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href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Se-mu" title="Se-mu – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Se-mu" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%85%D9%88" title="سمو – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سمو" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semu" title="Semu – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Semu" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%83%89%EB%AA%A9%EC%9D%B8" title="색목인 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="색목인" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%89%B2%E7%9B%AE%E4%BA%BA" title="色目人 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="色目人" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%B5" title="Цветноглазые – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Цветноглазые" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%89%B2%E7%9B%AE" title="色目 – 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data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Semu" title="Special:EditPage/Semu">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Semu%22">"Semu"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Semu%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Semu%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Semu%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Semu%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Semu%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2007</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kunyang_-_Zheng_He_Park_-_P1350545.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Kunyang_-_Zheng_He_Park_-_P1350545.JPG/220px-Kunyang_-_Zheng_He_Park_-_P1350545.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Kunyang_-_Zheng_He_Park_-_P1350545.JPG/330px-Kunyang_-_Zheng_He_Park_-_P1350545.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Kunyang_-_Zheng_He_Park_-_P1350545.JPG/440px-Kunyang_-_Zheng_He_Park_-_P1350545.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>Ma Hajji, a Yuan Dynasty official in Yunnan (a descendant of <a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Ajjal_Shams_al-Din_Omar" class="mw-redirect" title="Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar">Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar</a>), and his young son Ma He, future admiral <a href="/wiki/Zheng_He" title="Zheng He">Zheng He</a>, as imagined by a modern <a href="/wiki/Kunyang_Subdistrict" title="Kunyang Subdistrict">Kunyang</a> sculptor.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Semu</b> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%89%B2%E7%9B%AE" class="extiw" title="wikt:色目">色目</a></span>; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">sèmù</span></i>) is the name of a <a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">caste</a> established by the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a>. The 31 Semu categories referred to people who came from <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central</a> and <a href="/wiki/West_Asia" title="West Asia">West Asia</a>. They had come to serve the Yuan dynasty by enfranchising under the dominant Mongol caste. The Semu were not a self-defined and homogeneous <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic group">ethnic group</a> per se, but one of the four castes of the Yuan dynasty: the <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongols</a>, Semu (or Semuren), the "<a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han</a>" (Hanren in Chinese, or all subjects of the former <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dali_Kingdom" title="Dali Kingdom">Dali Kingdom</a> and Koreans) and the Southerners (Nanren in Chinese, or all subjects of the former <a href="/wiki/Southern_Song" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Song">Southern Song</a> dynasty; sometimes called <a href="/wiki/Nanman" title="Nanman">Manzi</a>). Among the Semu were Buddhist <a href="/wiki/Turpan_Uyghurs" class="mw-redirect" title="Turpan Uyghurs">Turpan Uyghurs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tanguts" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanguts">Tanguts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tibetans" title="Tibetans">Tibetans</a>; <a href="/wiki/Nestorian" class="mw-redirect" title="Nestorian">Nestorian</a> Christian tribes like the <a href="/wiki/Ongud" title="Ongud">Ongud</a>; Alans; Muslim Central Asian <a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turkic peoples</a> including the Khwarazmians and Karakhanids; West Asian Arab, Jewish, Christians and other minor groups who are from even farther west. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Name">Name</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semu&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Name"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Contrary to popular belief among both non-Chinese and Chinese, the term "Semu" (interpreted literally as "color-eye") did not imply that caste members had "colored eyes" and it was not a physical description of the people it labelled. It in fact meant "assorted categories" (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%90%84%E8%89%B2%E5%90%8D%E7%9B%AE" class="extiw" title="wikt:各色名目">各色名目</a>, <i>gè sè míng mù</i>), emphasizing the ethnic diversity of Semu people.