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href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mittelhebr%C3%A4isch" title="Mittelhebräisch – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Mittelhebräisch" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="عبری میشنایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="عبری میشنایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A9breu_mishna%C3%AFque" title="Hébreu mishnaïque – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Hébreu mishnaïque" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Ibrani_Mishnaik" title="Bahasa Ibrani Mishnaik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Ibrani Mishnaik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_ebraica_mishnaica" title="Lingua ebraica mishnaica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua ebraica mishnaica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9C%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%97%D7%96%22%D7%9C" title="לשון חז"ל – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="לשון חז"ל" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%88%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%98%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%98%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Мишнајски хебрејски јазик – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Мишнајски хебрејски јазик" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiteny_hebreon%27_ny_Misn%C3%A0" title="Fiteny hebreon' ny Misnà – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fiteny hebreon' ny Misnà" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Ibrani_Misynah" title="Bahasa Ibrani Misynah – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bahasa Ibrani Misynah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%9F%E3%82%B7%E3%83%A5%E3%83%8A%E3%83%BC%E3%83%BB%E3%83%98%E3%83%96%E3%83%A9%E3%82%A4%E8%AA%9E" title="ミシュナー・ヘブライ語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ミシュナー・ヘブライ語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%88%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B8%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82" title="Мишнаитский иврит – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Мишнаитский иврит" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mishnahebreiska" title="Mishnahebreiska – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Mishnahebreiska" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AE%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%AB%E0%B9%8C" title="ภาษาฮีบรูมิซนะห์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ภาษาฮีบรูมิซนะห์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi%C5%9Fnahik_%C4%B0branice" title="Mişnahik İbranice – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Mişnahik İbranice" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C_%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="مشنائی عبرانی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="مشنائی عبرانی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1649362#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div 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.infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: #faecc8;">Mishnaic Hebrew</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #faecc8;"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>: <span lang="he" dir="rtl">לשון חז"ל</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Hebrew" title="Romanization of Hebrew">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn">Ləšon Ḥazal</i></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:KaufmannManuscript.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/KaufmannManuscript.jpg/320px-KaufmannManuscript.jpg" decoding="async" width="320" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/KaufmannManuscript.jpg/480px-KaufmannManuscript.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/KaufmannManuscript.jpg/640px-KaufmannManuscript.jpg 2x" data-file-width="997" data-file-height="597" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="padding:0.35em 0.35em 0.25em;line-height:1.25em;">A section of the Mishnah</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Region</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Judaea_(Roman_province)" title="Judaea (Roman province)">Judaea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syria_Palaestina" title="Syria Palaestina">Syria Palaestina</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Era</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Developed from <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical Hebrew</a> in the 1st century CE; continued as <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Hebrew" title="Medieval Hebrew">Medieval Hebrew</a> as an academic language after dying out as a spoken native language in the 4th century</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afro-Asiatic</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/West_Semitic_languages" title="West Semitic languages">West</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Semitic_languages" title="Central Semitic languages">Central</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Semitic_languages" title="Northwest Semitic languages">Northwest</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_languages" title="Canaanite languages">Canaanite</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_languages#South_Canaan" title="Canaanite languages">South</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><b>Mishnaic Hebrew</b></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Early form</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical Hebrew</a> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew alphabet</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #faecc8;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">–</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><i><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></i></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><i>None</i></td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <p><b>Mishnaic Hebrew</b> (<a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>: <span lang="he" dir="rtl">לשון חז"ל</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Hebrew" title="Romanization of Hebrew">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn">Ləšon Ḥazal</i></span> "Language of the <a href="/wiki/Chazal" title="Chazal">Sages</a>") is the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew language</a> of <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmudic texts</a>. Mishnaic Hebrew can be sub-divided into Mishnaic Hebrew proper (also called <a href="/wiki/Tannaim" title="Tannaim">Tannaitic</a> Hebrew, Early Rabbinic Hebrew, or <a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnaic</a> Hebrew I), which was a <a href="/wiki/Spoken_language" title="Spoken language">spoken language</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Amoraim" title="Amoraim">Amoraic</a> Hebrew (also called Late Rabbinic Hebrew or Mishnaic Hebrew II), which was a <a href="/wiki/Literary_language" title="Literary language">literary language</a> only. </p><p>The Mishnaic Hebrew language, or Early Rabbinic Hebrew language, is one of the direct ancient descendants of <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical Hebrew</a> as preserved after the <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_captivity" title="Babylonian captivity">Babylonian captivity</a>, and definitively recorded by Jewish sages in writing the <a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a> and other contemporary documents. </p><p>A transitional form of the language occurs in the other works of Tannaitic literature dating from the century beginning with the completion of the Mishnah. These include the <a href="/wiki/Midrash_halakha" title="Midrash halakha">halakhic midrashim</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sifra" title="Sifra">Sifra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sifre" title="Sifre">Sifre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mekhilta_of_Rabbi_Ishmael" title="Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael">Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael</a> etc.) and the expanded collection of Mishnah-related material known as the <a href="/wiki/Tosefta" title="Tosefta">Tosefta</a>. The Talmud contains excerpts from these works, as well as further Tannaitic material not attested elsewhere; the generic term for these passages is <a href="/wiki/Baraita" title="Baraita">baraitot</a>. The language of all these works is very similar to Mishnaic Hebrew. