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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Core_teachings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Core_teachings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1.1 The Core teachings </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Core_teachings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ashokan_Era_and_the_early_schools" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ashokan_Era_and_the_early_schools"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.2 Ashokan Era and the early schools </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ashokan_Era_and_the_early_schools-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-Ashokan_expansion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-Ashokan_expansion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Post-Ashokan expansion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-Ashokan_expansion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mahāyāna_Buddhism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mahāyāna_Buddhism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Mahāyāna Buddhism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mahāyāna_Buddhism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_Indian_Buddhism_and_Tantra" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_Indian_Buddhism_and_Tantra"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Late Indian Buddhism and Tantra </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_Indian_Buddhism_and_Tantra-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spread_to_East_and_Southeast_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spread_to_East_and_Southeast_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Spread to East and Southeast Asia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spread_to_East_and_Southeast_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Worldview" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Worldview"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Worldview </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Worldview-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Worldview subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Worldview-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Four_Noble_Truths" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Four_Noble_Truths"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Four Noble Truths </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Four_Noble_Truths-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Three_marks_of_existence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Three_marks_of_existence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Three marks of existence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Three_marks_of_existence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_cycle_of_rebirth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_cycle_of_rebirth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 The cycle of rebirth </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_cycle_of_rebirth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Saṃsāra" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Saṃsāra"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.1 Saṃsāra </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Saṃsāra-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rebirth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rebirth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.2 Rebirth </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rebirth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Karma" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Karma"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.3 Karma </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Karma-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Liberation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Liberation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Liberation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Liberation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dependent_arising" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dependent_arising"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Dependent arising </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dependent_arising-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Not-Self_and_Emptiness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Not-Self_and_Emptiness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Not-Self and Emptiness </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Not-Self_and_Emptiness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Three_Jewels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Three_Jewels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7 The Three Jewels </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Three_Jewels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Buddha" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Buddha"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7.1 Buddha </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Buddha-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dharma" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dharma"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7.2 Dharma </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dharma-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sangha" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sangha"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7.3 Sangha </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sangha-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_key_Mahāyāna_views" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_key_Mahāyāna_views"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.8 Other key Mahāyāna views </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_key_Mahāyāna_views-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Paths_to_liberation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paths_to_liberation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Paths to liberation </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Paths_to_liberation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Paths to liberation subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Paths_to_liberation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Paths_to_liberation_in_the_early_texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paths_to_liberation_in_the_early_texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Paths to liberation in the early texts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paths_to_liberation_in_the_early_texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Noble_Eightfold_Path" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Noble_Eightfold_Path"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1 Noble Eightfold Path </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Noble_Eightfold_Path-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Common_practices" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Common_practices"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Common practices </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Common_practices-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Common practices subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Common_practices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hearing_and_learning_the_Dharma" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hearing_and_learning_the_Dharma"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Hearing and learning the Dharma </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hearing_and_learning_the_Dharma-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Refuge" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Refuge"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Refuge </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Refuge-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Śīla_–_Buddhist_ethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Śīla_–_Buddhist_ethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Śīla – Buddhist ethics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Śīla_–_Buddhist_ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Precepts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Precepts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3.1 Precepts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Precepts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vinaya" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vinaya"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3.2 Vinaya </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vinaya-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Restraint_and_renunciation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Restraint_and_renunciation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Restraint and renunciation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Restraint_and_renunciation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mindfulness_and_clear_comprehension" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mindfulness_and_clear_comprehension"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Mindfulness and clear comprehension </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mindfulness_and_clear_comprehension-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Meditation_–_Sama-amādhi_and_dhyāna" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Meditation_–_Sama-amādhi_and_dhyāna"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6 Meditation – Sama-amādhi and dhyāna </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Meditation_–_Sama-amādhi_and_dhyāna-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Origins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6.1 Origins </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_formless_attainments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_formless_attainments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6.2 The formless attainments </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_formless_attainments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Meditation_and_insight" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Meditation_and_insight"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6.3 Meditation and insight </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Meditation_and_insight-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Brahma-vihara" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Brahma-vihara"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6.4 The Brahma-vihara </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Brahma-vihara-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tantra,_visualization_and_the_subtle_body" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tantra,_visualization_and_the_subtle_body"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6.5 Tantra, visualization and the subtle body </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tantra,_visualization_and_the_subtle_body-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Insight_and_knowledge" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Insight_and_knowledge"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.7 Insight and knowledge </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Insight_and_knowledge-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Devotion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Devotion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.8 Devotion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Devotion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vegetarianism_and_animal_ethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vegetarianism_and_animal_ethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.9 Vegetarianism and animal ethics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vegetarianism_and_animal_ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Texts </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Texts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Texts subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Early texts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Tripitakas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Tripitakas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 The Tripitakas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Tripitakas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mahāyāna_texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mahāyāna_texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Mahāyāna texts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mahāyāna_texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tantric_texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tantric_texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Tantric texts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tantric_texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Schools_and_traditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Schools_and_traditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Schools and traditions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Schools_and_traditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Monasteries_and_temples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monasteries_and_temples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Monasteries and temples </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monasteries_and_temples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_the_modern_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_the_modern_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 In the modern era </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-In_the_modern_era-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle In the modern era subsection </button> <ul id="toc-In_the_modern_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Colonial_era_and_after" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colonial_era_and_after"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Colonial era and after </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colonial_era_and_after-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_the_West" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_the_West"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 In the West </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_the_West-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neo-Buddhism_movements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neo-Buddhism_movements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.3 Neo-Buddhism movements </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neo-Buddhism_movements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sexual_abuse_and_misconduct" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sexual_abuse_and_misconduct"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.4 Sexual abuse and misconduct </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sexual_abuse_and_misconduct-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.5 Classification </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cultural_influence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultural_influence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Cultural influence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cultural_influence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demographics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demographics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Demographics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Demographics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Criticism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Explanatory_notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Explanatory_notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 Explanatory notes </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Explanatory_notes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Explanatory notes subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Explanatory_notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Other_notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15.1 Other notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 17 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 18 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > 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mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 222 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-222" aria-hidden="true" > 222 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeddhisme" title="Boeddhisme – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Boeddhisme" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhismus" title="Buddhismus – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Buddhismus" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%89%A1%E1%8B%B2%E1%88%B5%E1%88%9D" title="ቡዲስም – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ቡዲስም" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7_%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE" title="बौद्ध धर्म – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="बौद्ध धर्म" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddend%C5%8Dm" title="Buddendōm – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Buddendōm" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ænglisc</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%B0%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="البوذية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="البوذية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budismo" title="Budismo – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Budismo" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8A%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%BF%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Պուտտայականութիւն – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Պուտտայականութիւն" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boudismo" title="Boudismo – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Boudismo" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Arpetan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8C%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7_%E0%A6%A7%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AE" title="বৌদ্ধ ধৰ্ম – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="বৌদ্ধ ধৰ্ম" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budismu" title="Budismu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Budismu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%BAda_rape" title="Vúda rape – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Vúda rape" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddizm" title="Buddizm – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Buddizm" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%B2%D9%85" title="بودیزم – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="بودیزم" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agama_Buddha" title="Agama Buddha – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Agama Buddha" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Bali</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8C%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AE" title="বৌদ্ধধর্ম – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বৌদ্ধধর্ম" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddha" title="Buddha – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Buddha" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Banjar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hu%CC%8Dt-k%C3%A0u" title="Hu̍t-kàu – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hu̍t-kàu" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-map-bms mw-list-item"><a href="https://map-bms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agama_Buddha" title="Agama Buddha – Banyumasan" lang="jv-x-bms" hreflang="jv-x-bms" data-title="Agama Buddha" data-language-autonym="Basa Banyumasan" data-language-local-name="Banyumasan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Banyumasan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Буддизм – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Буддизм" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Будызм – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Будызм" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Будызм – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Будызм" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7_%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE" title="बौद्ध धर्म – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="बौद्ध धर्म" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budismo" title="Budismo – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Budismo" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bi mw-list-item"><a href="https://bi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budisim" title="Budisim – Bislama" lang="bi" hreflang="bi" data-title="Budisim" data-language-autonym="Bislama" data-language-local-name="Bislama" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bislama</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%8A%D0%BC" title="Будизъм – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Будизъм" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhismus" title="Buddhismus – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Buddhismus" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%93%E0%BD%84%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%96%E0%BD%A6%E0%BE%9F%E0%BD%93%E0%BC%8D" title="ནང་བསྟན། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="ནང་བསྟན།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budizam" title="Budizam – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Budizam" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boudaegezh" title="Boudaegezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Boudaegezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Буддын шажан – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Буддын шажан" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budisme" title="Budisme – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Budisme" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Буддизм – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Буддизм" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budismo" title="Budismo – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Budismo" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhismus" title="Buddhismus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Buddhismus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubhudha" title="Ubhudha – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Ubhudha" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddisimu" title="Buddisimu – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Buddisimu" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target">Corsu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bwdhaeth" title="Bwdhaeth – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Bwdhaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhisme" title="Buddhisme – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Buddhisme" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="بودية – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="بودية" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhisma" title="Buddhisma – Northern Sami" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Buddhisma" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="Northern Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target">Davvisámegiella</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhismus" title="Buddhismus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Buddhismus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dty mw-list-item"><a href="https://dty.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7_%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE" title="बुद्ध धर्म – Doteli" lang="dty" hreflang="dty" data-title="बुद्ध धर्म" data-language-autonym="डोटेली" data-language-local-name="Doteli" class="interlanguage-link-target">डोटेली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dz mw-list-item"><a href="https://dz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%93%E0%BD%84%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%86%E0%BD%BC%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8D" title="ནང་ཆོས། – Dzongkha" lang="dz" hreflang="dz" data-title="ནང་ཆོས།" data-language-autonym="ཇོང་ཁ" data-language-local-name="Dzongkha" class="interlanguage-link-target">ཇོང་ཁ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budism" title="Budism – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Budism" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%B4%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Βουδισμός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Βουδισμός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budismo" title="Budismo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Budismo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budhismo" title="Budhismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Budhismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budismu" title="Budismu – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Budismu" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budismo" title="Budismo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Budismo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%85" title="بودیسم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بودیسم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Buddhism" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddisma" title="Buddisma – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Buddisma" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bouddhisme" title="Bouddhisme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Bouddhisme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boedisme" title="Boedisme – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Boedisme" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budisim" title="Budisim – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Budisim" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_B%C3%BAdachas" title="An Búdachas – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Búdachas" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%B9dachas" title="Bùdachas – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Bùdachas" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budismo" title="Budismo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Budismo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Буддизм – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Буддизм" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target">ГӀалгӀай</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BD%9B%E6%95%99" title="佛教 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="佛教" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%AC%E0%AB%8C%E0%AA%A6%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%A7_%E0%AA%A7%E0%AA%B0%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%AE" title="બૌદ્ધ ધર્મ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="બૌદ્ધ ધર્મ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fu%CC%8Dt-kau" title="Fu̍t-kau – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Fu̍t-kau" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xal mw-list-item"><a href="https://xal.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Буддизм – Kalmyk" lang="xal" hreflang="xal" data-title="Буддизм" data-language-autonym="Хальмг" data-language-local-name="Kalmyk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Хальмг</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B6%88%EA%B5%90" title="불교 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="불교" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddha" title="Buddha – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Buddha" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-haw mw-list-item"><a href="https://haw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ho%CA%BBomana_Buda" title="Hoʻomana Buda – Hawaiian" lang="haw" hreflang="haw" data-title="Hoʻomana Buda" data-language-autonym="Hawaiʻi" data-language-local-name="Hawaiian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hawaiʻi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A4%D5%A4%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Բուդդայականություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բուդդայականություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7_%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE" title="बौद्ध धर्म – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="बौद्ध धर्म" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budizam" title="Budizam – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Budizam" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budismo" title="Budismo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Budismo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Buddhism" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Igbo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budismo" title="Budismo – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Budismo" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bpy mw-list-item"><a href="https://bpy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8C%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7_%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A4" title="বৌদ্ধ লিচেত – Bishnupriya" lang="bpy" hreflang="bpy" data-title="বৌদ্ধ লিচেত" data-language-autonym="বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী" data-language-local-name="Bishnupriya" class="interlanguage-link-target">বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhisme" title="Buddhisme – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Buddhisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhismo" title="Buddhismo – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Buddhismo" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budhisme" title="Budhisme – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Budhisme" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Буддизм – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Буддизм" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/UbuBudha" title="UbuBudha – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="UbuBudha" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiZulu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%BAddismi" title="Búddismi – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Búddismi" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddismo" title="Buddismo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Buddismo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%95%D7%93%D7%94%D7%99%D7%96%D7%9D" title="בודהיזם – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="בודהיזם" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buda" title="Buda – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Buda" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buudiyism" title="Buudiyism – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Buudiyism" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AC%E0%B3%8C%E0%B2%A6%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A7_%E0%B2%A7%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AE" title="ಬೌದ್ಧ ಧರ್ಮ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಬೌದ್ಧ ಧರ್ಮ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budismu" title="Budismu – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Budismu" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kapampangan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%A3%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="ბუდიზმი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ბუდიზმი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%8F%D8%AF%DA%BE_%D9%85%D9%8E%D8%AA" title="بُدھ مَت – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="بُدھ مَت" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target">कॉशुर / کٲشُر</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Буддизм – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Буддизм" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bouddhisteth" title="Bouddhisteth – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Bouddhisteth" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rw mw-list-item"><a href="https://rw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budisime" title="Budisime – Kinyarwanda" lang="rw" hreflang="rw" data-title="Budisime" data-language-autonym="Ikinyarwanda" data-language-local-name="Kinyarwanda" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ikinyarwanda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubuddha" title="Ubuddha – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Ubuddha" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boudis" title="Boudis – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Boudis" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boudism" title="Boudism – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Boudism" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bud%C3%AEzm" title="Budîzm – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Budîzm" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%87%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Бурканчылык – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Бурканчылык" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budism" title="Budism – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Budism" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budizmo" title="Budizmo – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Budizmo" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%9E%E0%BA%B8%E0%BA%94%E0%BA%97%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B0%E0%BB%9C%E0%BA%B2" title="ພຸດທະສາສະໜາ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ພຸດທະສາສະໜາ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhismus" title="Buddhismus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Buddhismus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budisms" title="Budisms – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Budisms" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhismus" title="Buddhismus – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Buddhismus" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Буддизм – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Буддизм" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budizmas" title="Budizmas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Budizmas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddiximo" title="Buddiximo – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Buddiximo" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeddhisme" title="Boeddhisme – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Boeddhisme" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budisme" title="Budisme – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Budisme" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhalai%C5%BEus" title="Buddhalaižus – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Buddhalaižus" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Livvinkarjala</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/bu%27ojda" title="bu'ojda – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="bu'ojda" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target">La .lojban.</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhesim" title="Buddhesim – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Buddhesim" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhizmus" title="Buddhizmus – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Buddhizmus" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7_%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE" title="बौद्ध धर्म – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="बौद्ध धर्म" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target">मैथिली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Будизам – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Будизам" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodisma" title="Bodisma – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Bodisma" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A7%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%82" title="ബുദ്ധമതം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ബുദ്ധമതം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddi%C5%BCmu" title="Buddiżmu – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Buddiżmu" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7_%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE" title="बौद्ध धर्म – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="बौद्ध धर्म" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%A3%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="ბუდიზმი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ბუდიზმი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%B0%D9%8A%D9%87" title="بوذيه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="بوذيه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mnw mw-list-item"><a href="https://mnw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%97%E1%80%AF%E1%80%92%E1%80%B9%E1%80%93%E1%80%98%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AC" title="ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ – Mon" lang="mnw" hreflang="mnw" data-title="ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ" data-language-autonym="ဘာသာမန်" data-language-local-name="Mon" class="interlanguage-link-target">ဘာသာမန်</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%AF%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%86" title="بودایی دین – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="بودایی دین" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agama_Buddha" title="Agama Buddha – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Agama Buddha" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%95%EA%AF%A7%EA%AF%99_%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A5%EA%AF%A2%EA%AF%85%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%A1" title="ꯕꯧꯙ ꯂꯥꯢꯅꯤꯡ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯕꯧꯙ ꯂꯥꯢꯅꯤꯡ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agamo_Buddha" title="Agamo Buddha – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Agamo Buddha" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C5%ADk-g%C3%A1u" title="Hŭk-gáu – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Hŭk-gáu" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budismo" title="Budismo – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Budismo" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8C" title="Буддизмась – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Буддизмась" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target">Мокшень</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D1%88%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Буддын шашин – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Буддын шашин" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%97%E1%80%AF%E1%80%92%E1%80%B9%E1%80%93%E1%80%98%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AC" title="ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeddhisme" title="Boeddhisme – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Boeddhisme" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeddhisme" title="Boeddhisme – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Boeddhisme" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7_%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE" title="बौद्ध धर्म – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="बौद्ध धर्म" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7_%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE" title="बुद्ध धर्म – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="बुद्ध धर्म" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BB%8F%E6%95%99" title="仏教 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="仏教" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Буддизм – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Буддизм" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhismus" title="Buddhismus – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Buddhismus" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pih mw-list-item"><a href="https://pih.