<sup id="cite_ref-lipman_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lipman-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semu&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The 31 Semu categories referred to people who came from Central and West Asia. They had come to serve the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a> by enfranchising under the dominant Mongol caste. The Semu were not a self-defined and homogeneous ethnic group <i>per se</i>, but one of the four castes of the Yuan dynasty: the Mongols, Semu (or Semuren), the "Han" (<i>Hanren</i> in Chinese, or all subjects of the former <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dali_Kingdom" title="Dali Kingdom">Dali Kingdom</a> and <a href="/wiki/Koreans" title="Koreans">Koreans</a><sup id="cite_ref-Mote2003_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mote2003-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rossabi1983_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rossabi1983-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) and the Southerners (<i>Nanren</i> in Chinese, or all subjects of the former <a href="/wiki/Southern_Song_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Song dynasty">Southern Song dynasty</a>; sometimes called <a href="/wiki/Names_of_China#Mangi" title="Names of China">Manzi</a>). Among the Semu were <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhist</a> <a href="/wiki/Turpan" title="Turpan">Turpan</a> <a href="/wiki/Uyghurs" title="Uyghurs">Uyghurs</a> of <a href="/wiki/Qocho" title="Qocho">Qocho</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tangut_people" title="Tangut people">Tanguts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Tibetan people">Tibetans</a>; <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East_in_China" title="Church of the East in China">Nestorian Christian</a> tribes like the <a href="/wiki/Ongud" title="Ongud">Ongud</a>; <a href="/wiki/Alans" title="Alans">Alans</a>; Muslim Central Asian <a href="/wiki/Persian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian people">Persian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turkic peoples</a> including the <a href="/wiki/Khwarazm" title="Khwarazm">Khwarazmians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Karakhanid" class="mw-redirect" title="Karakhanid">Karakhanids</a>; West Asian <a href="/wiki/History_of_Jews_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Jews in China">Jewish</a> and other minor groups who are from even further <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>. </p><p>While administratively classified as Semu, many of these groups rather referred to themselves by their self-aware ethnic identities in everyday life, such as the Uyghurs. Muslims, Persians, Karakhanids and Khwarazmians in particular, were actually mistaken to be Uyghurs or at least, "from the land of the Uyghurs". Therefore, they adopted the label conferred to them by the Chinese: "<a href="/wiki/Hui_people" title="Hui people">Huihui</a>", which was a corruption of the name Uyghur, but at the same time distinguishable from the name reserved for Buddhist Turpan Uyghurs proper, "Weiwuer". Of the many ethnic groups classified as "Semu" during the Yuan, only the Muslim Hui managed to survive into the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a> period as a large collective identity with self-awareness of common identity spanning across the whole China. </p><p>Other ethnic groups were either small and confined to limited localities (such as the Buddhist Turpan Uyghurs in <a href="/wiki/Wuling_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Wuling District">Wuling</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hunan" title="Hunan">Hunan</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Kaifeng_Jews" title="Kaifeng Jews">Kaifeng Jews</a>), or were forced to assimilate into the <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han Chinese</a> or Muslim Huis (such as some Christian and Jewish Semu in the Northwest, who, though thoroughly Islamicized, still unto this day retain peculiar labels like "Black Cap/<a href="/wiki/Doppa" title="Doppa">Doppa</a> Huihui", "Blue Cap Huihui"). </p><p>The historian Frederick W. Mote wrote that the usage of the term "social classes" for this system was misleading and that the position of people within the four-class system was not an indication of their actual social power and wealth, but just entailed "degrees of privilege" to which they were entitled institutionally and legally. Thus a person's "class" was not a guarantee of their social standing, since there were rich Chinese of good social standing, while there were fewer rich Mongols and Semu than there were ill-treated Mongols and Semu living in poverty.<sup id="cite_ref-Mote2003_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mote2003-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The reason for the order of the classes and the reason why people were placed in a certain class was the date they surrendered to the Mongols, and had nothing to do with their ethnicity. The earlier they surrendered to the Mongols, the higher they were placed, the more the held out, the lower they were ranked. The Northern Chinese were ranked higher and Southern Chinese were ranked lower because southern China withstood and fought to the last before caving in.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Major commerce during this era gave rise to favorable conditions for private southern Chinese manufacturers and merchants.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When the Mongols placed the Uighurs of Qocho over the Koreans at the court the Korean King objected, then the Mongol Emperor Kublai Khan rebuked the Korean King, saying that the King of Qocho was ranked higher than the <a href="/wiki/Karluks" title="Karluks">Karluk</a> Karakhanid khan, who in turn was ranked higher than the Korean king, who was ranked last, because the Uighurs surrendered to the Mongols first, the Karluks surrendered after the Uighurs, and the Koreans surrendered last, and that the Uighurs surrendered peacefully without violently resisting.