô – Self-Awareness</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101204043326/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/nishida-kitaro/#2.2">Archived</a> 2010-12-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, in: <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (Spring 2005 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Foucault, M. "The Order of Things", London: Vintage Books, 1970 (1966)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Baudrillard-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Baudrillard_113-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Baudrillard_113-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Jean Baudrillard. Simulacra and Simulation. Michigan: Michigan University Press, 1994.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Baudrillard, Jean. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stanford.edu/dept/HPS/Baudrillard/Baudrillard_Simulacra.html">"Simulacra and Simulations", in <i>Selected Writings</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040209024621/http://www.stanford.edu/dept/HPS/Baudrillard/Baudrillard_Simulacra.html">Archived</a> 2004-02-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, ed. <a href="/wiki/Mark_Poster" title="Mark Poster">Mark Poster</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University_Press" title="Stanford University Press">Stanford University Press</a>, 1988; 166 <i>ff</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Baudrillard's attribution of this quote to <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastes" title="Ecclesiastes">Ecclesiastes</a> is deliberately fictional. "Baudrillard attributes this quote to Ecclesiastes. However, the quote is a fabrication (see Jean Baudrillard. Cool Memories III, 1991–95. London: Verso, 1997). Editor's note: In Fragments: Conversations With François L'Yvonnet. New York: Routledge, 2004:11, Baudrillard acknowledges this 'Borges-like' fabrication." Cited in footnote #4 in Smith, Richard G., <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ubishops.ca/baudrillardstudies/vol2_1/smith.htm#_edn4">"Lights, Camera, Action: Baudrillard and the Performance of Representations"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180425060347/https://www2.ubishops.ca/baudrillardstudies/vol2_1/smith.htm#_edn4">Archived</a> 2018-04-25 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, International Journal of Baudrillard Studies, Volume 2, Number 1 (January 2005)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Asay-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Asay_116-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAsay" class="citation web cs1">Asay, Jamin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/truth-ma/">"Truthmaker Theory"</a>. <i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201124032018/https://iep.utm.edu/truth-ma/">Archived</a> from the original on 24 November 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Truthmaker+Theory&rft.aulast=Asay&rft.aufirst=Jamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiep.utm.edu%2Ftruth-ma%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeebeeDodd2005" class="citation book cs1">Beebee, Helen; Dodd, Julian (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/BEETTC"><i>Truthmakers: The Contemporary Debate</i></a>. Clarendon Press. pp. 13–14. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201206202200/https://philpapers.org/rec/BEETTC">Archived</a> from the original on 6 December 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Truthmakers%3A+The+Contemporary+Debate&rft.pages=13-14&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Beebee&rft.aufirst=Helen&rft.au=Dodd%2C+Julian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FBEETTC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, "The Categories", <a href="/w/index.php?title=Harold_P._Cooke&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Harold P. Cooke (page does not exist)">Harold P. Cooke</a> (trans.), pp. 1–109 in <i>Aristotle, Volume 1</i>, <a href="/wiki/Loeb_Classical_Library" title="Loeb Classical Library">Loeb Classical Library</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heinemann_(book_publisher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Heinemann (book publisher)">William Heinemann</a>, London, 1938.</li> <li>Aristotle, "On Interpretation", Harold P. Cooke (trans.), pp. 111–179 in <i>Aristotle, Volume 1</i>, Loeb Classical Library, William Heinemann, London, 1938.</li> <li>Aristotle, "<a href="/wiki/Prior_Analytics" title="Prior Analytics">Prior Analytics</a>", <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hugh_Tredennick&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hugh Tredennick (page does not exist)">Hugh Tredennick</a> (trans.), pp. 181–531 in <i>Aristotle, Volume 1</i>, Loeb Classical Library, William Heinemann, London, 1938.</li> <li>Aristotle, "<a href="/wiki/On_the_Soul" title="On the Soul">On the Soul</a>" (<i>De Anima</i>), <a href="/w/index.php?title=W._S._Hett&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="W. S. Hett (page does not exist)">W. S. Hett</a> (trans.), pp. 1–203 in <i>Aristotle, Volume 8</i>, Loeb Classical Library, William Heinemann, London, 1936.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Audi" title="Robert Audi">Audi, Robert</a> (ed., 1999), <i>The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy</i>, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1995. 2nd edition, 1999. Cited as CDP.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Mark_Baldwin" title="James Mark Baldwin">Baldwin, James Mark</a> (ed., 1901–1905), <i>Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology</i>, 3 volumes in 4, Macmillan, New York.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_A._Baylis" title="Charles A. Baylis">Baylis, Charles A.</a> (1962), "Truth", pp. 321–322 in Dagobert D. Runes (ed.), <i>Dictionary of Philosophy</i>, Littlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Cornelius_Benjamin" class="mw-redirect" title="A. Cornelius Benjamin">Benjamin, A. Cornelius</a> (1962), "Coherence Theory of Truth", p. 58 in Dagobert D. Runes (ed.), <i>Dictionary of Philosophy</i>, Littlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ.</li> <li>Blackburn, Simon, and Simmons, Keith (eds., 1999), <i>Truth</i>, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Includes papers by James, Ramsey, Russell, Tarski, and more recent work.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subrahmanyan_Chandrasekhar" title="Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar">Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan</a> (1987), <i>Truth and Beauty. Aesthetics and Motivations in Science</i>, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=C.C._Chang&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="C.C. Chang (page does not exist)">Chang, C.C.</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=H.J._Keisler&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="H.J. Keisler (page does not exist)">Keisler, H.J.</a>, <i>Model Theory</i>, North-Holland, Amsterdam, Netherlands, 1973.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky, Noam</a> (1995), <i>The Minimalist Program</i>, MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alonzo_Church" title="Alonzo Church">Church, Alonzo</a> (1962a), "Name Relation, or Meaning Relation", p. 204 in Dagobert D. Runes (ed.), <i>Dictionary of Philosophy</i>, Littlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ.</li> <li>Church, Alonzo (1962b), "Truth, Semantical", p. 322 in Dagobert D. Runes (ed.), <i>Dictionary of Philosophy</i>, Littlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ.</li> <li>Clifford, W.K. (1877), "The Ethics of Belief and Other Essays". (Prometheus Books, 1999), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.infidels.org/library/historical/w_k_clifford/ethics_of_belief.html">infidels.org</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091203020835/http://www.infidels.org/library/historical/w_k_clifford/ethics_of_belief.html">Archived</a> 2009-12-03 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey, John</a> (1900–1901), <i>Lectures on Ethics 1900–1901</i>, Donald F. Koch (ed.), Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale and Edwardsville, IL.</li> <li>Dewey, John (1932), <i>Theory of the Moral Life</i>, Part 2 of John Dewey and <a href="/wiki/James_H._Tufts" class="mw-redirect" title="James H. Tufts">James H. Tufts</a>, <i>Ethics</i>, Henry Holt and Company, New York, 1908. 2nd edition, Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1932. Reprinted, Arnold Isenberg (ed.), Victor Kestenbaum (pref.), Irvingtion Publishers, New York, 1980.</li> <li>Dewey, John (1938), <i>Logic: The Theory of Inquiry</i> (1938), Holt and Company, New York. Reprinted, <i>John Dewey, The Later Works, 1925–1953, Volume 12: 1938</i>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jo_Ann_Boydston&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jo Ann Boydston (page does not exist)">Jo Ann Boydston</a> (ed.), Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale and Edwardsville, IL, 1986.</li> <li>Field, Hartry (2001), <i>Truth and the Absence of Fact</i>, Oxford University Press, Oxford.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault, Michel</a> (1997), <i>Essential Works of Foucault, 1954–1984, Volume 1, Ethics: Subjectivity and Truth</i>, Paul Rabinow (ed.), Robert Hurley et al. (trans.), The New Press, New York.</li> <li>Garfield, Jay L., and Kiteley, Murray (1991), <i>Meaning and Truth: The Essential Readings in Modern Semantics</i>, Paragon House, New York.</li> <li>Gupta, Anil (2001), "Truth", in Lou Goble (ed.), <i>The Blackwell Guide to Philosophical Logic</i>, Blackwell Publishers, Oxford.</li> <li>Gupta, Anil and <a href="/wiki/Nuel_Belnap" title="Nuel Belnap">Belnap, Nuel</a>. (1993). <i>The Revision Theory of Truth</i>. MIT Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Haack" title="Susan Haack">Haack, Susan</a> (1993), <i>Evidence and Inquiry: Towards Reconstruction in Epistemology</i>, Blackwell Publishers, Oxford.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas, Jürgen</a> (1976), "What Is Universal Pragmatics?", 1st published, "Was heißt Universalpragmatik?", <i>Sprachpragmatik und Philosophie</i>, <a href="/wiki/Karl-Otto_Apel" title="Karl-Otto Apel">Karl-Otto Apel</a> (ed.), Suhrkamp Verlag, Frankfurt am Main. Reprinted, pp. 1–68 in Jürgen Habermas, <i>Communication and the Evolution of Society</i>, Thomas McCarthy (trans.), Beacon Press, Boston, 1979.</li> <li>Habermas, Jürgen (1990), <i>Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action</i>, Christian Lenhardt and Shierry Weber Nicholsen (trans.), Thomas McCarthy (intro.), MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.</li> <li>Habermas, Jürgen (2003), <i>Truth and Justification</i>, Barbara Fultner (trans.), MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Hegel" class="mw-redirect" title="Georg Hegel">Hegel, Georg</a>, (1977), <i><a href="/wiki/The_Phenomenology_of_Spirit" title="The Phenomenology of Spirit">The Phenomenology of Spirit</a></i>, Oxford University Press, Oxford, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-824597-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-824597-1">978-0-19-824597-1</a>.</li> <li>Horwich, Paul, (1988), <i>Truth</i>, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, Oxford.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">James, William</a> (1904), <i>A World of Pure Experience</i>.</li> <li>James, William (1907), <i>Pragmatism, A New Name for Some Old Ways of Thinking, Popular Lectures on Philosophy</i>, Longmans, Green, and Company, New York.</li> <li>James, William (1909), <i>The Meaning of Truth, A Sequel to 'Pragmatism</i>, Longmans, Green, and Company, New York.</li> <li>James, William (1912), <i>Essays in Radical Empiricism</i>. Cf. Chapt. 3, "The Thing and its Relations", pp. 92–122.</li> <li>James, William (2014), <i>William James on Habit, Will, Truth, and the Meaning of Life</i>. James Sloan Allen (ed.), Frederic C. Beil, Publisher, Savannah, GA.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant, Immanuel</a> (1800), <i>Introduction to Logic</i>. Reprinted, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kingsmill_Abbott" title="Thomas Kingsmill Abbott">Thomas Kingsmill Abbott</a> (trans.), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dennis_Sweet&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dennis Sweet (page does not exist)">Dennis Sweet</a> (intro.), Barnes and Noble, New York, 2005.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Kirkham" title="Richard Kirkham">Kirkham, Richard L.</a> (1992), <i><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_Truth:_A_Critical_Introduction" class="mw-redirect" title="Theories of Truth: A Critical Introduction">Theories of Truth: A Critical Introduction</a></i>, MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Kneale" title="William Kneale">Kneale, W.</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Martha_Kneale" title="Martha Kneale">Kneale, M.</a> (1962), <i>The Development of Logic</i>, Oxford University Press, London, 1962. Reprinted with corrections, 1975.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hans_Kreitler&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hans Kreitler (page does not exist)">Kreitler, Hans</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Shulamith_Kreitler&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shulamith Kreitler (page does not exist)">Kreitler, Shulamith</a> (1972), <i>Psychology of the Arts</i>, Duke University Press, Durham, NC.</li> <li>Le Morvan, Pierre (2004), "Ramsey on Truth and Truth on Ramsey", <i>British Journal for the History of Philosophy</i>, 12 (4) 2004, 705–718, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tcnj.edu/~lemorvan/ramsey_web.pdf">PDF</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170829235557/http://www.tcnj.edu/~lemorvan/ramsey_web.pdf">Archived</a> 2017-08-29 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce_bibliography" title="Charles Sanders Peirce bibliography">Peirce, C.S., Bibliography</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Peirce, C.S.</a>, <i>Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce</i>, vols. 1–6, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Hartshorne" title="Charles Hartshorne">Charles Hartshorne</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Weiss_(philosopher)" title="Paul Weiss (philosopher)">Paul Weiss</a> (eds.), vols. 7–8, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_W._Burks" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur W. Burks">Arthur W. Burks</a> (ed.), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1931–1935, 1958. Cited as CP vol.para.