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budism" title="Budism – Norfuk / Pitkern" lang="pih" hreflang="pih" data-title="Budism" data-language-autonym="Norfuk / Pitkern" data-language-local-name="Norfuk / Pitkern" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norfuk / Pitkern</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhisme" title="Buddhisme – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Buddhisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhismen" title="Buddhismen – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Buddhismen" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budisme" title="Budisme – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Budisme" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target">Novial</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodisme" title="Bodisme – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Bodisme" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AC%E0%AD%8C%E0%AC%A6%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%A7_%E0%AC%A7%E0%AC%B0%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%AE" title="ବୌଦ୍ଧ ଧର୍ମ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ବୌଦ୍ଧ ଧର୍ମ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budizimii" title="Budizimii – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Budizimii" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddizm" title="Buddizm – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Buddizm" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AC%E0%A9%81%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%A7_%E0%A8%A7%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%AE" title="ਬੁੱਧ ਧਰਮ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਬੁੱਧ ਧਰਮ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pi mw-list-item"><a href="https://pi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8B_%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE" title="बुद्धो धम्म – Pali" lang="pi" hreflang="pi" data-title="बुद्धो धम्म" data-language-autonym="पालि" data-language-local-name="Pali" class="interlanguage-link-target">पालि</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%AF%DA%BE_%D9%85%D8%AA" title="بدھ مت – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="بدھ مت" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%97%E1%80%AF%E1%80%92%E1%80%B9%E1%80%93%E1%80%98%E1%80%AC%E1%82%8F%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AC%E1%82%8F" title="ဗုဒ္ဓဘာႏသာႏ – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="ဗုဒ္ဓဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target">ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budismo" title="Budismo – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Budismo" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%85" title="بوديزم – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="بوديزم" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budizim" title="Budizim – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Budizim" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%96%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9F%87%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%BB%E1%9E%91%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%B6" title="ព្រះពុទ្ធសាសនា – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ព្រះពុទ្ធសាសនា" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boudime" title="Boudime – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Boudime" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Picard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodism" title="Bodism – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Bodism" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi mw-list-item"><a href="https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budisim" title="Budisim – Tok Pisin" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi" data-title="Budisim" data-language-autonym="Tok Pisin" data-language-local-name="Tok Pisin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tok Pisin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhismus" title="Buddhismus – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Buddhismus" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddyzm" title="Buddyzm – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Buddyzm" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budismo" title="Budismo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Budismo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddizm" title="Buddizm – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Buddizm" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddizm" title="Buddizm – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Buddizm" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budism" title="Budism – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Budism" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rmy mw-list-item"><a href="https://rmy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddapen" title="Buddapen – Vlax Romani" lang="rmy" hreflang="rmy" data-title="Buddapen" data-language-autonym="Romani čhib" data-language-local-name="Vlax Romani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Romani čhib</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budissem" title="Budissem – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Budissem" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Rumantsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puthayuyay" title="Puthayuyay – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Puthayuyay" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B3%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Будгізм – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Будгізм" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Буддизм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Буддизм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Буддизм – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Буддизм" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83" title="बौद्धधर्मः – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="बौद्धधर्मः" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%B5%E1%B1%A9%E1%B1%AB%E1%B1%AB%E1%B1%B7%E1%B1%9A_%E1%B1%AB%E1%B1%B7%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%A2" title="ᱵᱩᱫᱫᱷᱚ ᱫᱷᱚᱨᱚᱢ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱵᱩᱫᱫᱷᱚ ᱫᱷᱚᱨᱚᱢ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%AF%DA%BE_%D9%85%D8%AA" title="بدھ مت – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="بدھ مت" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target">سرائیکی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhismu" title="Buddhismu – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Buddhismu" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Buddhism" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nso mw-list-item"><a href="https://nso.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sebuda" title="Sebuda – Northern Sotho" lang="nso" hreflang="nso" data-title="Sebuda" data-language-autonym="Sesotho sa Leboa" data-language-local-name="Northern Sotho" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sesotho sa Leboa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budizmi" title="Budizmi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Budizmi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddismu" title="Buddismu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Buddismu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B6%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%B0%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%9C%E0%B6%B8" title="බුද්ධාගම – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="බුද්ධාගම" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Buddhism" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BB%DA%8C%D9%85%D8%AA" title="ٻڌمت – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ٻڌمت" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budhizmus" title="Budhizmus – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Budhizmus" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budizem" title="Budizem – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Budizem" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%B2%D9%85" title="بودیزم – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="بودیزم" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Будизам – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Будизам" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budizam" title="Budizam – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Budizam" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agama_Buddha" title="Agama Buddha – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Agama Buddha" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhalaisuus" title="Buddhalaisuus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Buddhalaisuus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Buddhism" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budismo" title="Budismo – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Budismo" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8C%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="பௌத்தம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பௌத்தம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%87%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Буддачылык – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Буддачылык" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shn mw-list-item"><a href="https://shn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9E%E1%82%83%E1%82%87%E1%80%9E%E1%81%BC%E1%82%83%E1%82%87%E1%80%95%E1%80%AF%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA%E1%82%89%E1%80%91" title="သႃႇသၼႃႇပုတ်ႉထ – Shan" lang="shn" hreflang="shn" data-title="သႃႇသၼႃႇပုတ်ႉထ" data-language-autonym="ၽႃႇသႃႇတႆး " data-language-local-name="Shan" class="interlanguage-link-target">ၽႃႇသႃႇတႆး </a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AC%E0%B1%8C%E0%B0%A6%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A7_%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%82" title="బౌద్ధ మతం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="బౌద్ధ మతం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%98" title="ศาสนาพุทธ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ศาสนาพุทธ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Буддоия – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Буддоия" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tcy mw-list-item"><a href="https://tcy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AC%E0%B3%8C%E0%B2%A6%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A7_%E0%B2%A7%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AE" title="ಬೌದ್ಧ ಧರ್ಮ – Tulu" lang="tcy" hreflang="tcy" data-title="ಬೌದ್ಧ ಧರ್ಮ" data-language-autonym="ತುಳು" data-language-local-name="Tulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">ತುಳು</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budizm" title="Budizm – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Budizm" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budda%C3%A7ylyk" title="Buddaçylyk – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Buddaçylyk" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khwibuda" title="Khwibuda – Tyap" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="Khwibuda" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="Tyap" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tyap</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Буддизм – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Буддизм" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%AF%DA%BE_%D9%85%D8%AA" title="بدھ مت – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="بدھ مت" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%87%D8%AF%D8%AF%D8%A7_%D8%AF%D9%89%D9%86%D9%89" title="بۇددا دىنى – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="بۇددا دىنى" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fozgyau" title="Fozgyau – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Fozgyau" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budhismo" title="Budhismo – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Budhismo" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddizm" title="Buddizm – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Buddizm" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ph%E1%BA%ADt_gi%C3%A1o" title="Phật giáo – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Phật giáo" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budism" title="Budism – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Budism" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boudisse" title="Boudisse – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Boudisse" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BD%9B%E6%95%99" title="佛教 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="佛教" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budismo" title="Budismo – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Budismo" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BD%9B%E6%95%99" title="佛教 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="佛教" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ts mw-list-item"><a href="https://ts.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vubhuda" title="Vubhuda – Tsonga" lang="ts" hreflang="ts" data-title="Vubhuda" data-language-autonym="Xitsonga" data-language-local-name="Tsonga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Xitsonga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%95%D7%93%D7%94%D7%99%D7%96%D7%9D" title="בודהיזם – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="בודהיזם" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%BA%B8%CC%80s%C3%ACn_B%C3%BAdd%C3%A0" title="Ẹ̀sìn Búddà – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Ẹ̀sìn Búddà" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BD%9B%E6%95%99" title="佛教 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="佛教" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budizm" title="Budizm – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Budizm" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" 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from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhist</a>)</div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Indian religion</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Buddhadharma" and "Buddhist" redirect here. For the magazine, see <a href="/wiki/Buddhadharma:_The_Practitioner%27s_Quarterly" title="Buddhadharma: The Practitioner's Quarterly">Buddhadharma: The Practitioner's Quarterly</a>. For the racehorse, see <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_(horse)" title="Buddhist (horse)">Buddhist (horse)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kamakura_Budda_Daibutsu_front_1885.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Kamakura_Budda_Daibutsu_front_1885.jpg/220px-Kamakura_Budda_Daibutsu_front_1885.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Kamakura_Budda_Daibutsu_front_1885.jpg/330px-Kamakura_Budda_Daibutsu_front_1885.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Kamakura_Budda_Daibutsu_front_1885.jpg/440px-Kamakura_Budda_Daibutsu_front_1885.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Kamakura_Daibutsu" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamakura Daibutsu">Kamakura Daibutsu</a>, a 13th-century bronze statue of the Buddha <a href="/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha" 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:16.0em;border-collapse:collapse; text-align:center"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:#FFD068">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Buddhism" title="Category:Buddhism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#FFD068"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Buddhism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/Dharmachakra" title="Dharmachakra"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg/90px-Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg/135px-Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg/180px-Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="697" data-file-height="697" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Buddhism" title="Glossary of Buddhism">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Buddhism-related_articles" title="Index of Buddhism-related articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Buddhism" title="Outline of Buddhism">Outline</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFD068;padding-bottom:0;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism" title="History of Buddhism">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border: 2px solid #FDE7B9"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Buddhism" title="Timeline of Buddhism">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">The Buddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-sectarian_Buddhism" title="Pre-sectarian Buddhism">Pre-sectarian Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_councils" title="Buddhist councils">Councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silk_Road_transmission_of_Buddhism" title="Silk Road transmission of Buddhism">Silk Road transmission of Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Buddhism_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent">Decline in the Indian subcontinent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhists" title="List of Buddhists">Later Buddhists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_modernism" title="Buddhist modernism">Buddhist modernism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFD068;padding-bottom:0;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Buddhism" title="Glossary of Buddhism">Concepts</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border: 2px solid #FDE7B9"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Noble_Truths" title="Four Noble Truths">Four Noble Truths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path" title="Noble Eightfold Path">Noble Eightfold Path</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dharmachakra" title="Dharmachakra">Dharma wheel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skandha" title="Skandha">Five Aggregates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anicca" class="mw-redirect" title="Anicca">Impermanence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dukkha" class="mw-redirect" title="Dukkha">Suffering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatta" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatta">Not-self</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da" title="Pratītyasamutpāda">Dependent Origination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Way" title="Middle Way">Middle Way</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Emptiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karma_in_Buddhism" title="Karma in Buddhism">Karma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebirth_(Buddhism)" title="Rebirth (Buddhism)">Rebirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra_(Buddhism)" title="Saṃsāra (Buddhism)">Saṃsāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_cosmology" title="Buddhist cosmology">Cosmology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFD068;padding-bottom:0;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_texts" title="Buddhist texts">Buddhist texts</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border: 2px solid #FDE7B9"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhavacana" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhavacana">Buddhavacana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_Texts" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Buddhist Texts">Early Texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka" title="Tripiṭaka">Tripiṭaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahayana_sutras" title="Mahayana sutras">Mahayana Sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81li_Canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Pāli Canon">Pāli Canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_Buddhist_literature" title="Sanskrit Buddhist literature">Sanskrit literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist_canon" title="Tibetan Buddhist canon">Tibetan canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhist_canon" title="Chinese Buddhist canon">Chinese canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-canonical_Buddhist_texts" title="Post-canonical Buddhist texts">Post-canon</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFD068;padding-bottom:0;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Threefold_Training" title="Threefold Training">Practices</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border: 2px solid #FDE7B9"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Refuge_in_Buddhism" title="Refuge in Buddhism">Three Jewels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_Paths_to_liberation" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist Paths to liberation">Buddhist Paths to liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_precepts" title="Five precepts">Five precepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81ramit%C4%81" title="Pāramitā">Perfections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_meditation" title="Buddhist meditation">Meditation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Philosophical reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_devotion" title="Buddhist devotion">Devotional practices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merit_(Buddhism)" title="Merit (Buddhism)">Merit making</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anussati" title="Anussati">Recollections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sati_(Buddhism)" title="Sati (Buddhism)">Mindfulness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Prajñā (Buddhism)">Wisdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmavihara" title="Brahmavihara">Sublime abidings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhipakkhiy%C4%81dhamm%C4%81" title="Bodhipakkhiyādhammā">Aids to Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_monasticism" title="Buddhist monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Householder_(Buddhism)" title="Householder (Buddhism)">Lay life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_chant" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist chant">Buddhist chant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_pilgrimage" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist pilgrimage">Pilgrimage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_vegetarianism" title="Buddhist vegetarianism">Vegetarianism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFD068;padding-bottom:0;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Nirvana_(Buddhism)" title="Nirvana (Buddhism)">Nirvāṇa</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border: 2px solid #FDE7B9"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_stages_of_awakening" title="Four stages of awakening">Four Stages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arhat" title="Arhat">Arhat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pratyekabuddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Pratyekabuddha">Pratyekabuddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddha</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFD068;padding-bottom:0;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Buddhism" title="Schools of Buddhism">Traditions</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border: 2px solid #FDE7B9"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravāda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81li_Canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Pāli Canon">Pāli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahāyāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinayana" title="Hinayana">Hinayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navayana" title="Navayana">Navayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newar_Buddhism" title="Newar Buddhism">Newar</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFD068;padding-bottom:0;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_by_country" title="Buddhism by country">Buddhism by country</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border: 2px solid #FDE7B9"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Bhutan" title="Buddhism in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Brazil" title="Buddhism in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Cambodia" title="Buddhism in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_China" title="Buddhism in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism_in_India" title="History of Buddhism in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Indonesia" title="Buddhism in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Japan" title="Buddhism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Buddhism" title="Korean Buddhism">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Laos" title="Buddhism in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Malaysia" title="Buddhism in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Mongolia" title="Buddhism in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Myanmar" title="Buddhism in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_New_Zealand" title="Buddhism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Russia" title="Buddhism in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Singapore" title="Buddhism in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_United_States" title="Buddhism in the United States">US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Buddhism in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Taiwan" title="Buddhism in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Thailand" title="Buddhism in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Vietnam" title="Buddhism in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Dharma_Wheel_(2).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg/16px-Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg/24px-Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg/32px-Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="697" data-file-height="697" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Buddhism" title="Portal:Buddhism">Buddhism portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Buddhism" title="Template:Buddhism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Buddhism" title="Template talk:Buddhism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Buddhism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Buddhism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Buddhism (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈbʊdɪzəm/</a> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key">BUUD-ih-zəm</a>, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">US</a> also <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈbuːd-/</a> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key">BOOD-</a>),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells2008-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoach2011-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> also known as Buddha Dharma, is an <a href="/wiki/Indian_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian religion">Indian religion</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[a]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_tradition" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophical tradition">philosophical tradition</a> based on <a href="/wiki/Pre-sectarian_Buddhism" title="Pre-sectarian Buddhism">teachings</a> attributed to <a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">the Buddha</a>, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or 5th century <a href="/wiki/Before_the_Common_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Before the Common Era">BCE</a>.<a href="#cite_note-8">[7]</a> It is the <a href="/wiki/Major_religious_groups" title="Major religious groups">world's fourth-largest religion</a>,<a href="#cite_note-9">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELopez2001239-10">[9]</a> with over 520 million followers, known as Buddhists, who comprise seven percent of the global population.<a href="#cite_note-Pew_2012a-11">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[11]</a> It arose in the eastern <a href="/wiki/Gangetic_plain" class="mw-redirect" title="Gangetic plain">Gangetic plain</a> as a <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arama%E1%B9%87a" title="Śramaṇa">śramaṇa</a> movement in the 5th century BCE, and gradually spread throughout much of Asia. Buddhism has subsequently played a major role in Asian culture and spirituality, eventually spreading to <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">the West</a> in the 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-brit-13">[12]</a> According to tradition, the Buddha instructed his followers in a path of <a href="/wiki/Bhavana" title="Bhavana">development</a> which leads to <a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">awakening</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">full liberation</a> from <a href="/wiki/Du%E1%B8%A5kha" title="Duḥkha">dukkha</a> (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'suffering or unease'<a href="#cite_note-18">[note 1]</a>). He regarded this path as a <a href="/wiki/Middle_Way" title="Middle Way">Middle Way</a> between extremes such as <a href="/wiki/Asceticism" title="Asceticism">asceticism</a> or sensual indulgence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst2011233–237-19">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuhmacherWoener1991143-20">[18]</a> Teaching that dukkha arises alongside <a href="/wiki/Up%C4%81d%C4%81na" title="Upādāna">attachment or clinging</a>, the Buddha advised <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_meditation" title="Buddhist meditation">meditation practices</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">ethical precepts</a> rooted in <a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">non-harming</a>. Widely observed teachings include the <a href="/wiki/Four_Noble_Truths" title="Four Noble Truths">Four Noble Truths</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path" title="Noble Eightfold Path">Noble Eightfold Path</a>, and the doctrines of <a href="/wiki/Dependent_origination" class="mw-redirect" title="Dependent origination">dependent origination</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karma_in_Buddhism" title="Karma in Buddhism">karma</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Three_marks_of_existence" title="Three marks of existence">three marks of existence</a>. Other commonly observed elements include the <a href="/wiki/Triple_Gem" class="mw-redirect" title="Triple Gem">Triple Gem</a>, the taking of <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_monasticism" title="Buddhist monasticism">monastic vows</a>, and the cultivation of perfections (<a href="/wiki/P%C4%81ramit%C4%81" title="Pāramitā">pāramitā</a>).<a href="#cite_note-21">[19]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka" title="Tripiṭaka">Buddhist canon</a> is vast, with many different textual collections in different languages (such as <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pali" title="Pali">Pali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tibeto-Burman_languages" title="Tibeto-Burman languages">Tibetan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>).<a href="#cite_note-22">[20]</a> <a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Buddhism" title="Schools of Buddhism">Buddhist schools</a> vary in their interpretation of the paths to liberation (<a href="/wiki/Buddhist_paths_to_liberation" title="Buddhist paths to liberation">mārga</a>) as well as the relative importance and "canonicity" assigned to various <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_texts" title="Buddhist texts">Buddhist texts</a>, and their specific teachings and practices.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1989275ff-23">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinsonJohnson1997xx-24">[22]</a> Two major extant branches of Buddhism are generally recognized by scholars: <a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravāda</a> (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'School of the Elders') and <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahāyāna</a> (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'Great Vehicle'). The Theravada tradition emphasizes the attainment of <a href="/wiki/Nirvana_(Buddhism)" title="Nirvana (Buddhism)">nirvāṇa</a> (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'extinguishing') as a means of transcending the individual self and ending the cycle of death and rebirth (<a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra_(Buddhism)" title="Saṃsāra (Buddhism)">saṃsāra</a>),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGethin199827–28,_73–74-25">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey201399-26">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowers2007392–393,_415-27">[25]</a> while the Mahayana tradition emphasizes the <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattva ideal</a>, in which one works for the liberation of all sentient beings. Additionally, <a href="/wiki/Vajray%C4%81na" class="mw-redirect" title="Vajrayāna">Vajrayāna</a> (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'Indestructible Vehicle'), a body of teachings incorporating esoteric <a href="/wiki/Tantra" title="Tantra">tantric</a> techniques, may be viewed as a separate branch or tradition within Mahāyāna.<a href="#cite_note-White_2000_21-28">[26]</a> The Theravāda branch has a widespread following in <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> as well as in Southeast Asia, namely <a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laos" title="Laos">Laos</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cambodia" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a>. The Mahāyāna branch—which includes the East Asian traditions of <a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Pure Land</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nichiren_Buddhism" title="Nichiren Buddhism">Nichiren</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tendai" title="Tendai">Tendai</a> is predominantly practised in <a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bhutan" title="Bhutan">Bhutan</a>, <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>. <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a>, a form of Vajrayāna, is practised in the <a href="/wiki/Himalayan_states" title="Himalayan states">Himalayan states</a> as well as in <a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowers200726–27-29">[27]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kalmykia" title="Kalmykia">Russian Kalmykia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-30">[28]</a> Japanese <a href="/wiki/Shingon" class="mw-redirect" title="Shingon">Shingon</a> also preserves the Vajrayana tradition as transmitted to <a href="/wiki/Tangmi" class="mw-redirect" title="Tangmi">China</a>. Historically, until the early <a href="/wiki/2nd_millennium" title="2nd millennium">2nd millennium</a>, Buddhism was widely practiced in <a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Buddhism_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent">the Indian subcontinent before declining there</a>;<a href="#cite_note-31">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-Keown2004p208-33">[31]</a> it also had a foothold to some extent elsewhere in Asia, namely <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkmenistan" title="Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uzbekistan" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tajikistan" title="Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-34">[32]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div> The names Buddha Dharma and Bauddha Dharma come from <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>: बुद्ध धर्म and बौद्ध धर्म respectively ("doctrine of the Enlightened One" and "doctrine of Buddhists"). The term Dharmavinaya comes from Sanskrit: धर्मविनय, literally meaning "doctrines [and] disciplines".<a href="#cite_note-35">[33]</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">The Buddha</a> ("the Awakened One") was a <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arama%E1%B9%87a" title="Śramaṇa">Śramaṇa</a> who lived in <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a> c. 6th or 5th century BCE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGethin19987–8-36">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst2013ix–xi-37">[35]</a> Followers of Buddhism, called Buddhists in English, referred to themselves as Sakyan-s or Sakyabhiksu in ancient India.<a href="#cite_note-38">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[37]</a> Buddhist scholar Donald S. Lopez asserts they also used the term Bauddha,<a href="#cite_note-40">[38]</a> although scholar Richard Cohen asserts that that term was used only by outsiders to describe Buddhists.<a href="#cite_note-41">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Buddha">The Buddha</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">The Buddha</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tapa_Shotor_seated_Buddha_(Niche_V1).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Tapa_Shotor_seated_Buddha_%28Niche_V1%29.jpg/220px-Tapa_Shotor_seated_Buddha_%28Niche_V1%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="325" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Tapa_Shotor_seated_Buddha_%28Niche_V1%29.jpg/330px-Tapa_Shotor_seated_Buddha_%28Niche_V1%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Tapa_Shotor_seated_Buddha_%28Niche_V1%29.jpg/440px-Tapa_Shotor_seated_Buddha_%28Niche_V1%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2197" data-file-height="3244" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">The Buddha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tapa_Shotor" title="Tapa Shotor">Tapa Shotor</a> monastery in <a href="/wiki/Hadda,_Afghanistan" title="Hadda, Afghanistan">Hadda</a>, Afghanistan, 2nd century CE</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BRP_Lumbini_Mayadevi_temple.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/BRP_Lumbini_Mayadevi_temple.jpg/220px-BRP_Lumbini_Mayadevi_temple.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/BRP_Lumbini_Mayadevi_temple.jpg/330px-BRP_Lumbini_Mayadevi_temple.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/BRP_Lumbini_Mayadevi_temple.jpg/440px-BRP_Lumbini_Mayadevi_temple.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4093" data-file-height="2143" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Maya_Devi_Temple,_Lumbini" title="Maya Devi Temple, Lumbini">Maya Devi Temple</a> marking the Buddha's birthplace in <a href="/wiki/Lumbini" title="Lumbini">Lumbini</a></figcaption></figure> Details of the Buddha's life are mentioned in many <a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_Texts" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Buddhist Texts">Early Buddhist Texts</a> but are inconsistent. His social background and life details are difficult to prove, and the precise dates are uncertain, although the 5th century BCE seems to be the best estimate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGethin199813–14-42">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[note 2]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mahajanapadas_(c._500_BCE).