<sup id="cite_ref-Rossabi1983_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rossabi1983-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Koreans were ranked as Han people along with northern Chinese. </p><p>Japanese historians like Uematsu, Sugiyama and Morita criticized the perception that a four class system existed under Mongol rule and Funada Yoshiyuki questioned the very existence of the Semu as a class.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Similar_practices_in_other_areas_of_the_Mongol_Empire">Similar practices in other areas of the Mongol Empire</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semu&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Similar practices in other areas of the Mongol Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Bukhara and Samarqand were visited by <a href="/wiki/Qiu_Chuji" title="Qiu Chuji">Qiu Chuji</a>. At the same time the Mongols imported Central Asian Muslims to serve as administrators in China, the Mongols also sent ethnic <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han</a> and <a href="/wiki/Khitan_people" title="Khitan people">Khitans</a> from China to serve as administrators over the Muslim population in Bukhara and Samarqand in Central Asia, using foreigners to curtail the power of the local peoples of both lands. The surname of Li was held by one of Yelu Ahai's staff of Han descent. There were various Han craftsmen. Tangut, Khitan and Han peoples took control over gardens and fields from the Muslims.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Han people were moved to Central Asian areas like Besh Baliq, Almaliq, and Samarqand by the Mongols where they worked as artisans and farmers.<sup id="cite_ref-Biran2005_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Biran2005-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the Mongol conquest by Genghis Khan, foreigners were chosen as administrators and co-managers alongside Han and Khitans in the gardens and fields of Samarqand. Muslims were not allowed to manage without them.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The Mongol-appointed Governor of Samarqand, Ahai, was a Qara-Khitay (Khitan) who held the title Taishi. He was familiar with Han culture.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Muslims viewed <a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khan" title="Chagatai Khan">Chagatai Khan</a> with negativity and hostility because Chagatai Khan strictly enforced Mongol Yasa law against Islamic Shariah law banning Halal animal slaughter and Islamic prayer ritual ablution as well as the Islamic legal system. The Uyghur steward Vajir was accused of poisoning Chagatai Khan to death in 1242 by his wife Yisulun.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ethnic Han officials and colonists were <a href="/wiki/History_of_Siberia#Mongol_conquest_of_Southern_and_Western_Siberia" title="History of Siberia">sent by the Yuan dynasty</a> to areas of <a href="/wiki/Mongolia_under_Yuan_rule" title="Mongolia under Yuan rule">Lingbei Province</a> (<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%92%8C%E5%AE%81%E8%B7%AF" class="extiw" title="zh:和宁路">和宁路</a> <a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9B%8A%E8%98%AD%E5%B7%9E" class="extiw" title="zh:益蘭州">益蘭州</a> <a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AC%99%E5%B7%9E" class="extiw" title="zh:謙州">謙州</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Discrimination">Discrimination</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semu&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Discrimination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Yuan_dynasty">Yuan dynasty</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semu&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Yuan dynasty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis Khan</a> and the following Yuan emperors forbade Islamic practices like <a href="/wiki/Halal" title="Halal">Halal</a> butchering, forcing Mongol methods of butchering animals on Muslims, and other restrictive degrees continued. Muslims had to slaughter sheep in secret.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Genghis Khan directly called Muslims and Jews "slaves", and demanded that they follow the Mongol method of eating rather than the halal method. <a href="/wiki/Circumcision" title="Circumcision">Circumcision</a> was also forbidden. Jews were also affected, and forbidden by the Mongols to eat <a href="/wiki/Kosher" class="mw-redirect" title="Kosher">Kosher</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Toward the end, corruption and the persecution became so severe that Muslim Generals joined <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han Chinese</a> in rebelling against the Mongols. The Ming founder Zhu Yuanzhang had Muslim Generals like <a href="/wiki/Lan_Yu_(general)" title="Lan Yu (general)">Lan Yu</a> who rebelled against the Mongols and defeated them in combat. Some Muslim communities had the name in Chinese which meant "barracks" and also mean "thanks"; many Hui Muslims claim it is because that they played an important role in overthrowing the Mongols and it was named in thanks by the Han Chinese for assisting them.