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_occurrence">Historical occurrence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mishnaic_Hebrew&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Historical occurrence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Mishnaic Hebrew is found primarily from the first to the fourth centuries, corresponding to the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman period</a> after the destruction of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple" title="Second Temple">Second Temple</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(70_CE)" title="Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)">Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)</a>. It developed under the profound influence of <a href="/wiki/Middle_Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Aramaic">Middle Aramaic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-renamed_from_3_on_20110328184818_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-renamed_from_3_on_20110328184818-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also called Tannaitic Hebrew or Early Rabbinic Hebrew, it is represented by the bulk of the <a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a> (<span title="Hebrew-language text"><span lang="he" dir="rtl">משנה</span></span>, published around 200) and the <a href="/wiki/Tosefta" title="Tosefta">Tosefta</a> within the <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a>, and by some of the <a href="/wiki/Dead_Sea_Scrolls" title="Dead Sea Scrolls">Dead Sea Scrolls</a>, notably the <a href="/wiki/Copper_Scroll" title="Copper Scroll">Copper Scroll</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Cave_of_Letters" title="Cave of Letters">Bar Kokhba Letters</a>. </p><p>Dead Sea Scrolls archaeologist <a href="/wiki/Yigael_Yadin" title="Yigael Yadin">Yigael Yadin</a> mentions that three Bar Kokhba documents he and his team found in the <a href="/wiki/Cave_of_Letters" title="Cave of Letters">Cave of Letters</a> are written in Mishnaic Hebrew<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that it was <a href="/wiki/Simon_bar_Kokhba" title="Simon bar Kokhba">Simon bar Kokhba</a> who revived Hebrew and made it the official language of the state during the <a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt" title="Bar Kokhba revolt">Bar Kokhba revolt</a> (132–135). Yadin also notes a shift from Aramaic to Hebrew in <a href="/wiki/Judaea" class="mw-redirect" title="Judaea">Judaea</a> during the time of the Bar Kokhba revolt: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>It is interesting that the earlier documents are written in Aramaic while the later ones are in Hebrew. Possibly the change was made by a special decree of Bar-Kokhba who wanted to restore Hebrew as the official language of the state.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sigalit_Ben-Zion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sigalit Ben-Zion (page does not exist)">Sigalit Ben-Zion</a> remarks, "[I]t seems that this change came as a result of the order that was given by Bar Kokhba, who wanted to revive the Hebrew language and make it the official language of the state."<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, less than a century after the publication of the Mishnah, Hebrew began to fall into disuse as a spoken language. The <a href="/wiki/Gemara" title="Gemara">Gemara</a> (<span title="Hebrew-language text"><span lang="he" dir="rtl">גמרא</span></span>, circa 500 in <a href="/wiki/Lower_Mesopotamia" title="Lower Mesopotamia">Lower Mesopotamia</a>), as well as the earlier <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_Talmud" title="Jerusalem Talmud">Jerusalem Talmud</a> published between 350 and 400, generally comment on the Mishnah and <a href="/wiki/Baraitot" class="mw-redirect" title="Baraitot">Baraitot</a> in Aramaic. Nevertheless, Hebrew survived as a liturgical and literary language in the form of later <a href="/w/index.php?title=Amoraic_Hebrew&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Amoraic Hebrew (page does not exist)">Amoraic Hebrew</a>, which sometimes occurs in the Gemara text. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>There is general agreement that two main periods of Rabbinical Hebrew (RH) can be distinguished. The first, which lasted until the close of the Tannaitic era (around the year 200), is characterized by RH as a spoken language gradually developing into a literary medium, in which the Mishnah, Tosefta, <i>baraitot</i> and Tannaitic <i>midrashim</i> would be composed. The second stage begins with the <i>Amoraim</i>, and sees RH being replaced by Aramaic as the spoken vernacular, surviving only as a literary language.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mishnaic_Hebrew&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many of the characteristic features of Mishnaic Hebrew pronunciation may well have been found already in the period of Late Biblical Hebrew. A notable characteristic distinguishing it from Biblical Hebrew of the classical period is the <a href="/wiki/Begadkefat" title="Begadkefat">spirantization of post-vocalic stops</a> (b, g, d, p, t, k), which it has in common with Aramaic.<sup id="cite_ref-renamed_from_2_on_20110328184818_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-renamed_from_2_on_20110328184818-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A new characteristic is that final /m/ is often replaced with final /n/ in the Mishna (see <a href="/wiki/Bava_Kama" class="mw-redirect" title="Bava Kama">Bava Kama</a> 1:4, "<span title="Hebrew-language text"><span lang="he" dir="rtl">מועדין</span></span>"), but only in agreement morphemes. Perhaps the final nasal consonant in the morphemes was not pronounced, and the vowel previous to it was nasalized. Alternatively, the agreement morphemes may have changed under the influence of Aramaic. </p><p>Also, some surviving manuscripts of the Mishna confuse guttural consonants, especially ʾaleph (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1241449095">.mw-parser-output .script-hebrew,.mw-parser-output .script-Hebr{font-family:"Ezra SIL SR","Ezra SIL","SBL Hebrew","Taamey Frank CLM","SBL BibLit","Taamey Ashkenaz","Frank Ruehl CLM","Keter Aram Tsova","Taamey David CLM","Keter YG","Shofar","David CLM","Hadasim CLM","Simple CLM","Nachlieli",Cardo,Alef,"Noto Serif Hebrew","Noto Sans Hebrew","David Libre",David,"Times New Roman",Gisha,Arial,FreeSerif,FreeSans}</style><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">א</span>‎) (a <a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">glottal stop</a>) and ʿayin (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">ע</span>‎) (a <a href="/wiki/Voiced_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiced pharyngeal fricative">voiced pharyngeal fricative</a>). That could be a sign that they were pronounced the same way in Mishnaic Hebrew. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reconstructed_Mishnaic_Hebrew_pronunciation">Reconstructed Mishnaic Hebrew pronunciation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mishnaic_Hebrew&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Reconstructed Mishnaic Hebrew pronunciation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Consonants</b> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"> <tbody><tr> <td>Name </td> <td><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Aleph_(letter)#Hebrew" class="mw-redirect" title="Aleph (letter)">Alef</a></i></span> </td> <td><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Beth_(letter)#Hebrew_Bet_/_Vet" class="mw-redirect" title="Beth (letter)">Bet</a></i></span> </td> <td><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Gimel_(letter)#Hebrew_gimel" class="mw-redirect" title="Gimel (letter)">Gimel</a></i></span> </td> <td><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Daleth#Hebrew_dalet" class="mw-redirect" title="Daleth">Dalet</a></i></span> </td> <td><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/He_(letter)#Hebrew_He" title="He (letter)">He</a></i></span> </td> <td><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Waw_(letter)#Hebrew_Waw" title="Waw (letter)">Vav</a></i></span> </td> <td><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Zayin#Hebrew_zayin" title="Zayin">Zayin</a></i></span> </td> <td><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Heth_(letter)#Hebrew_Ḥet" class="mw-redirect" title="Heth (letter)">Chet</a></i></span> </td> <td><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Teth#Hebrew_Tet" title="Teth">Tet</a></i></span> </td> <td><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Yodh#Hebrew_yod" title="Yodh">Yod</a></i></span> </td> <td><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Kaph#Hebrew_kaf" title="Kaph">Kaf</a></i></span> </td> <td><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Lamedh#Hebrew_Lamed" title="Lamedh">Lamed</a></i></span> </td> <td><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Mem#Hebrew_mem" title="Mem">Mem</a></i></span> </td> <td><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Nun_(letter)#Hebrew_nun" title="Nun (letter)">Nun</a></i></span> </td> <td><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Samekh#Hebrew_samekh" title="Samekh">Samech</a></i></span> </td> <td><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Ayin#Hebrew_ayin" title="Ayin">Ayin</a></i></span> </td> <td><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Pe_(Semitic_letter)#Hebrew_pe" title="Pe (Semitic letter)">Pe</a></i></span> </td> <td><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Tsade#Hebrew_Tsadi" title="Tsade">Tzadi</a></i></span> </td> <td><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Qoph#Hebrew_Qof" title="Qoph">Kof</a></i></span> </td> <td><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Resh#In_Hebrew" title="Resh">Resh</a></i></span> </td> <td><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Shin_(letter)#Hebrew_shin/sin" title="Shin (letter)">Shin</a></i></span> </td> <td><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Taw_(letter)#Hebrew_tav" class="mw-redirect" title="Taw (letter)">Tav</a></i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Letter </td> <td style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">א</span>‎ </td> <td style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">ב</span>‎ </td> <td style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">ג</span>‎ </td> <td style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">ד</span>‎ </td> <td style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">ה</span>‎ </td> <td style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">ו</span>‎ </td> <td style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">ז</span>‎ </td> <td style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">ח</span>‎ </td> <td style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">ט</span>‎ </td> <td style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">י</span>‎ </td> <td style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">כ</span>‎ </td> <td style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">ל</span>‎ </td> <td style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">מ</span>‎ </td> <td style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">נ</span>‎ </td> <td style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">ס</span>‎ </td> <td style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">ע</span>‎ </td> <td style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">פ</span>‎ </td> <td style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">צ</span>‎ </td> <td style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">ק</span>‎ </td> <td style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">ר</span>‎ </td> <td style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">ש</span>‎ </td> <td style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">ת</span>‎ </td></tr> <tr> <td>Pronunciation </td> <td>[<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a></span>], ∅ </td> <td>[<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a></span>], [<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_fricative" title="Voiced bilabial fricative">β</a></span>] </td> <td>[<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">g</a></span>], [<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_fricative" title="Voiced velar fricative">ɣ</a></span>] </td> <td>[<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced dental plosive">d̪</a></span>], [<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_fricative" title="Voiced dental fricative">ð</a></span>] </td> <td>[<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a></span>], ∅ </td> <td>[<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a></span>] </td> <td>[<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a></span>] </td> <td>[<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiceless pharyngeal fricative">ħ</a></span>] </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless dental plosive">t̪ʼ</a>]</span> </td> <td>[<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a></span>] </td> <td>[<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a></span>], [<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a></span>] </td> <td>[<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a></span>] </td> <td>[<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a></span>] </td> <td>[<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced dental nasal">n̪</a></span>] </td> <td>[<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a></span>] </td> <td>[<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiced pharyngeal fricative">ʕ</a></span>], ∅ </td> <td>[<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a></span>], [<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_fricative" title="Voiceless bilabial fricative">ɸ</a></span>] </td> <td>[<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_ejective_affricate" title="Alveolar ejective affricate">tsʼ</a></span>] </td> <td>[<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Velar_ejective_stop" title="Velar ejective