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Mahajanapadas_%28c._500_BCE%29.png/220px-Mahajanapadas_%28c._500_BCE%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Mahajanapadas_%28c._500_BCE%29.png/330px-Mahajanapadas_%28c._500_BCE%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Mahajanapadas_%28c._500_BCE%29.png/440px-Mahajanapadas_%28c._500_BCE%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="771" /></a><figcaption>Ancient kingdoms and cities of South Asia and Central Asia during the time of the Buddha (c. 500 BCE)—modern-day India, Nepal, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Afghanistan</figcaption></figure> Early texts have the Buddha's family name as "Gautama" (Pali: Gotama), while some texts give Siddhartha as his surname. He was born in <a href="/wiki/Lumbini" title="Lumbini">Lumbini</a>, present-day <a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a> and grew up in <a href="/wiki/Kapilavastu_(ancient_city)" title="Kapilavastu (ancient city)">Kapilavastu</a>,<a href="#cite_note-51">[note 3]</a> a town in the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Gangetic_Plain" title="Indo-Gangetic Plain">Ganges Plain</a>, near the modern Nepal–India border, and he spent his life in what is now modern <a href="/wiki/Bihar" title="Bihar">Bihar</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[note 4]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Uttar_Pradesh" title="Uttar Pradesh">Uttar Pradesh</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGombrich198849-52">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGethin199813–14-42">[40]</a> Some hagiographic legends state that his father was a king named <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Auddhodana" title="Śuddhodana">Suddhodana</a>, his mother was <a href="/wiki/Maya_(mother_of_the_Buddha)" title="Maya (mother of the Buddha)">Queen Maya.</a><a href="#cite_note-Thomas2013p16-54">[49]</a> Scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Richard_Gombrich" title="Richard Gombrich">Richard Gombrich</a> consider this a dubious claim because a combination of evidence suggests he was born in the <a href="/wiki/Shakya" title="Shakya">Shakya</a> community, which was governed by a <a href="/wiki/Ga%E1%B9%87asa%E1%B9%85gha" title="Gaṇasaṅgha">small oligarchy or republic-like council</a> where there were no ranks but where seniority mattered instead.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGombrich198849–50-55">[50]</a> Some of the stories about the Buddha, his life, his teachings, and claims about the society he grew up in may have been invented and interpolated at a later time into the Buddhist texts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGombrich198818–19,_50–51-56">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[52]</a> Various details about the Buddha's background are contested in modern scholarship. For example, Buddhist texts assert that Buddha described himself as a <a href="/wiki/Kshatriya" title="Kshatriya">kshatriya</a> (warrior class), but Gombrich writes that little is known about his father and there is no proof that his father even knew the term kshatriya.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGombrich198850-58">[53]</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mahavira" title="Mahavira">Mahavira</a>, whose teachings helped establish the ancient religion <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a>, is also claimed to be ksatriya by his early followers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGombrich198850–51-59">[54]</a>) According to early texts such as the Pali Ariyapariyesanā-sutta ("The discourse on the noble quest", <a href="/wiki/Majjhima_Nik%C4%81ya" title="Majjhima Nikāya">MN</a> 26) and its Chinese parallel at <a href="/wiki/Madhyama_Agama" title="Madhyama Agama">MĀ</a> 204, Gautama was moved by the suffering (<a href="/wiki/Dukkha" class="mw-redirect" title="Dukkha">dukkha</a>) of life and death, and its <a href="/wiki/Samsara" class="mw-redirect" title="Samsara">endless repetition</a> due to <a href="/wiki/Rebirth_(Buddhism)" title="Rebirth (Buddhism)">rebirth</a>.<a href="#cite_note-60">[55]</a> He thus set out on a quest to find liberation from suffering (also known as "<a href="/wiki/Nirvana_(Buddhism)" title="Nirvana (Buddhism)">nirvana</a>").<a href="#cite_note-61">[56]</a> Early texts and biographies state that Gautama first studied under two teachers of meditation, namely <a href="/wiki/%C4%80%E1%B8%B7%C4%81ra_K%C4%81l%C4%81ma" title="Āḷāra Kālāma">Āḷāra Kālāma</a> (Sanskrit: Arada Kalama) and <a href="/wiki/Uddaka_R%C4%81maputta" title="Uddaka Rāmaputta">Uddaka Ramaputta</a> (Sanskrit: Udraka Ramaputra), learning meditation and philosophy, particularly the meditative attainment of "the sphere of nothingness" from the former, and "the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception" from the latter.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWynne20078–23-62">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[note 5]</a> Finding these teachings to be insufficient to attain his goal, he turned to the practice of severe <a href="/wiki/Asceticism" title="Asceticism">asceticism</a>, which included a strict <a href="/wiki/Fasting" title="Fasting">fasting</a> regime and various forms of <a href="/wiki/Pranayama" title="Pranayama">breath control</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Analayo_2011_p._236-67">[61]</a> This too fell short of attaining his goal, and then he turned to the meditative practice of <a href="/wiki/Dhy%C4%81na_in_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhyāna in Buddhism">dhyana</a>. He famously sat in <a href="/wiki/Meditation" title="Meditation">meditation</a> under a <a href="/wiki/Ficus_religiosa" title="Ficus religiosa">Ficus religiosa</a> tree—now called the <a href="/wiki/Bodhi_Tree" title="Bodhi Tree">Bodhi Tree</a>—in the town of <a href="/wiki/Bodh_Gaya" title="Bodh Gaya">Bodh Gaya</a> and attained "Awakening" (<a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">Bodhi</a>).<a href="#cite_note-68">[62]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">according to whom?</a>] According to various early texts like the Mahāsaccaka-sutta, and the <a href="/wiki/Sama%C3%B1%C3%B1aphala_Sutta" title="Samaññaphala Sutta">Samaññaphala Sutta</a>, on awakening, the Buddha gained insight into the workings of karma and his former lives, as well as achieving the ending of the mental defilements (<a href="/wiki/Asava" title="Asava">asavas</a>), the ending of suffering, and the end of rebirth in <a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra" title="Saṃsāra">saṃsāra</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Analayo_2011_p._236-67">[61]</a> This event also brought certainty about the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Way" title="Middle Way">Middle Way</a> as the right path of spiritual practice to end suffering.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst2011233–237-19">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuhmacherWoener1991143-20">[18]</a> As a <a href="/wiki/Buddhahood#Samyaksambuddha" title="Buddhahood">fully enlightened Buddha</a>, he attracted followers and founded a <a href="/wiki/Sangha_(Buddhism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sangha (Buddhism)">Sangha</a> (monastic order).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGombrich198849–51-69">[63]</a> He spent the rest of his life teaching the <a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a> he had discovered, and then died, achieving "<a href="/wiki/Parinirvana" title="Parinirvana">final nirvana</a>", at the age of 80 in <a href="/wiki/Kushinagar" title="Kushinagar">Kushinagar</a>, India.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeown2003267-70">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeownPrebish2010105–106-45">[43]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">according to whom?</a>] The Buddha's teachings were propagated by his followers, which in the last centuries of the 1st millennium BCE became various <a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Buddhism" title="Schools of Buddhism">Buddhist schools of thought</a>, each with its own <a href="/wiki/Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka" title="Tripiṭaka">basket of texts</a> containing different interpretations and authentic teachings of the Buddha;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGethin199854–55-71">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-britannicatipitaka-73">[67]</a> these over time evolved into many traditions of which the more well known and widespread in the modern era are <a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayana</a> Buddhism.<a href="#cite_note-74">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGethin19981–5-75">[69]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism" title="History of Buddhism">History of Buddhism</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a chronological guide, see <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Buddhism" title="Timeline of Buddhism">Timeline of Buddhism</a>.</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_roots">Historical roots</h3></div> Historically, the roots of Buddhism lie in the religious thought of <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron Age India">Iron Age India</a> around the middle of the first millennium BCE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGethin2008xv-76">[70]</a> This was a period of great intellectual ferment and socio-cultural change known as the <a href="/wiki/History_of_India#Second_urbanisation_(c._600_–_200_BCE)" title="History of India">"Second urbanisation"</a>, marked by the growth of towns and trade, the composition of the <a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a> and the historical emergence of the <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arama%E1%B9%87a" title="Śramaṇa">Śramaṇa</a> traditions.<a href="#cite_note-77">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGombrich198826–41-78">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[note 6]</a> New ideas developed both in the <a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic tradition</a> in the form of the Upanishads, and outside of the Vedic tradition through the Śramaṇa movements.<a href="#cite_note-82">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-Olivelle1992-84">[77]</a> The term Śramaṇa refers to several Indian religious movements parallel to but separate from the <a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">historical Vedic religion</a>, including Buddhism, <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a> and others such as <a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a>.<a href="#cite_note-85">[78]</a> Several Śramaṇa movements are known to have existed in India before the 6th century BCE (pre-Buddha, pre-<a href="/wiki/Mahavira" title="Mahavira">Mahavira</a>), and these influenced both the <a href="/wiki/%C4%80stika_and_n%C4%81stika" title="Āstika and nāstika">āstika and nāstika</a> traditions of <a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian philosophy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-reginaldray247-86">[79]</a> According to Martin Wilshire, the Śramaṇa tradition evolved in India over two phases, namely <a href="/wiki/Pratyekabuddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Pratyekabuddha">Paccekabuddha</a> and <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Ar%C4%81vaka" title="Śrāvaka">Savaka</a> phases, the former being the tradition of individual ascetic and the latter of disciples, and that Buddhism and <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a> ultimately emerged from these.<a href="#cite_note-wiltshire293-87">[80]</a> <a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Brahmanical</a> and non-Brahmanical ascetic groups shared and used several similar ideas,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel2010123–125-88">[81]</a> but the Śramaṇa traditions also drew upon already established Brahmanical concepts and philosophical roots, states Wiltshire, to formulate their own doctrines.<a href="#cite_note-reginaldray247-86">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-wiltshire226-89">[82]</a> Brahmanical motifs can be found in the oldest Buddhist texts, using them to introduce and explain Buddhist ideas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShults2014126-90">[83]</a> For example, prior to Buddhist developments, the Brahmanical tradition internalised and variously reinterpreted the <a href="/wiki/Srauta" class="mw-redirect" title="Srauta">three Vedic sacrificial fires</a> as concepts such as Truth, Rite, Tranquility or Restraint.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShults2014127-91">[84]</a> Buddhist texts also refer to the three Vedic sacrificial fires, reinterpreting and explaining them as ethical conduct.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShults2014125–129-92">[85]</a> The Śramaṇa religions challenged and broke with the Brahmanic tradition on core assumptions such as <a href="/wiki/Atman_(Hinduism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Atman (Hinduism)">Atman</a> (soul, self), <a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a>, the nature of afterlife, and they rejected the authority of the <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Upanishad" class="mw-redirect" title="Upanishad">Upanishads</a>.<a href="#cite_note-93">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJaini200147–48-94">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-Siderits2007p16-95">[88]</a> Buddhism was one among several Indian religions that did so.<a href="#cite_note-Siderits2007p16-95">[88]</a> Early Buddhist positions in the <a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a> tradition had not established any deities, but were epistemologically cautious rather than directly <a href="/wiki/Atheist" class="mw-redirect" title="Atheist">atheist</a>. Later Buddhist traditions were more influenced by the critique of deities within <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a> and therefore more committed to a strongly atheist stance. These developments were historic and epistemological as documented in verses from <a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C4%81ntideva" class="mw-redirect" title="Śāntideva">Śāntideva</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Bodhicary%C4%81vat%C4%81ra" class="mw-redirect" title="Bodhicaryāvatāra">Bodhicaryāvatāra</a>, and supplemented by reference to <a href="/wiki/Suttas" class="mw-redirect" title="Suttas">suttas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jataka_tales" title="Jataka tales">jātakas</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Pali_canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Pali canon">Pali canon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-96">[89]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indian_Buddhism">Indian Buddhism</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism_in_India" title="History of Buddhism in India">History of Buddhism in India</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ajanta_Chaitya_10_plan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Ajanta_Chaitya_10_plan.jpg/220px-Ajanta_Chaitya_10_plan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Ajanta_Chaitya_10_plan.jpg/330px-Ajanta_Chaitya_10_plan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Ajanta_Chaitya_10_plan.jpg/440px-Ajanta_Chaitya_10_plan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1871" data-file-height="2192" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ajanta_Caves" title="Ajanta Caves">Ajanta Caves</a>, Cave 10, a first period type <a href="/wiki/Chaitya" title="Chaitya">chaitya</a> worship hall with <a href="/wiki/Stupa" title="Stupa">stupa</a> but no idols</figcaption></figure> The history of Indian Buddhism may be divided into five periods:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirakawa19937-97">[90]</a> Early Buddhism (occasionally called <a href="/wiki/Pre-sectarian_Buddhism" title="Pre-sectarian Buddhism">pre-sectarian Buddhism</a>), <a href="/wiki/Nikaya_Buddhism" title="Nikaya Buddhism">Nikaya Buddhism</a> or Sectarian Buddhism (the period of the early Buddhist schools), Early <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana Buddhism</a>, Late Mahayana, and the era of <a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayana</a> or the "Tantric Age". <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pre-sectarian_Buddhism">Pre-sectarian Buddhism</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pre-sectarian_Buddhism" title="Pre-sectarian Buddhism">Pre-sectarian Buddhism</a></div> According to <a href="/wiki/Lambert_Schmithausen" title="Lambert Schmithausen">Lambert Schmithausen</a> Pre-sectarian Buddhism is "the canonical period prior to the development of different schools with their different positions".<a href="#cite_note-98">[91]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_Texts" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Buddhist Texts">early Buddhist Texts</a> include the four principal Pali <a href="/wiki/Nik%C4%81ya" title="Nikāya">Nikāyas</a> <a href="#cite_note-99">[note 7]</a> (and their parallel <a href="/wiki/%C4%80gama_(Buddhism)" title="Āgama (Buddhism)">Agamas</a> found in the Chinese canon) together with the main body of monastic rules, which survive in the various versions of the <a href="/wiki/Patimokkha" class="mw-redirect" title="Patimokkha">patimokkha</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESujatoBrahmali201539–41-100">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGethin2008xviii-101">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey19983-102">[94]</a> However, these texts were revised over time, and it is unclear what constitutes the earliest layer of Buddhist teachings. One method to obtain information on the oldest core of Buddhism is to compare the oldest extant versions of the Theravadin Pāli Canon and other texts.<a href="#cite_note-105">[note 8]</a> The reliability of the early sources, and the possibility to draw out a core of oldest teachings, is a matter of dispute.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVetter1988xxi–xxxvii-106">[97]</a> According to Vetter, inconsistencies remain, and other methods must be applied to resolve those inconsistencies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVetter1988ix-103">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-112">[note 9]</a> According to Schmithausen, three positions held by scholars of Buddhism can be distinguished:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst1993vii-113">[103]</a> <ol><li>"Stress on the fundamental homogeneity and substantial authenticity of at least a considerable part of the Nikayic materials". Proponents of this position include <a href="/wiki/A._K._Warder" title="A. K. Warder">A. K. Warder</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[note 10]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Gombrich" title="Richard Gombrich">Richard Gombrich</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst1993viii-116">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-117">[note 11]</a></li> <li>"Scepticism with regard to the possibility of retrieving the doctrine of earliest Buddhism". Ronald Davidson is a proponent of this position.<a href="#cite_note-119">[note 12]</a></li> <li>"Cautious optimism in this respect". Proponents of this position include J.W. de Jong,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJong199325-120">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jong-121">[note 13]</a> Johannes Bronkhorst<a href="#cite_note-122">[note 14]</a> and Donald Lopez.<a href="#cite_note-124">[note 15]</a></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="The_Core_teachings">The Core teachings</h5></div> According to Mitchell, certain basic teachings appear in many places throughout the early texts, which has led most scholars to conclude that Gautama Buddha must have taught something similar to the <a href="/wiki/Four_Noble_Truths" title="Four Noble Truths">Four Noble Truths</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path" title="Noble Eightfold Path">Noble Eightfold Path</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nirvana_(Buddhism)" title="Nirvana (Buddhism)">Nirvana</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Three_marks_of_existence" title="Three marks of existence">three marks of existence</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Skandha" title="Skandha">five aggregates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da" title="Pratītyasamutpāda">dependent origination</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karma_in_Buddhism" title="Karma in Buddhism">karma</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rebirth_(Buddhism)" title="Rebirth (Buddhism)">rebirth</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitchell200234-125">[109]</a> According to N. Ross Reat, all of these doctrines are shared by the Theravada Pali texts and the Mahasamghika school's <a href="/wiki/Salistamba_Sutra" title="Salistamba Sutra">Śālistamba Sūtra</a>.<a href="#cite_note-126">[110]</a> A recent study by Bhikkhu Analayo concludes that the Theravada <a href="/wiki/Majjhima_Nik%C4%81ya" title="Majjhima Nikāya">Majjhima Nikaya</a> and Sarvastivada <a href="/wiki/Madhyama_Agama" title="Madhyama Agama">Madhyama Agama</a> contain mostly the same major doctrines.<a href="#cite_note-127">[111]</a> <a href="/wiki/Richard_G._Salomon_(professor_of_Asian_studies)" title="Richard G. Salomon (professor of Asian studies)">Richard Salomon</a>, in his study of the Gandharan texts (which are the earliest manuscripts containing early discourses), has confirmed that their teachings are "consistent with non-Mahayana Buddhism, which survives today in the Theravada school of Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia, but which in ancient times was represented by eighteen separate schools."<a href="#cite_note-128">[112]</a> However, some scholars argue that critical analysis reveals discrepancies among the various doctrines found in these early texts, which point to alternative possibilities for early Buddhism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkorupski19905-129">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst19984,_11-130">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchopen2002-131">[115]</a> The authenticity of certain teachings and doctrines have been questioned. For example, some scholars think that karma was not central to the teaching of the historical Buddha, while other disagree with this position.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthews1986124-132">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst199814-133">[117]</a> Likewise, there is scholarly disagreement on whether insight was seen as liberating in early Buddhism or whether it was a later addition to the practice of the four jhānas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmithausen1981-107">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst199377–78,_Section_8.4.3-134">[118]</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVetter19885,_Quote:_[T]hey_do_not_teach_that_one_is_released_by_knowing_the_four_noble_truths,_but_by_practising_the_fourth_noble_truth,_the_eightfold_path,_which_culminates_in_right_samadhi_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVetter19885,_Quote:_[T]hey_do_not_teach_that_one_is_released_by_knowing_the_four_noble_truths,_but_by_practising_the_fourth_noble_truth,_the_eightfold_path,_which_culminates_in_right_samadhi-135">[119]</a> Scholars such as Bronkhorst also think that the four noble truths may not have been formulated in earliest Buddhism, and did not serve in earliest Buddhism as a description of "liberating insight".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst1993107-136">[120]</a> According to Vetter, the description of the Buddhist path may initially have been as simple as the term "the middle way".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVetter1988-108">[99]</a> In time, this short description was elaborated, resulting in the description of the eightfold path.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVetter1988-108">[99]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ashokan_Era_and_the_early_schools">Ashokan Era and the early schools</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_schools" title="Early Buddhist schools">Early Buddhist schools</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_councils" title="Buddhist councils">Buddhist councils</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a></div> According to numerous Buddhist scriptures, soon after the <a href="/wiki/Parinirvana" title="Parinirvana">parinirvāṇa</a> (from Sanskrit: "highest extinguishment") of Gautama Buddha, the <a href="/wiki/First_Buddhist_council" class="mw-redirect" title="First Buddhist council">first Buddhist council</a> was held to collectively recite the teachings to ensure that no errors occurred in oral transmission. Many modern scholars question the historicity of this event.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey201388–90-137">[121]</a> However, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Gombrich" title="Richard Gombrich">Richard Gombrich</a> states that the monastic assembly recitations of the Buddha's teaching likely began during Buddha's lifetime, and they served a similar role of codifying the teachings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams2005175–176-138">[122]</a> The so called <a href="/wiki/Second_Buddhist_council" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Buddhist council">Second Buddhist council</a> resulted in the first schism in the <a href="/wiki/Sangha_(Buddhism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sangha (Buddhism)">Sangha</a>. Modern scholars believe that this was probably caused when a group of reformists called <a href="/wiki/Sthavira_nik%C4%81ya" title="Sthavira nikāya">Sthaviras</a> ("elders") sought to modify the Vinaya (monastic rule), and this caused a split with the conservatives who rejected this change, they were called <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81s%C4%81%E1%B9%83ghika" title="Mahāsāṃghika">Mahāsāṃghikas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey201389–90-139">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-140">[124]</a> While most scholars accept that this happened at some point, there is no agreement on the dating, especially if it dates to before or after the reign of Ashoka.<a href="#cite_note-141">[125]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Asoka%CC%A0_Buddhist_Missions.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Asoka%CC%A0_Buddhist_Missions.png/220px-Asoka%CC%A0_Buddhist_Missions.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Asoka%CC%A0_Buddhist_Missions.png/330px-Asoka%CC%A0_Buddhist_Missions.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Asoka%CC%A0_Buddhist_Missions.png/440px-Asoka%CC%A0_Buddhist_Missions.png 2x" data-file-width="1252" data-file-height="1284" /></a><figcaption>Map of the Buddhist missions during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Ashoka" title="Ashoka">Ashoka</a> according to the Edicts of Ashoka</figcaption></figure> Buddhism may have spread only slowly throughout India until the time of the <a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Mauryan</a> emperor <a href="/wiki/Ashoka" title="Ashoka">Ashoka</a> (304–232 BCE), who was a public supporter of the religion. The support of Aśoka and his descendants led to the construction of more <a href="/wiki/Stupa" title="Stupa">stūpas</a> (such as at <a href="/wiki/Sanchi" title="Sanchi">Sanchi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bharhut" title="Bharhut">Bharhut</a>), temples (such as the <a href="/wiki/Mahabodhi_Temple" title="Mahabodhi Temple">Mahabodhi Temple</a>) and to its spread throughout the Maurya Empire and into neighbouring lands such as <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> and to the island of <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a>. During and after the Mauryan period (322–180 BCE), the Sthavira community gave rise to several schools, one of which was the <a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a> school which tended to congregate in the south and another which was the <a href="/wiki/Sarv%C4%81stiv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Sarvāstivāda">Sarvāstivāda</a> school, which was mainly in north India. Likewise, the <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81s%C4%81%E1%B9%83ghika" title="Mahāsāṃghika">Mahāsāṃghika</a> groups also eventually split into different Sanghas. Originally, these schisms were caused by disputes over monastic disciplinary codes of various fraternities, but eventually, by about 100 CE if not earlier, schisms were being caused by doctrinal disagreements too.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey199874–75-142">[126]</a> Following (or leading up to) the schisms, each Saṅgha started to accumulate their own version of <a href="/wiki/Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka" title="Tripiṭaka">Tripiṭaka</a> (triple basket of texts).<a href="#cite_note-britannicatipitaka-73">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-Crandall2012p56-143">[127]</a> In their Tripiṭaka, each school included the Suttas of the Buddha, a Vinaya basket (disciplinary code) and some schools also added an <a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a> basket which were texts on detailed scholastic classification, summary and interpretation of the Suttas.<a href="#cite_note-britannicatipitaka-73">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey201390–91-144">[128]</a> The doctrine details in the Abhidharmas of various Buddhist schools differ significantly, and these were composed starting about the third century BCE and through the 1st millennium CE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey201390–93-145">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-146">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeownPrebish2004485-147">[131]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-Ashokan_expansion">Post-Ashokan expansion</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road_transmission_of_Buddhism" title="Silk Road transmission of Buddhism">Silk Road transmission of Buddhism</a></div> According to the <a href="/wiki/Edicts_of_Ashoka" title="Edicts of Ashoka">edicts of Aśoka</a>, the Mauryan emperor sent emissaries to various countries west of India to spread "Dharma", particularly in eastern provinces of the neighbouring <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a>, and even farther to <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic civilization">Hellenistic</a> kingdoms of the Mediterranean. It is a matter of disagreement among scholars whether or not these emissaries were accompanied by Buddhist missionaries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGombrich2005a135-148">[132]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Buddhist_Expansion.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Buddhist_Expansion.svg/220px-Buddhist_Expansion.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Buddhist_Expansion.svg/330px-Buddhist_Expansion.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Buddhist_Expansion.svg/440px-Buddhist_Expansion.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="473" /></a><figcaption>Buddhist expansion throughout Asia</figcaption></figure> In central and west Asia, Buddhist influence grew, through Greek-speaking Buddhist monarchs and ancient Asian trade routes, a phenomenon known as <a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhism" title="Greco-Buddhism">Greco-Buddhism</a>. An example of this is evidenced in Chinese and Pali Buddhist records, such as <a href="/wiki/Milinda_Panha" title="Milinda Panha">Milindapanha</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhist_art" title="Greco-Buddhist art">Greco-Buddhist art</a> of <a href="/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gandhāra</a>. The Milindapanha describes a conversation between a Buddhist monk and the 2nd-century BCE Greek king <a href="/wiki/Menander_I" title="Menander I">Menander</a>, after which Menander abdicates and himself goes into monastic life in the pursuit of nirvana.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrainor2004103,_119-149">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-150">[134]</a> Some scholars have questioned the Milindapanha version, expressing doubts whether Menander was Buddhist or just favourably disposed to Buddhist monks.<a href="#cite_note-151">[135]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Kushan_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Kushan empire">Kushan empire</a> (30–375 CE) came to control the Silk Road trade through Central and South Asia, which brought them to interact with <a href="/wiki/Gandharan_Buddhism" title="Gandharan Buddhism">Gandharan Buddhism</a> and the Buddhist institutions of these regions. The Kushans patronised Buddhism throughout their lands, and many Buddhist centres were built or renovated (the Sarvastivada school was particularly favored), especially by Emperor Kanishka (128–151 CE).<a href="#cite_note-152">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-Heirman,_Ann_p._57-153">[137]</a> Kushan support helped Buddhism to expand into a world religion through their trade routes.<a href="#cite_note-Liu2010p42-154">[138]</a> Buddhism spread to <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Khotan" title="Kingdom of Khotan">Khotan</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Tarim_Basin" title="Tarim Basin">Tarim Basin</a>, and China, eventually to other parts of the far east.<a href="#cite_note-Heirman,_Ann_p._57-153">[137]</a> Some of the earliest written documents of the Buddhist faith are the <a href="/wiki/Gandharan_Buddhist_texts" class="mw-redirect" title="Gandharan Buddhist texts">Gandharan Buddhist texts</a>, dating from about the 1st century CE, and connected to the <a href="/wiki/Dharmaguptaka" title="Dharmaguptaka">Dharmaguptaka</a> school.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarder2000278-155">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-156">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-157">[141]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Islamic conquest</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Plateau" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Plateau">Iranian Plateau</a> in the 7th-century, followed by the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquests_of_Afghanistan" title="Muslim conquests of Afghanistan">Muslim conquests of Afghanistan</a> and the later establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavid kingdom</a> with Islam as the state religion in Central Asia between the 10th- and 12th-century led to the decline and disappearance of Buddhism from most of these regions.<a href="#cite_note-Kudara2002-158">[142]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mahāyāna_Buddhism">Mahāyāna Buddhism</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahāyāna">Mahāyāna</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BuddhistTriad.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="stone statue group, a Buddhist triad depicting, left to right, a Kushan, the future buddha Maitreya, Gautama Buddha, the bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara, and a Buddhist monk. 2nd–3rd century. Guimet Museum" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/BuddhistTriad.JPG/220px-BuddhistTriad.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/BuddhistTriad.JPG/330px-BuddhistTriad.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/BuddhistTriad.JPG/440px-BuddhistTriad.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1587" data-file-height="970" /></a><figcaption>A Buddhist triad depicting, left to right, a <a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan</a>, the future buddha <a href="/wiki/Maitreya" title="Maitreya">Maitreya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Gautama Buddha</a>, the bodhisattva <a href="/wiki/Avalokite%C5%9Bvara" title="Avalokiteśvara">Avalokiteśvara</a>, and a <a href="/wiki/Bhikkhu" title="Bhikkhu">monk</a>. Second–third century. <a href="/wiki/Guimet_Museum" title="Guimet Museum">Guimet Museum</a></figcaption></figure> The origins of Mahāyāna ("Great Vehicle") Buddhism are not well understood and there are various competing theories about how and where this movement arose. Theories include the idea that it began as various groups venerating certain texts or that it arose as a strict forest ascetic movement.<a href="#cite_note-Drewes,_David_2010-159">[143]</a> The first Mahāyāna works were written sometime between the 1st century BCE and the 2nd century CE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirakawa1993252-160">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-Drewes,_David_2010-159">[143]</a> Much of the early extant evidence for the origins of Mahāyāna comes from early Chinese translations of Mahāyāna texts, mainly those of <a href="/wiki/Lokaksema_(Buddhist_monk)" title="Lokaksema (Buddhist monk)">Lokakṣema</a>. (2nd century CE).<a href="#cite_note-China_Buswell_2004-162">[note 16]</a> Some scholars have traditionally considered the earliest <a href="/wiki/Mahayana_sutras" title="Mahayana sutras">Mahāyāna sūtras</a> to include the first versions of the <a href="/wiki/Prajnaparamita" title="Prajnaparamita">Prajnaparamita</a> series, along with texts concerning <a href="/wiki/Akshobhya" title="Akshobhya">Akṣobhya</a>, which were probably composed in the 1st century BCE in the south of India.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirakawa1993252–253,_263,_268-163">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-South-165">[note 17]</a> There is no evidence that Mahāyāna ever referred to a separate formal school or sect of Buddhism, with a separate monastic code (Vinaya), but rather that it existed as a certain set of ideals, and later doctrines, for bodhisattvas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENattier2003193–194-166">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams20084–5-167">[149]</a> Records written by Chinese monks visiting India indicate that both Mahāyāna and non-Mahāyāna monks could be found in the same monasteries, with the difference that Mahāyāna monks worshipped figures of Bodhisattvas, while non-Mahayana monks did not.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams200097-168">[150]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nalanda.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Nalanda.jpg/220px-Nalanda.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Nalanda.jpg/330px-Nalanda.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Nalanda.jpg/440px-Nalanda.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2209" data-file-height="1571" /></a><figcaption>Site of <a href="/wiki/Nalanda" class="mw-redirect" title="Nalanda">Nalanda</a> University, a great centre of Mahāyāna thought</figcaption></figure> Mahāyāna initially seems to have remained a small minority movement that was in tension with other Buddhist groups, struggling for wider acceptance.<a href="#cite_note-169">[151]</a> However, during the fifth and sixth centuries CE, there seems to have been a rapid growth of Mahāyāna Buddhism, which is shown by a large increase in epigraphic and manuscript evidence in this period. However, it still remained a minority in comparison to other Buddhist schools.<a href="#cite_note-170">[152]</a> Mahāyāna Buddhist institutions continued to grow in influence during the following centuries, with large monastic university complexes such as <a href="/wiki/Nalanda" class="mw-redirect" title="Nalanda">Nalanda</a> (established by the 5th-century CE Gupta emperor, <a href="/wiki/Kumaragupta_I" title="Kumaragupta I">Kumaragupta I</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Vikramashila" title="Vikramashila">Vikramashila</a> (established under <a href="/wiki/Dharmapala_(emperor)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dharmapala (emperor)">Dharmapala</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 783 to 820) becoming quite powerful and influential. During this period of Late Mahāyāna, four major types of thought developed: Mādhyamaka, Yogācāra, Buddha-nature (Tathāgatagarbha), and the <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_logico-epistemology#The_Dignāga-Dharmakīrti_tradition" title="Buddhist logico-epistemology">epistemological tradition of Dignaga and Dharmakirti</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirakawa19938–9-171">[153]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Dan_Lusthaus" title="Dan Lusthaus">Dan Lusthaus</a>, Mādhyamaka and Yogācāra have a great deal in common, and the commonality stems from early Buddhism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELusthaus2002236–237-172">[154]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_Indian_Buddhism_and_Tantra">Late Indian Buddhism and Tantra</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayana</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thangka_Depicting_Vajrabhairava,_ca._1740,_Sotheby%27s.