</li> <li>Peirce, C.S. (1877), "The Fixation of Belief", <i>Popular Science Monthly</i> 12 (1877), 1–15. Reprinted (CP 5.358–387), (CE 3, 242–257), (EP 1, 109–123). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.peirce.org/writings/p107.html">Eprint</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201211082624/http://www.peirce.org/writings/p107.html">Archived</a> 2020-12-11 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li> <li>Peirce, C.S. (1901), "Truth and Falsity and Error" (in part), pp. 718–720 in J.M. Baldwin (ed.), <i>Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology</i>, vol. 2. Reprinted, CP 5.565–573.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi">Polanyi, Michael</a> (1966), <i>The Tacit Dimension</i>, Doubleday and Company, Garden City, NY.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/W.V._Quine" class="mw-redirect" title="W.V. Quine">Quine, W.V.</a> (1956), "Quantifiers and Propositional Attitudes", <i>Journal of Philosophy</i> 53 (1956). Reprinted, pp. 185–196 in Quine (1976), <i>Ways of Paradox</i>.</li> <li>Quine, W.V. (1976), <i>The Ways of Paradox, and Other Essays</i>, 1st edition, 1966. Revised and enlarged edition, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1976.</li> <li>Quine, W.V. (1980 a), <i>From a Logical Point of View, Logico-Philosophical Essays</i>, 2nd edition, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.</li> <li>Quine, W.V. (1980 b), "Reference and Modality", pp. 139–159 in Quine (1980 a), <i>From a Logical Point of View</i>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rajchman" title="John Rajchman">Rajchman, John</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cornel_West" title="Cornel West">West, Cornel</a> (ed., 1985), <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Post-Analytic_Philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Post-Analytic Philosophy (page does not exist)">Post-Analytic Philosophy</a></i>, Columbia University Press, New York.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Plumpton_Ramsey" class="mw-redirect" title="Frank Plumpton Ramsey">Ramsey, F. P.</a> (1927), "Facts and Propositions", <i>Aristotelian Society Supplementary Volume 7</i>, 153–170. Reprinted, pp. 34–51 in F. P. Ramsey, <i>Philosophical Papers</i>, David Hugh Mellor (ed.), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1990.</li> <li>Ramsey, F. P. (1990), <i>Philosophical Papers</i>, David Hugh Mellor (ed.), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls, John</a> (2000), <i>Lectures on the History of Moral Philosophy</i>, Barbara Herman (ed.), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rorty" title="Richard Rorty">Rorty, R.</a> (1979), <i>Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature</i>, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell, Bertrand</a> (1912), <i>The Problems of Philosophy</i>, 1st published 1912. Reprinted, Galaxy Book, Oxford University Press, New York, 1959. Reprinted, Prometheus Books, Buffalo, NY, 1988.</li> <li>Russell, Bertrand (1918), "The Philosophy of Logical Atomism", <i>The Monist</i>, 1918. Reprinted, pp. 177–281 in <i>Logic and Knowledge: Essays 1901–1950</i>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Charles_Marsh&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert Charles Marsh (page does not exist)">Robert Charles Marsh</a> (ed.), Unwin Hyman, London, 1956. Reprinted, pp. 35–155 in <i>The Philosophy of Logical Atomism</i>, <a href="/wiki/David_Pears" title="David Pears">David Pears</a> (ed.), Open Court, La Salle, IL, 1985.</li> <li>Russell, Bertrand (1956), <i>Logic and Knowledge: Essays 1901–1950</i>, Robert Charles Marsh (ed.), Unwin Hyman, London, 1956. Reprinted, Routledge, London, 1992.</li> <li>Russell, Bertrand (1985), <i>The Philosophy of Logical Atomism</i>, <a href="/wiki/David_Pears" title="David Pears">David Pears</a> (ed.), Open Court, La Salle, IL.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer, Arthur</a>, (1974), <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Fourfold_Root_of_the_Principle_of_Sufficient_Reason" title="On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason">On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason</a></i>, Open Court, La Salle, IL, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87548-187-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87548-187-6">978-0-87548-187-6</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ninian_Smart" title="Ninian Smart">Smart, Ninian</a> (1969), <i>The Religious Experience of Mankind</i>, Charles Scribner's Sons, New York.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Tarski" title="Alfred Tarski">Tarski, A.</a>, <i>Logic, Semantics, Metamathematics: Papers from 1923 to 1938</i>, J.H. Woodger (trans.), Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1956. 2nd edition, John Corcoran (ed.), Hackett Publishing, Indianapolis, IN, 1983.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_F.C._Wallace" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthony F.C. Wallace">Wallace, Anthony F.C.</a> (1966), <i>Religion: An Anthropological View</i>, Random House, New York.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reference_works">Reference works</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Reference works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Audi" title="Robert Audi">Audi, Robert</a> (ed., 1999), <i>The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy</i>, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1995. 2nd edition, 1999. Cited as CDP.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Blackburn" title="Simon Blackburn">Blackburn, Simon</a> (1996), <i>The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy</i>, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1994. Paperback edition with new Chronology, 1996. Cited as ODP.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dagobert_D._Runes" title="Dagobert D. Runes">Runes, Dagobert D.</a> (ed.), <i>Dictionary of Philosophy</i>, Littlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ, 1962.</li> <li><i>Webster's New International Dictionary of the English Language, Second Edition, Unabridged</i> (1950), W. A. Neilson, T. A. Knott, P. W. Carhart (eds.), G. & C. Merriam Company, Springfield, MA. Cited as MWU.</li> <li><i>Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary</i> (1983), Frederick C. Mish (ed.), Merriam–Webster Inc., Springfield, MA. Cited as MWC.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output 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href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150626133902/http://www.galilean-library.org/site/index.php/page/index.html/_/essays/introducingphilosophy/10-truth-r26">An Introduction to Truth</a> by Paul Newall, aimed at beginners.