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Muslims in the semu class also revolted against the Yuan dynasty in the <a href="/wiki/Ispah_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Ispah Rebellion">Ispah Rebellion</a> but the rebellion was crushed and the Muslims were massacred by the Yuan loyalist commander Chen Youding. After the massacre, the remaining Jews and Muslims escaped. Some were back to their own country, but some like Jews escaped to Guangdong. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ming_dynasty">Ming dynasty</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semu&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Ming dynasty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After expelling the Mongols, the Ming dynasty was soon founded. Because of the Semu's help, some of them were being employed into the central government. However, the Ming dynasty enforced assimilation to Chinese customs, such as banning used their own languages, customs, names and instead switching to speaking Chinese and using Chinese names and intermarrying with Han people. </p><p>The aim for it is to reduce Semu's population since Semu was in the second class in Yuan and used to help the Mongols. Some Hui claim that the order was secretly done by the Ming Hongwu Emperor to protect them from attacks since they stood out while they thought Zhu was a Hui too. </p><p>Indeed, Zhu was not a Hui while at that time only the Semu used this name. But in the middle period of Ming Dynasty, the royalties separated Semu into different groups while the groups as Muslims and Tibetans were still many. The Islam and Tibetan religions have survived until today. But the minority groups such as Jews, most of their customs were no more, leaving them into the Han group. This separation continued until the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The new separation doesn't mean there are only <a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_groups_in_China" title="List of ethnic groups in China">56 ethnic groups</a>. This list doesn't include small populations like Jewish. Even if such ethnicities are so few in numbers, they still continue to exist in China. </p><p>The Ming dynasty allowed Islam and Judaism to be practiced and issued edicts that said they conformed to Confucianism while it banned religions such as Nestorian Christianity, Manicheanism and the <a href="/wiki/White_Lotus_Societies" title="White Lotus Societies">White Lotus</a> sect. Nestorian Christianity and Manicheanism died out during the Ming dynasty while Islam and Judaism were protected. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Taoyuan_County#Taoyuan_Uyghurs" title="Taoyuan County">Uyghurs of Taoyuan</a> are the remnants of Uyghurs from Turpan from the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Qocho" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Qocho">Kingdom of Qocho</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semu&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Yuan dynasty in Inner Asia">Yuan dynasty in Inner Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo" title="Marco Polo">Marco Polo</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semu&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-lipman-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lipman_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLipman1998" class="citation book cs1">Lipman, Jonathan Neaman (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4_FGPtLEoYQC"><i>Familiar strangers: a history of Muslims in Northwest China</i></a>. Hong Kong University Press. p. 33. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/962-209-468-6" title="Special:BookSources/962-209-468-6"><bdi>962-209-468-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Familiar+strangers%3A+a+history+of+Muslims+in+Northwest+China&rft.pages=33&rft.pub=Hong+Kong+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=962-209-468-6&rft.aulast=Lipman&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+Neaman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4_FGPtLEoYQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mote2003-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mote2003_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mote2003_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFrederick_W._Mote2003" class="citation book cs1">Frederick W. Mote (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SQWW7QgUH4gC&pg=PA490"><i>Imperial China 900-1800</i></a>. Harvard University Press. p. 490. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01212-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01212-7"><bdi>978-0-674-01212-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Imperial+China+900-1800&rft.pages=490&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-674-01212-7&rft.au=Frederick+W.+Mote&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSQWW7QgUH4gC%26pg%3DPA490&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rossabi1983-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rossabi1983_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rossabi1983_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMorris_Rossabi1983" class="citation book cs1">Morris Rossabi (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sNpD5UKmkswC&pg=PA247"><i>China Among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and Its Neighbors, 10th-14th Centuries</i></a>. University of California Press. p. 247. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-04562-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-04562-0"><bdi>978-0-520-04562-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+Among+Equals%3A+The+Middle+Kingdom+and+Its+Neighbors%2C+10th-14th+Centuries&rft.pages=247&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-520-04562-0&rft.au=Morris+Rossabi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsNpD5UKmkswC%26pg%3DPA247&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sTPPAsiFDS4C&pg=PA265">ed. Zhao 2007</a>, p. 265.