stop">kʼ</a></span>] </td> <td>[<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_and_alveolar_taps_and_flaps" title="Voiced dental and alveolar taps and flaps">ɾ</a></span>] </td> <td>[<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a></span>], [<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a></span>] </td> <td>[<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless dental plosive">t̪</a></span>], [<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_fricative" title="Voiceless dental fricative">θ</a></span>] </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Vowels</b> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"> <tbody><tr> <td>Name </td> <td><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Shva" title="Shva">Shva Nach</a></i></span> </td> <td><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Shva" title="Shva">Shva Na</a></i></span> </td> <td><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Patach" title="Patach">Patach</a></i></span> </td> <td><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Hataf_Patach" class="mw-redirect" title="Hataf Patach">Hataf Patach</a></i></span> </td> <td><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Kamatz" title="Kamatz">Kamatz Gadol</a></i></span> </td> <td><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Kamatz" title="Kamatz">Kamatz Katan</a></i></span> </td> <td><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Hataf_Kamatz" class="mw-redirect" title="Hataf Kamatz">Hataf Kamatz</a></i></span> </td> <td><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Tzere" title="Tzere">Tzere, Tzere Male</a></i></span> </td> <td><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Segol" title="Segol">Segol</a></i></span> </td> <td><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Hataf_Segol" class="mw-redirect" title="Hataf Segol">Hataf Segol</a></i></span> </td> <td><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Hirik" class="mw-redirect" title="Hirik">Hirik</a></i></span> </td> <td><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Hirik" class="mw-redirect" title="Hirik">Hirik Male</a></i></span> </td> <td><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Holam" title="Holam">Holam, Holam Male</a></i></span> </td> <td><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Kubutz" class="mw-redirect" title="Kubutz">Kubutz</a></i></span> </td> <td><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Shuruk" class="mw-redirect" title="Shuruk">Shuruk</a></i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Letter </td> <td style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;">ְ </td> <td style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;">ְ </td> <td style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;">ַ </td> <td style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;">ֲ </td> <td style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;">ָ </td> <td style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;">ָ </td> <td style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;">ֳ </td> <td style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;">ֵ , ֵי </td> <td style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;">ֶ </td> <td style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;">ֱ </td> <td style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;">ִ </td> <td style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;">ִי </td> <td style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;">ׂ, וֹ </td> <td style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;">ֻ </td> <td style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">וּ</span>‎ </td></tr> <tr> <td>Pronunciation </td> <td>∅ </td> <td>? </td> <td colspan="2">[<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Near-open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-open front unrounded vowel">æ</a></span>] </td> <td>[<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back unrounded vowel">ʌ</a></span>ː ~ <span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open back unrounded vowel">ɑ</a></span>ː] </td> <td colspan="2">[<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back rounded vowel">ɔ</a></span>] </td> <td>[<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a></span>ː] </td> <td colspan="2">[<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛ</a></span>] </td> <td>[<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-front unrounded vowel">ɪ</a></span> ~ <span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a></span>] </td> <td>[<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a></span>ː] </td> <td>[<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a></span>ː] </td> <td>[<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-back_rounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-back rounded vowel">ʊ</a></span> ~ <span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a></span>] </td> <td>[<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a></span>ː] </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Morphology">Morphology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mishnaic_Hebrew&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Morphology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Mishnaic Hebrew displays various changes from Biblical Hebrew, some appearing already in the Hebrew of the <a href="/wiki/Dead_Sea_Scrolls" title="Dead Sea Scrolls">Dead Sea Scrolls</a>. Some, but not all, are retained in <a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern Hebrew</a>. </p><p>For the expression of possession, Mishnaic Hebrew mostly replaces the <a href="/wiki/Construct_state" title="Construct state">construct state</a> with analytic constructions involving <span title="Hebrew-language text"><span lang="he" dir="rtl">של</span></span> 'of'.<sup id="cite_ref-renamed_from_2_on_20110328184818_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-renamed_from_2_on_20110328184818-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mishnaic Hebrew lacks the <a href="/wiki/Waw-consecutive" class="mw-redirect" title="Waw-consecutive">waw-consecutive</a>. </p><p>The past is expressed by using the same form as in Modern Hebrew. For example, <i><a href="/wiki/Pirkei_Avot" title="Pirkei Avot">Pirqe Avoth</a></i> 1:1: <span title="Hebrew-language text"><span lang="he" dir="rtl">משה קיבל תורה מסיני</span></span> "Moses received the Torah from Sinai". </p><p>Continuous past is expressed using the past tense of "to be" + participle, unlike Biblical Hebrew. For example, <i>Pirqe Avoth</i> 1:2: <span title="Hebrew-language text"><span lang="he" dir="rtl">הוא היה אומר</span></span> "He often said". </p><p>Present is expressed using the same form as in Modern Hebrew, by using the participle (<span title="Hebrew-language text"><span lang="he" dir="rtl">בינוני</span></span>). For example, <i>Pirqe Avoth</i> 1:2 <span title="Hebrew-language text"><span lang="he" dir="rtl">על שלושה דברים העולם עומד</span></span> "The world is sustained by three things", lit. "On three things the world stands". </p><p>Future can be expressed using <span title="Hebrew-language text"><span lang="he" dir="rtl">עתיד</span></span> + infinitive. For example, <i>Pirqe Avoth</i> 3:1: <span title="Hebrew-language text"><span lang="he" dir="rtl">ולפני מי אתה עתיד ליתן דין וחשבון</span></span>. However, unlike Modern Hebrew but like contemporary Aramaic, the present active participle can also express the future.