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Thangka_Depicting_Vajrabhairava%2C_ca._1740%2C_Sotheby%27s.jpg/220px-Thangka_Depicting_Vajrabhairava%2C_ca._1740%2C_Sotheby%27s.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="305" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Thangka_Depicting_Vajrabhairava%2C_ca._1740%2C_Sotheby%27s.jpg/330px-Thangka_Depicting_Vajrabhairava%2C_ca._1740%2C_Sotheby%27s.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Thangka_Depicting_Vajrabhairava%2C_ca._1740%2C_Sotheby%27s.jpg/440px-Thangka_Depicting_Vajrabhairava%2C_ca._1740%2C_Sotheby%27s.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1441" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>Vajrayana adopted deities such as <a href="/wiki/Bhairava" title="Bhairava">Bhairava</a>, known as <a href="/wiki/Yamantaka" title="Yamantaka">Yamantaka</a> in Tibetan Buddhism.</figcaption></figure> During the <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta period</a> (4th–6th centuries) and the empire of <a href="/wiki/Harsha" title="Harsha">Harṣavardana</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 590–647 CE), Buddhism continued to be influential in India, and large Buddhist learning institutions such as <a href="/wiki/Nalanda" class="mw-redirect" title="Nalanda">Nalanda</a> and <a href="/wiki/Valabhi_University" title="Valabhi University">Valabahi</a> Universities were at their peak.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarder2000442-173">[155]</a> Buddhism also flourished under the support of the <a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pāla Empire</a> (8th–12th centuries). Under the Guptas and Palas, Tantric Buddhism or Vajrayana developed and rose to prominence. It promoted new practices such as the use of <a href="/wiki/Mantra" title="Mantra">mantras</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dharani" title="Dharani">dharanis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mudra" title="Mudra">mudras</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mandala" title="Mandala">mandalas</a> and the visualization of deities and Buddhas and developed a new class of literature, the <a href="/wiki/Tantras_(Buddhism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tantras (Buddhism)">Buddhist Tantras</a>. This new esoteric form of Buddhism can be traced back to groups of wandering yogi magicians called <a href="/wiki/Mahasiddha" title="Mahasiddha">mahasiddhas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-174">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-175">[157]</a> The question of the origins of early Vajrayana has been taken up by various scholars. <a href="/wiki/David_Seyfort_Ruegg" title="David Seyfort Ruegg">David Seyfort Ruegg</a> has suggested that Buddhist tantra employed various elements of a "pan-Indian religious substrate" which is not specifically Buddhist, Shaiva or Vaishnava.<a href="#cite_note-176">[158]</a> According to Indologist <a href="/wiki/Alexis_Sanderson" title="Alexis Sanderson">Alexis Sanderson</a>, various classes of Vajrayana literature developed as a result of royal courts sponsoring both Buddhism and <a href="/wiki/Shaivism" title="Shaivism">Saivism</a>. Sanderson has argued that Buddhist tantras can be shown to have borrowed practices, terms, rituals and more form Shaiva tantras. He argues that Buddhist texts even directly copied various Shaiva tantras, especially the Bhairava Vidyapitha tantras.<a href="#cite_note-177">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-178">[160]</a> Ronald M. Davidson meanwhile, argues that Sanderson's claims for direct influence from Shaiva Vidyapitha texts are problematic because "the chronology of the Vidyapitha tantras is by no means so well established"<a href="#cite_note-179">[161]</a> and that the Shaiva tradition also appropriated non-Hindu deities, texts and traditions. Thus while "there can be no question that the Buddhist tantras were heavily influenced by <a href="/wiki/Kapalika" title="Kapalika">Kapalika</a> and other Saiva movements" argues Davidson, "the influence was apparently mutual".<a href="#cite_note-180">[162]</a> Already during this later era, Buddhism was losing state support in other regions of India, including the lands of the <a href="/wiki/Karkota_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Karkota Empire">Karkotas</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Gurjara-Pratihara_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty">Pratiharas</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Rashtrakuta_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashtrakuta dynasty">Rashtrakutas</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Pandya_dynasty" title="Pandya dynasty">Pandyas</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Pallava_dynasty" title="Pallava dynasty">Pallavas</a>. This loss of support in favor of Hindu faiths like <a href="/wiki/Vaishnavism" title="Vaishnavism">Vaishnavism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shaivism" title="Shaivism">Shaivism</a>, is the beginning of the long and complex period of the <a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Buddhism_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent">Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent</a>.<a href="#cite_note-181">[163]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquests_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent">Islamic invasions and conquest of India</a> (10th to 12th century), further damaged and destroyed many Buddhist institutions, leading to its eventual near disappearance from India by the 1200s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollins2000184–185-182">[164]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spread_to_East_and_Southeast_Asia">Spread to East and Southeast Asia</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prasat_Bayon_2014.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Prasat_Bayon_2014.JPG/220px-Prasat_Bayon_2014.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Prasat_Bayon_2014.JPG/330px-Prasat_Bayon_2014.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Prasat_Bayon_2014.JPG/440px-Prasat_Bayon_2014.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Angkor_Thom" title="Angkor Thom">Angkor Thom</a> build by <a href="/wiki/Khmer_Empire" title="Khmer Empire">Khmer</a> King <a href="/wiki/Jayavarman_VII" title="Jayavarman VII">Jayavarman VII</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1120–1218)</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road_transmission_of_Buddhism" title="Silk Road transmission of Buddhism">Silk Road transmission of Buddhism</a> to China is most commonly thought to have started in the late 2nd or the 1st century CE, though the literary sources are all open to question.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZürcher197222–27-183">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hill-185">[note 18]</a> The first documented translation efforts by foreign <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_monk" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist monk">Buddhist monks</a> in China were in the 2nd century CE, probably as a consequence of the expansion of the <a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Empire</a> into the Chinese territory of the <a href="/wiki/Tarim_Basin" title="Tarim Basin">Tarim Basin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZürcher197223-186">[167]</a> The first documented Buddhist texts translated into Chinese are those of the Parthian <a href="/wiki/An_Shigao" title="An Shigao">An Shigao</a> (148–180 CE).<a href="#cite_note-187">[168]</a> The first known <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahāyāna</a> scriptural texts are translations into Chinese by the Kushan monk <a href="/wiki/Lokaksema_(Buddhist_monk)" title="Lokaksema (Buddhist monk)">Lokakṣema</a> in <a href="/wiki/Luoyang" title="Luoyang">Luoyang</a>, between 178 and 189 CE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams200830-188">[169]</a> From China, Buddhism was introduced into its neighbours <a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a> (4th century), <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> (6th–7th centuries), and <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1st–2nd centuries).<a href="#cite_note-Dykstra,_Yoshiko_Kurata_2001_p._100-189">[170]</a><a href="#cite_note-190">[171]</a> During the Chinese <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> (618–907), <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Esoteric_Buddhism" title="Chinese Esoteric Buddhism">Chinese Esoteric Buddhism</a> was introduced from India and <a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan Buddhism</a> (Zen) became a major religion.<a href="#cite_note-191">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-192">[173]</a> Chan continued to grow in the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> (960–1279) and it was during this era that it strongly influenced Korean Buddhism and Japanese Buddhism.<a href="#cite_note-193">[174]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Pure Land Buddhism</a> also became popular during this period and was often practised together with Chan.<a href="#cite_note-194">[175]</a> It was also during the Song that the entire <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhist_canon" title="Chinese Buddhist canon">Chinese canon</a> was printed using over 130,000 wooden printing blocks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013223-195">[176]</a> During the Indian period of Esoteric Buddhism (from the 8th century onwards), Buddhism spread from India to Tibet and <a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a>. Johannes Bronkhorst states that the esoteric form was attractive because it allowed both a secluded monastic community as well as the social rites and rituals important to laypersons and to kings for the maintenance of a political state during succession and wars to resist invasion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst2011242–246-196">[177]</a> During the Middle Ages, Buddhism slowly declined in India,<a href="#cite_note-197">[178]</a> while it vanished from Persia and Central Asia as Islam became the state religion.<a href="#cite_note-larsfogelin6-198">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-199">[180]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a> school arrived in Sri Lanka sometime in the 3rd century BCE. Sri Lanka became a base for its later spread to <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a> after the 5th century CE (<a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cambodia" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a> and coastal <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a>).<a href="#cite_note-200">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkilling1997-201">[182]</a> <a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada Buddhism</a> was the dominant religion in <a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Burma</a> during the Mon <a href="/wiki/Hanthawaddy_Kingdom" title="Hanthawaddy Kingdom">Hanthawaddy Kingdom</a> (1287–1552).<a href="#cite_note-202">[183]</a> It also became dominant in the <a href="/wiki/Khmer_Empire" title="Khmer Empire">Khmer Empire</a> during the 13th and 14th centuries and in the Thai <a href="/wiki/Sukhothai_Kingdom" title="Sukhothai Kingdom">Sukhothai Kingdom</a> during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Ram_Khamhaeng" class="mw-redirect" title="Ram Khamhaeng">Ram Khamhaeng</a> (1237/1247–1298).<a href="#cite_note-203">[184]</a><a href="#cite_note-204">[185]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Worldview">Worldview</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Buddhism" title="Glossary of Buddhism">Glossary of Buddhism</a></div> The term "Buddhism" is an occidental neologism, commonly (and "rather roughly" according to <a href="/wiki/Donald_S._Lopez_Jr." title="Donald S. Lopez Jr.">Donald S. Lopez Jr.</a>) used as a translation for the <a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Buddha</a>, fójiào in Chinese, bukkyō in Japanese, nang pa sangs rgyas pa'i chos in Tibetan, buddhadharma in Sanskrit, buddhaśāsana in Pali.<a href="#cite_note-205">[186]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Four_Noble_Truths">Four Noble Truths</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Four_Noble_Truths" title="Four Noble Truths">Four Noble Truths</a></div>The Four Noble Truths, or the truths of the <a href="/wiki/Arhat" title="Arhat">Noble Ones</a>,<a href="#cite_note-206">[187]</a> taught in Buddhism are: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dukkha" class="mw-redirect" title="Dukkha">Dukkha</a> ("not being at ease", "suffering") is an innate characteristic of the perpetual cycle (<a href="/wiki/Samsara" class="mw-redirect" title="Samsara">samsara</a>, <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'wandering') of <a href="/wiki/Up%C4%81d%C4%81na" title="Upādāna">grasping</a> at things, ideas and habits</li> <li>Samudaya (origin, arising, combination; "cause"): dukkha is caused by <a href="/wiki/Ta%E1%B9%87h%C4%81" title="Taṇhā">taṇhā</a> ("craving", "desire" or "attachment", literally "thirst")</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nirodha" title="Nirodha">Nirodha</a> (cessation, ending, confinement): dukkha can be ended or contained by the confinement or letting go of taṇhā</li> <li>Marga (path): the path leading to the confinement of taṇhā and dukkha, classically the <a href="/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path" title="Noble Eightfold Path">Noble Eightfold Path</a> but sometimes <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_paths_to_liberation" title="Buddhist paths to liberation">other paths to liberation</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Three_marks_of_existence">Three marks of existence</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Three_marks_of_existence" title="Three marks of existence">Three marks of existence</a></div><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Dharmacakra_Discourse.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="color manuscript illustration of Buddha teaching the Four Noble Truths, Nalanda, Bihar, India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Dharmacakra_Discourse.jpeg/220px-Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Dharmacakra_Discourse.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Dharmacakra_Discourse.jpeg/330px-Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Dharmacakra_Discourse.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Dharmacakra_Discourse.jpeg/440px-Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Dharmacakra_Discourse.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="456" data-file-height="283" /></a><figcaption>The Buddha teaching the Four Noble Truths. <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> manuscript. <a href="/wiki/Nalanda" class="mw-redirect" title="Nalanda">Nalanda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bihar" title="Bihar">Bihar</a>, India</figcaption></figure>Most schools of Buddhism teach <a href="/wiki/Three_marks_of_existence" title="Three marks of existence">three marks of existence</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGombrich2005a47,_Quote:_"All_phenomenal_existence_[in_Buddhism]_is_said_to_have_three_interlocking_characteristics:_impermanence,_suffering_and_lack_of_soul_or_essence."_207-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGombrich2005a47,_Quote:_"All_phenomenal_existence_[in_Buddhism]_is_said_to_have_three_interlocking_characteristics:_impermanence,_suffering_and_lack_of_soul_or_essence."-207">[188]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dukkha" class="mw-redirect" title="Dukkha">Dukkha</a>: unease, suffering</li> <li>Anicca: <a href="/wiki/Impermanence" title="Impermanence">impermanence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatt%C4%81" title="Anattā">Anattā</a>: non-self; living things have no permanent immanent soul or essence<a href="#cite_note-britannicaanatta-208">[189]</a><a href="#cite_note-209">[190]</a><a href="#cite_note-5sourcesanatta-210">[191]</a></li></ul> Buddhism teaches that the idea that anything is permanent or that there is self in any being is ignorance or misperception (<a href="/wiki/Avidy%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Avidyā (Buddhism)">avijjā</a>), and that this is the primary source of clinging and dukkha.<a href="#cite_note-211">[192]</a><a href="#cite_note-GombrichScherrer2008p209-212">[193]</a><a href="#cite_note-HoffmanMahinda2013p162-213">[194]</a> Some schools describe four characteristics or "four seals of the Dharma", adding to the above: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">Nirvana</a> is peaceful/peace (śānta/śānti)<a href="#cite_note-214">[195]</a><a href="#cite_note-215">[196]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_cycle_of_rebirth">The cycle of rebirth</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wheel_of_Existence.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Wheel_of_Existence.jpg/220px-Wheel_of_Existence.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="297" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Wheel_of_Existence.jpg/330px-Wheel_of_Existence.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Wheel_of_Existence.jpg/440px-Wheel_of_Existence.jpg 2x" data-file-width="889" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Traditional <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhist</a> <a href="/wiki/Thangka" title="Thangka">Thangka</a> depicting the <a href="/wiki/Bhavacakra" title="Bhavacakra">Wheel of Life</a> with its six realms</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Saṃsāra">Saṃsāra</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra_(Buddhism)" title="Saṃsāra (Buddhism)">Saṃsāra (Buddhism)</a></div> Saṃsāra means "wandering" or "world", with the connotation of cyclic, circuitous change.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlostermaier2010604-216">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJuergensmeyerRoof2011271–272-217">[198]</a> It refers to the theory of rebirth and "cyclicality of all life, matter, existence", a fundamental assumption of Buddhism, as with all major Indian religions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJuergensmeyerRoof2011271–272-217">[198]</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETrainor200458,_Quote:_"Buddhism_shares_with_Hinduism_the_doctrine_of_Samsara,_whereby_all_beings_pass_through_an_unceasing_cycle_of_birth,_death_and_rebirth_until_they_find_a_means_of_liberation_from_the_cycle._However,_Buddhism_differs_from_Hinduism_in_rejecting_the_assertion_that_every_human_being_possesses_a_changeless_soul_which_constitutes_his_or_her_ultimate_identity,_and_which_transmigrates_from_one_incarnation_to_the_next._218-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrainor200458,_Quote:_"Buddhism_shares_with_Hinduism_the_doctrine_of_Samsara,_whereby_all_beings_pass_through_an_unceasing_cycle_of_birth,_death_and_rebirth_until_they_find_a_means_of_liberation_from_the_cycle._However,_Buddhism_differs_from_Hinduism_in_rejecting_the_assertion_that_every_human_being_possesses_a_changeless_soul_which_constitutes_his_or_her_ultimate_identity,_and_which_transmigrates_from_one_incarnation_to_the_next.-218">[199]</a> Samsara in Buddhism is considered to be <a href="/wiki/Dukkha" class="mw-redirect" title="Dukkha">dukkha</a>, unsatisfactory and painful,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2010-219">[200]</a> perpetuated by desire and <a href="/wiki/Avidy%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Avidyā (Buddhism)">avidya</a> (ignorance), and the resulting <a href="/wiki/Karma" title="Karma">karma</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJuergensmeyerRoof2011271–272-217">[198]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcClelland2010172,_240-220">[201]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliamsTribeWynne201218–19,_chapter_1-221">[202]</a> Liberation from this cycle of existence, nirvana, has been the foundation and the most important historical justification of Buddhism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConze201371,_Quote:_"Nirvana_is_the_''raison_d'être''_of_Buddhism,_and_its_ultimate_justification."-222">[203]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGethin1998119-223">[204]</a> Buddhist texts assert that rebirth can occur in six realms of existence, namely three good realms (heavenly, demi-god, human) and three evil realms (animal, hungry ghosts, hellish).<a href="#cite_note-realms2-225">[note 19]</a> Samsara ends if a person attains <a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">nirvana</a>, the "blowing out" of the afflictions through insight into <a href="/wiki/Impermanence" title="Impermanence">impermanence</a> and "<a href="/wiki/Anatta" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatta">non-self</a>".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuswellGimello19927–8,_83–84-226">[206]</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChoong199928–29,_Quote:_"Seeing_(''passati'')_the_nature_of_things_as_impermanent_leads_to_the_removal_of_the_view_of_self,_and_so_to_the_realisation_of_nirvana."_227-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChoong199928–29,_Quote:_"Seeing_(''passati'')_the_nature_of_things_as_impermanent_leads_to_the_removal_of_the_view_of_self,_and_so_to_the_realisation_of_nirvana."-227">[207]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERahula201451–58-228">[208]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rebirth">Rebirth</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rebirth_(Buddhism)" title="Rebirth (Buddhism)">Rebirth (Buddhism)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kushinara1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A very large hill behind two palm trees and a boulevard, where the Buddha is believed to have been cremated" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Kushinara1.jpg/220px-Kushinara1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Kushinara1.jpg/330px-Kushinara1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Kushinara1.jpg/440px-Kushinara1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="1563" /></a><figcaption>Ramabhar Stupa in <a href="/wiki/Kushinagar" title="Kushinagar">Kushinagar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uttar_Pradesh" title="Uttar Pradesh">Uttar Pradesh</a>, India, is regionally believed to be Buddha's cremation site.</figcaption></figure> Rebirth refers to a process whereby beings go through a succession of lifetimes as one of many possible forms of <a href="/wiki/Sentient_beings_(Buddhism)" title="Sentient beings (Buddhism)">sentient life</a>, each running from conception to death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeown1996107-229">[209]</a> In Buddhist thought, this rebirth does not involve a <a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">soul</a> or any fixed substance. This is because the Buddhist doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Anatta" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatta">anattā</a> (Sanskrit: anātman, no-self doctrine) rejects the concepts of a permanent self or an unchanging, eternal soul found in other religions.<a href="#cite_note-Leaman2002p23-230">[210]</a><a href="#cite_note-231">[211]</a> The Buddhist traditions have traditionally disagreed on what it is in a person that is reborn, as well as how quickly the rebirth occurs after death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuswellLopez2003708–709-232">[212]</a><a href="#cite_note-Neufeldt1986p123-233">[213]</a> Some Buddhist traditions assert that "no self" doctrine means that there is no enduring self, but there is avacya (inexpressible) personality (<a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">pudgala</a>) which migrates from one life to another.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuswellLopez2003708–709-232">[212]</a> The majority of Buddhist traditions, in contrast, assert that <a href="/wiki/Vij%C3%B1%C4%81na" title="Vijñāna">vijñāna</a> (a person's consciousness) though evolving, exists as a continuum and is the mechanistic basis of what undergoes the rebirth process.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams200274–75-234">[214]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuswellLopez2003708–709-232">[212]</a> The quality of one's rebirth depends on the <a href="/wiki/Merit_(Buddhism)" title="Merit (Buddhism)">merit</a> or demerit gained by one's karma (i.e., actions), as well as that accrued on one's behalf by a family member.<a href="#cite_note-236">[note 20]</a> Buddhism also developed <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_cosmology" title="Buddhist cosmology">a complex cosmology</a> to explain the various realms or planes of rebirth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2010-219">[200]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Karma">Karma</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Karma_in_Buddhism" title="Karma in Buddhism">Karma in Buddhism</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Karma_in_Buddhism" title="Karma in Buddhism">In Buddhism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karma" title="Karma">karma</a> (from <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>: "action, work") drives <a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra" title="Saṃsāra">saṃsāra</a>—the endless cycle of suffering and rebirth for each being. Good, skilful deeds (Pāli: kusala) and bad, unskilful deeds (Pāli: akusala) produce "seeds" in the unconscious receptacle (ālaya) that mature later either in this life or in a subsequent <a href="/wiki/Rebirth_(Buddhism)" title="Rebirth (Buddhism)">rebirth</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013131,_32–34-237">[216]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKasulis20061–12-238">[217]</a> The existence of karma is a core belief in Buddhism, as with all major Indian religions, and it implies neither fatalism nor that everything that happens to a person is caused by karma.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey201340–41-239">[218]</a> (Diseases and suffering induced by the disruptive actions of other people are examples of non-karma suffering.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey201340–41-239">[218]</a>) A central aspect of Buddhist theory of karma is that intent (<a href="/wiki/Cetan%C4%81" title="Cetanā">cetanā</a>) matters and is essential to bring about a consequence or <a href="/wiki/Phala" title="Phala">phala</a> "fruit" or <a href="/wiki/Vip%C4%81ka" title="Vipāka">vipāka</a> "result".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrishan199759–78-240">[219]</a> The emphasis on intent in Buddhism marks a difference from the karmic theory of Jainism, where karma accumulates with or without intent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey201340-241">[220]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrishan199747,_55-242">[221]</a> The emphasis on intent is also found in Hinduism, and Buddhism may have influenced karma theories of Hinduism.<a href="#cite_note-243">[222]</a> In Buddhism, good or bad karma accumulates even if there is no physical action, and just having ill or good thoughts creates karmic seeds; thus, actions of body, speech or mind all lead to karmic seeds.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey201340–41-239">[218]</a> In the Buddhist traditions, life aspects affected by the law of karma in past and current births of a being include the form of rebirth, realm of rebirth, social class, character and major circumstances of a lifetime.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey201340–41-239">[218]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpiro1982430_with_footnote_1-244">[223]</a><a href="#cite_note-245">[224]</a> According to the theory, it operates like the laws of physics, without external intervention, on every being in all <a href="/wiki/Samsara_(Buddhism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Samsara (Buddhism)">six realms</a> of existence including human beings and gods.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey201340–41-239">[218]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELopez2001239–248-246">[225]</a> A notable aspect of the karma theory in modern Buddhism is merit transfer.<a href="#cite_note-appletonp129-247">[226]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpiro1982124–128-248">[227]</a> A person accumulates merit not only through intentions and ethical living, but also is able to gain merit from others by exchanging goods and services, such as through dāna (charity to monks or nuns).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey201345–46-249">[228]</a> The theory also states a person can transfer one's own good karma to living family members and ancestors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpiro1982124–128-248">[227]</a> This Buddhist idea may have roots in the quid-pro-quo exchange beliefs of the Hindu Vedic rituals.<a href="#cite_note-Egge2013-250">[229]</a> The "karma merit transfer" concept has been controversial, not accepted in later Jainism and Hinduism traditions, unlike Buddhism where it was adopted in ancient times and remains a common practice.<a href="#cite_note-appletonp129-247">[226]</a> According to Bruce Reichenbach, the "merit transfer" idea was generally absent in early Buddhism and may have emerged with the rise of Mahayana Buddhism; he adds that while major Hindu schools such as Yoga, Advaita Vedanta and others do not believe in merit transfer, some bhakti Hindu traditions later adopted the idea just like Buddhism.<a href="#cite_note-251">[230]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Liberation">Liberation</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">Moksha</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nirvana_(Buddhism)" title="Nirvana (Buddhism)">Nirvana (Buddhism)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:050_Mucilinda_with_his_Wives_around_the_Buddha_(32999346203).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/050_Mucilinda_with_his_Wives_around_the_Buddha_%2832999346203%29.jpg/220px-050_Mucilinda_with_his_Wives_around_the_Buddha_%2832999346203%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/050_Mucilinda_with_his_Wives_around_the_Buddha_%2832999346203%29.jpg/330px-050_Mucilinda_with_his_Wives_around_the_Buddha_%2832999346203%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/050_Mucilinda_with_his_Wives_around_the_Buddha_%2832999346203%29.jpg/440px-050_Mucilinda_with_his_Wives_around_the_Buddha_%2832999346203%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3922" data-file-height="3957" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Aniconism" title="Aniconism">aniconic</a> depiction of the Buddha's spiritual liberation (moksha) or awakening (bodhi), at <a href="/wiki/Sanchi" title="Sanchi">Sanchi</a>. The Buddha is not depicted, only symbolized by the Bodhi tree and the empty seat</figcaption></figure> The cessation of the <a href="/wiki/Kleshas_(Buddhism)" title="Kleshas (Buddhism)">kleshas</a> and the attainment of <a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">nirvana</a> (nibbāna), with which the cycle of rebirth ends, has been the primary and the <a href="/wiki/Soteriological" class="mw-redirect" title="Soteriological">soteriological</a> goal of the Buddhist path for monastic life since the time of the Buddha.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel2008136-252">[231]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuswellLopez2003589–590-253">[232]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollins1998135–177,_188,_443-254">[233]</a> The term "path" is usually taken to mean the <a href="/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path" title="Noble Eightfold Path">Noble Eightfold Path</a>, but <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_Paths_to_liberation" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist Paths to liberation">other versions</a> of "the path" can also be found in the Nikayas.<a href="#cite_note-256">[note 21]</a> In some passages in the Pali Canon, a distinction is being made between right knowledge or insight (sammā-ñāṇa), and right liberation or release (sammā-vimutti), as the means to attain cessation and liberation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChoong2000141-257">[235]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFuller200555–56-258">[236]</a> Nirvana literally means "blowing out, quenching, becoming extinguished".<a href="#cite_note-Collins2010p63-259">[237]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECousins19969-260">[238]</a> In early Buddhist texts, it is the state of restraint and self-control that leads to the "blowing out" and the ending of the cycles of sufferings associated with rebirths and redeaths.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVetter1988-108">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGombrich199766-261">[239]</a><a href="#cite_note-262">[240]</a> Many later Buddhist texts describe nirvana as identical with <a href="/wiki/Anatta" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatta">anatta</a> with complete "emptiness, nothingness".<a href="#cite_note-263">[241]</a><a href="#cite_note-264">[242]</a><a href="#cite_note-265">[243]</a><a href="#cite_note-267">[note 22]</a> In some texts, the state is described with greater detail, such as passing through the gate of emptiness (sunyata)—realising that there is no soul or self in any living being, then passing through the gate of signlessness (animitta)—realising that nirvana cannot be perceived, and finally passing through the gate of wishlessness (apranihita)—realising that nirvana is the state of not even wishing for nirvana.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuswellLopez2003589–590-253">[232]</a><a href="#cite_note-268">[245]</a><a href="#cite_note-270">[note 23]</a> The nirvana state has been described in Buddhist texts partly in a manner similar to other Indian religions, as the state of complete liberation, enlightenment, highest happiness, bliss, fearlessness, freedom, permanence, non-dependent origination, unfathomable, and indescribable.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollins1998191–233-271">[247]</a><a href="#cite_note-272">[248]</a> It has also been described in part differently, as a state of spiritual release marked by "emptiness" and realisation of <a href="/wiki/Anatta" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatta">non-self</a>.<a href="#cite_note-273">[249]</a><a href="#cite_note-274">[250]</a><a href="#cite_note-275">[251]</a><a href="#cite_note-278">[note 24]</a> While Buddhism considers the liberation from <a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra_(Buddhism)" title="Saṃsāra (Buddhism)">saṃsāra</a> as the ultimate spiritual goal, in traditional practice, the primary focus of a vast majority of lay Buddhists has been to seek and accumulate merit through good deeds, donations to monks and various Buddhist rituals in order to gain better rebirths rather than nirvana.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoogan2003192-279">[254]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrainor200462-280">[255]</a><a href="#cite_note-283">[note 25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dependent_arising">Dependent arising</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da" title="Pratītyasamutpāda">Pratītyasamutpāda</a> and <a href="/wiki/Twelve_Nid%C4%81nas" class="mw-redirect" title="Twelve Nidānas">Twelve Nidānas</a></div> Pratityasamutpada, also called "dependent arising, or dependent origination", is the Buddhist theory to explain the nature and relations of being, becoming, existence and ultimate reality. Buddhism asserts that there is nothing independent, except the state of nirvana.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey199854-284">[258]</a> All physical and mental states depend on and arise from other pre-existing states, and in turn from them arise other dependent states while they cease.<a href="#cite_note-285">[259]</a> The 'dependent arisings' have a causal conditioning, and thus Pratityasamutpada is the Buddhist belief that causality is the basis of <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontology</a>, not a creator God nor the ontological Vedic concept called universal Self (<a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a>) nor any other 'transcendent creative principle'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams200264,_Quote:_In_the_''Mahatanhasankhaya_Sutta''_the_Buddha_[stresses]_that_things_originate_in_dependence_upon_causal_conditioning,_and_this_emphasis_on_causality_describes_the_central_feature_of_Buddhist_ontology._All_elements_of_samsara_exist_in_some_sense_or_another_relative_to_their_causes_and_conditions._286-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams200264,_Quote:_In_the_''Mahatanhasankhaya_Sutta''_the_Buddha_[stresses]_that_things_originate_in_dependence_upon_causal_conditioning,_and_this_emphasis_on_causality_describes_the_central_feature_of_Buddhist_ontology._All_elements_of_samsara_exist_in_some_sense_or_another_relative_to_their_causes_and_conditions.-286">[260]</a><a href="#cite_note-287">[261]</a> However, Buddhist thought does not understand causality in terms of Newtonian mechanics; rather it understands it as conditioned arising.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGethin1998153–155-288">[262]</a><a href="#cite_note-289">[263]</a> In Buddhism, dependent arising refers to conditions created by a plurality of causes that necessarily co-originate a phenomenon within and across lifetimes, such as karma in one life creating conditions that lead to rebirth in one of the realms of existence for another lifetime.<a href="#cite_note-Kalupahana1975p54-290">[264]</a><a href="#cite_note-291">[265]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGethin1998151–152-292">[266]</a> Buddhism applies the theory of dependent arising to explain origination of endless cycles of dukkha and rebirth, through <a href="/wiki/Twelve_Nid%C4%81nas" class="mw-redirect" title="Twelve Nidānas">Twelve Nidānas</a> or "twelve links". It states that because <a href="/wiki/Avidy%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Avidyā (Buddhism)">Avidyā</a> (ignorance) exists, <a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%85kh%C4%81ra" title="Saṅkhāra">Saṃskāras</a> (karmic formations) exist; because Saṃskāras exist therefore <a href="/wiki/Vij%C3%B1%C4%81na" title="Vijñāna">Vijñāna</a> (consciousness) exists; and in a similar manner it links <a href="/wiki/N%C4%81mar%C5%ABpa" class="mw-redirect" title="Nāmarūpa">Nāmarūpa</a> (the sentient body), <a href="/wiki/%E1%B9%A2a%E1%B8%8D%C4%81yatana" class="mw-redirect" title="Ṣaḍāyatana">Ṣaḍāyatana</a> (our six senses), <a href="/wiki/Spar%C5%9Ba" title="Sparśa">Sparśa</a> (sensory stimulation), <a href="/wiki/Vedan%C4%81" title="Vedanā">Vedanā</a> (feeling), <a href="/wiki/Ta%E1%B9%87h%C4%81" title="Taṇhā">Taṇhā</a> (craving), <a href="/wiki/Up%C4%81d%C4%81na" title="Upādāna">Upādāna</a> (grasping), <a href="/wiki/Bhava" title="Bhava">Bhava</a> (becoming), <a href="/wiki/J%C4%81ti_(Buddhism)" title="Jāti (Buddhism)">Jāti</a> (birth), and <a href="/wiki/Jar%C4%81mara%E1%B9%87a" title="Jarāmaraṇa">Jarāmaraṇa</a> (old age, death, sorrow, and pain).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey201365–72-293">[267]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmmanuel201351–66-294">[268]</a> By breaking the circuitous links of the Twelve Nidanas, Buddhism asserts that liberation from these endless cycles of rebirth and dukkha can be attained.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey199854,_Quote:_"The_main_concrete_application_of_the_abstract_principle_is_in_the_form_of_a_series_of_conditioned_links_(''nidanas''),_culminating_in_the_arising_of_dukkha."_(...)_"This_[doctrine]_states_the_principle_of_conditionality,_that_all_things,_mental_and_physical,_arise_and_exist_due_to_the_presence_of_certain_conditions,_and_cease_once_their_conditions_are_removed:_nothing_(except_''Nibbana'')_is_independent._The_doctrine_thus_complements_the_teaching_that_no_permanent,_independent_self_can_be_found."_295-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey199854,_Quote:_"The_main_concrete_application_of_the_abstract_principle_is_in_the_form_of_a_series_of_conditioned_links_(''nidanas''),_culminating_in_the_arising_of_dukkha."