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iWH0AAAAMAAJ">Bakhit 2000</a>, p. 426.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RXOrZUlF_OoC&pg=PA29">Ford 1991</a>, p. 29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFYoshiyuki2010" class="citation web cs1">Yoshiyuki, Funada (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/2439642">"The Image of the Semu People: Mongols, Chinese, and Various Other Peoples under the Mongol Empire"</a>. <i>Paper presented at the international roundtable entitled “The nature of the Mongol Empire and its Legacy”, Centre for Studies in Asian Cultures and Social anthropology, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Paper+presented+at+the+international+roundtable+entitled+%E2%80%9CThe+nature+of+the+Mongol+Empire+and+its+Legacy%E2%80%9D%2C+Centre+for+Studies+in+Asian+Cultures+and+Social+anthropology%2C+Austrian+Academy+of+Sciences%2C+Vienna&rft.atitle=The+Image+of+the+Semu+People%3A+Mongols%2C+Chinese%2C+and+Various+Other+Peoples+under+the+Mongol+Empire&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Yoshiyuki&rft.aufirst=Funada&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F2439642&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBuell1979" class="citation journal cs1">Buell, Paul D. (1979). "Sino-Khitan administration in Mongol Bukhara". <i>Journal of Asian History</i>. <b>13</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">135–</span>8. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41930343">41930343</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Asian+History&rft.atitle=Sino-Khitan+administration+in+Mongol+Bukhara&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E135-%3C%2Fspan%3E8&rft.date=1979&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41930343%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Buell&rft.aufirst=Paul+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Biran2005-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Biran2005_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMichal_Biran2005" class="citation book cs1">Michal Biran (15 September 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=B934LaVBaz8C&pg=PA96"><i>The Empire of the Qara Khitai in Eurasian History: Between China and the Islamic World</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 96–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-84226-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-84226-6"><bdi>978-0-521-84226-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Empire+of+the+Qara+Khitai+in+Eurasian+History%3A+Between+China+and+the+Islamic+World&rft.pages=96-&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005-09-15&rft.isbn=978-0-521-84226-6&rft.au=Michal+Biran&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DB934LaVBaz8C%26pg%3DPA96&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMay2016" class="citation book cs1">May, Timothy (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4gB9DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA139">"Individuals Chagatai Khan (d. 1242)"</a>. In May, Timothy (ed.). <i>The Mongol Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia [2 volumes]: A Historical Encyclopedia</i>. Empires of the World (illustrated, annotated ed.). ABC-CLIO. p. 139. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1610693400" title="Special:BookSources/978-1610693400"><bdi>978-1610693400</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Individuals+Chagatai+Khan+%28d.+1242%29&rft.btitle=The+Mongol+Empire%3A+A+Historical+Encyclopedia+%5B2+volumes%5D%3A+A+Historical+Encyclopedia&rft.series=Empires+of+the+World&rft.pages=139&rft.edition=illustrated%2C+annotated&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1610693400&rft.aulast=May&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4gB9DQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA139&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/chaghatayid-dynasty">"CHAGHATAYID DYNASTY"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation, Inc</i>. <b>V</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">343–</span>346. December 15, 1991.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Iranica+Foundation%2C+Inc.&rft.atitle=CHAGHATAYID+DYNASTY&rft.volume=V&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E343-%3C%2Fspan%3E346&rft.date=1991-12-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fchaghatayid-dynasty&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMichael_Dillon1999" class="citation book cs1">Michael Dillon (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hUEswLE4SWUC&q=yuan+dynasty+halal&pg=PA24"><i>China's Muslim Hui community: migration, settlement and sects</i></a>. Richmond: Curzon Press. p. 24. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7007-1026-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-7007-1026-4"><bdi>0-7007-1026-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-06-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Muslim+Hui+community%3A+migration%2C+settlement+and+sects&rft.place=Richmond&rft.pages=24&rft.pub=Curzon+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-7007-1026-4&rft.au=Michael+Dillon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhUEswLE4SWUC%26q%3Dyuan%2Bdynasty%2Bhalal%26pg%3DPA24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJohan_Elverskog2010" class="citation book cs1">Johan Elverskog (2010). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/buddhismislamons0000elve"><i>Buddhism and Islam on the Silk Road</i></a></span> (illustrated ed.). University of Pennsylvania Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/buddhismislamons0000elve/page/228">228</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-4237-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-4237-9"><bdi>978-0-8122-4237-9</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-06-28</span></span>. <q>halal chinggis khan you are our slaves .</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buddhism+and+Islam+on+the+Silk+Road&rft.pages=228&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-4237-9&rft.au=Johan+Elverskog&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbuddhismislamons0000elve&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDru_C._Gladney1991" class="citation book cs1">Dru C. Gladney (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kkJwAAAAMAAJ&q=popular+belief+mongols"><i>Muslim Chinese: ethnic nationalism in the People's Republic</i></a> (2, illustrated, reprint ed.). Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University. p. 234. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-59495-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-59495-9"><bdi>0-674-59495-9</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-06-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Muslim+Chinese%3A+ethnic+nationalism+in+the+People%27s+Republic&rft.pages=234&rft.edition=2%2C+illustrated%2C+reprint&rft.pub=Council+on+East+Asian+Studies%2C+Harvard+University&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0-674-59495-9&rft.au=Dru+C.+Gladney&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkkJwAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dpopular%2Bbelief%2Bmongols&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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href="/wiki/Template:Yuan_dynasty_topics" title="Template:Yuan dynasty topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Yuan_dynasty_topics" title="Template talk:Yuan dynasty topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Yuan_dynasty_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Yuan dynasty topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Yuan_dynasty_topics184" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Yuan_dynasty" title="History of the Yuan dynasty">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Division_of_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Division of the Mongol Empire">Division of the Mongol Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Toluid_Civil_War" title="Toluid Civil War">Toluid Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaidu%E2%80%93Kublai_war" title="Kaidu–Kublai war">Kaidu–Kublai war</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kublai_Khan%27s_campaigns" title="Kublai Khan's campaigns">Kublai Khan's campaigns</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_China" title="Mongol conquest of China">Mongol conquest of China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sichuan_anti-Mongol_fortresses" title="Sichuan anti-Mongol fortresses">anti-Mongol fortresses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty">conquest of the Song dynasty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Xiangyang" title="Battle of Xiangyang">Battle of Xiangyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Yamen" title="Battle of Yamen">Yamen</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Sakhalin" title="Mongol invasions of Sakhalin">Sakhalin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Japan" title="Mongol invasions of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Vietnam" title="Mongol invasions of Vietnam">Vietnam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_B%E1%BA%A1ch_%C4%90%E1%BA%B1ng_(1288)" title="Battle of Bạch Đằng (1288)">Battle of Bạch Đằng (1288)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Java" title="Mongol invasion of Java">Java invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma" title="First Mongol invasion of Burma">Burma</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ngasaunggyan" title="Battle of Ngasaunggyan">Battle of Ngasaunggyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pagan" title="Battle of Pagan">Pagan</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma" title="Second Mongol invasion of Burma">Second Mongol invasion of Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esen_Buqa%E2%80%93Ayurbarwada_war" title="Esen Buqa–Ayurbarwada war">Esen Buqa–Ayurbarwada war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Two_Capitals" title="War of the Two Capitals">War of the Two Capitals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1344_Yellow_River_flood" title="1344 Yellow River flood">1344 Yellow River flood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Turban_Rebellions" title="Red Turban Rebellions">Red Turban Rebellions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_Turban_invasions_of_Goryeo" title="Red Turban invasions of Goryeo">Red Turban invasions of Goryeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Poyang" title="Battle of Lake Poyang">Battle of Lake Poyang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ispah_rebellion" title="Ispah rebellion">Ispah rebellion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_emperors_of_the_Yuan_dynasty" title="List of emperors of the Yuan dynasty">Emperors</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_emperors_family_tree_(late)#Yuan_dynasty_and_Northern_Yuan_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese emperors family tree (late)">family tree</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_empresses_of_the_Yuan_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="List of empresses of the Yuan dynasty">Empresses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Preceptor" title="Imperial Preceptor">Imperial Preceptor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhongshu_Sheng" title="Zhongshu Sheng">Zhongshu Sheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Buddhist_and_Tibetan_Affairs" title="Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs">Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_the_Yuan_dynasty" title="Administrative divisions of the Yuan dynasty">Administrative divisions of the Yuan dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Yuan dynasty in Inner Asia">Yuan dynasty in Inner Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongolia_under_Yuan_rule" title="Mongolia under Yuan rule">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchuria_under_Yuan_rule" title="Manchuria under Yuan rule">Manchuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibet_under_Yuan_rule" title="Tibet under Yuan rule">Tibet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dpon-chen" title="Dpon-chen">Dpon-chen</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goryeo_under_Mongol_rule" title="Goryeo under Mongol rule">Goryeo under Mongol rule</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_of_the_Yuan_dynasty" title="Science and technology of the Yuan dynasty">Science and technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Jade_Mirror_of_the_Four_Unknowns" title="Jade Mirror of the Four Unknowns">Jade Mirror of the Four Unknowns</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiaochao" title="Jiaochao">Jiaochao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty_coinage" title="Yuan dynasty coinage">Coinage</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wei_Yilin" title="Wei Yilin">Shiyi Dexiaofang</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wang_Zhen_(inventor)" title="Wang Zhen (inventor)">Nong Shu</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Architecture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_Platform_at_Juyong_Pass" title="Cloud Platform at Juyong Pass">Cloud Platform at Juyong Pass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulou_and_Zhonglou_(Beijing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gulou and Zhonglou (Beijing)">Gulou and Zhonglou (Beijing)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miaoying_Temple" title="Miaoying Temple">Miaoying Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pagoda_of_Bailin_Temple" title="Pagoda of Bailin Temple">Pagoda of Bailin Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Azure_Clouds" title="Temple of Azure Clouds">Temple of Azure Clouds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinan_Great_Southern_Mosque" title="Jinan Great Southern Mosque">Jinan Great Southern Mosque</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Society and culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_poetry" title="Yuan poetry">Yuan poetry</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Liao" title="History of Liao">History of Liao</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jin" title="History of Jin">Jin</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Song_(Yuan_dynasty)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Song (Yuan dynasty)">Song</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shilin_Guangji" title="Shilin Guangji">Shilin Guangji</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Menggu_Ziyun" title="Menggu Ziyun">Menggu Ziyun</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wenxian_Tongkao" title="Wenxian Tongkao">Wenxian Tongkao</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zhongyuan_Yinyun" title="Zhongyuan Yinyun">Zhongyuan Yinyun</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Twenty-four_Filial_Exemplars" title="The Twenty-four Filial Exemplars">The Twenty-four Filial Exemplars</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaju" title="Zaju">Zaju</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Chalk_Circle" title="The Chalk Circle">The Chalk Circle</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Injustice_to_Dou_E" title="The Injustice to Dou E">The Injustice to Dou E</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Orphan_of_Zhao" title="The Orphan of Zhao">The Orphan of Zhao</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Story_of_the_Western_Wing" class="mw-redirect" title="The Story of the Western Wing">The Story of the Western Wing</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Semu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_during_the_Yuan_dynasty" title="Islam during the Yuan dynasty">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fashion_in_Yuan_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Fashion in Yuan dynasty">Fashion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borjigin" title="Borjigin">Borjigin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CA%BCPhags-pa_script" title="ʼPhags-pa script">ʼPhags-pa script</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Yuan" title="History of Yuan">History of Yuan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khanbaliq" title="Khanbaliq">Khanbaliq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shangdu" title="Shangdu">Shangdu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan">Northern Yuan</a></li></ul> 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