<sup id="cite_ref-renamed_from_2_on_20110328184818_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-renamed_from_2_on_20110328184818-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It mostly replaces the imperfect (prefixed) form in that function. </p><p>The imperfect (prefixed) form, which is used for the future in modern Hebrew, expresses an imperative (order), volition or similar meanings in Mishnaic Hebrew (the prefixed form is also used to express an imperative in Modern Hebrew). For example, <i>Pirqe Avot</i> 1:3: <span title="Hebrew-language text"><span lang="he" dir="rtl">הוא היה אומר, אל תהיו כעבדים המשמשין את הרב</span></span> "He would say, don't be like slaves serving the master...", lit. "...you will not be...". In a sense, one could say that the form pertains to the future in Mishnaic Hebrew as well, but it invariably has a modal (imperative, volitional, etc.) aspect in the main clause. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mishnaic_Hebrew&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tiberian_Hebrew" title="Tiberian Hebrew">Tiberian Hebrew</a> <i>(liturgical)</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Hebrew" title="Yemenite Hebrew">Yemenite Hebrew</a> <i>(liturgical)</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Hebrew" title="Yemenite Hebrew">Sanaani Hebrew</a> <i>(liturgical)</i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Hebrew" title="Sephardi Hebrew">Sephardi Hebrew</a> <i>(liturgical)</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Hebrew" title="Ashkenazi Hebrew">Ashkenazi Hebrew</a> <i>(liturgical)</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Hebrew" title="Mizrahi Hebrew">Mizrahi Hebrew</a> <i>(liturgical)</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern Hebrew</a> (<a href="/wiki/State_of_Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="State of Israel">State of Israel</a>)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mishnaic_Hebrew&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-renamed_from_3_on_20110328184818-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-renamed_from_3_on_20110328184818_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Steinberg, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.adath-shalom.ca/history_of_hebrew.htm#mishheb"><i>History of the Ancient and Modern Hebrew Language</i></a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Biblical Archaeologist</i>, Vol. 24, No. 3 (Sep., 1961), p. 93</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFYadin1971" class="citation book cs1">Yadin, Yigael (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BRNDuLmH_k4C"><i>Bar-Kokhba: The Rediscovery of the Legendary Hero of the Second Jewish Revolt Against Rome</i></a>. Random House. p. 181. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-394-47184-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-394-47184-6"><bdi>978-0-394-47184-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bar-Kokhba%3A+The+Rediscovery+of+the+Legendary+Hero+of+the+Second+Jewish+Revolt+Against+Rome&rft.pages=181&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=978-0-394-47184-6&rft.aulast=Yadin&rft.aufirst=Yigael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBRNDuLmH_k4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMishnaic+Hebrew" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBen-Zion2009" class="citation book cs1">Ben-Zion, Sigalit (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gL_XAAAAMAAJ"><i>A Roadmap to the Heavens: An Anthropological Study of Hegemony Among Priests, Sages, and Laymen</i></a>. Academic Studies Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-934843-14-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-934843-14-7"><bdi>978-1-934843-14-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Roadmap+to+the+Heavens%3A+An+Anthropological+Study+of+Hegemony+Among+Priests%2C+Sages%2C+and+Laymen&rft.pub=Academic+Studies+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-934843-14-7&rft.aulast=Ben-Zion&rft.aufirst=Sigalit&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgL_XAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMishnaic+Hebrew" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSáenz-Badillos1996" class="citation book cs1">Sáenz-Badillos, Angel (25 January 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EZCgpaTgLm0C"><i>A History of the Hebrew Language</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 170–1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-55634-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-55634-7"><bdi>978-0-521-55634-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Hebrew+Language&rft.pages=170-1&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996-01-25&rft.isbn=978-0-521-55634-7&rft.aulast=S%C3%A1enz-Badillos&rft.aufirst=Angel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEZCgpaTgLm0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMishnaic+Hebrew" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-renamed_from_2_on_20110328184818-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-renamed_from_2_on_20110328184818_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-renamed_from_2_on_20110328184818_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-renamed_from_2_on_20110328184818_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.adath-shalom.ca/history_of_hebrew.htm#mishheb">"History of the Hebrew Language by David Steinberg"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Hebrew+Language+by+David+Steinberg&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.adath-shalom.ca%2Fhistory_of_hebrew.htm%23mishheb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMishnaic+Hebrew" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mishnaic_Hebrew&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Bar-Asher, Moshe, <i>Mishnaic Hebrew: An Introductory Survey</i>, Hebrew Studies 40 (1999) 115–151.</li> <li>Kutscher, E.Y. <i>A Short History of the Hebrew Language</i>, Jerusalem: Magnes Press, Leiden: E.J.Brill, 1982 pp. 115–146.</li> <li>Pérez Fernández, Miguel, <i>An Introductory Grammar of Rabbinic Hebrew</i> (trans. John Elwolde), Leiden: E.J. Brill 1997.</li> <li>Sáenz-Badillos, Angel, <i>A History of the Hebrew Language</i> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-55634-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-55634-1">0-521-55634-1</a>) (trans. John Elwolde), Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1993.</li> <li>M. H. Segal, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/jstor-1450862">Mishnaic Hebrew and its Relation to Biblical Hebrew and to Aramaic</a>,</i> JQR 20 (1908): 647–73</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mishnaic_Hebrew&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.adath-shalom.ca/history_of_hebrewtoc.htm">History of the Ancient and Modern Hebrew Language</a>, David Steinberg</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.adath-shalom.ca/rabin_he.htm">Short History of the Hebrew Language</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chaim_Menachem_Rabin" title="Chaim Menachem Rabin">Chaim Rabin</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style 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style="width:1%">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Hebrew_alphabet" title="History of the Hebrew alphabet">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_and_Aramaic_inscriptions" title="Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions">Ancient inscriptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Hebrew" title="Romanization of Hebrew">Transliteration to English</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hebraization_of_English" title="Hebraization of English">from