_(...)_"This_[doctrine]_states_the_principle_of_conditionality,_that_all_things,_mental_and_physical,_arise_and_exist_due_to_the_presence_of_certain_conditions,_and_cease_once_their_conditions_are_removed:_nothing_(except_''Nibbana'')_is_independent._The_doctrine_thus_complements_the_teaching_that_no_permanent,_independent_self_can_be_found."-295">[269]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Not-Self_and_Emptiness">Not-Self and Emptiness</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/An%C4%81tman" class="mw-redirect" title="Anātman">Anātman</a> and <a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></div> <table style="float:right; clear: right; margin:0.1em 0 0.1em 1em; background:Azure; border:1px solid DarkGray; font-size:85%; text-align:center;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tbody><tr> <td colspan="5" style="border-bottom:1px solid DarkGray; background:WhiteSmoke; text-align:center; color:RoyalBlue"> The <a href="/wiki/Skandha" title="Skandha">Five Aggregates</a> (pañca khandha) according to the <a href="/wiki/Pali_Canon" title="Pali Canon">Pali Canon</a>.</td> </tr><tr> <td colspan="5"> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1"> </td> <td> <table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2"> <tbody><tr> <td colspan="4" style="background:Lime"><a href="/wiki/R%C5%ABpa" title="Rūpa">form (rūpa)</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="1" style="background:Lime"> </td> <td colspan="2" style="background:white; border:1px dotted Blue"><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81bh%C5%ABta" title="Mahābhūta">4 elements (mahābhūta)</a></td> <td colspan="1" style="background:Lime"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="4" style="background:Lime"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="1" style="background:Azure"> </td> <td colspan="1" style="background:Azure; border-left:1px solid Green"> </td> <td colspan="2" style="background:Azure; color:LimeGreen">↓</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="1" style="background:Azure"> </td> <td colspan="1" style="background:Azure; border-left:1px solid Green"> </td> <td colspan="2" style="background:White; border:1px dotted Gainsboro"><a href="/wiki/Spar%C5%9Ba" title="Sparśa">contact (phassa)</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="background:Azure; color:Green; text-align:left">    ↓</td> <td colspan="2" style="background:Azure; color:LightSkyBlue">↑</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="4" style="background:LightSkyBlue">  <a href="/wiki/Vijnana" class="mw-redirect" title="Vijnana">consciousness (viññāna)</a>  </td> </tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td>        → ←       ←</td> <td> <table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" style="background:white"> <tbody><tr> <td rowspan="8" style="border-left:1px dotted Red; border-top:1px dotted Red; border-bottom:1px dotted Red"> </td> <td style="color:RoyalBlue; border-top:1px dotted Red"><a href="/wiki/Mental_factors_(Buddhism)" title="Mental factors (Buddhism)">mental factors (cetasika)</a></td> <td rowspan="8" style="border-right:1px dotted Red; border-top:1px dotted Red; border-bottom:1px dotted Red"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background:Orange">  <a href="/wiki/Vedana" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedana">feeling (vedanā)</a>  </td> </tr> <tr><td> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:OrangeRed">  <a href="/wiki/Samjna" class="mw-redirect" title="Samjna">perception (sañña)</a>  </td> </tr> <tr><td> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:Red">  <a href="/wiki/Sankhara" class="mw-redirect" title="Sankhara">formation (saṅkhāra)</a>  </td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="3" style="border-bottom:1px dotted Red"> </td> </tr></tbody></table> </td> <td rowspan="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="5"> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="5" style="border-top:1px solid DarkGray; background:Ivory; text-align:left; color:RoyalBlue"> <dl><dd><ul><li><a href="/wiki/R%C5%ABpa" title="Rūpa">Form</a> is derived from the <a href="/wiki/Mahabhuta" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahabhuta">Four Great Elements</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinnana" class="mw-redirect" title="Vinnana">Consciousness</a> arises from <a href="/wiki/Namarupa" title="Namarupa">other aggregates</a>.</li> <li>Mental Factors arise from the <a href="/wiki/Phassa" class="mw-redirect" title="Phassa">Contact</a> of <a href="/wiki/Vinnana" class="mw-redirect" title="Vinnana">Consciousness</a> and <a href="/wiki/Namarupa" title="Namarupa">other aggregates</a>.</li></ul></dd></dl></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="5" style="background:WhiteSmoke; text-align:left; color:RoyalBlue">  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.109.than.html">Source: MN 109 (Thanissaro, 2001)</a>  |  <a href="/wiki/Template:PancaKhandha" title="Template:PancaKhandha">diagram details</a></td></tr> </tbody></table> A related doctrine in Buddhism is that of anattā (Pali) or anātman (Sanskrit). It is the view that there is no unchanging, permanent self, soul or essence in phenomena.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGombrich200647-296">[270]</a> The Buddha and Buddhist philosophers who follow him such as Vasubandhu and Buddhaghosa, generally argue for this view by analyzing the person through the schema of the <a href="/wiki/Five_aggregates" class="mw-redirect" title="Five aggregates">five aggregates</a>, and then attempting to show that none of these five components of personality can be permanent or absolute.<a href="#cite_note-297">[271]</a> This can be seen in Buddhist discourses such as the <a href="/wiki/Anattalakkhana_Sutta" class="mw-redirect" title="Anattalakkhana Sutta">Anattalakkhana Sutta</a>. "Emptiness" or "voidness" (Skt: Śūnyatā, Pali: Suññatā), is a related concept with many different interpretations throughout the various Buddhisms. In early Buddhism, it was commonly stated that all five aggregates are void (rittaka), hollow (tucchaka), coreless (asāraka), for example as in the Pheṇapiṇḍūpama Sutta (SN 22:95).<a href="#cite_note-298">[272]</a> Similarly, in Theravada Buddhism, it often means that the five aggregates are empty of a Self.<a href="#cite_note-299">[273]</a> Emptiness is a central concept in Mahāyāna Buddhism, especially in <a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna" title="Nagarjuna">Nagarjuna</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a> school, and in the <a href="/wiki/Prajnaparamita" title="Prajnaparamita">Prajñāpāramitā</a> sutras. In Madhyamaka philosophy, emptiness is the view which holds that all phenomena are without any <a href="/wiki/Svabhava" title="Svabhava">svabhava</a> (literally "own-nature" or "self-nature"), and are thus without any underlying essence, and so are "empty" of being independent.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:AUDIENCE" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:AUDIENCE">example needed</a>] This doctrine sought to refute the heterodox theories of svabhava circulating at the time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindtner1997324-300">[274]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Three_Jewels">The Three Jewels</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Three_Jewels" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Jewels">Three Jewels</a></div> All forms of Buddhism revere and take spiritual refuge in the "three jewels" (triratna): Buddha, Dharma and Sangha.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013244–245-301">[275]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Buddha">Buddha</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddhahood</a></div> While all varieties of Buddhism revere "Buddha" and "buddhahood", they have different views on what these are. Regardless of their interpretation, the concept of Buddha is central to all forms of Buddhism. In Theravada Buddhism, a Buddha is someone who has become awake through their own efforts and insight. They have put an end to their cycle of rebirths and have ended all unwholesome mental states which lead to bad action and thus are morally perfected.<a href="#cite_note-Crosby,_Kate_2013_p._16-302">[276]</a> While subject to the limitations of the human body in certain ways (for example, in the early texts, the Buddha suffers from backaches), a Buddha is said to be "deep, immeasurable, hard-to-fathom as is the great ocean", and also has immense psychic powers (<a href="/wiki/Abhij%C3%B1%C4%81" title="Abhijñā">abhijñā</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey201327–28-303">[277]</a> Theravada generally sees Gautama Buddha (the historical Buddha Sakyamuni) as the only Buddha of the current era. Mahāyāna Buddhism meanwhile, has a vastly expanded <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_cosmology" title="Buddhist cosmology">cosmology</a>, with various <a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddhas</a> and other holy beings (aryas) residing in different realms. Mahāyāna texts not only revere numerous <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_deities#Buddhas" title="Buddhist deities">Buddhas</a> besides <a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">Shakyamuni</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha" title="Amitābha">Amitabha</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vairochana" class="mw-redirect" title="Vairochana">Vairocana</a>, but also see them as transcendental or supramundane (lokuttara) beings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams200821-304">[278]</a> Mahāyāna Buddhism holds that these other Buddhas in other realms can be contacted and are able to benefit beings in this world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013162-305">[279]</a> In Mahāyāna, a Buddha is a kind of "spiritual king", a "protector of all creatures" with a lifetime that is countless of eons long, rather than just a human teacher who has transcended the world after death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams200827-306">[280]</a> Shakyamuni's life and death on earth is then usually understood as a "mere appearance" or "a manifestation skilfully projected into earthly life by a long-enlightened transcendent being, who is still available to teach the faithful through visionary experiences".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams200827-306">[280]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013164-307">[281]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dharma">Dharma</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></div> The second of the three jewels is "Dharma" (Pali: Dhamma), which in Buddhism refers to the Buddha's teaching, which includes all of the main ideas outlined above. While this teaching reflects the true nature of reality, it is not a belief to be clung to, but a pragmatic teaching to be put into practice. It is likened to a raft which is "for crossing over" (to nirvana) not for holding on to.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey201331-308">[282]</a> It also refers to the universal law and cosmic order which that teaching both reveals and relies upon.<a href="#cite_note-309">[283]</a> It is an everlasting principle which applies to all beings and worlds. In that sense it is also the ultimate truth and reality about the universe, it is thus "the way that things really are". <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sangha">Sangha</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Sangha" title="Sangha">Sangha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattva</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arhat" title="Arhat">Arhat</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Praying_monks_and_nuns_in_the_Buddha_Tooth_Relic_Temple_of_Singapore.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Praying_monks_and_nuns_in_the_Buddha_Tooth_Relic_Temple_of_Singapore.jpg/220px-Praying_monks_and_nuns_in_the_Buddha_Tooth_Relic_Temple_of_Singapore.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Praying_monks_and_nuns_in_the_Buddha_Tooth_Relic_Temple_of_Singapore.jpg/330px-Praying_monks_and_nuns_in_the_Buddha_Tooth_Relic_Temple_of_Singapore.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Praying_monks_and_nuns_in_the_Buddha_Tooth_Relic_Temple_of_Singapore.jpg/440px-Praying_monks_and_nuns_in_the_Buddha_Tooth_Relic_Temple_of_Singapore.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5579" data-file-height="3360" /></a><figcaption>Buddhist monks and nuns praying in the <a href="/wiki/Buddha_Tooth_Relic_Temple" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddha Tooth Relic Temple">Buddha Tooth Relic Temple</a> of Singapore</figcaption></figure> The third "jewel" which Buddhists take refuge in is the "Sangha", which refers to the monastic community of monks and nuns who follow Gautama Buddha's monastic discipline which was "designed to shape the Sangha as an ideal community, with the optimum conditions for spiritual growth."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey201388-310">[284]</a> The Sangha consists of those who have chosen to follow the Buddha's ideal way of life, which is one of celibate monastic renunciation with minimal material possessions (such as an alms bowl and robes).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGethin199885–88-311">[285]</a> The Sangha is seen as important because they preserve and pass down Buddha Dharma. As Gethin states "the Sangha lives the teaching, preserves the teaching as Scriptures and teaches the wider community. Without the Sangha there is no Buddhism."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGethin199892-312">[286]</a> The Sangha also acts as a "field of merit" for laypersons, allowing them to make spiritual merit or goodness by donating to the Sangha and supporting them. In return, they keep their duty to preserve and spread the Dharma everywhere for the good of the world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGethin199886-313">[287]</a> There is also a separate definition of Sangha, referring to those who have attained any <a href="/wiki/Four_stages_of_enlightenment" class="mw-redirect" title="Four stages of enlightenment">stage of awakening</a>, whether or not they are monastics. This sangha is called the <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Ar%C4%81vaka#The_community_of_disciples" title="Śrāvaka">āryasaṅgha</a> "noble Sangha".<a href="#cite_note-314">[288]</a> All forms of Buddhism generally reveres these <a href="/wiki/Arya_(Buddhism)" title="Arya (Buddhism)">āryas</a> (Pali: ariya, "noble ones" or "holy ones") who are spiritually attained beings. Aryas have attained the fruits of the Buddhist path.<a href="#cite_note-315">[289]</a> Becoming an arya is a goal in most forms of Buddhism. The āryasaṅgha includes holy beings such as <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">bodhisattvas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arhat" title="Arhat">arhats</a> and stream-enterers. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_key_Mahāyāna_views">Other key Mahāyāna views</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogachara</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buddha-nature" title="Buddha-nature">Buddha-nature</a></div> Mahāyāna Buddhism also differs from Theravada and the other schools of early Buddhism in promoting several unique doctrines which are contained in Mahāyāna sutras and philosophical treatises. One of these is the unique interpretation of emptiness and dependent origination found in the Madhyamaka school. Another very influential doctrine for Mahāyāna is the main philosophical view of the <a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogācāra</a> school variously, termed Vijñaptimātratā-vāda ("the doctrine that there are only ideas" or "mental impressions") or Vijñānavāda ("the doctrine of consciousness"). According to Mark Siderits, what classical Yogācāra thinkers like Vasubandhu had in mind is that we are only ever aware of mental images or impressions, which may appear as external objects, but "there is actually no such thing outside the mind".<a href="#cite_note-316">[290]</a> There are several interpretations of this main theory, many scholars see it as a type of Idealism, others as a kind of phenomenology.<a href="#cite_note-317">[291]</a> Another very influential concept unique to Mahāyāna is that of "Buddha-nature" (buddhadhātu) or "Tathagata-womb" (tathāgatagarbha). Buddha-nature is a concept found in some 1st-millennium CE Buddhist texts, such as the <a href="/wiki/Tath%C4%81gatagarbha_s%C5%ABtras" title="Tathāgatagarbha sūtras">Tathāgatagarbha sūtras</a>. According to Paul Williams these <a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">Sutras</a> suggest that 'all sentient beings contain a Tathagata' as their 'essence, core inner nature, Self'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams2008104-318">[292]</a><a href="#cite_note-320">[note 26]</a> According to Karl Brunnholzl "the earliest mahayana sutras that are based on and discuss the notion of tathāgatagarbha as the buddha potential that is innate in all sentient beings began to appear in written form in the late second and early third century."<a href="#cite_note-321">[294]</a> For some, the doctrine seems to conflict with the Buddhist anatta doctrine (non-Self), leading scholars to posit that the Tathāgatagarbha Sutras were written to promote Buddhism to non-Buddhists.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams2008104–105,_108–109,_Quote:_"..._[The_''Mahaparinirvana_Sutra'']_refers_to_the_Buddha_using_the_term_"Self"_in_order_to_win_over_non-Buddhist_ascetics."_322-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams2008104–105,_108–109,_Quote:_"..._[The_''Mahaparinirvana_Sutra'']_refers_to_the_Buddha_using_the_term_"Self"_in_order_to_win_over_non-Buddhist_ascetics."-322">[295]</a><a href="#cite_note-323">[296]</a> This can be seen in texts like the <a href="/wiki/La%E1%B9%85k%C4%81vat%C4%81ra_S%C5%ABtra" title="Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra">Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra</a>, which state that Buddha-nature is taught to help those who have fear when they listen to the teaching of anatta.<a href="#cite_note-324">[297]</a> Buddhist texts like the <a href="/wiki/Ratnagotravibh%C4%81ga" title="Ratnagotravibhāga">Ratnagotravibhāga</a> clarify that the "Self" implied in Tathagatagarbha doctrine is actually "<a href="/wiki/Anatt%C4%81" title="Anattā">not-self</a>".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams2008112-325">[298]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHookham199196-326">[299]</a> Various interpretations of the concept have been advanced by Buddhist thinkers throughout the history of Buddhist thought and most attempt to avoid anything like the <a href="/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Hinduism)" title="Ātman (Hinduism)">Hindu Atman</a> doctrine. These Indian Buddhist ideas, in various synthetic ways, form the basis of subsequent Mahāyāna philosophy in Tibetan Buddhism and East Asian Buddhism. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Paths_to_liberation">Paths to liberation</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_paths_to_liberation" title="Buddhist paths to liberation">Buddhist paths to liberation</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Bodhipakkhiy%C4%81dhamm%C4%81" title="Bodhipakkhiyādhammā">Bodhipakkhiyādhammā</a> are seven lists of qualities or factors that promote spiritual awakening (bodhi). Each list is a short summary of the Buddhist path, and the seven lists substantially overlap. The best-known list in the West is the <a href="/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path" title="Noble Eightfold Path">Noble Eightfold Path</a>, but a wide variety of paths and models of progress have been used and described in the different Buddhist traditions. However, they generally share basic practices such as sila (ethics), samadhi (meditation, dhyana) and prajña (wisdom), which are known as the three trainings. An important additional practice is a kind and compassionate attitude toward every living being and the world. <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_devotion" title="Buddhist devotion">Devotion</a> is also important in some Buddhist traditions, and in the Tibetan traditions visualisations of deities and mandalas are important. The value of textual study is regarded differently in the various Buddhist traditions. It is central to Theravada and highly important to Tibetan Buddhism, while the Zen tradition takes an ambiguous stance. An important guiding principle of Buddhist practice is the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Way" title="Middle Way">Middle Way</a> (madhyamapratipad). It was a part of Buddha's first sermon, where he presented the <a href="/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path" title="Noble Eightfold Path">Noble Eightfold Path</a> that was a 'middle way' between the extremes of asceticism and hedonistic sense pleasures.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey201323,_81-327">[300]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeown199624,_59-328">[301]</a> In Buddhism, states Harvey, the doctrine of "dependent arising" (conditioned arising, pratītyasamutpāda) to explain rebirth is viewed as the 'middle way' between the doctrines that a being has a "permanent soul" involved in rebirth (eternalism) and "death is final and there is no rebirth" (annihilationism).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey201372-329">[302]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuswellLopez200349,_''antagrahadrsti''-330">[303]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Paths_to_liberation_in_the_early_texts">Paths to liberation in the early texts</h3></div> A common presentation style of the path (mārga) to liberation in the <a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_Texts" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Buddhist Texts">Early Buddhist Texts</a> is the "graduated talk", in which the Buddha lays out a step-by-step training.<a href="#cite_note-331">[304]</a> In the early texts, numerous different sequences of the gradual path can be found.<a href="#cite_note-:0-332">[305]</a> One of the most important and widely used presentations among the various Buddhist schools is The <a href="/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path" title="Noble Eightfold Path">Noble Eightfold Path</a>, or "Eightfold Path of the Noble Ones" (Skt. 'āryāṣṭāṅgamārga'). This can be found in various discourses, most famously in the <a href="/wiki/Dhammacakkappavattana_Sutta" title="Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta">Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta</a> (The discourse on the turning of the <a href="/wiki/Dharma_Wheel" class="mw-redirect" title="Dharma Wheel">Dharma wheel</a>). Other suttas such as the Tevijja Sutta, and the Cula-Hatthipadopama-sutta give a different outline of the path, though with many similar elements such as ethics and meditation.<a href="#cite_note-:0-332">[305]</a> According to Rupert Gethin, the path to awakening is also frequently summarized by another a short formula: "abandoning the hindrances, practice of the four establishings of mindfulness, and development of the awakening factors".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGethin2001xiii–xiv-333">[306]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Noble_Eightfold_Path">Noble Eightfold Path</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path" title="Noble Eightfold Path">Noble Eightfold Path</a></div> The Eightfold Path consists of a set of eight interconnected factors or conditions, that when developed together, lead to the cessation of <a href="/wiki/Dukkha" class="mw-redirect" title="Dukkha">dukkha</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAjahn_Sucitto201087–88-334">[307]</a> These eight factors are: Right View (or Right Understanding), Right Intention (or Right Thought), Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Concentration. This Eightfold Path is the fourth of the <a href="/wiki/Four_Noble_Truths" title="Four Noble Truths">Four Noble Truths</a> and asserts the path to the cessation of dukkha (suffering, pain, unsatisfactoriness).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGethin199881–83-335">[308]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson201364–65-336">[309]</a> The path teaches that the way of the enlightened ones stopped their craving, clinging and <a href="/wiki/Karma" title="Karma">karmic</a> accumulations, and thus ended their endless cycles of rebirth and suffering.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2016253–255-337">[310]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodhi20101–13-338">[311]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliamsTribeWynne201252-339">[312]</a> The Noble Eightfold Path is grouped into <a href="/wiki/Three_disciplines_of_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Three disciplines of Buddhism">three basic divisions</a>, as follows:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVetter198812–13-340">[313]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey201383–85-341">[314]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodhi201047–48-342">[315]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Division </th> <th>Eightfold factor </th> <th>Sanskrit, Pali </th> <th>Description </th></tr> <tr style="background:#cff;"> <td rowspan="2">Wisdom (Sanskrit: <a href="/wiki/Wisdom_in_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Wisdom in Buddhism">prajñā</a>, Pāli: paññā) </td> <td>1. Right view </td> <td>samyag dṛṣṭi, sammā ditthi </td> <td>The belief that there is an afterlife and not everything ends with death, that Buddha taught and followed a successful path to nirvana;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVetter198812–13-340">[313]</a> according to Peter Harvey, the right view is held in Buddhism as a belief in the Buddhist principles of <a href="/wiki/Karma" title="Karma">karma</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rebirth_(Buddhism)" title="Rebirth (Buddhism)">rebirth</a>, and the importance of the <a href="/wiki/Four_Noble_Truths" title="Four Noble Truths">Four Noble Truths</a> and the True Realities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey201383–84-343">[316]</a> </td></tr> <tr style="background:#cff;"> <td>2. Right intention </td> <td>samyag saṃkalpa, sammā saṅkappa </td> <td>Giving up home and adopting the life of a religious mendicant in order to follow the path;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVetter198812–13-340">[313]</a> this concept, states Harvey, aims at peaceful renunciation, into an environment of non-sensuality, non-ill-will (to lovingkindness), away from cruelty (to compassion).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey201383–84-343">[316]</a> </td></tr> <tr style="background:#cfc;"> <td rowspan="3">Moral virtues<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey201383–85-341">[314]</a> (Sanskrit: <a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C4%ABla" class="mw-redirect" title="Śīla">śīla</a>, Pāli: sīla) </td> <td>3. Right speech </td> <td>samyag vāc, sammā vāca </td> <td>No lying, no rude speech, no telling one person what another says about him, speaking that which leads to salvation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVetter198812–13-340">[313]</a> </td></tr> <tr style="background:#cfc;"> <td>4. Right action </td> <td>samyag karman, sammā kammanta </td> <td>No killing or injuring, no taking what is not given; no sexual acts in monastic pursuit,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVetter198812–13-340">[313]</a> for lay Buddhists no sensual misconduct such as sexual involvement with someone married, or with an unmarried woman protected by her parents or relatives.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGowans2013440-344">[317]</a><a href="#cite_note-345">[318]</a><a href="#cite_note-346">[319]</a> </td></tr> <tr style="background:#cfc;"> <td>5. Right livelihood </td> <td>samyag ājīvana, sammā ājīva </td> <td>For monks, beg to feed, only possessing what is essential to sustain life.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVetter198812-347">[320]</a> For lay Buddhists, the canonical texts state right livelihood as abstaining from wrong livelihood, explained as not becoming a source or means of suffering to sentient beings by cheating them, or harming or killing them in any way.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey201383,_273–274-348">[321]</a><a href="#cite_note-349">[322]</a> </td></tr> <tr style="background:#9fff80;"> <td rowspan="3">Meditation<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey201383–85-341">[314]</a> (Sanskrit and Pāli: <a href="/wiki/Sam%C4%81dhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Samādhi">samādhi</a>) </td> <td>6. Right effort </td> <td>samyag vyāyāma, sammā vāyāma </td> <td>Guard against sensual thoughts; this concept, states Harvey, aims at preventing unwholesome states that disrupt meditation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey201383-350">[323]</a> </td></tr> <tr style="background:#9fff80;"> <td>7. Right mindfulness </td> <td>samyag smṛti, sammā sati </td> <td>Never be absent-minded, conscious of what one is doing; this, states Harvey, encourages mindfulness about impermanence of the body, feelings and mind, as well as to experience the five <a href="/wiki/Skandha" title="Skandha">skandhas</a>, the five hindrances, the four True Realities and seven factors of awakening.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey201383-350">[323]</a> </td></tr> <tr style="background:#9fff80;"> <td>8. Right concentration </td> <td>samyag samādhi, sammā samādhi </td> <td>Correct meditation or concentration (dhyana), explained as the four jhānas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVetter198812–13-340">[313]</a><a href="#cite_note-bucknellkangp12-351">[324]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Common_practices">Common practices</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sermon_in_the_Deer_Park_depicted_at_Wat_Chedi_Liem-KayEss-1.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Sermon_in_the_Deer_Park_depicted_at_Wat_Chedi_Liem-KayEss-1.jpeg/220px-Sermon_in_the_Deer_Park_depicted_at_Wat_Chedi_Liem-KayEss-1.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="296" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Sermon_in_the_Deer_Park_depicted_at_Wat_Chedi_Liem-KayEss-1.jpeg/330px-Sermon_in_the_Deer_Park_depicted_at_Wat_Chedi_Liem-KayEss-1.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Sermon_in_the_Deer_Park_depicted_at_Wat_Chedi_Liem-KayEss-1.jpeg/440px-Sermon_in_the_Deer_Park_depicted_at_Wat_Chedi_Liem-KayEss-1.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="475" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption>Sermon in the <a href="/wiki/Sarnath" title="Sarnath">Deer Park</a> depicted at <a href="/wiki/Wat_Chedi_Liam" title="Wat Chedi Liam">Wat Chedi Liam</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Mai" title="Chiang Mai">Chiang Mai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northern_Thailand" title="Northern Thailand">Northern Thailand</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hearing_and_learning_the_Dharma">Hearing and learning the Dharma</h3></div> In various suttas which present the graduated path taught by the Buddha, such as the <a href="/wiki/Sama%C3%B1%C3%B1aphala_Sutta" title="Samaññaphala Sutta">Samaññaphala Sutta</a> and the Cula-Hatthipadopama Sutta, the first step on the path is hearing the Buddha teach the Dharma. This then said to lead to the acquiring of confidence or faith in the Buddha's teachings.<a href="#cite_note-:0-332">[305]</a> Mahayana Buddhist teachers such as <a href="/wiki/Yin_Shun" title="Yin Shun">Yin Shun</a> also state that hearing the Dharma and study of the Buddhist discourses is necessary "if one wants to learn and practice the Buddha Dharma."<a href="#cite_note-352">[325]</a> Likewise, in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, the "Stages of the Path" (Lamrim) texts generally place the activity of listening to the Buddhist teachings as an important early practice.<a href="#cite_note-353">[326]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Refuge">Refuge</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Refuge_(Buddhism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Refuge (Buddhism)">Refuge (Buddhism)</a></div> Traditionally, the first step in most Buddhist schools requires taking of the "Three Refuges", also called the Three Jewels (<a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>: triratna, <a href="/wiki/Pali" title="Pali">Pali</a>: tiratana) as the foundation of one's religious practice.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013249-354">[327]</a> This practice may have been influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Brahmanical</a> motif of the triple refuge, found in the <a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a> 9.97.47, Rigveda 6.46.9 and <a href="/wiki/Chandogya_Upanishad" title="Chandogya Upanishad">Chandogya Upanishad</a> 2.22.3–4.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShults2014108-355">[328]</a> Tibetan Buddhism sometimes adds a fourth refuge, in the <a href="/wiki/Lama" title="Lama">lama</a>. The three refuges are believed by Buddhists to be protective and a form of reverence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013249-354">[327]</a> The ancient formula which is repeated for taking refuge affirms that "I go to the Buddha as refuge, I go to the Dhamma as refuge, I go to the Sangha as refuge."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013244-356">[329]</a> Reciting the three refuges, according to Harvey, is considered not as a place to hide, rather a thought that "purifies, uplifts and strengthens the heart".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013244–245-301">[275]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Śīla_–_Buddhist_ethics">Śīla – Buddhist ethics</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Buddhist ethics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Buddhist_alms_in_Si_Phan_Don.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Buddhist_alms_in_Si_Phan_Don.jpg/220px-Buddhist_alms_in_Si_Phan_Don.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Buddhist_alms_in_Si_Phan_Don.jpg/330px-Buddhist_alms_in_Si_Phan_Don.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Buddhist_alms_in_Si_Phan_Don.jpg/440px-Buddhist_alms_in_Si_Phan_Don.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5966" data-file-height="3977" /></a><figcaption>Buddhist monks collect alms in <a href="/wiki/Si_Phan_Don" title="Si Phan Don">Si Phan Don</a>, Laos. Giving is a key virtue in Buddhism.</figcaption></figure> Śīla (Sanskrit) or sīla (Pāli) is the concept of "moral virtues", that is the second group and an integral part of the Noble Eightfold Path.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey201383–84-343">[316]</a> It generally consists of right speech, right action and right livelihood.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey201383–84-343">[316]</a> One of the most basic forms of ethics in Buddhism is the taking of "precepts". This includes the Five Precepts for laypeople, Eight or Ten Precepts for monastic life, as well as rules of Dhamma (Vinaya or Patimokkha) adopted by a monastery.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams2005c398-357">[330]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcFarlane2001187–193-358">[331]</a> Other important elements of Buddhist ethics include <a href="/wiki/D%C4%81na" title="Dāna">giving or charity</a> (dāna), <a href="/wiki/Mett%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Mettā">Mettā</a> (Good-Will), Heedfulness (<a href="/wiki/Appamada" class="mw-redirect" title="Appamada">Appamada</a>), 'self-respect' (<a href="/wiki/Hri_(Buddhism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hri (Buddhism)">Hri</a>) and 'regard for consequences' (<a href="/wiki/Apatrapya" title="Apatrapya">Apatrapya</a>). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Precepts">Precepts</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Five_precepts" title="Five precepts">Five precepts</a></div> Buddhist scriptures explain the five precepts (<a href="/wiki/Pali_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Pali language">Pali</a>: pañcasīla; <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskrit language">Sanskrit</a>: pañcaśīla) as the minimal standard of Buddhist morality.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGowans2013440-344">[317]</a> It is the most important system of morality in Buddhism, together with the <a href="/wiki/Patimokkha" class="mw-redirect" title="Patimokkha">monastic rules</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Goodman-359">[332]</a> The five precepts are seen as a basic training applicable to all Buddhists. They are:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams2005c398-357">[330]</a><a href="#cite_note-360">[333]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey200067-361">[334]</a> <ol><li>"I undertake the training-precept (sikkha-padam) to abstain from onslaught on breathing beings." This includes ordering or causing someone else to kill. The Pali suttas also say one should not "approve of others killing" and that one should be "scrupulous, compassionate, trembling for the welfare of all living beings".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey200069-362">[335]</a></li> <li>"I undertake the training-precept to abstain from taking what is not given." According to Harvey, this also covers fraud, cheating, forgery as well as "falsely denying that one is in debt to someone".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey200070-363">[336]</a></li> <li>"I undertake the training-precept to abstain from misconduct concerning sense-pleasures." This generally refers to <a href="/wiki/Adultery" title="Adultery">adultery</a>, as well as rape and incest. It also applies to sex with those who are legally under the protection of a guardian. It is also interpreted in different ways in the varying Buddhist cultures.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey200071–74-364">[337]</a></li> <li>"I undertake the training-precept to abstain from false speech." According to Harvey this includes "any form of lying, deception or exaggeration...even non-verbal deception by gesture or other indication...or misleading statements."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey200075-365">[338]</a> The precept is often also seen as including other forms of wrong speech such as "divisive speech, harsh, abusive, angry words, and even idle chatter".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey200076-366">[339]</a></li> <li>"I undertake the training-precept to abstain from alcoholic drink or drugs that are an opportunity for heedlessness." According to Harvey, intoxication is seen as a way to mask rather than face the sufferings of life. It is seen as damaging to one's mental clarity, mindfulness and ability to keep the other four precepts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey200077-367">[340]</a></li></ol> Undertaking and upholding the five precepts is based on the principle of <a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">non-harming</a> (<a href="/wiki/P%C4%81li" class="mw-redirect" title="Pāli">Pāli</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskrit language">Sanskrit</a>: ahiṃsa).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeown2013616-368">[341]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Pali_Canon" title="Pali Canon">Pali Canon</a> recommends one to compare oneself with others, and on the basis of that, not to hurt others.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey200033,_71-369">[342]</a> Compassion and a belief in <a href="/wiki/Karma_(Buddhism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Karma (Buddhism)">karmic retribution</a> form the foundation of the precepts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatanakul2007241-370">[343]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHorigan1996276-371">[344]</a> Undertaking the five precepts is part of regular lay devotional practice, both at home and at the local temple.