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>: <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/truth">"Truth"</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/plur-tru">"Pluralist Theories of Truth"</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/truth-ma">"Truthmaker Theory"</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/truthpro">"Prosentential Theory of Truth"</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>: <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth/">Truth</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth-coherence/">Coherence theory of truth</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth-correspondence/">Correspondence theory of truth</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth-deflationary/">Deflationary theory of truth</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth-identity/">Identity theory of truth</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth-revision/">Revision theory of truth</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/tarski-truth/">Tarski's definition of truth</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth-axiomatic/">Axiomatic theories of truth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150626101634/http://www.ontology.co/heidegger-aletheia.htm">Heidegger on Truth (Aletheia) as Unconcealment</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150609001038/http://www.ontology.co/aletheia.htm">History of Truth: The Greek "Aletheia"</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ontology.co/veritas.htm">History of Truth: The Latin "Veritas"</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox 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class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Theories_of_truth" title="Template:Theories of truth"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Theories_of_truth" title="Template talk:Theories of truth"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Theories_of_truth" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Theories of truth"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Truth" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Truth</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statement_(logic)" title="Statement (logic)">Statement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">Propositions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth-bearer" title="Truth-bearer">Truth-bearer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truthmaker_theory" title="Truthmaker theory">Truth-maker</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherence_theory_of_truth" title="Coherence theory of truth">Coherence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consensus_theory_of_truth" title="Consensus theory of truth">Consensus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correspondence_theory_of_truth" title="Correspondence theory of truth">Correspondence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deflationary_theory_of_truth" title="Deflationary theory of truth">Deflationary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_theories_of_truth" title="Epistemic theories of truth">Epistemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralist_theories_of_truth" title="Pluralist theories of truth">Pluralist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_theory_of_truth" title="Pragmatic theory of truth">Pragmatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redundancy_theory_of_truth" title="Redundancy theory of truth">Redundancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_theory_of_truth" title="Semantic theory of truth">Semantic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Metaphysics" title="Template:Metaphysics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Metaphysics" title="Template talk:Metaphysics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Metaphysics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Metaphysics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Metaphysics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_object_theory" title="Abstract object theory">Abstract object theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enactivism" title="Enactivism">Enactivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism">Essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_of_life" title="Meaning of life">Meaning of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(philosophy)" title="Spiritualism (philosophy)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">Substance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_forms" title="Theory of forms">Theory of forms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truthmaker_theory" title="Truthmaker theory">Truthmaker theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_theory" title="Type theory">Type theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">Abstract object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anima_mundi" title="Anima mundi">Anima mundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category_of_being" class="mw-redirect" title="Category of being">Category of being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causal_closure" title="Causal closure">Causal closure</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cogito,_ergo_sum" title="Cogito, ergo sum">Cogito, ergo sum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embodied_cognition" title="Embodied cognition">Embodied cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entity" title="Entity">Entity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">Essence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">Existence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">Experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_abstraction" title="Hypostatic abstraction">Hypostatic abstraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Idea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">Identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">Information</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Data" title="Data">Data</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insight" title="Insight">Insight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intention" title="Intention">Intention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_modality" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic modality">Linguistic modality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_matter" title="Philosophy of matter">Matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_(existential)" title="Meaning (existential)">Meaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">Mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motion" title="Motion">Motion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_necessity" title="Metaphysical necessity">Necessity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Object (philosophy)">Object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pattern" title="Pattern">Pattern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_object" title="Physical object">Physical object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle" title="Principle">Principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quality_(philosophy)" title="Quality (philosophy)">Quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relations_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Relations (philosophy)">Relation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self" title="Self">Self</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subject_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject (philosophy)">Subject</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substantial_form" title="Substantial form">Substantial form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thought" title="Thought">Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">Time</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type%E2%80%93token_distinction" title="Type–token distinction">Type–token distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_(metaphysics)" title="Universal (metaphysics)">Universal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unobservable" title="Unobservable">Unobservable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" title="Value (ethics)">Value</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_metaphysics_articles" title="Index of metaphysics articles">more ...