English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gematria" title="Gematria">Gematria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eras</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Israelian_Hebrew" title="Israelian Hebrew">northern dialect</a>)</small></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mishnaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Hebrew" title="Medieval Hebrew">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reading traditions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Hebrew" title="Ashkenazi Hebrew">Ashkenazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Hebrew" title="Sephardi Hebrew">Sephardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romaniote_Jews#Romaniote_Hebrew" title="Romaniote Jews">Romaniote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Hebrew" title="Italian Hebrew">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Hebrew" title="Mizrahi Hebrew">Mizrahi</a> (<span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Jews#Pronunciation_of_Hebrew" title="Syrian Jews">Syrian</a></span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Hebrew" title="Yemenite Hebrew">Yemenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Hebrew" title="Samaritan Hebrew">Samaritan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiberian_Hebrew" title="Tiberian Hebrew">Tiberian</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(extinct)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_vocalization" title="Palestinian vocalization">Palestinian</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(extinct)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_vocalization" title="Babylonian vocalization">Babylonian</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(extinct)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Orthography</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eras</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew_orthography" title="Biblical Hebrew orthography">Biblical</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scripts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashi_script" title="Rashi script">Rashi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Braille" title="Hebrew Braille">Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ktav_Ashuri" title="Ktav Ashuri">Ashuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursive_Hebrew" title="Cursive Hebrew">Cursive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tag_(Hebrew_writing)" title="Tag (Hebrew writing)">Crowning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Hebrew_alphabet" title="Paleo-Hebrew alphabet">Paleo-Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solitreo" title="Solitreo">Solitreo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Alphabet</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleph" title="Aleph">Alef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bet_(letter)" title="Bet (letter)">Bet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gimel" title="Gimel">Gimel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalet" title="Dalet">Dalet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/He_(letter)" title="He (letter)">Hei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waw_(letter)" title="Waw (letter)">Vav</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zayin" title="Zayin">Zayin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heth" title="Heth">Ḥet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teth" title="Teth">Tet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yodh" title="Yodh">Yud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaph" title="Kaph">Kaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamedh" title="Lamedh">Lamed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mem" title="Mem">Mem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nun_(letter)" title="Nun (letter)">Nun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samekh" title="Samekh">Samech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayin" title="Ayin">Ayin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pe_(Semitic_letter)" title="Pe (Semitic letter)">Pei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsade" title="Tsade">Tsadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qoph" title="Qoph">Kuf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resh" title="Resh">Resh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shin_(letter)" title="Shin (letter)">Shin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taw" title="Taw">Tav</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Niqqud" title="Niqqud">Niqqud</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tiberian_vocalization" title="Tiberian vocalization">Tiberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_vocalization" title="Babylonian vocalization">Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_vocalization" title="Palestinian vocalization">Palestinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_vocalization" title="Samaritan vocalization">Samaritan</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shva" title="Shva">Shva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiriq" title="Hiriq">Hiriq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tzere" title="Tzere">Tzere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segol" title="Segol">Segol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patach" title="Patach">Pataḥ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamatz" title="Kamatz">Kamatz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holam" title="Holam">Holam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kubutz_and_shuruk" title="Kubutz and shuruk">Kubutz/shuruk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dagesh" title="Dagesh">Dagesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mappiq" title="Mappiq">Mappiq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_punctuation#Hyphen_and_maqaf" title="Hebrew punctuation">Maqaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rafe" title="Rafe">Rafe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shin_(letter)#Sin_and_Shin_dot" title="Shin (letter)">Sin/Shin dot</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_spelling" title="Hebrew spelling">Spelling</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ktiv_menuqad" title="Ktiv menuqad">with Niqqud</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ktiv_hasar_niqqud#Ktiv_haser" title="Ktiv hasar niqqud">missing</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ktiv_hasar_niqqud" title="Ktiv hasar niqqud">full</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mater_lectionis" title="Mater lectionis">Mater lectionis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_abbreviations" title="Hebrew abbreviations">Abbreviations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plene_scriptum" title="Plene scriptum">Plene scriptum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_punctuation" title="Hebrew punctuation">Punctuation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_diacritics" title="Hebrew diacritics">Diacritics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteg" title="Meteg">Meteg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_cantillation" title="Hebrew cantillation">Cantillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geresh" title="Geresh">Geresh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gershayim" title="Gershayim">Gershayim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inverted_nun" title="Inverted nun">Inverted nun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shekel_sign" title="Shekel