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETerwiel2012178–179-372">[345]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey200080-373">[346]</a> However, the extent to which people keep them differs per region and time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELedgerwood2008152-374">[347]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey200080-373">[346]</a> They are sometimes referred to as the <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Ar%C4%81vakay%C4%81na" title="Śrāvakayāna">śrāvakayāna</a> precepts in the <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahāyāna">Mahāyāna</a> tradition, contrasting them with the <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva_Precepts" title="Bodhisattva Precepts">bodhisattva precepts</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFunayama2004105-375">[348]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vinaya">Vinaya</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Vinaya" title="Vinaya">Vinaya</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Buddhist_Ordination_Ceremony.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Buddhist_Ordination_Ceremony.jpg/220px-Buddhist_Ordination_Ceremony.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Buddhist_Ordination_Ceremony.jpg/330px-Buddhist_Ordination_Ceremony.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Buddhist_Ordination_Ceremony.jpg/440px-Buddhist_Ordination_Ceremony.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>An ordination ceremony at <a href="/wiki/Wat_Yannawa" title="Wat Yannawa">Wat Yannawa</a> in Bangkok. The Vinaya codes regulate the various sangha acts, including ordination.</figcaption></figure> Vinaya is the specific code of conduct for a sangha of monks or nuns. It includes the <a href="/wiki/Patimokkha" class="mw-redirect" title="Patimokkha">Patimokkha</a>, a set of 227 offences including 75 rules of decorum for monks, along with penalties for transgression, in the Theravadin tradition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGombrich1988109-376">[349]</a> The precise content of the <a href="/wiki/Vinaya_Pitaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Vinaya Pitaka">Vinaya Pitaka</a> (scriptures on the Vinaya) differs in different schools and tradition, and different monasteries set their own standards on its implementation. The list of pattimokkha is recited every fortnight in a ritual gathering of all monks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGombrich1988109-376">[349]</a> Buddhist text with vinaya rules for monasteries have been traced in all Buddhist traditions, with the oldest surviving being the ancient Chinese translations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGombrich198893-377">[350]</a> Monastic communities in the Buddhist tradition cut normal social ties to family and community and live as "islands unto themselves".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGombrich198889–92-378">[351]</a> Within a monastic fraternity, a sangha has its own rules.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGombrich198889–92-378">[351]</a> A monk abides by these institutionalised rules, and living life as the vinaya prescribes it is not merely a means, but very nearly the end in itself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGombrich198889–92-378">[351]</a> Transgressions by a monk on Sangha vinaya rules invites enforcement, which can include temporary or permanent expulsion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGombrich1988101–107-379">[352]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Restraint_and_renunciation">Restraint and renunciation</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Buddhist_monk_in_Khao_Luang-Sukhothai.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Buddhist_monk_in_Khao_Luang-Sukhothai.JPG/220px-Buddhist_monk_in_Khao_Luang-Sukhothai.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="333" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Buddhist_monk_in_Khao_Luang-Sukhothai.JPG/330px-Buddhist_monk_in_Khao_Luang-Sukhothai.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Buddhist_monk_in_Khao_Luang-Sukhothai.JPG/440px-Buddhist_monk_in_Khao_Luang-Sukhothai.JPG 2x" data-file-width="777" data-file-height="1175" /></a><figcaption>Living at the root of a tree (trukkhamulik'anga) is one of the dhutaṅgas, a series of optional ascetic practices for Buddhist monastics.</figcaption></figure> Another important practice taught by the Buddha is the restraint of the senses (indriyasamvara). In the various graduated paths, this is usually presented as a practice which is taught prior to formal sitting meditation, and which supports meditation by weakening sense desires that are a <a href="/wiki/Five_hindrances" title="Five hindrances">hindrance</a> to meditation.<a href="#cite_note-Anālayo_2003_p._71-380">[353]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Bhikkhu_Analayo" title="Bhikkhu Analayo">Anālayo</a>, sense restraint is when one "guards the sense doors in order to prevent sense impressions from leading to desires and discontent".<a href="#cite_note-Anālayo_2003_p._71-380">[353]</a> This is not an avoidance of sense impression, but a kind of mindful attention towards the sense impressions which does not dwell on their main features or signs (nimitta). This is said to prevent harmful influences from entering the mind.<a href="#cite_note-Anālayo_2003_p._225-381">[354]</a> This practice is said to give rise to an inner peace and happiness which forms a basis for concentration and insight.<a href="#cite_note-Anālayo_2003_p._225-381">[354]</a> A related Buddhist virtue and practice is renunciation, or the intent for desirelessness (<a href="/wiki/Nekkhamma" title="Nekkhamma">nekkhamma</a>).<a href="#cite_note-382">[355]</a> Generally, renunciation is the giving up of actions and desires that are seen as unwholesome on the path, such as lust for sensuality and worldly things.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERhys_DavidsStede1921–1925377"Nekkhamma"-383">[356]</a> Renunciation can be cultivated in different ways. The practice of giving for example, is one form of cultivating renunciation. Another one is the giving up of lay life and becoming a monastic (bhiksu or bhiksuni).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey1998199-384">[357]</a> Practicing <a href="/wiki/Celibacy" title="Celibacy">celibacy</a> (whether for life as a monk, or temporarily) is also a form of renunciation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey200089-385">[358]</a> Many <a href="/wiki/Jataka_tales" title="Jataka tales">Jataka</a> stories focus on how the Buddha practiced renunciation in past lives.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmmanuel2013492-386">[359]</a> One way of cultivating renunciation taught by the Buddha is the contemplation (anupassana) of the "dangers" (or "negative consequences") of sensual pleasure (kāmānaṃ ādīnava). As part of the graduated discourse, this contemplation is taught after the practice of giving and morality.<a href="#cite_note-387">[360]</a> Another related practice to renunciation and sense restraint taught by the Buddha is "restraint in eating" or moderation with food, which for monks generally means not eating after noon. Devout laypersons also follow this rule during special days of religious observance (<a href="/wiki/Uposatha" title="Uposatha">uposatha</a>).<a href="#cite_note-388">[361]</a> Observing the Uposatha also includes other practices dealing with renunciation, mainly the <a href="/wiki/Eight_precepts" title="Eight precepts">eight precepts</a>. For Buddhist monastics, renunciation can also be trained through several optional ascetic practices called <a href="/wiki/Dhutanga" title="Dhutanga">dhutaṅga</a>. In different Buddhist traditions, other related <a href="/wiki/Fasting_in_Buddhism" title="Fasting in Buddhism">practices which focus on fasting</a> are followed. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mindfulness_and_clear_comprehension">Mindfulness and clear comprehension</h3></div> The training of the faculty called <a href="/wiki/Sati_(Buddhism)" title="Sati (Buddhism)">"mindfulness"</a> (Pali: sati, Sanskrit: smṛti, literally meaning "recollection, remembering") is central in Buddhism. According to Analayo, mindfulness is a full awareness of the present moment which enhances and strengthens memory.<a href="#cite_note-389">[362]</a> The Indian Buddhist philosopher <a href="/wiki/Asanga" title="Asanga">Asanga</a> defined mindfulness thus: "It is non-forgetting by the mind with regard to the object experienced. Its function is non-distraction."<a href="#cite_note-Boin-Webb,_Sara_2001_p._9-390">[363]</a> According to Rupert Gethin, sati is also "an awareness of things in relation to things, and hence an awareness of their relative value".<a href="#cite_note-391">[364]</a> There are different practices and exercises for training mindfulness in the early discourses, such as the four <a href="/wiki/Satipatthana" title="Satipatthana">Satipaṭṭhānas</a> (Sanskrit: smṛtyupasthāna, "establishments of mindfulness") and <a href="/wiki/Anapanasati" title="Anapanasati">Ānāpānasati</a> (Sanskrit: ānāpānasmṛti, "mindfulness of breathing"). A closely related mental faculty, which is often mentioned side by side with mindfulness, is <a href="/wiki/Sampaja%C3%B1%C3%B1a" title="Sampajañña">sampajañña</a> ("clear comprehension"). This faculty is the ability to comprehend what one is doing and is happening in the mind, and whether it is being influenced by unwholesome states or wholesome ones.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuan200750-392">[365]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Meditation_–_Sama-amādhi_and_dhyāna">Meditation – Sama-amādhi and dhyāna</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_meditation" title="Buddhist meditation">Buddhist meditation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samadhi" title="Samadhi">Samadhi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samatha" class="mw-redirect" title="Samatha">Samatha</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rupajhana" class="mw-redirect" title="Rupajhana">Rupajhana</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kodo_Sawaki_Zazen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Kodo_Sawaki_Zazen.jpg/220px-Kodo_Sawaki_Zazen.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="314" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Kodo_Sawaki_Zazen.jpg/330px-Kodo_Sawaki_Zazen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Kodo_Sawaki_Zazen.jpg/440px-Kodo_Sawaki_Zazen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1786" data-file-height="2551" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/K%C5%8Dd%C5%8D_Sawaki" title="Kōdō Sawaki">Kōdō Sawaki</a> practicing <a href="/wiki/Zazen" title="Zazen">Zazen</a> ("sitting dhyana")</figcaption></figure> A wide range of meditation practices has developed in the Buddhist traditions, but "meditation" primarily refers to the attainment of <a href="/wiki/Sam%C4%81dhi_(Buddhism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Samādhi (Buddhism)">samādhi</a> and the practice of <a href="/wiki/Dhy%C4%81na_in_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhyāna in Buddhism">dhyāna</a> (Pali: jhāna). Samādhi is a calm, undistracted, unified and concentrated state of awareness. It is defined by Asanga as "one-pointedness of mind on the object to be investigated. Its function consists of giving a basis to knowledge (jñāna)."<a href="#cite_note-Boin-Webb,_Sara_2001_p._9-390">[363]</a> Dhyāna is "state of perfect equanimity and awareness (upekkhā-sati-parisuddhi)," reached through focused mental training.<a href="#cite_note-393">[366]</a> The practice of dhyāna aids in maintaining a calm mind and avoiding disturbance of this calm mind by mindfulness of disturbing thoughts and feelings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams200045–46-394">[367]</a><a href="#cite_note-395">[note 27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Origins">Origins</h4></div> The earliest evidence of yogis and their meditative tradition, states Karel Werner, is found in the <a href="/wiki/Ke%C5%9Bin" title="Keśin">Keśin</a> hymn 10.136 of the <a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a>.<a href="#cite_note-karelwernerkesinrv-396">[368]</a> While evidence suggests <a href="/wiki/Meditation" title="Meditation">meditation</a> was practised in the centuries preceding the Buddha,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarrithers198630-397">[369]</a> the meditative methodologies described in the Buddhist texts are some of the earliest among texts that have survived into the modern era.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGombrich198844-398">[370]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller19968-399">[371]</a> These methodologies likely incorporate what existed before the Buddha as well as those first developed within Buddhism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst19931–17-400">[372]</a><a href="#cite_note-404">[note 28]</a> There is no scholarly agreement on the origin and source of the practice of dhyāna. Some scholars, like Bronkhorst, see the four dhyānas as a Buddhist invention.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst199399-405">[376]</a> Alexander Wynne argues that the Buddha learned dhyāna from Brahmanical teachers.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2020)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_406-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWynne2007[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2020]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2020)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-406">[377]</a> Whatever the case, the Buddha taught meditation with a new focus and interpretation, particularly through the four dhyānas methodology,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst1993Part_I:_page_5-407">[378]</a> in which mindfulness is maintained.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst199388-408">[379]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGombrich2007-409">[380]</a> Further, the focus of meditation and the underlying theory of liberation guiding the meditation has been different in Buddhism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarrithers198630-397">[369]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman199729-410">[381]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGombrich1997131-411">[382]</a> For example, states Bronkhorst, the verse 4.4.23 of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad with its "become calm, subdued, quiet, patiently enduring, concentrated, one sees soul in oneself" is most probably a meditative state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst1993Chapter_9,_page_86-412">[383]</a> The Buddhist discussion of meditation is without the concept of soul and the discussion criticises both the ascetic meditation of Jainism and the "real self, soul" meditation of Hinduism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst199374_(Chapter_8),_102_(Conclusion)-413">[384]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_formless_attainments">The formless attainments</h4></div> Often grouped into the jhāna-scheme are four other meditative states, referred to in the early texts as arupa samāpattis (formless attainments). These are also referred to in commentarial literature as immaterial/formless jhānas (arūpajhānas). The first formless attainment is a place or realm of infinite space (ākāsānañcāyatana) without form or colour or shape. The second is termed the realm of infinite consciousness (viññāṇañcāyatana); the third is the realm of nothingness (ākiñcaññāyatana), while the fourth is the realm of "neither perception nor non-perception".<a href="#cite_note-Wayman1984p86-414">[385]</a> The four rupa-jhānas in Buddhist practice leads to rebirth in successfully better rupa Brahma heavenly realms, while arupa-jhānas leads into arupa heavens.<a href="#cite_note-415">[386]</a><a href="#cite_note-416">[387]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Meditation_and_insight">Meditation and insight</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Four_Noble_Truths#Substituting_"liberating_insight"" title="Four Noble Truths">Meditation and insight</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">Yoga</a></div> In the Pali canon, the Buddha outlines two meditative qualities which are mutually supportive: <a href="/wiki/Samatha" class="mw-redirect" title="Samatha">samatha</a> (Pāli; Sanskrit: śamatha; "calm") and <a href="/wiki/Vipassan%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Vipassanā">vipassanā</a> (Sanskrit: vipaśyanā, insight).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodhi2005269–270,_440_''n''._13-417">[388]</a> The Buddha compares these mental qualities to a "swift pair of messengers" who together help deliver the message of nibbana (SN 35.245).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodhi20001251–1253-418">[389]</a> The various Buddhist traditions generally see Buddhist meditation as being divided into those two main types.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWelch1967396-419">[390]</a><a href="#cite_note-420">[391]</a> Samatha is also called "calming meditation", and focuses on stilling and concentrating the mind i.e. developing samadhi and the four dhyānas. According to <a href="/wiki/Damien_Keown" title="Damien Keown">Damien Keown</a>, vipassanā meanwhile, focuses on "the generation of penetrating and critical insight (paññā)".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeown1996106–107,_context:_Chapter_7-421">[392]</a> There are numerous doctrinal positions and disagreements within the different Buddhist traditions regarding these qualities or forms of meditation. For example, in the Pali Four Ways to Arahantship Sutta (AN 4.170), it is said that one can develop calm and then insight, or insight and then calm, or both at the same time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodhi2005268,_439-422">[393]</a> Meanwhile, in Vasubandhu's Abhidharmakośakārikā, vipaśyanā is said to be practiced once one has reached samadhi by cultivating the four foundations of mindfulness (smṛtyupasthānas).<a href="#cite_note-423">[394]</a> Beginning with comments by <a href="/wiki/Louis_de_La_Vall%C3%A9e-Poussin" title="Louis de La Vallée-Poussin">La Vallee Poussin</a>, a series of scholars have argued that these two meditation types reflect a tension between two different ancient Buddhist traditions regarding the use of dhyāna, one which focused on insight based practice and the other which focused purely on dhyāna.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst1993-111">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-buddhismuskunde.uni-hamburg.de-424">[395]</a> However, other scholars such as Analayo and Rupert Gethin have disagreed with this "two paths" thesis, instead seeing both of these practices as complementary.<a href="#cite_note-buddhismuskunde.uni-hamburg.de-424">[395]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGethin2001xiv-425">[396]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_Brahma-vihara">The Brahma-vihara</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Brahmavihara" title="Brahmavihara">Brahmavihara</a></div> The four immeasurables or four abodes, also called Brahma-viharas, are virtues or directions for meditation in Buddhist traditions, which helps a person be reborn in the heavenly (Brahma) realm.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirakawa1993172–174-426">[397]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013154,_326-427">[398]</a><a href="#cite_note-428">[399]</a> These are traditionally believed to be a characteristic of the deity Brahma and the heavenly abode he resides in.<a href="#cite_note-429">[400]</a> The four Brahma-vihara are: <ol><li>Loving-kindness (Pāli: <a href="/wiki/Mett%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Mettā">mettā</a>, Sanskrit: maitrī) is active good will towards all;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013154,_326-427">[398]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler199960–62-430">[401]</a></li> <li>Compassion (Pāli and Sanskrit: <a href="/wiki/Karu%E1%B9%87%C4%81" title="Karuṇā">karuṇā</a>) results from metta; it is identifying the suffering of others as one's own;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013154,_326-427">[398]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler199960–62-430">[401]</a></li> <li>Empathetic joy (Pāli and Sanskrit: <a href="/wiki/Mudita" title="Mudita">muditā</a>): is the feeling of joy because others are happy, even if one did not contribute to it; it is a form of sympathetic joy;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler199960–62-430">[401]</a></li> <li>Equanimity (Pāli: <a href="/wiki/Upekkha" class="mw-redirect" title="Upekkha">upekkhā</a>, Sanskrit: upekṣā): is even-mindedness and serenity, treating everyone impartially.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013154,_326-427">[398]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler199960–62-430">[401]</a></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tantra,_visualization_and_the_subtle_body">Tantra, visualization and the subtle body</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Tantric_Practice" class="mw-redirect" title="Tibetan Tantric Practice">Tibetan Tantric Practice</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vajrayana#Tantra_techniques" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayana § Tantra_techniques</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Schildering_uit_reeks_over_de_Sarvavid_Vairocana_Mandala_-_Licht,_anoniem,_ca_1799,_MAS.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Schildering_uit_reeks_over_de_Sarvavid_Vairocana_Mandala_-_Licht%2C_anoniem%2C_ca_1799%2C_MAS.jpg/220px-Schildering_uit_reeks_over_de_Sarvavid_Vairocana_Mandala_-_Licht%2C_anoniem%2C_ca_1799%2C_MAS.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Schildering_uit_reeks_over_de_Sarvavid_Vairocana_Mandala_-_Licht%2C_anoniem%2C_ca_1799%2C_MAS.jpg/330px-Schildering_uit_reeks_over_de_Sarvavid_Vairocana_Mandala_-_Licht%2C_anoniem%2C_ca_1799%2C_MAS.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Schildering_uit_reeks_over_de_Sarvavid_Vairocana_Mandala_-_Licht%2C_anoniem%2C_ca_1799%2C_MAS.jpg/440px-Schildering_uit_reeks_over_de_Sarvavid_Vairocana_Mandala_-_Licht%2C_anoniem%2C_ca_1799%2C_MAS.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1208" /></a><figcaption>An 18th century Mongolian miniature which depicts the generation of the Vairocana Mandala</figcaption></figure> Some Buddhist traditions, especially those associated with Tantric Buddhism (also known as Vajrayana and Secret Mantra) use images and symbols of deities and Buddhas in meditation. This is generally done by mentally visualizing a Buddha image (or some other mental image, like a symbol, a mandala, a syllable, etc.), and using that image to cultivate calm and insight. One may also visualize and identify oneself with the imagined deity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrainor200487-431">[402]</a><a href="#cite_note-432">[403]</a> While visualization practices have been particularly popular in Vajrayana, they may also found in Mahayana and Theravada traditions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrainor200486–87-433">[404]</a> In Tibetan Buddhism, unique tantric techniques which include visualization (but also <a href="/wiki/Mantra" title="Mantra">mantra</a> recitation, <a href="/wiki/Mandala" title="Mandala">mandalas</a>, and other elements) are considered to be much more effective than non-tantric meditations and they are one of the most popular meditation methods.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowers2007250-434">[405]</a> The methods of <a href="/wiki/Anuttarayoga_Tantra" class="mw-redirect" title="Anuttarayoga Tantra">Unsurpassable Yoga Tantra</a>, (anuttarayogatantra) are in turn seen as the highest and most advanced. Anuttarayoga practice is divided into two stages, the Generation Stage and the Completion Stage. In the Generation Stage, one meditates on emptiness and visualizes oneself as a deity as well as visualizing its mandala. The focus is on developing clear appearance and divine pride (the understanding that oneself and the deity are one).<a href="#cite_note-435">[406]</a> This method is also known as deity yoga (devata yoga). There are numerous meditation deities (<a href="/wiki/Yidam" title="Yidam">yidam</a>) used, each with a mandala, a circular symbolic map used in meditation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrainor200488–89-436">[407]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Insight_and_knowledge">Insight and knowledge</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Prajñā (Buddhism)">Prajñā</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bodhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Bodhi">Bodhi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kensh%C5%8D" title="Kenshō">Kenshō</a>, <a href="/wiki/Satori" title="Satori">Satori</a>, <a href="/wiki/Subitism" class="mw-redirect" title="Subitism">Subitism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vipassana" class="mw-redirect" title="Vipassana">Vipassana</a></div> Prajñā (Sanskrit) or paññā (Pāli) is <a href="/wiki/Wisdom" title="Wisdom">wisdom</a>, or knowledge of the true nature of existence. Another term which is associated with prajñā and sometimes is equivalent to it is vipassanā (Pāli) or vipaśyanā (Sanskrit), which is often translated as "insight". In Buddhist texts, the faculty of insight is often said to be cultivated through the four establishments of mindfulness.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuan200758-437">[408]</a> In the early texts, Paññā is included as one of the "five faculties" (<a href="/wiki/Indriya" title="Indriya">indriya</a>) which are commonly listed as important spiritual elements to be cultivated (see for example: AN I 16). Paññā along with samadhi, is also listed as one of the "trainings in the higher states of mind" (adhicittasikkha).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuan200758-437">[408]</a> The Buddhist tradition regards ignorance (<a href="/wiki/Avidy%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Avidyā (Buddhism)">avidyā</a>), a fundamental ignorance, misunderstanding or mis-perception of the nature of reality, as one of the basic causes of dukkha and samsara. Overcoming this ignorance is part of the path to awakening. This overcoming includes the contemplation of impermanence and the non-self nature of reality,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrainor200474-438">[409]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConze201339–40-439">[410]</a> and this develops dispassion for the objects of <a href="/wiki/Up%C4%81d%C4%81na" title="Upādāna">clinging</a>, and liberates a being from dukkha and saṃsāra.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler199949–52-440">[411]</a><a href="#cite_note-441">[412]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGethin199873–75,_146–159,_243-442">[413]</a> Prajñā is important in all Buddhist traditions. It is variously described as wisdom regarding the impermanent and <a href="/wiki/Anatt%C4%81" title="Anattā">not-self</a> nature of dharmas (phenomena), the functioning of karma and rebirth, and knowledge of dependent origination.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuswell2004664–665-443">[414]</a> Likewise, vipaśyanā is described in a similar way, such as in the <a href="/wiki/Pa%E1%B9%ADisambhid%C4%81magga" title="Paṭisambhidāmagga">Paṭisambhidāmagga</a>, where it is said to be the contemplation of things as impermanent, unsatisfactory and <a href="/wiki/Anatt%C4%81" title="Anattā">not-self</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuan200759-444">[415]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Devotion">Devotion</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_devotion" title="Buddhist devotion">Buddhist devotion</a></div> Most forms of Buddhism "consider <a href="/wiki/Faith_in_Buddhism" title="Faith in Buddhism">saddhā</a> (Sanskrit: śraddhā), 'trustful confidence' or 'faith', as a quality which must be balanced by wisdom, and as a preparation for, or accompaniment of, meditation."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013237-445">[416]</a> Because of this devotion (Sanskrit: bhakti; Pali: bhatti) is an important part of the practice of most Buddhists.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey1998170-446">[417]</a> <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_devotion" title="Buddhist devotion">Devotional practices</a> include ritual prayer, prostration, offerings, pilgrimage, and chanting.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrainor200484–85,_105,_108–109,_112–113,_116,_165,_185-447">[418]</a> Buddhist devotion is usually focused on some object, image or location that is seen as holy or spiritually influential. Examples of objects of devotion include paintings or statues of Buddhas and bodhisattvas, stupas, and bodhi trees.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013239–240-448">[419]</a> Public group chanting for devotional and ceremonial is common to all Buddhist traditions and goes back to ancient India where chanting aided in the memorization of the orally transmitted teachings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013243-449">[420]</a> Rosaries called malas are used in all Buddhist traditions to count repeated chanting of common formulas or mantras. Chanting is thus a type of devotional group meditation which leads to tranquility and communicates the Buddhist teachings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013243–244-450">[421]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vegetarianism_and_animal_ethics">Vegetarianism and animal ethics</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_vegetarianism" title="Buddhist vegetarianism">Buddhist vegetarianism</a></div> Based on the Indian principle of <a href="/wiki/Ahi%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahiṃsā">ahimsa</a> (non-harming), the Buddha's ethics strongly condemn the harming of all sentient beings, including all animals. He thus condemned the animal sacrifice of the Brahmins as well hunting, and killing animals for food.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2000157–158-451">[422]</a> However, early Buddhist texts depict the Buddha as allowing monastics to eat meat. This seems to be because monastics begged for their food and thus were supposed to accept whatever food was offered to them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2000156–159-452">[423]</a> This was tempered by the rule that meat had to be "three times clean": "they had not seen, had not heard, and had no reason to suspect that the animal had been killed so that the meat could be given to them".<a href="#cite_note-Phelps,_Norm_2004_p._76-453">[424]</a> Also, while the Buddha did not explicitly promote vegetarianism in his discourses, he did state that gaining one's livelihood from the meat trade was unethical.<a href="#cite_note-454">[425]</a> In contrast to this, various Mahayana sutras and texts like the <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na_Mah%C4%81parinirv%C4%81%E1%B9%87a_S%C5%ABtra" title="Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra">Mahaparinirvana sutra</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABra%E1%B9%85gama_S%C5%ABtra" title="Śūraṅgama Sūtra">Surangama sutra</a> and the <a href="/wiki/La%E1%B9%85k%C4%81vat%C4%81ra_S%C5%ABtra" title="Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra">Lankavatara sutra</a> state that the Buddha promoted vegetarianism out of compassion.<a href="#cite_note-455">[426]</a> Indian Mahayana thinkers like Shantideva promoted the avoidance of meat.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2000163-456">[427]</a> Throughout history, the issue of whether Buddhists should be vegetarian has remained a much debated topic and there is a variety of opinions on this issue among modern Buddhists. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Texts">Texts</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_texts" title="Buddhist texts">Buddhist texts</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nava_Jetavana_Temple_-_Shravasti_-_013_First_Council_at_Rajagaha_(9241729223).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Nava_Jetavana_Temple_-_Shravasti_-_013_First_Council_at_Rajagaha_%289241729223%29.jpg/220px-Nava_Jetavana_Temple_-_Shravasti_-_013_First_Council_at_Rajagaha_%289241729223%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Nava_Jetavana_Temple_-_Shravasti_-_013_First_Council_at_Rajagaha_%289241729223%29.jpg/330px-Nava_Jetavana_Temple_-_Shravasti_-_013_First_Council_at_Rajagaha_%289241729223%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Nava_Jetavana_Temple_-_Shravasti_-_013_First_Council_at_Rajagaha_%289241729223%29.jpg/440px-Nava_Jetavana_Temple_-_Shravasti_-_013_First_Council_at_Rajagaha_%289241729223%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3399" data-file-height="1977" /></a><figcaption>A depiction of the supposed <a href="/wiki/First_Buddhist_council" class="mw-redirect" title="First Buddhist council">First Buddhist council</a> at <a href="/wiki/Rajgir" title="Rajgir">Rajgir</a>. Communal recitation was one of the original ways of transmitting and preserving Early Buddhist texts.</figcaption></figure> Buddhism, like all Indian religions, was initially an <a href="/wiki/Oral_tradition" title="Oral tradition">oral tradition</a> in ancient times.<a href="#cite_note-lopez2004busc1-457">[428]</a> The Buddha's words, the early doctrines, concepts, and their traditional interpretations were orally transmitted from one generation to the next. The earliest oral texts were transmitted in Middle <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan languages</a> called <a href="/wiki/Prakrits" class="mw-redirect" title="Prakrits">Prakrits</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Pali" title="Pali">Pali</a>, through the use of communal recitation and other <a href="/wiki/Mnemonic" title="Mnemonic">mnemonic</a> techniques.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGethin199839–41-458">[429]</a> The first Buddhist canonical texts were likely written down in Sri Lanka, about 400 years after the Buddha died.<a href="#cite_note-lopez2004busc1-457">[428]</a> The texts were part of the <a href="/wiki/Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka" title="Tripiṭaka">Tripitakas</a>, and many versions appeared thereafter claiming to be the words of the Buddha. Scholarly Buddhist commentary texts, with named authors, appeared in India, around the 2nd century CE.<a href="#cite_note-lopez2004busc1-457">[428]</a> These texts were written in Pali or Sanskrit, sometimes regional languages, as <a href="/wiki/Palm-leaf_manuscript" title="Palm-leaf manuscript">palm-leaf manuscripts</a>, birch bark, painted scrolls, carved into temple walls, and later on paper.<a href="#cite_note-lopez2004busc1-457">[428]</a> Unlike what the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> is to <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a> is to <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, but like all major ancient Indian religions, there is no consensus among the different Buddhist traditions as to what constitutes the scriptures or a common canon in Buddhism.<a href="#cite_note-lopez2004busc1-457">[428]</a> The general belief among Buddhists is that the canonical corpus is vast.<a href="#cite_note-459">[430]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGethin2008xiv-460">[431]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEliot193516-461">[432]</a> This corpus includes the ancient Sutras organised into <a href="/wiki/Nik%C4%81ya" title="Nikāya">Nikayas</a> or <a href="/wiki/%C4%80gama_(Buddhism)" title="Āgama (Buddhism)">Agamas</a>, itself the part of three basket of texts called the Tripitakas.<a href="#cite_note-462">[433]</a> Each Buddhist tradition has its own collection of texts, much of which is translation of ancient Pali and Sanskrit Buddhist texts of India. The <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhist_canon" title="Chinese Buddhist canon">Chinese Buddhist canon</a>, for example, includes 2184 texts in 55 volumes, while the <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist_canon" title="Tibetan Buddhist canon">Tibetan canon</a> comprises 1108 texts – all claimed to have been spoken by the Buddha – and another 3461 texts composed by Indian scholars revered in the Tibetan tradition.<a href="#cite_note-lopez2004busc2-463">[434]</a> The Buddhist textual history is vast; over 40,000 manuscripts – mostly Buddhist, some non-Buddhist – were discovered in 1900 in the Dunhuang Chinese cave alone.<a href="#cite_note-lopez2004busc2-463">[434]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_texts">Early texts</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_Texts" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Buddhist Texts">Early Buddhist Texts</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fragmentary_Buddhist_text_-_Gandhara_birchbark_scrolls_(1st_C),_part_31_-_BL_Or._14915.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Fragmentary_Buddhist_text_-_Gandhara_birchbark_scrolls_%281st_C%29%2C_part_31_-_BL_Or._14915.jpg/220px-Fragmentary_Buddhist_text_-_Gandhara_birchbark_scrolls_%281st_C%29%2C_part_31_-_BL_Or._14915.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Fragmentary_Buddhist_text_-_Gandhara_birchbark_scrolls_%281st_C%29%2C_part_31_-_BL_Or._14915.jpg/330px-Fragmentary_Buddhist_text_-_Gandhara_birchbark_scrolls_%281st_C%29%2C_part_31_-_BL_Or._14915.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Fragmentary_Buddhist_text_-_Gandhara_birchbark_scrolls_%281st_C%29%2C_part_31_-_BL_Or._14915.jpg/440px-Fragmentary_Buddhist_text_-_Gandhara_birchbark_scrolls_%281st_C%29%2C_part_31_-_BL_Or._14915.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Gandhara birchbark scroll fragments (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1st century) from British Library Collection</figcaption></figure> The Early Buddhist Texts refers to the literature which is considered by modern scholars to be the earliest Buddhist material. The first four <a href="/wiki/Pali" title="Pali">Pali</a> <a href="/wiki/Nikayas" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikayas">Nikayas</a>, and the corresponding Chinese <a href="/wiki/%C4%80gama_(Buddhism)" title="Āgama (Buddhism)">Āgamas</a> are generally considered to be among the earliest material.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGethin199842–43-464">[435]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESujatoBrahmali20159–10-465">[436]</a><a href="#cite_note-466">[437]</a> Apart from these, there are also fragmentary collections of EBT materials in other languages such as <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saka_language" title="Saka language">Khotanese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Classical_Tibetan" title="Classical Tibetan">Tibetan</a> and <a href="/wiki/G%C4%81ndh%C4%81r%C4%AB_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gāndhārī language">Gāndhārī</a>. The modern study of <a href="/wiki/Pre-sectarian_Buddhism" title="Pre-sectarian Buddhism">early Buddhism</a> often relies on comparative scholarship using these various early Buddhist sources to identify parallel texts and common doctrinal content.<a href="#cite_note-467">[438]</a> One feature of these early texts are literary structures which reflect oral transmission, such as widespread repetition.<a href="#cite_note-468">[439]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Tripitakas">The Tripitakas</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka" title="Tripiṭaka">Tripiṭaka</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pali_Canon" title="Pali Canon">Pali Canon</a></div> After the development of the different <a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_schools" title="Early Buddhist schools">early Buddhist schools</a>, these schools began to develop their own textual collections, which were termed Tripiṭakas (Triple Baskets).