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">Metaphysicians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclus" title="Proclus">Proclus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Scotus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Malebranche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Wolff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Bolzano" title="Bernard Bolzano">Bolzano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Lotze" title="Hermann Lotze">Lotze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Peirce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexius_Meinong" title="Alexius Meinong">Meinong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Bergson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Whitehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">Collingwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Dummett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Parfit</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">more ...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notable works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Sophist_(dialogue)" title="Sophist (dialogue)">Sophist</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Timaeus_(dialogue)" title="Timaeus (dialogue)">Timaeus</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ny%C4%81ya_S%C5%ABtras" title="Nyāya Sūtras">Nyāya Sūtras</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 200 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_rerum_natura" title="De rerum natura">De rerum natura</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 80 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)" title="Metaphysics (Aristotle)">Metaphysics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 50)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Enneads" title="Enneads">Enneads</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 270)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Daneshnameh-ye_Alai" class="mw-redirect" title="Daneshnameh-ye Alai">Daneshnameh-ye Alai</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 1000)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Meditations_on_First_Philosophy" title="Meditations on First Philosophy">Meditations on First Philosophy</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1641)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (Spinoza book)">Ethics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1677)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_Concerning_the_Principles_of_Human_Knowledge" title="A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge">A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1710)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monadology" title="Monadology">Monadology</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1714)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1781)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Prolegomena_to_Any_Future_Metaphysics" title="Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics">Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1783)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Phenomenology_of_Spirit" title="The Phenomenology of Spirit">The Phenomenology of Spirit</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1807)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_World_as_Will_and_Representation" title="The World as Will and Representation">The World as Will and Representation</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1818)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Concluding_Unscientific_Postscript_to_Philosophical_Fragments" title="Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments">Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1846)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Being_and_Time" title="Being and Time">Being and Time</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1927)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Being_and_Nothingness" title="Being and Nothingness">Being and Nothingness</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1943)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Simulacra_and_Simulation" title="Simulacra and Simulation">Simulacra and Simulation</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1981)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_metaphysics" title="Feminist metaphysics">Feminist metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpretations_of_quantum_mechanics" title="Interpretations of quantum mechanics">Interpretations of quantum mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mereology" title="Mereology">Mereology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta_(prefix)" title="Meta (prefix)">Meta-</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Philosophy of psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_self" title="Philosophy of self">Philosophy of self</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Philosophy of space and time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">Teleology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Epistemology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Epistemology" title="Template:Epistemology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Epistemology" title="Template talk:Epistemology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li 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J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurence_BonJour" title="Laurence BonJour">Laurence BonJour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Gilles Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keith_DeRose" title="Keith DeRose">Keith DeRose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Dretske" title="Fred Dretske">Fred Dretske</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Gettier" title="Edmund Gettier">Edmund Gettier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Goldman" title="Alvin Goldman">Alvin Goldman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Goodman" title="Nelson Goodman">Nelson Goodman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Paul Grice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anil_Gupta_(philosopher)" title="Anil Gupta (philosopher)">Anil Gupta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Haack" title="Susan Haack">Susan Haack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_D._Klein" title="Peter D. Klein">Peter Klein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Kornblith" title="Hilary Kornblith">Hilary Kornblith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McDowell" title="John McDowell">John McDowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Robert Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duncan_Pritchard" title="Duncan