sign">Shekel sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_numerals" title="Hebrew numerals">Numerals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">Phonology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew#Phonology" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew_phonology" title="Modern Hebrew phonology">Modern Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippi%27s_law" title="Philippi's law">Philippi's law</a></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Begadkefat" title="Begadkefat">Law of attenuation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language#Hebrew_grammar" title="Hebrew language">Grammar</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew#Grammar" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew_grammar" title="Modern Hebrew grammar">Modern</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew_verbs" title="Modern Hebrew verbs">Verbal morphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semitic_root" title="Semitic root">Semitic roots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prefixes_in_Hebrew" title="Prefixes in Hebrew">Prefixes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffixes_in_Hebrew" title="Suffixes in Hebrew">Suffixes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segolate" title="Segolate">Segolate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vav-consecutive" title="Vav-consecutive">Vav-consecutive</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revival_of_the_Hebrew_language" title="Revival of the Hebrew language">Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academy_of_the_Hebrew_Language" title="Academy of the Hebrew Language">Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Study_of_the_Hebrew_language" title="Study of the Hebrew language">Study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulpan" title="Ulpan">Ulpan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_keyboard" title="Hebrew keyboard">Keyboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_literature" title="Hebrew literature">Hebrew</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Hebrew_writings" title="Ancient Hebrew writings">ancient</a> / <a href="/wiki/Israeli_literature" title="Israeli literature">modern Israeli</a> literature</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_name" title="Hebrew name">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebraization_of_surnames" title="Hebraization of surnames">Surnames</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unicode_and_HTML_for_the_Hebrew_alphabet" title="Unicode and HTML for the Hebrew alphabet">Unicode and HTML</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reference works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Gesenius-Kautsch-Cowley" class="mw-redirect" title="Gesenius-Kautsch-Cowley">Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Gesenius" title="Wilhelm Gesenius">Gesenius' Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to the Old Testament Scriptures</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brown%E2%80%93Driver%E2%80%93Briggs" title="Brown–Driver–Briggs">Brown–Driver–Briggs</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Strong%27s_Concordance" title="Strong's Concordance">Strong's Concordance</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_and_Aramaic_Lexicon_of_the_Old_Testament" title="Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament">Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Jewish_languages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Jewish_languages" title="Template:Jewish languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Jewish_languages" title="Template talk:Jewish languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Jewish_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Jewish languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Jewish_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_languages" title="Jewish languages">Jewish languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eras</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mishnaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Hebrew" title="Medieval Hebrew">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reading traditions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Hebrew" title="Ashkenazi Hebrew">Ashkenazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Hebrew" title="Sephardi Hebrew">Sephardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Hebrew" title="Mizrahi Hebrew">Mizrahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Hebrew" title="Italian Hebrew">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Hebrew" title="Yemenite Hebrew">Yemenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiberian_Hebrew" title="Tiberian Hebrew">Tiberian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Aramaic_languages" title="Judeo-Aramaic languages">Judaeo-Aramaic</a>/<a href="/wiki/Targum_(Aramaic_dialects)" title="Targum (Aramaic dialects)">Targum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Aramaic" title="Biblical Aramaic">Biblical</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Talmudic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Babylonian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Babylonian Aramaic">Babylonian</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Palestinian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Palestinian Aramaic">Jewish Palestinian Aramaic</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Galilean_dialect" title="Galilean dialect">Galilean</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Barzani" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Barzani">Barzani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Trans-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Hulaulá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Zakho" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Zakho">Lishana Deni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Urmia" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Urmia">Lishán Didán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Inter-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Lishanid Noshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Betanure" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Betanure">Betanure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic" title="Judeo-Arabic">Judaeo-Arabic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Algerian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Algerian Arabic">Judaeo-Algerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Egyptian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Egyptian Arabic">Judaeo-Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fessi_dialect#Jewish_Fessi_dialect" title="Fessi dialect">Judaeo-Fessi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Judaeo-Iraqi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic" title="Baghdad Jewish Arabic">Judaeo-Baghdadi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judaeo-Moroccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Palestinian_Judeo-Arabic" title="Modern Palestinian Judeo-Arabic">Judaeo-Palestinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tripolitanian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic">Judaeo-Tripolitanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Syrian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Syrian