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarder2000282–283-469">[440]</a> Many early Tripiṭakas, like the Pāli Tipitaka, were divided into three sections: <a href="/wiki/Vinaya" title="Vinaya">Vinaya Pitaka</a> (focuses on <a href="/wiki/Monasticism" title="Monasticism">monastic rule</a>), <a href="/wiki/Sutta_Pitaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Sutta Pitaka">Sutta Pitaka</a> (Buddhist discourses) and <a href="/wiki/Abhidhamma" class="mw-redirect" title="Abhidhamma">Abhidhamma Pitaka</a>, which contain expositions and commentaries on the doctrine. The <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81li_Canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Pāli Canon">Pāli Tipitaka</a> (also known as the Pali Canon) of the Theravada School constitutes the only complete collection of Buddhist texts in an <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indic language</a> which has survived until today.<a href="#cite_note-470">[441]</a> However, many Sutras, Vinayas and Abhidharma works from other schools survive in Chinese translation, as part of the Chinese Buddhist Canon. According to some sources, some early schools of Buddhism had five or seven pitakas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkilling1992114-471">[442]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mahāyāna_texts">Mahāyāna texts</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mahayana_sutras" title="Mahayana sutras">Mahayana sutras</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Korea-Haeinsa-Tripitaka_Koreana-01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Tripiṭaka Koreana in South Korea, over 81,000 wood printing blocks stored in racks" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Korea-Haeinsa-Tripitaka_Koreana-01.jpg/220px-Korea-Haeinsa-Tripitaka_Koreana-01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Korea-Haeinsa-Tripitaka_Koreana-01.jpg/330px-Korea-Haeinsa-Tripitaka_Koreana-01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Korea-Haeinsa-Tripitaka_Koreana-01.jpg/440px-Korea-Haeinsa-Tripitaka_Koreana-01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Tripitaka_Koreana" title="Tripitaka Koreana">Tripiṭaka Koreana</a> in South Korea, an edition of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhist_canon" title="Chinese Buddhist canon">Chinese Buddhist canon</a> carved and preserved in over 81,000 wood printing blocks</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Mahayana_sutras" title="Mahayana sutras">Mahāyāna sūtras</a> are a very broad genre of Buddhist scriptures that the <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahāyāna</a> Buddhist tradition holds are original teachings of <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">the Buddha</a>. Modern historians generally hold that the first of these texts were composed probably around the 1st century BCE or 1st century CE.<a href="#cite_note-Buddhism_2004,_page_293-472">[443]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirakawa1993252-160">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuswell2004494-473">[444]</a> In Mahāyāna, these texts are generally given greater authority than the early Āgamas and Abhidharma literature, which are called "<a href="/wiki/%C5%9Ar%C4%81vakay%C4%81na" title="Śrāvakayāna">Śrāvakayāna</a>" or "<a href="/wiki/Hinayana" title="Hinayana">Hinayana</a>" to distinguish them from Mahāyāna sūtras.<a href="#cite_note-474">[445]</a> Mahāyāna traditions mainly see these different classes of texts as being designed for different types of persons, with different levels of spiritual understanding. The Mahāyāna sūtras are mainly seen as being for those of "greater" capacity.<a href="#cite_note-475">[446]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] Mahāyāna also has a very large literature of philosophical and exegetical texts. These are often called <a href="/wiki/Shastras" class="mw-redirect" title="Shastras">śāstra</a> (treatises) or vrittis (commentaries). Some of this literature was also written in verse form (karikās), the most famous of which is the <a href="/wiki/Mulamadhyamakakarika" class="mw-redirect" title="Mulamadhyamakakarika">Mūlamadhyamika-karikā</a> (Root Verses on the Middle Way) by <a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna" title="Nagarjuna">Nagarjuna</a>, the foundational text of the <a href="/wiki/Madhyamika" class="mw-redirect" title="Madhyamika">Madhyamika</a> school. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tantric_texts">Tantric texts</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tantras_(Buddhism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tantras (Buddhism)">Tantras (Buddhism)</a></div>During the <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta Empire</a>, a new class of Buddhist sacred literature began to develop, which are called the <a href="/wiki/Tantras_(Buddhism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tantras (Buddhism)">Tantras</a>.<a href="#cite_note-476">[447]</a> By the 8th century, the tantric tradition was very influential in India and beyond. Besides drawing on a <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahāyāna">Mahāyāna</a> Buddhist framework, these texts also borrowed deities and material from other Indian religious traditions, such as the <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Aaiva" class="mw-redirect" title="Śaiva">Śaiva</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pancharatra" title="Pancharatra">Pancharatra</a> traditions, local god/goddess cults, and local spirit worship (such as <a href="/wiki/Yaksha" title="Yaksha">yaksha</a> or <a href="/wiki/N%C4%81ga" title="Nāga">nāga</a> spirits).<a href="#cite_note-477">[448]</a><a href="#cite_note-478">[449]</a> Some features of these texts include the widespread use of mantras, meditation on the <a href="/wiki/Lung_(Tibetan_Buddhism)#Subtle_Body" title="Lung (Tibetan Buddhism)">subtle body</a>, worship of <a href="/wiki/Fierce_deities" class="mw-redirect" title="Fierce deities">fierce deities</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Antinomian" class="mw-redirect" title="Antinomian">antinomian</a> and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/transgressive" class="extiw" title="wikt:transgressive">transgressive</a> practices such as ingesting <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">alcohol</a> and performing sexual rituals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliamsTribeWynne2012chapter_7-479">[450]</a><a href="#cite_note-480">[451]</a><a href="#cite_note-481">[452]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Schools_and_traditions">Schools and traditions</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Buddhism" title="Schools of Buddhism">Schools of Buddhism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Buddhism#Common_Era" title="Timeline of Buddhism">Timeline of Buddhism § Common Era</a></div> Buddhists generally classify themselves as either <a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravāda</a> or <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahāyāna</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeown199612-482">[453]</a> This classification is also used by some scholars<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2006-483">[454]</a> and is the one ordinarily used in the English language.<a href="#cite_note-484">[455]</a> An alternative scheme used by some scholars divides Buddhism into the following three traditions or geographical or cultural areas: Theravāda (or "Southern Buddhism", "South Asian Buddhism"), <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_Buddhism" title="East Asian Buddhism">East Asian Buddhism</a> (or just "Eastern Buddhism") and <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Indo-Tibetan Buddhism</a> (or "Northern Buddhism").<a href="#cite_note-alternative_scheme-485">[note 29]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Buddhism_in_Belgium.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Buddhism_in_Belgium.JPG/220px-Buddhism_in_Belgium.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Buddhism_in_Belgium.JPG/330px-Buddhism_in_Belgium.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Buddhism_in_Belgium.JPG/440px-Buddhism_in_Belgium.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1840" data-file-height="1232" /></a><figcaption>Buddhists of various traditions, Yeunten Ling Tibetan Institute</figcaption></figure> The Theravada tradition traces its origins as the oldest tradition holding the Pali Canon as the only authority. The Mahayana tradition reveres the Canon but also derivative literature that developed in the 1st millennium CE; its roots are traceable to the 1st century BCE. The Vajrayana tradition is closer to the Mahayana, includes Tantra, and as the younger of the three is traceable to the 1st millennium CE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGethin19981–2,_49–58,_253–271-486">[456]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams19891–25-487">[457]</a> Some scholars use other schemes, such as the multi-dimensional classification in the Encyclopedia of Religion.<a href="#cite_note-488">[458]</a> Buddhists themselves have a variety of other schemes. <a href="/wiki/Hinayana" title="Hinayana">Hinayana</a> (literally "lesser or inferior vehicle") is sometimes used by Mahāyāna followers to name the family of early philosophical schools and traditions from which contemporary Theravāda emerged, but as the Hinayana term is considered derogatory, a variety of other terms are used instead, including: <a href="/wiki/Shravakayana" class="mw-redirect" title="Shravakayana">Śrāvakayāna</a>, Nikaya Buddhism, early Buddhist schools, sectarian Buddhism and conservative Buddhism.<a href="#cite_note-kwmorganp410-489">[459]</a><a href="#cite_note-490">[460]</a> Not all traditions of Buddhism share the same philosophical outlook or treat the same concepts as central. Each tradition, however, does have its own core concepts, and some comparisons can be drawn between them:<a href="#cite_note-491">[461]</a><a href="#cite_note-492">[462]</a> <ul><li>Both Theravāda and Mahāyāna accept and revere <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">the Buddha Sakyamuni</a> as the founder, Mahāyāna also reveres numerous other Buddhas, such as <a href="/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha" title="Amitābha">Amitabha</a> or <a href="/wiki/Vairochana" class="mw-redirect" title="Vairochana">Vairocana</a> as well as many other bodhisattvas not revered in Theravāda.</li> <li>Both accept the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Way" title="Middle Way">Middle Way</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da" title="Pratītyasamutpāda">Dependent origination</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Four_Noble_Truths" title="Four Noble Truths">Four Noble Truths</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path" title="Noble Eightfold Path">Noble Eightfold Path</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Refuge_(Buddhism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Refuge (Buddhism)">Three Jewels</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Three_marks_of_existence" title="Three marks of existence">Three marks of existence</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Bodhipakkhiy%C4%81dhamm%C4%81" title="Bodhipakkhiyādhammā">Bodhipakṣadharmas</a> (aids to awakening).</li> <li>Mahāyāna focuses mainly on the <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">bodhisattva path</a> to Buddhahood which it sees as universal and to be practiced by all persons, while Theravāda does not focus on teaching this path and teaches the attainment of <a href="/wiki/Arhat" title="Arhat">arhatship</a> as a worthy goal to strive towards. The bodhisattva path is not denied in Theravāda, it is generally seen as a long and difficult path suitable for only a few.<a href="#cite_note-493">[463]</a> Thus the Bodhisattva path is normative in Mahāyāna, while it is an optional path for a heroic few in Theravāda.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeownPrebish2013"Bodhisattva,_Career_in_the_Theravada"-494">[464]</a></li> <li>Mahāyāna sees the arhat's nirvana as being imperfect and inferior or preliminary to full Buddhahood. It sees arhatship as selfish, since bodhisattvas vow to save all beings while arhats save only themselves.<a href="#cite_note-495">[465]</a> Theravāda meanwhile does not accept that the arhat's nirvana is an inferior or preliminary attainment, nor that it is a selfish deed to attain arhatship since not only are arhats described as compassionate but they have destroyed the root of greed, the sense of "I am".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeownPrebish2013"Bodhisattva,_Career_in_the_Theravada"-494">[464]</a></li> <li>Mahāyāna accepts the authority of the many Mahāyāna sutras along with the other Nikaya texts like the Agamas and the Pali canon (though it sees Mahāyāna texts as primary), while Theravāda does not accept that the Mahāyāna sutras are <a href="/wiki/Buddhavacana" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhavacana">buddhavacana</a> (word of the Buddha) at all.<a href="#cite_note-496">[466]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Monasteries_and_temples">Monasteries and temples</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_architecture" title="Buddhist architecture">Buddhist architecture</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Various types of Buddhist buildings</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:97px;max-width:97px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:126px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Mahabodhi_temple._The_Mahabodhi_temple,_Bodh_Gaya,_India.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Mahabodhi_temple._The_Mahabodhi_temple%2C_Bodh_Gaya%2C_India.jpg/95px-Mahabodhi_temple._The_Mahabodhi_temple%2C_Bodh_Gaya%2C_India.jpg" decoding="async" width="95" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Mahabodhi_temple._The_Mahabodhi_temple%2C_Bodh_Gaya%2C_India.jpg/143px-Mahabodhi_temple._The_Mahabodhi_temple%2C_Bodh_Gaya%2C_India.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Mahabodhi_temple._The_Mahabodhi_temple%2C_Bodh_Gaya%2C_India.jpg/190px-Mahabodhi_temple._The_Mahabodhi_temple%2C_Bodh_Gaya%2C_India.jpg 2x" data-file-width="525" data-file-height="700" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:191px;max-width:191px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:126px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Boudha_Stupa_2018_04.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Boudha_Stupa_2018_04.jpg/189px-Boudha_Stupa_2018_04.jpg" decoding="async" width="189" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Boudha_Stupa_2018_04.jpg/284px-Boudha_Stupa_2018_04.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Boudha_Stupa_2018_04.jpg/378px-Boudha_Stupa_2018_04.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:146px;max-width:146px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:105px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:2016_Rangun,_Pagoda_Szwedagon_(023).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/2016_Rangun%2C_Pagoda_Szwedagon_%28023%29.jpg/144px-2016_Rangun%2C_Pagoda_Szwedagon_%28023%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="144" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/2016_Rangun%2C_Pagoda_Szwedagon_%28023%29.jpg/216px-2016_Rangun%2C_Pagoda_Szwedagon_%28023%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/2016_Rangun%2C_Pagoda_Szwedagon_%28023%29.jpg/288px-2016_Rangun%2C_Pagoda_Szwedagon_%28023%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3826" data-file-height="2806" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:142px;max-width:142px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:105px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Giant_Wild_Goose_Pagoda.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Giant_Wild_Goose_Pagoda.jpg/140px-Giant_Wild_Goose_Pagoda.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Giant_Wild_Goose_Pagoda.jpg/210px-Giant_Wild_Goose_Pagoda.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Giant_Wild_Goose_Pagoda.jpg/280px-Giant_Wild_Goose_Pagoda.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:136px;max-width:136px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:100px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Kinkaku-ji_the_Golden_Temple_in_Kyoto_overlooking_the_lake_-_high_rez.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Kinkaku-ji_the_Golden_Temple_in_Kyoto_overlooking_the_lake_-_high_rez.JPG/134px-Kinkaku-ji_the_Golden_Temple_in_Kyoto_overlooking_the_lake_-_high_rez.JPG" decoding="async" width="134" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Kinkaku-ji_the_Golden_Temple_in_Kyoto_overlooking_the_lake_-_high_rez.JPG/201px-Kinkaku-ji_the_Golden_Temple_in_Kyoto_overlooking_the_lake_-_high_rez.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Kinkaku-ji_the_Golden_Temple_in_Kyoto_overlooking_the_lake_-_high_rez.JPG/268px-Kinkaku-ji_the_Golden_Temple_in_Kyoto_overlooking_the_lake_-_high_rez.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4608" data-file-height="3456" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:100px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Sakya_tibet2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Sakya_tibet2.jpg/150px-Sakya_tibet2.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Sakya_tibet2.jpg/225px-Sakya_tibet2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Sakya_tibet2.jpg/300px-Sakya_tibet2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3655" data-file-height="2447" /></a></div></div></div></div></div> Buddhist institutions are often housed and centred around <a href="/wiki/Monasteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Monasteries">monasteries</a> (Sanskrit: <a href="/wiki/Vih%C4%81ra" title="Vihāra">viharas</a>) and temples. Buddhist monastics originally followed a life of wandering, never staying in one place for long. During the three-month rainy season (<a href="/wiki/Vassa" title="Vassa">vassa</a>) they would gather together in one place for a period of intense practice and then depart again.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirakawa199368-497">[467]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDutt198853-498">[468]</a> Some of the earliest Buddhist monasteries were at groves (vanas) or woods (araññas), such as <a href="/wiki/Jetavana" title="Jetavana">Jetavana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sarnath" title="Sarnath">Sarnath's Deer Park</a>. There originally seems to have been two main types of monasteries, monastic settlements (sangharamas) were built and supported by donors, and woodland camps (avasas) were set up by monks. Whatever structures were built in these locales were made out of wood and were sometimes temporary structures built for the rainy season.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirakawa199334-499">[469]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDutt198855-500">[470]</a> Over time, the wandering community slowly adopted more settled <a href="/wiki/Cenobitic_monasticism" title="Cenobitic monasticism">cenobitic</a> forms of monasticism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDutt198857–59-501">[471]</a> There are many different forms of Buddhist structures. Classic Indian Buddhist institutions mainly made use of the following structures: monasteries, rock-hewn cave complexes (such as the <a href="/wiki/Ajanta_Caves" title="Ajanta Caves">Ajanta Caves</a>), <a href="/wiki/Stupa" title="Stupa">stupas</a> (funerary mounds which contained relics), and temples such as the <a href="/wiki/Mahabodhi_Temple" title="Mahabodhi Temple">Mahabodhi Temple</a>.<a href="#cite_note-502">[472]</a> In Southeast Asia, the most widespread institutions are centred on <a href="/wiki/Wat" title="Wat">wats</a>. East Asian Buddhist institutions also use various structures including monastic halls, temples, lecture halls, bell towers and <a href="/wiki/Pagoda" title="Pagoda">pagodas</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_temples_in_Japan" title="Buddhist temples in Japan">Japanese Buddhist temples</a>, these different structures are usually grouped together in an area termed the <a href="/wiki/Shichid%C5%8D_garan" title="Shichidō garan">garan</a>. In Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, Buddhist institutions are generally housed in <a href="/wiki/Gompa" title="Gompa">gompas</a>. They include monastic quarters, stupas and prayer halls with Buddha images. In the modern era, the Buddhist "meditation centre", which is mostly used by laypersons and often also staffed by them, has also become widespread.<a href="#cite_note-503">[473]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_the_modern_era">In the modern era</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_by_country" title="Buddhism by country">Buddhism by country</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_modernism" title="Buddhist modernism">Buddhist modernism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%A5%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Buddhist monk in Siberia in robes leaning on railing looking at temple" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/%D0%A5%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA.JPG/220px-%D0%A5%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/%D0%A5%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA.JPG/330px-%D0%A5%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/%D0%A5%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA.JPG/440px-%D0%A5%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Buryats" title="Buryats">Buryat</a> Buddhist monk in <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Colonial_era_and_after">Colonial era and after</h3></div> Buddhism has faced various challenges and changes during the colonisation of Buddhist states by Christian countries and its persecution under modern states. Like other religions, the findings of modern science have challenged its basic premises. One response to some of these challenges has come to be called <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_modernism" title="Buddhist modernism">Buddhist modernism</a>. Early Buddhist modernist figures such as the American convert <a href="/wiki/Henry_Steel_Olcott" title="Henry Steel Olcott">Henry Olcott</a> (1832–1907) and <a href="/wiki/Anagarika_Dharmapala" title="Anagarika Dharmapala">Anagarika Dharmapala</a> (1864–1933) reinterpreted and promoted Buddhism as a scientific and rational religion which they saw as compatible with modern science.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013378-504">[474]</a> <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_Buddhism" title="East Asian Buddhism">East Asian Buddhism</a> meanwhile suffered under various wars which ravaged China during the modern era, such as the <a href="/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Taiping rebellion</a> and <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> (which also affected <a href="/wiki/Korean_Buddhism" title="Korean Buddhism">Korean Buddhism</a>). During the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republican period</a> (1912–49), a new movement called <a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Buddhism" title="Humanistic Buddhism">Humanistic Buddhism</a> was developed by figures such as <a href="/wiki/Taixu" title="Taixu">Taixu</a> (1899–1947), and though Buddhist institutions were destroyed during the <a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a> (1966–76), there has been a revival of the religion in China after 1977.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013409–410-505">[475]</a> <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Japan" title="Buddhism in Japan">Japanese Buddhism</a> also went through a period of modernisation during the <a href="/wiki/Meiji_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Meiji period">Meiji period</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013403-506">[476]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> meanwhile, the arrival of <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communist</a> repression to <a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a> (1966–1980) and <a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a> (between 1924 and 1990) had a strong negative impact on Buddhist institutions, though the situation has improved somewhat since the 80s and 90s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013414–417-507">[477]</a> In Afghanistan and Pakistan, militants have destroyed some historic Buddhist monuments.<a href="#cite_note-508">[478]</a><a href="#cite_note-509">[479]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_the_West">In the West</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_West" title="Buddhism in the West">Buddhism in the West</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:214px;max-width:214px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:212px;max-width:212px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:1893parliament.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/1893parliament.jpg/210px-1893parliament.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/1893parliament.jpg/315px-1893parliament.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/1893parliament.jpg/420px-1893parliament.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3462" data-file-height="1582" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">1893 <a href="/wiki/World_Parliament_of_Religions" class="mw-redirect" title="World Parliament of Religions">World Parliament of Religions</a> in <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a>, <a href="/wiki/Illinois" title="Illinois">Illinois</a>, United States</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:212px;max-width:212px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Buddharama_Nukari.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Buddharama_Nukari.jpg/210px-Buddharama_Nukari.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Buddharama_Nukari.jpg/315px-Buddharama_Nukari.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Buddharama_Nukari.jpg/420px-Buddharama_Nukari.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1238" data-file-height="875" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Interior of the Thai Buddhist wat in <a href="/wiki/Nukari" title="Nukari">Nukari</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nurmij%C3%A4rvi" title="Nurmijärvi">Nurmijärvi</a>, Finland</div></div></div></div></div> While there were some encounters of Western travellers or missionaries such as St. <a href="/wiki/Francis_Xavier" title="Francis Xavier">Francis Xavier</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ippolito_Desideri" title="Ippolito Desideri">Ippolito Desideri</a> with Buddhist cultures, it was not until the 19th century that Buddhism began to be studied by Western scholars. It was the work of pioneering scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Burnouf" title="Eugène Burnouf">Eugène Burnouf</a>, <a href="/wiki/Max_M%C3%BCller" title="Max Müller">Max Müller</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Oldenberg" title="Hermann Oldenberg">Hermann Oldenberg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_William_Rhys_Davids" title="Thomas William Rhys Davids">Thomas William Rhys Davids</a> that paved the way for modern <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_studies" title="Buddhist studies">Buddhist studies</a> in the West. The English words such as Buddhism, "Boudhist", "Bauddhist" and Buddhist were coined in the early 19th-century in the West,<a href="#cite_note-510">[480]</a> while in 1881, Rhys Davids founded the <a href="/wiki/Pali_Text_Society" title="Pali Text Society">Pali Text Society</a>—an influential Western resource of Buddhist literature in the Pali language and one of the earliest publisher of a journal on <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_studies" title="Buddhist studies">Buddhist studies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-511">[481]</a> It was also during the 19th century that Asian Buddhist immigrants (mainly from China and Japan) began to arrive in Western countries such as the United States and Canada, bringing with them their Buddhist religion. This period also saw the first Westerners to formally convert to Buddhism, such as <a href="/wiki/Helena_Blavatsky" title="Helena Blavatsky">Helena Blavatsky</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henry_Steel_Olcott" title="Henry Steel Olcott">Henry Steel Olcott</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:10-512">[482]</a> An important event in the introduction of Buddhism to the West was the 1893 <a href="/wiki/World_Parliament_of_Religions" class="mw-redirect" title="World Parliament of Religions">World Parliament of Religions</a>, which for the first time saw well-publicized speeches by major Buddhist leaders alongside other religious leaders. The 20th century saw a prolific growth of new Buddhist institutions in Western countries, including the <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_Society,_London" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist Society, London">Buddhist Society, London</a> (1924), <a href="/wiki/Das_Buddhistische_Haus" title="Das Buddhistische Haus">Das Buddhistische Haus</a> (1924) and <a href="/wiki/Datsan_Gunzechoinei" title="Datsan Gunzechoinei">Datsan Gunzechoinei</a> in <a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg" title="Saint Petersburg">St Petersburg</a>. The publication and translations of Buddhist literature in Western languages thereafter accelerated. After the <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">second world war</a>, further immigration from Asia, globalisation, the <a href="/wiki/Secularisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Secularisation">secularisation</a> on Western culture as well a renewed interest in Buddhism among the 60s <a href="/wiki/Counterculture" title="Counterculture">counterculture</a> led to further growth in Buddhist institutions.<a href="#cite_note-513">[483]</a> Influential figures on post-war <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_West" title="Buddhism in the West">Western Buddhism</a> include <a href="/wiki/Shunryu_Suzuki" class="mw-redirect" title="Shunryu Suzuki">Shunryu Suzuki</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jack_Kerouac" title="Jack Kerouac">Jack Kerouac</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alan_Watts" title="Alan Watts">Alan Watts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Th%C3%ADch_Nh%E1%BA%A5t_H%E1%BA%A1nh" title="Thích Nhất Hạnh">Thích Nhất Hạnh</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/14th_Dalai_Lama" title="14th Dalai Lama">14th Dalai Lama</a>. While Buddhist institutions have grown, some of the central premises of Buddhism such as the cycles of rebirth and <a href="/wiki/Four_Noble_Truths" title="Four Noble Truths">Four Noble Truths</a> have been problematic in the West.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKonik2009ix-514">[484]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayes2013172-515">[485]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELamb2001258-516">[486]</a> In contrast, states Christopher Gowans, for "most ordinary [Asian] Buddhists, today as well as in the past, their basic moral orientation is governed by belief in karma and rebirth".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGowans201418–23,_76–88-517">[487]</a> Most Asian Buddhist laypersons, states Kevin Trainor, have historically pursued Buddhist rituals and practices seeking better rebirth,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeown200960–63,_74–85,_185–187-518">[488]</a> not nirvana or freedom from rebirth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler199965-519">[489]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:224px;max-width:224px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Nouvelle_g%C3%A9ographie_universelle_-_la_terre_et_les_hommes_(1876)_(14592652167).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Buddha statue in 1896, Bamiyan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Nouvelle_g%C3%A9ographie_universelle_-_la_terre_et_les_hommes_%281876%29_%2814592652167%29.jpg/220px-Nouvelle_g%C3%A9ographie_universelle_-_la_terre_et_les_hommes_%281876%29_%2814592652167%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Nouvelle_g%C3%A9ographie_universelle_-_la_terre_et_les_hommes_%281876%29_%2814592652167%29.jpg/330px-Nouvelle_g%C3%A9ographie_universelle_-_la_terre_et_les_hommes_%281876%29_%2814592652167%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Nouvelle_g%C3%A9ographie_universelle_-_la_terre_et_les_hommes_%281876%29_%2814592652167%29.jpg/440px-Nouvelle_g%C3%A9ographie_universelle_-_la_terre_et_les_hommes_%281876%29_%2814592652167%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2848" data-file-height="1928" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Destroyed_Statue,_July_17,_2005_at_15-53.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="After statue destroyed by Islamist Taliban in 2001" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Destroyed_Statue%2C_July_17%2C_2005_at_15-53.jpg/220px-Destroyed_Statue%2C_July_17%2C_2005_at_15-53.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Destroyed_Statue%2C_July_17%2C_2005_at_15-53.jpg/330px-Destroyed_Statue%2C_July_17%2C_2005_at_15-53.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Destroyed_Statue%2C_July_17%2C_2005_at_15-53.jpg/440px-Destroyed_Statue%2C_July_17%2C_2005_at_15-53.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Buddhas_of_Bamiyan" title="Buddhas of Bamiyan">Buddhas of Bamiyan</a>, Afghanistan in 1896 (top) and after destruction in 2001 by the <a href="/wiki/Taliban" title="Taliban">Taliban</a> Islamists.<a href="#cite_note-520">[490]</a></div></div></div></div> Buddhism has spread across the world,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHenderson200242-521">[491]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETamney199868-522">[492]</a> and Buddhist texts are increasingly translated into local languages. While <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_West" title="Buddhism in the West">Buddhism in the West</a> is often seen as exotic and progressive, in the East it is regarded as familiar and traditional. In countries such as <a href="/wiki/Cambodia" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bhutan" title="Bhutan">Bhutan</a>, it is recognised as the <a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">state religion</a> and receives government support. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neo-Buddhism_movements">Neo-Buddhism movements</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Dalit_Buddhist_movement" title="Dalit Buddhist movement">Dalit Buddhist movement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Navayana" title="Navayana">Navayana</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Twenty-two_vows_of_Ambedkar" title="Twenty-two vows of Ambedkar">Twenty-two vows of Ambedkar</a></div> A number of modern movements in Buddhism emerged during the second half of the 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParanjpe1998351-523">[493]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPavāra2009xv–xviii-524">[494]</a> These <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_modernism" title="Buddhist modernism">new forms of Buddhism</a> are diverse and significantly depart from traditional beliefs and practices.<a href="#cite_note-525">[495]</a> In India, <a href="/wiki/B.R._Ambedkar" class="mw-redirect" title="B.R. Ambedkar">B.R. Ambedkar</a> launched the Navayana tradition—literally, "new vehicle". Ambedkar's Buddhism rejects the foundational doctrines and historic practices of traditional Theravada and Mahayana traditions, such as monk lifestyle after renunciation, karma, rebirth, samsara, meditation, nirvana, Four Noble Truths and others.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeownPrebish201325-526">[496]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQueen2013524–529-527">[497]</a><a href="#cite_note-Skaria_2015-528">[498]</a> Ambedkar's Navayana Buddhism considers these as superstitions and re-interprets the original Buddha as someone who taught about <a href="/wiki/Class_conflict" title="Class conflict">class struggle</a> and social equality.<a href="#cite_note-Zelliot-529">[499]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeownPrebish201324–26-530">[500]</a> Ambedkar urged low caste Indian <a href="/wiki/Dalit" title="Dalit">Dalits</a> to convert to his Marxism-inspired<a href="#cite_note-Skaria_2015-528">[498]</a> reinterpretation called the <a href="/wiki/Navayana" title="Navayana">Navayana</a> Buddhism, also known as Bhimayana Buddhism. Ambedkar's effort led to the expansion of Navayana Buddhism in India.<a href="#cite_note-531">[501]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zelliot-529">[499]</a> The Thai King <a href="/wiki/Mongkut" title="Mongkut">Mongkut</a> (r. 1851–68), and his son <a href="/wiki/Chulalongkorn" title="Chulalongkorn">Chulalongkorn</a> (r. 1868–1910), were responsible for modern reforms of <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Thailand" title="Buddhism in Thailand">Thai Buddhism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013385-532">[502]</a> Modern Buddhist movements include <a href="/wiki/Secular_Buddhism" title="Secular Buddhism">Secular Buddhism</a> in many countries, <a href="/wiki/Won_Buddhism" title="Won Buddhism">Won Buddhism</a> in Korea, the <a href="/wiki/Dhammakaya_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhammakaya movement">Dhammakaya movement</a> in Thailand and several Japanese organisations, such as <a href="/wiki/Shinnyo-en" title="Shinnyo-en">Shinnyo-en</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rissh%C5%8D_K%C5%8Dsei_Kai" title="Risshō Kōsei Kai">Risshō Kōsei Kai</a> or <a href="/wiki/Soka_Gakkai" title="Soka Gakkai">Soka Gakkai</a>. Some of these movements have brought internal disputes and strife within regional Buddhist communities. For example, the Dhammakaya movement in Thailand teaches a "true self" doctrine, which traditional Theravada monks consider as heretically denying the fundamental anatta (<a href="/wiki/Anatt%C4%81" title="Anattā">not-self</a>) doctrine of Buddhism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams2008125–128-533">[503]</a><a href="#cite_note-534">[504]</a><a href="#cite_note-535">[505]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sexual_abuse_and_misconduct">Sexual abuse and misconduct</h3></div> Buddhism has not been immune from sexual abuse and misconduct scandals, with victims coming forward in various Buddhist schools such as <a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-536">[506]</a><a href="#cite_note-537">[507]</a><a href="#cite_note-538">[508]</a> "There are huge cover ups in the Catholic church, but what has happened within Tibetan Buddhism is totally along the same lines," says Mary Finnigan, an author and journalist who has been chronicling such alleged abuses since the mid-80s.<a href="#cite_note-539">[509]</a> One notably covered <a href="/wiki/Sogyal_Rinpoche#Abuse_allegations" title="Sogyal Rinpoche">case</a> in media of various Western countries was that of <a href="/wiki/Sogyal_Rinpoche" title="Sogyal Rinpoche">Sogyal Rinpoche</a> which began in 1994,<a href="#cite_note-540">[510]</a> and ended with his retirement from his position as <a href="/wiki/Rigpa_(organization)" title="Rigpa (organization)">Rigpa</a>'s spiritual director in 2017.<a href="#cite_note-541">[511]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classification">Classification</h3></div> There is consensus among <a href="/wiki/Religious_studies" title="Religious studies">religious studies</a> scholars that Buddhism is a religion.<a href="#cite_note-Goble_2019_p.-542">[512]</a> However, Buddhism has posed problems to Western scholars of religion who define religion based solely on a "theistic conception".<a href="#cite_note-Herbrechtsmeier_1993_p._1-543">[513]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lion's_Roar-544">[514]</a> Further, some <a href="/wiki/Western_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Buddhism">Western Buddhists</a> and commentators like <a href="/wiki/Alan_Watts" title="Alan Watts">Alan Watts</a> maintain that Buddhism does not constitute a religion but rather a philosophy, a <a href="/wiki/Psychotherapy" title="Psychotherapy">psychotherapy</a>, or a <a href="/wiki/Practical_philosophy" title="Practical philosophy">way of life</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_der_Velde201422-545">[515]</a><a href="#cite_note-Aich_2013_p._165-546">[516]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lion's_Roar-544">[514]</a> This conception is rooted in 19th century <a href="/wiki/Orientalism" title="Orientalism">orientalist</a> writers, such as <a href="/wiki/Theosophy" title="Theosophy">theosophist</a> <a href="/wiki/Henry_Steel_Olcott" title="Henry Steel Olcott">Henry Steel Olcott</a>, which reinterpreted Buddhism in a <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestant</a> lens and viewed Buddhism in Asia as representing a debased religious form of what was originally non-religious and rational.