Pritchard">Duncan Pritchard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Pryor" title="James Pryor">James Pryor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Thomas Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilfrid_Sellars" title="Wilfrid Sellars">Wilfrid Sellars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susanna_Siegel" title="Susanna Siegel">Susanna Siegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Sosa" title="Ernest Sosa">Ernest Sosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Williamson" title="Timothy Williamson">Timothy Williamson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Epistemological_theories" title="Category:Epistemological theories">Theories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_epistemology" title="Feminist epistemology">Feminist epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_holism" title="Semantic holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinitism" title="Infinitism">Infinitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innatism" title="Innatism">Innatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_realism" title="Naïve realism">Naïve realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalized epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reliabilism" title="Reliabilism">Reliabilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_and_indirect_realism" title="Direct and indirect realism">Representational realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental idealism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Concepts_in_epistemology" title="Category:Concepts in epistemology">Concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A posteriori</i> knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">Belief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">Common sense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Descriptive knowledge">Descriptive knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploratory_thought" title="Exploratory thought">Exploratory thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_injustice" title="Epistemic injustice">Epistemic injustice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_virtue" title="Epistemic virtue">Epistemic virtue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gettier_problem" title="Gettier problem">Gettier problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_(epistemology)" title="Justification (epistemology)">Justification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privileged_access" class="mw-redirect" title="Privileged access">Privileged access</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_other_minds" title="Problem of other minds">Problem of other minds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedural_knowledge" title="Procedural knowledge">Procedural knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regress_argument" class="mw-redirect" title="Regress argument">Regress argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicity" title="Simplicity">Simplicity</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Truth</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_epistemology_articles" title="Index of epistemology articles">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_epistemology" title="Outline of epistemology">Outline of epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_epistemology" title="Formal epistemology">Formal epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaepistemology" title="Metaepistemology">Metaepistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">Philosophy of perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">Social epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_epistemology" title="Virtue epistemology">Virtue epistemology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Epistemology" title="Category:Epistemology">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy/Epistemology" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy/Epistemology">Task Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_stubs" title="Category:Philosophy stubs">Stubs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Philosophy" title="Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Philosophy">Discussion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Logic" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Logic" title="Template:Logic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Logic" title="Template talk:Logic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Logic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Logic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Logic" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_logic" title="Outline of logic">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_logic" title="History of logic">History</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Logic_in_computer_science" title="Logic in computer science">Computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_semantics_(natural_language)" title="Formal semantics (natural language)">Formal semantics (natural language)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inference" title="Inference">Inference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_logic" title="Philosophy of logic">Philosophy of logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_proof" title="Formal proof">Proof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantics_of_logic" title="Semantics of logic">Semantics of logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntax_(logic)" title="Syntax (logic)">Syntax</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Logics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_logic" title="Classical logic">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Informal_logic" title="Informal logic">Informal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">Critical thinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">Reason</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_logic" title="Mathematical logic">Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-classical_logic" title="Non-classical logic">Non-classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_logic" title="Philosophical logic">Philosophical</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argumentation_theory" title="Argumentation theory">Argumentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metalogic" title="Metalogic">Metalogic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metamathematics" title="Metamathematics">Metamathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Set_theory" title="Set theory">Set</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foundations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abductive_reasoning" title="Abductive reasoning">Abduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic and synthetic propositions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antecedent_(logic)" title="Antecedent (logic)">Antecedent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequent" title="Consequent">Consequent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contradiction" title="Contradiction">Contradiction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paradox" title="Paradox">Paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antinomy" title="Antinomy">Antinomy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">Deduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deductive_closure" title="Deductive