Arabic">Judaeo-Syrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Judaeo-Tunisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Judaeo-Yemeni</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez" title="Geʽez">Geʽez</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Semitic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethiopian Semitic languages">Ethiosemitic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kayla_dialect" title="Kayla dialect">Kayla</a>/<i><a href="/wiki/Qwara_dialect" title="Qwara dialect">Qwara</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Cushitic_languages" title="Cushitic languages">Cushitic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Berber_language" title="Judeo-Berber language">Judaeo-Berber</a> (<a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.5em"><a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a> (<a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects" title="Yiddish dialects">dialects</a>/<i><a href="/wiki/Argot" class="mw-redirect" title="Argot">argots</a></i>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Yiddish">Eastern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galitzish" class="mw-redirect" title="Galitzish">Galitzish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithuanian Yiddish">Litvish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poylish" class="mw-redirect" title="Poylish">Poylish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects" title="Yiddish dialects">Ukrainish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Udmurtish" class="mw-redirect" title="Udmurtish">Udmurtish</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Klezmer-loshn" title="Klezmer-loshn">Klezmer-loshn</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Yiddish">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Alsatian" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Alsatian">Judaeo-Alsatian</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lachoudisch" title="Lachoudisch">Lachoudisch</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots-Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Scots-Yiddish">Scots-Yiddish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.5em"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_English_varieties" title="Jewish English varieties">Jewish English</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yeshivish" title="Yeshivish">Yeshivish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yinglish" class="mw-redirect" title="Yinglish">Yinglish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heblish" class="mw-redirect" title="Heblish">Heblish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Romance_languages" title="Judaeo-Romance languages">Judaeo-Romance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Catalan" title="Judaeo-Catalan">Judaeo-Catalan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Italian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Italian languages">Judaeo-Italian</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Livornese" title="Judeo-Livornese">Judaeo-Livornese</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Mantuan" title="Judeo-Mantuan">Judaeo-Mantuan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Piedmontese" title="Judaeo-Piedmontese">Judaeo-Piedmontese</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Roman_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Roman language">Judaeo-Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Judaeo-Spanish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haketia" title="Haketia">Haketia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tetuani_Ladino" title="Tetuani Ladino">Tetuani</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Latin" title="Judeo-Latin">Judaeo-Latin</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Proven%C3%A7al" title="Judeo-Provençal">Judaeo-Provençal</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Gascon" title="Judeo-Gascon">Judaeo-Gascon</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Portuguese" title="Judaeo-Portuguese">Judaeo-Portuguese</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Aragonese" title="Judaeo-Aragonese">Judaeo-Aragonese</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zarphatic_language" title="Zarphatic language">Zarphatic</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iranian_languages" title="Judeo-Iranian languages">Judaeo-Iranian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bukharian_(Judeo-Tajik_dialect)" title="Bukharian (Judeo-Tajik dialect)">Bukhori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tat" title="Judeo-Tat">Judaeo-Tat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Persian" title="Judeo-Persian">Judaeo-Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Hamedani%E2%80%93Borujerdi" title="Judeo-Hamedani–Borujerdi">Judaeo-Hamedani–Borujerdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Shirazi" title="Judeo-Shirazi">Judaeo-Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrian_Dari" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoroastrian Dari">Judaeo-Yazdi–Kermani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Kashani" title="Judeo-Kashani">Judaeo-Kashani</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Golpaygani" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Golpaygani">Judaeo-Golpaygani</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Koine_Greek" title="Jewish Koine Greek">Jewish Koine Greek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yevanic_language" title="Yevanic language">Yevanic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hellenic_languages" title="Hellenic languages">Hellenic</a>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Knaanic_language" title="Knaanic language">Knaanic</a></i>, Pre-1970s <a href="/wiki/Odesan_Russian" title="Odesan Russian">Odesan Russian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Urdu" title="Judeo-Urdu">Judaeo-Urdu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Marathi" title="Judeo-Marathi">Judaeo-Marathi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Krymchak_language" title="Krymchak language">Krymchak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karaim_language" title="Karaim language">Karaim</a> (<a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malayalam" title="Judeo-Malayalam">Judaeo-Malayalam</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Georgian" title="Judaeo-Georgian">Judaeo-Georgian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kartvelian_languages" title="Kartvelian languages">Kartvelian</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Papiamento" title="Judaeo-Papiamento">Judaeo-Papiamento</a> (<a href="/wiki/Portuguese-based_creole_languages" title="Portuguese-based creole languages">Portuguese-based Creole</a>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malay" title="Judeo-Malay">Judaeo-Malay</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Malayic_languages" title="Malayic languages">Malayic</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">Sign languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Sign_Language" title="Israeli Sign Language">Israeli Sign Language</a> (<a href="/wiki/German_Sign_Language_family" title="German Sign Language family">German Sign</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Jewish_Sign_Language" title="Algerian Jewish Sign Language">Algerian Jewish Sign Language</a> (<a href="/wiki/Village_sign_language" title="Village sign language">village sign language</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><i>Italics</i> indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1649362#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img 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