closure">Deductive closure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Definition" title="Definition">Definition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Description" title="Description">Description</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_consequence" title="Logical consequence">Entailment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Entailment_(linguistics)" title="Entailment (linguistics)">Linguistic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_form" title="Logical form">Form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_truth" title="Logical truth">Logical truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Name" title="Name">Name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necessity_and_sufficiency" title="Necessity and sufficiency">Necessity and sufficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Premise" title="Premise">Premise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probability" title="Probability">Probability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reference" title="Reference">Reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statement_(logic)" title="Statement (logic)">Statement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substitution_(logic)" title="Substitution (logic)">Substitution</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Validity_(logic)" title="Validity (logic)">Validity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_logic_articles" title="Index of logic articles">topics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mathematical_logic_topics" title="List of mathematical logic topics">Mathematical logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Boolean_algebra_topics" title="List of Boolean algebra topics">Boolean algebra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_set_theory_topics" title="List of set theory topics">Set theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_logicians" title="List of logicians">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rules_of_inference" title="List of rules of inference">Rules of inference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_paradoxes" title="List of paradoxes">Paradoxes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fallacies" title="List of fallacies">Fallacies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_logic_symbols" title="List of logic symbols">Logic symbols</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/36px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Logic" title="Category:Logic">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Logic" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Logic">WikiProject</a> (<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Logic" title="Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Logic">talk</a>)</li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Recentchangeslinked&target=Template:Logic&hidebots=0">changes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Positivism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Positivism" title="Template:Positivism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Positivism" title="Template talk:Positivism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Positivism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Positivism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Positivism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Perspectives</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Antihumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Declinations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivist_school_(criminology)" title="Positivist school (criminology)">Positivist school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpositivism" title="Postpositivism">Postpositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociological_positivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociological positivism">Sociological positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Machian positivism (empirio-criticism)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankean_historical_positivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rankean historical positivism">Rankean historical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Positivism in Poland">Polish positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Machism" title="Russian Machism">Russian Machism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Principal concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">Evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_(epistemology)" title="Justification (epistemology)">Justification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle#Critique_of_metaphysics" title="Vienna Circle">Critique of metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Antitheses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Antipositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Geisteswissenschaft" title="Geisteswissenschaft">Geisteswissenschaft</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_science" title="Human science">Human science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodological_dualism" title="Methodological dualism">Methodological dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflectivism" title="Reflectivism">Reflectivism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Related <a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">paradigm shifts</a><br />in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">history of science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Non-Euclidean_geometry" title="Non-Euclidean geometry">Non-Euclidean geometry</a> (1830s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncertainty_principle" title="Uncertainty principle">Uncertainty principle</a> (1927)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioralism" title="Behavioralism">Behavioralism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post-behavioralism" title="Post-behavioralism">Post-behavioralism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological anarchism">anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_idealism" title="Epistemological idealism">idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_nihilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological nihilism">nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_pluralism" title="Epistemological pluralism">pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_realism" title="Epistemological realism">realism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(literature)" title="Naturalism (literature)">Naturalism in literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nomothetic_and_idiographic" title="Nomothetic and idiographic">Nomothetic–idiographic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(science)" title="Objectivity (science)">Objectivity in science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operationalization" title="Operationalization">Operationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">Deductive-nomological model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramsey_sentence" title="Ramsey sentence">Ramsey sentence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sense_data" title="Sense data">Sense-data theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">Structural functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuration_theory" title="Structuration theory">Structuration theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Positivist-related_debate" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Positivist-related debate</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Method</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Methodenstreit" title="Methodenstreit">Methodenstreit</a></i></span> (1890s)</li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Werturteilsstreit" title="Werturteilsstreit">Werturteilsstreit</a></i></span> (1909–1959)</li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Positivism_dispute" title="Positivism dispute">Positivismusstreit</a></i></span> (1960s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Debates_(international_relations)#Fourth_Great_Debate" title="Great Debates (international relations)">Fourth Great Debate in international relations</a> (1980s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_wars" title="Science wars">Science wars</a> (1990s)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Contributions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Course_in_Positive_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="The Course in Positive Philosophy">The Course in Positive Philosophy</a></i> (1830)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_General_View_of_Positivism" title="A General View of Positivism">A General View of Positivism</a></i> (1848)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Critical_History_of_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Critical History of Philosophy">Critical History of Philosophy</a></i> (1869)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Idealism_and_Positivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Idealism and Positivism">Idealism and Positivism</a></i> (1879–1884)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Analysis_of_Sensations" class="mw-redirect" title="The Analysis of Sensations">The Analysis of Sensations</a></i> (1886)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Logic_of_Modern_Physics" title="The Logic of Modern Physics">The Logic of Modern Physics</a></i> (1927)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Language,_Truth,_and_Logic" title="Language, Truth, and Logic">Language, Truth, and Logic</a></i> (1936)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Two_Cultures" title="The Two Cultures">The Two Cultures</a></i> (1959)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Universe_in_a_Nutshell" title="The Universe in a Nutshell">The Universe in a Nutshell</a></i> (2001)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Proponents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Avenarius" title="Richard Avenarius">Richard Avenarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Bogdanov" title="Alexander Bogdanov">Alexander Bogdanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Percy_Williams_Bridgman" title="Percy Williams Bridgman">Percy Williams Bridgman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_D%C3%BChring" title="Eugen Dühring">Eugen Dühring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Stephen Hawking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Laas" title="Ernst Laas">Ernst Laas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Ernst Mach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._P._Snow" title="C. P. Snow">C. P. Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Circle" title="Berlin Circle">Berlin Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Criticism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Materialism_and_Empirio-criticism" title="Materialism and Empirio-criticism">Materialism and Empirio-criticism</a></i> (1909)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_and_Class_Consciousness" title="History and Class Consciousness">History and Class Consciousness</a></i> (1923)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Logic_of_Scientific_Discovery" title="The Logic of Scientific Discovery">The Logic of Scientific Discovery</a></i> (1934)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Poverty_of_Historicism" title="The Poverty of Historicism">The Poverty of Historicism</a></i> (1936)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/World_Hypotheses" title="World Hypotheses">World Hypotheses</a></i> (1942)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Dogmas_of_Empiricism" title="Two Dogmas of Empiricism">Two Dogmas of Empiricism</a></i> (1951)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Truth_and_Method" title="Truth and Method">Truth and Method</a></i> (1960)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions" title="The Structure of Scientific Revolutions">The Structure of Scientific Revolutions</a></i> (1962)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Conjectures_and_Refutations" class="mw-redirect" title="Conjectures and Refutations">Conjectures and Refutations</a></i> (1963)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/One-Dimensional_Man" title="One-Dimensional Man">One-Dimensional Man</a></i> (1964)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_and_Human_Interests" title="Knowledge and Human Interests">Knowledge and Human Interests</a></i> (1968)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Poverty_of_Theory" class="mw-redirect" title="The Poverty of Theory">The Poverty of Theory</a></i> (1978)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Scientific_Image" class="mw-redirect" title="The Scientific Image">The Scientific Image</a></i> (1980)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Rhetoric_of_Economics" class="mw-redirect" title="The Rhetoric of Economics">The Rhetoric of Economics</a></i> (1986)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Critics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Theodor W. Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaston_Bachelard" title="Gaston Bachelard">Gaston Bachelard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mario_Bunge" title="Mario Bunge">Mario Bunge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Dilthey" title="Wilhelm Dilthey">Wilhelm Dilthey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Hans-Georg Gadamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs" title="György Lukács">György Lukács</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Herbert Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deirdre_McCloskey" title="Deirdre McCloskey">Deirdre McCloskey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Pepper" title="Stephen Pepper">Stephen Pepper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Willard Van Orman Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._P._Thompson" title="E. P. Thompson">E. P. Thompson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Concepts in contention</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Phronesis" title="Phronesis">Phronesis</a></i></span></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Truth</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Verstehen" title="Verstehen">Verstehen</a></i></span></li></ul> 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