<a href="#cite_note-547">[517]</a> Some Buddhist teachers and commentators, such as Dharmavidya David Brazier, have criticized the persistence of this view.<a href="#cite_note-Brazier_Brazier_2015_h916-548">[518]</a><a href="#cite_note-549">[519]</a> Among Buddhists in <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a>, Buddhism is parallel to <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> as an āgama,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthwold1978363-550">[520]</a> literally "scripture" or "teaching".<a href="#cite_note-551">[521]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cultural_influence">Cultural influence</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Buddhism" title="Culture of Buddhism">Culture of Buddhism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Potala_Palace,_Tibet.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Potala_Palace%2C_Tibet.jpg/220px-Potala_Palace%2C_Tibet.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Potala_Palace%2C_Tibet.jpg/330px-Potala_Palace%2C_Tibet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Potala_Palace%2C_Tibet.jpg/440px-Potala_Palace%2C_Tibet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1152" /></a><figcaption>Lhasa's <a href="/wiki/Potala_Palace" title="Potala Palace">Potala Palace</a>, today a <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Site" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage Site</a>, pictured in 2019</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mahabodhitemple.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Mahabodhitemple.jpg/220px-Mahabodhitemple.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Mahabodhitemple.jpg/330px-Mahabodhitemple.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Mahabodhitemple.jpg/440px-Mahabodhitemple.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1944" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>India's <a href="/wiki/Mahabodhi_temple" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahabodhi temple">Mahabodhi temple</a>, built under the <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta Empire</a>, 6th century CE</figcaption></figure> Buddhism has had a profound influence on various cultures, especially in Asia. <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_art" title="Buddhist art">Buddhist art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_architecture" title="Buddhist architecture">Buddhist architecture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_cuisine" title="Buddhist cuisine">Buddhist cuisine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_festivals" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist festivals">Buddhist festivals</a> continue to be influential elements of the modern <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Asia" title="Culture of Asia">Culture of Asia</a>, especially in <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_cultural_sphere" class="mw-redirect" title="East Asian cultural sphere">Sinosphere</a> as well as in <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Indosphere" title="Indosphere">Indosphere</a>. According to Litian Fang, Buddhism has "permeated a wide range of fields, such as politics, ethics, philosophy, literature, art and customs", in these Asian regions.<a href="#cite_note-552">[522]</a> Buddhist teachings influenced the development of modern <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a> as well as other <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Asia" title="Religion in Asia">Asian religions</a> like <a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>. Buddhist philosophers like <a href="/wiki/Dign%C4%81ga" title="Dignāga">Dignaga</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dharmakirti" title="Dharmakirti">Dharmakirti</a> were very influential in the development of <a href="/wiki/Indian_logic" title="Indian logic">Indian logic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pramana" title="Pramana">epistemology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-553">[523]</a> Buddhist educational institutions like <a href="/wiki/Nalanda" class="mw-redirect" title="Nalanda">Nalanda</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vikramashila" title="Vikramashila">Vikramashila</a> preserved various disciplines of classical Indian knowledge such as grammar, astronomy/astrology and medicine and taught foreign students from Asia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDutt1988332–333-554">[524]</a> In the Western world, Buddhism has had a strong influence on modern <a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a> spirituality and other alternative spiritualities. This began with its influence on 20th century <a href="/wiki/Theosophists" class="mw-redirect" title="Theosophists">Theosophists</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Helena_Blavatsky" title="Helena Blavatsky">Helena Blavatsky</a>, which were some of the first Westerners to take Buddhism seriously as a spiritual tradition.<a href="#cite_note-555">[525]</a> More recently, Buddhist meditation practices have influenced the development of modern <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, particularly the practice of <a href="/wiki/Mindfulness-based_stress_reduction" title="Mindfulness-based stress reduction">Mindfulness-based stress reduction</a> (MBSR) and other similar <a href="/wiki/Mindfulness" title="Mindfulness">mindfulness</a> based modalities.<a href="#cite_note-556">[526]</a><a href="#cite_note-557">[527]</a> The influence of <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_psychology" title="Buddhism and psychology">Buddhism on psychology</a> can also be seen in certain forms of modern <a href="/wiki/Psychoanalysis" title="Psychoanalysis">psychoanalysis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-558">[528]</a><a href="#cite_note-559">[529]</a> <a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">Shamanism</a> is a widespread practice in some Buddhist societies. Buddhist monasteries have long existed alongside local shamanic traditions. Lacking an institutional orthodoxy, Buddhists adapted to the local cultures, blending their own traditions with pre-existing shamanic culture. Research into Himalayan religion has shown that Buddhist and shamanic traditions overlap in many respects: the worship of localized deities, healing rituals and exorcisms. The shamanic <a href="/wiki/Gurung" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurung">Gurung</a> people have adopted some of the Buddhist beliefs such and rebirth but maintain the shamanic rites of "guiding the soul" after death. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Demographics">Demographics</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_by_country" title="Buddhism by country">Buddhism by country</a></div> Buddhism is practised by an estimated 488 million,<a href="#cite_note-Pew_2012a-11">[10]</a> 495 million,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnsonGrim201334–37-560">[530]</a> or 535 million<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey20135-561">[531]</a> people as of the 2010s, representing 7% to 8% of the world's total population. <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> is the country with the largest population of Buddhists, approximately 244 million or 18% of its total population.<a href="#cite_note-Pew_2012a-11">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-563">[note 30]</a> They are mostly followers of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Chinese schools</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a>, making this the largest body of Buddhist traditions. Mahayana, also practised in broader <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_East_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhism in East Asia">East Asia</a>, is followed by over half of world Buddhists.<a href="#cite_note-Pew_2012a-11">[10]</a> Buddhism is the dominant religion in <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Thailand" title="Buddhism in Thailand">Thailand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Cambodia" title="Buddhism in Cambodia">Cambodia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Tibet" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhism in Tibet">Tibet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Myanmar" title="Buddhism in Myanmar">Myanmar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Buddhism in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Bhutan" title="Buddhism in Bhutan">Bhutan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Laos" title="Buddhism in Laos">Laos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Mongolia" title="Buddhism in Mongolia">Mongolia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Japan" title="Buddhism in Japan">Japan</a>,<a href="#cite_note-564">[533]</a> Hong Kong,<a href="#cite_note-565">[534]</a> Macau,<a href="#cite_note-566">[535]</a> <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Singapore" title="Buddhism in Singapore">Singapore</a>,<a href="#cite_note-567">[536]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Vietnam" title="Buddhism in Vietnam">Vietnam</a>.<a href="#cite_note-568">[537]</a> Large Buddhist populations live in <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Mainland China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Taiwan" title="Buddhism in Taiwan">Taiwan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhism in Korea">North Korea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Nepal" title="Buddhism in Nepal">Nepal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhism in Korea">South Korea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-The_Pew_Forum-569">[538]</a> The Indian state of <a href="/wiki/Maharashtra" title="Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a> accounts for 77% of all Buddhists in India.<a href="#cite_note-570">[539]</a> In Russia, Buddhists form majority in <a href="/wiki/Tuva" title="Tuva">Tuva</a> (52%) and <a href="/wiki/Kalmykia" title="Kalmykia">Kalmykia</a> (53%). <a href="/wiki/Buryatia" title="Buryatia">Buryatia</a> (20%) and <a href="/wiki/Zabaykalsky_Krai" title="Zabaykalsky Krai">Zabaykalsky Krai</a> (15%) also have significant Buddhist populations.<a href="#cite_note-571">[540]</a> Buddhism is also growing by conversion. In India, more than 85% of the total Buddhists have converted from Hinduism to Buddhism,<a href="#cite_note-auto1-572">[541]</a><a href="#cite_note-thequint.com-573">[542]</a> and they are called <a href="/wiki/Neo-Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Buddhist">neo-Buddhists</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ambedkarite" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambedkarite">Ambedkarite</a> Buddhists.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-572">[541]</a><a href="#cite_note-thequint.com-573">[542]</a> In New Zealand, about 25–35% of the total Buddhists are converts to Buddhism.<a href="#cite_note-574">[543]</a><a href="#cite_note-575">[544]</a> Buddhism has also spread to the <a href="/wiki/Nordic_countries" title="Nordic countries">Nordic countries</a>; for example, the Burmese Buddhists founded in the city of <a href="/wiki/Kuopio" title="Kuopio">Kuopio</a> in <a href="/wiki/North_Savonia" class="mw-redirect" title="North Savonia">North Savonia</a> the first Buddhist monastery of <a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a>, named the Buddha Dhamma Ramsi monastery.<a href="#cite_note-576">[545]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Buddhism" title="Criticism of Buddhism">Criticism of Buddhism</a></div> Traditional Buddhist texts often portray women as deceitful and lustful.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words">which?</a>] The Buddha is quoted describing women's bodies as impure and filthy.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Naming_conventions_(geographic_names)" title="Wikipedia:Naming conventions (geographic names)">where?</a>] Scholars like <a href="/wiki/Isaline_Blew_Horner" title="Isaline Blew Horner">Isaline Blew Horner</a> and Diana Mary Paul note discrimination against female Buddhist practitioners in <a href="/wiki/Middle_kingdoms_of_India" title="Middle kingdoms of India">ancient India</a>. In modern Japan, Kawahashi Noriko observes that Buddhist communities hold harmful views of women as inherently incompetent and are dependent on men for liberation. These perspectives perpetuate gender bias, ignoring women's experiences and feminist critiques.<a href="#cite_note-577">[546]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 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religion">Chinese folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Buddhism" title="Criticism of Buddhism">Criticism of Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalit_Buddhist_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Dalit Buddhist Movement">Dalit Buddhist Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iconography_of_Gautama_Buddha_in_Laos_and_Thailand" title="Iconography of Gautama Buddha in Laos and Thailand">Iconography of Gautama Buddha in Laos and Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Buddhism-related_articles" title="Index of Buddhism-related articles">Index of Buddhism-related articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Buddhist" title="Jewish Buddhist">Jewish Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhist_temples" title="List of Buddhist temples">List of Buddhist temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhists" title="List of Buddhists">List of Buddhists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_converts_to_Buddhism" title="List of converts to Buddhism">List of converts to Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Buddhism" title="Outline of Buddhism">Outline of Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Buddhists" title="Persecution of Buddhists">Persecution of Buddhists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shinbutsu-sh%C5%ABg%C5%8D" title="Shinbutsu-shūgō">Shinbutsu-shūgō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern,_Eastern_and_Northern_Buddhism" title="Southern, Eastern and Northern Buddhism">Southern, Eastern and Northern Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tengrism#Tengrism_and_Buddhism" title="Tengrism">Tengrism and Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Teachings" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Teachings">Three Teachings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Central_Asia" title="Buddhism in Central Asia">Buddhism in Central Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Buddhist_Scout_Council" title="World Buddhist Scout Council">World Buddhist Scout Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism_in_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Polytheism in Buddhism">Polytheism in Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monolatry" title="Monolatry">Monolatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_modernism" title="Buddhist modernism">Buddhist modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetarianism" title="Vegetarianism">Vegetarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_caste" title="Buddhism and caste">Buddhism and caste</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Explanatory_notes">Explanatory notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> The term is probably derived from duh-stha, "standing uns table"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMonier-Williams1899483,_entry_note:&nbsp;-14">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnalayo2013-15">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith201530-16">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander201936-17">[16]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> Buddhist texts such as the <a href="/wiki/Jataka_tales" title="Jataka tales">Jataka tales</a> of the Theravada Buddhist tradition, and early biographies such as the <a href="/wiki/Buddhacarita" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhacarita">Buddhacarita</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Lokottarav%C4%81da" title="Lokottaravāda">Lokottaravādin</a> <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81vastu" title="Mahāvastu">Mahāvastu</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivādin</a> <a href="/wiki/Lalitavistara_S%C5%ABtra" title="Lalitavistara Sūtra">Lalitavistara Sūtra</a>, give different accounts about the life of the Buddha; many include stories of his many rebirths, and some add significant embellishments.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESwearer2004177-43">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGethin199815–24-44">[42]</a> Keown and Prebish state, "In the past, modern scholars have generally accepted 486 or 483 BCE for this [Buddha's death], but the consensus is now that they rest on evidence which is too flimsy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeownPrebish2010105–106-45">[43]</a> Scholars are hesitant to make unqualified claims about the historical facts of the Buddha's life. Most accept that he lived, taught and founded a monastic order, but do not consistently accept all of the details contained in his biographies."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuswell2004352-46">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELopez199516-47">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarrithers198610-48">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArmstrong2004xii-49">[47]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> The exact identity of this ancient place is unclear. Please see <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Gautama Buddha</a> article for various sites identified. </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> Bihar is derived from Vihara, which means monastery.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGombrich198849-52">[48]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> The earliest Buddhist biographies of the Buddha mention these Vedic-era teachers. Outside of these early Buddhist texts, these names do not appear, which has led some scholars to raise doubts about the historicity of these claims.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWynne20078–23-62">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst201319–32-64">[59]</a> According to Alexander Wynne, the evidence suggests that Buddha studied under these Vedic-era teachers and they "almost certainly" taught him, but the details of his education are unclear.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWynne20078–23-62">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirakawa199322–26-65">[60]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> While some interpretations state that Buddhism may have originated as a social reform, other scholars state that it is incorrect and anachronistic to regard the Buddha as a social reformer.<a href="#cite_note-QueenKing1996p17-79">[73]</a> Buddha's concern was "to reform individuals, help them to leave society forever, not to reform the world... he never preached against social inequality". <a href="/wiki/Richard_Gombrich" title="Richard Gombrich">Richard Gombrich</a>, quoted by Christopher Queen.<a href="#cite_note-QueenKing1996p17-79">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGombrich198830–31-80">[74]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/Digha_Nikaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Digha Nikaya">Digha Nikaya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Majjhima_Nikaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Majjhima Nikaya">Majjhima Nikaya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samyutta_Nikaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Samyutta Nikaya">Samyutta Nikaya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anguttara_Nikaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Anguttara Nikaya">Anguttara Nikaya</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> The surviving portions of the scriptures of <a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvastivada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mulasarvastivada" title="Mulasarvastivada">Mulasarvastivada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%AB%C5%9B%C4%81saka" title="Mahīśāsaka">Mahīśāsaka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dharmaguptaka" title="Dharmaguptaka">Dharmaguptaka</a> and other schools.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVetter1988ix-103">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarder2000-104">[96]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> Exemplary studies are the study on descriptions of "liberating insight" by Lambert Schmithausen,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmithausen1981-107">[98]</a> the overview of early Buddhism by Tilmann Vetter,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVetter1988-108">[99]</a> the philological work on the four truths by K.R. Norman,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1992-109">[100]</a> the textual studies by Richard Gombrich,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGombrich1997-110">[101]</a> and the research on early meditation methods by Johannes Bronkhorst.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst1993-111">[102]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> According to A.K. Warder, in his 1970 publication "Indian Buddhism", from the oldest extant texts a common kernel can be drawn out.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarder2000-104">[96]</a> According to Warder, c.q. his publisher: "This kernel of doctrine is presumably common Buddhism of the period before the great schisms of the fourth and third centuries BC. It may be substantially the Buddhism of the Buddha himself, although this cannot be proved: at any rate it is a Buddhism presupposed by the schools as existing about a hundred years after the parinirvana of the Buddha, and there is no evidence to suggest that it was formulated by anyone else than the Buddha and his immediate followers."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarder2000inside_flap-114">[104]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> Richard Gombrich: "I have the greatest difficulty in accepting that the main edifice is not the work of a single genius. By "the main edifice" I mean the collections of the main body of sermons, the four Nikāyas, and of the main body of monastic rules."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGombrich1997-110">[101]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> Ronald Davidson: "While most scholars agree that there was a rough body of sacred literature (disputed) [<a href="/wiki/Sic" title="Sic">sic</a>] that a relatively early community (disputed) [<a href="/wiki/Sic" title="Sic">sic</a>] maintained and transmitted, we have little confidence that much, if any, of surviving Buddhist scripture is actually the word of the historic Buddha."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson2003147-118">[106]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jong-121"><a href="#cite_ref-Jong_121-0">^</a> J.W. De Jong: "It would be hypocritical to assert that nothing can be said about the doctrine of earliest Buddhism [...] the basic ideas of Buddhism found in the canonical writings could very well have been proclaimed by him [the Buddha], transmitted and developed by his disciples and, finally, codified in fixed formulas."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJong199325-120">[107]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> Bronkhorst: "This position is to be preferred to (ii) for purely methodological reasons: only those who seek nay find, even if no success is guaranteed."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst1993vii-113">[103]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> Lopez: "The original teachings of the historical Buddha are extremely difficult, if not impossible, to recover or reconstruct."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELopez19954-123">[108]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-China_Buswell_2004-162"><a href="#cite_ref-China_Buswell_2004_162-0">^</a> "The most important evidence – in fact the only evidence – for situating the emergence of the Mahayana around the beginning of the common era was not Indian evidence at all, but came from China. Already by the last quarter of the 2nd century CE, there was a small, seemingly idiosyncratic collection of substantial Mahayana sutras translated into what Erik Zürcher calls 'broken Chinese' by an Indoscythian, whose Indian name has been reconstructed as Lokaksema."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuswell2004492-161">[145]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-South-165"><a href="#cite_ref-South_165-0">^</a> "The south (of India) was then vigorously creative in producing Mahayana Sutras" Warder<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarder2000335-164">[147]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hill-185"><a href="#cite_ref-Hill_185-0">^</a> See Hill (2009), p. 30, for the Chinese text from the <a href="/wiki/Hou_Hanshu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hou Hanshu">Hou Hanshu</a>, and p. 31 for a translation of it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill200930–31-184">[166]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-realms2-225"><a href="#cite_ref-realms2_225-0">^</a> Earlier Buddhist texts refer to five realms rather than six realms; when described as five realms, the god realm and demi-god realm constitute a single realm.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuswell2004711–712-224">[205]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-236"><a href="#cite_ref-236">^</a> This merit gaining may be on the behalf of one's family members.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuswellLopez2003708–709-232">[212]</a><a href="#cite_note-Neufeldt1986p123-233">[213]</a><a href="#cite_note-SwatosKivisto1998p66-235">[215]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-256"><a href="#cite_ref-256">^</a> Another variant, which may be condensed to the eightfold or tenfold path, starts with a Tathagatha entering this world. A layman hears his teachings, decides to leave the life of a householder, starts living according to the moral precepts, guards his sense-doors, practises mindfulness and the four jhanas, gains the three knowledges, understands the Four Noble Truths and destroys the <a href="/wiki/Asava" title="Asava">taints</a>, and perceives that he is liberated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBucknell1984-255">[234]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-267"><a href="#cite_ref-267">^</a> The early Mahayana Buddhism texts link their discussion of "emptiness" (shunyata) to Anatta and Nirvana. They do so, states Mun-Keat Choong, in three ways: first, in the common sense of a monk's meditative state of emptiness; second, with the main sense of anatta or 'everything in the world is empty of self'; third, with the ultimate sense of nirvana or realisation of emptiness and thus an end to rebirth cycles of suffering.<a href="#cite_note-Choong1999p85-266">[244]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-270"><a href="#cite_ref-270">^</a> Some scholars such as Cousins and Sangharakshita translate apranaihita as "aimlessness or directionless-ness".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams2005b56,_note_23-269">[246]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-278"><a href="#cite_ref-278">^</a> These descriptions of nirvana in Buddhist texts, states Peter Harvey, are contested by scholars because nirvana in Buddhism is ultimately described as a state of "stopped consciousness (blown out), but one that is not non-existent", and "it seems impossible to imagine what awareness devoid of any object would be like".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey201375–76-276">[252]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGethin199874–84-277">[253]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-283"><a href="#cite_ref-283">^</a> Scholars note that better rebirth, not nirvana, has been the primary focus of a vast majority of lay Buddhists. This they attempt through merit accumulation and good kamma.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGowans2004169-281">[256]</a><a href="#cite_note-Merv_Fowler_1999_65-282">[257]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-320"><a href="#cite_ref-320">^</a> Wayman and Wayman have disagreed with this view, and they state that the Tathagatagarbha is neither self nor sentient being, nor soul, nor personality.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams2008107-319">[293]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-395"><a href="#cite_ref-395">^</a> Williams refers to <a href="#CITEREFFrauwallner1973">Frauwallner (1973</a>, p. 155) </li> <li id="cite_note-404"><a href="#cite_ref-404">^</a> Many ancient <a href="/wiki/Upanishad" class="mw-redirect" title="Upanishad">Upanishads</a> of Hinduism describe <a href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">yoga</a> and meditation as a means to liberation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollins2000199-401">[373]</a><a href="#cite_note-402">[374]</a><a href="#cite_note-403">[375]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-alternative_scheme-485"><a href="#cite_ref-alternative_scheme_485-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarvey1998">Harvey (1998)</a>, <a href="#CITEREFGombrich1984">Gombrich (1984)</a>, <a href="#CITEREFGethin1998">Gethin (1998</a>, pp. 1–2); identifies "three broad traditions" as: (1) "The Theravāda tradition of Sri Lanka and South-East Asia, also sometimes referred to as 'southern' Buddhism"; (2) "The East Asian tradition of China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, also sometimes referred to as 'eastern' Buddhism"; and, (3) "The Tibetan tradition, also sometimes referred to as 'northern' Buddhism."; <a href="#CITEREFRobinsonJohnson1982">Robinson & Johnson (1982)</a> divide their book into two parts: Part One is entitled "The Buddhism of South Asia" (which pertains to Early Buddhism in India); and, Part Two is entitled "The Development of Buddhism Outside of India" with chapters on "The Buddhism of Southeast Asia", "Buddhism in the Tibetan Culture Area", "East Asian Buddhism" and "Buddhism Comes West"; Penguin Handbook of Living Religions, 1984, p. 279; Prebish & Keown, Introducing Buddhism, ebook, Journal of Buddhist Ethics, 2005, printed ed, Harper, 2006. </li> <li id="cite_note-563"><a href="#cite_ref-563">^</a> This is a contested number. Official numbers from the Chinese government are lower, while other surveys are higher. According to Katharina Wenzel-Teuber, in non-government surveys, "49 percent of self-claimed non-believers [in China] held some religious beliefs, such as believing in soul reincarnation, heaven, hell, or supernatural forces. Thus the 'pure atheists' make up only about 15 percent of the sample [surveyed]."<a href="#cite_note-562">[532]</a> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_notes">Other notes</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> "Indian religions" is a term used by scholars to describe those religions that originated on the Indian subcontinent.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> Early Buddhism originated on the eastern <a href="/wiki/Indo-Gangetic_plain" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Gangetic plain">Indo-Gangetic plain</a>, spanning parts of both modern-day <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells2008-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells2008_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWells2008">Wells (2008)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoach2011-2"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoach2011_2-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoach2011">Roach (2011)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/buddhism">"buddhism noun - Definition, pictures, pronunciation and usage notes | Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary at OxfordLearnersDictionaries.com"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230213071447/https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/buddhism">Archived</a> from the original on 13 February 2023. Retrieved 19 March 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=buddhism+noun+-+Definition%2C+pictures%2C+pronunciation+and+usage+notes+%26%23124%3B+Oxford+Advanced+Learner%27s+Dictionary+at+OxfordLearnersDictionaries.com&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com%2Fdefinition%2Fenglish%2Fbuddhism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJonathan_H._X._LeeKathleen_M._Nadeau2011" class="citation book cs1">Jonathan H. X. Lee; Kathleen M. Nadeau (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofas00leej/page/504">Encyclopedia of Asian American Folklore and Folklife</a>. ABC-CLIO. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofas00leej/page/504">504</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-35066-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-35066-5"><bdi>978-0-313-35066-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Asian+American+Folklore+and+Folklife&rft.pages=504&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-313-35066-5&rft.au=Jonathan+H.+X.+Lee&rft.au=Kathleen+M.+Nadeau&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fencyclopediaofas00leej%2Fpage%2F504&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988">, Quote: "The three other major Indian religions – Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism – originated in India as an alternative to Brahmanic/Hindu philosophy" </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Jan_Gonda" title="Jan Gonda">Jan Gonda</a> (1987), Indian Religions: An Overview – Buddhism and Jainism, Encyclopedia of Religion, 2nd Edition, Volume 7, Editor: Lindsay Jones, Macmillan Reference, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-02-865740-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-02-865740-3">0-02-865740-3</a>, p. 4428 </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFK._T._S._SaraoJefferey_Long2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/K._T._S._Sarao" title="K. 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Retriebved 10 February 2023. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1989275ff-23"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams1989275ff_23-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilliams1989">Williams (1989)</a>, pp. 275ff. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinsonJohnson1997xx-24"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobinsonJohnson1997xx_24-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRobinsonJohnson1997">Robinson & Johnson (1997)</a>, p. xx. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGethin199827–28,_73–74-25"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGethin199827–28,_73–74_25-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGethin1998">Gethin (1998)</a>, pp. 27–28, 73–74. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey201399-26"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey201399_26-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarvey2013">Harvey (2013)</a>, p. 99. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowers2007392–393,_415-27"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPowers2007392–393,_415_27-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPowers2007">Powers (2007)</a>, pp. 392–393, 415. </li> <li id="cite_note-White_2000_21-28"><a href="#cite_ref-White_2000_21_28-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite2000" class="citation book cs1">White, David Gordon, ed. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hayV4o50eUEC&pg=PA21">Tantra in Practice</a>. Princeton University Press. p. 21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-05779-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-05779-8"><bdi>978-0-691-05779-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230111055825/https://books.google.com/books?id=hayV4o50eUEC&pg=PA21">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 8 July 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tantra+in+Practice&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-691-05779-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhayV4o50eUEC%26pg%3DPA21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowers200726–27-29"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPowers200726–27_29-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPowers2007">Powers (2007)</a>, pp. 26–27. </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> "Candles in the Dark: A New Spirit for a Plural World" by Barbara Sundberg Baudot, p. 305 </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClausDiamondMills2020" class="citation book cs1">Claus, Peter; Diamond, Sarah; Mills, Margaret (28 October 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Dg4HEAAAQBAJ&dq=buddhism+indian+subcontinent+2nd+millennium&pg=PA80">South Asian Folklore: An Encyclopedia</a>. Routledge. p. 80. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-000-10122-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-000-10122-5"><bdi>978-1-000-10122-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230111055821/https://books.google.com/books?id=Dg4HEAAAQBAJ&dq=buddhism+indian+subcontinent+2nd+millennium&pg=PA80">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 4 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=South+Asian+Folklore%3A+An+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=80&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2020-10-28&rft.isbn=978-1-000-10122-5&rft.aulast=Claus&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Diamond%2C+Sarah&rft.au=Mills%2C+Margaret&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDg4HEAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dbuddhism%2Bindian%2Bsubcontinent%2B2nd%2Bmillennium%26pg%3DPA80&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAkira_HirakawaPaul_Groner1993" class="citation book cs1">Akira Hirakawa; Paul Groner (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XjjwjC7rcOYC">A History of Indian Buddhism: From Śākyamuni to Early Mahāyāna</a>. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 227–240. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0955-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0955-0"><bdi>978-81-208-0955-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Indian+Buddhism%3A+From+%C5%9A%C4%81kyamuni+to+Early+Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na&rft.pages=227-240&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-81-208-0955-0&rft.au=Akira+Hirakawa&rft.au=Paul+Groner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXjjwjC7rcOYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Keown2004p208-33"><a href="#cite_ref-Keown2004p208_33-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDamien_Keown2004" class="citation book cs1">Damien Keown (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=985a1M7L1NcC&pg=PA208">A Dictionary of Buddhism</a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 208–209. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-157917-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-157917-2"><bdi>978-0-19-157917-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Buddhism&rft.pages=208-209&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-19-157917-2&rft.au=Damien+Keown&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D985a1M7L1NcC%26pg%3DPA208&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Foltz" title="Richard Foltz">Richard Foltz</a>, "Buddhism in the Iranian World," The Muslim World. 100/2-3, 2010, pp. 204-214 </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuswellLopez2014" class="citation book cs1">Buswell, Robert; Lopez, Donald (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780190681159.001.0001/acref-9780190681159-e-1236#:~:text=In%20Sanskrit%2C%20the%20“teaching”,(...%20...">Dharmavinaya</a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780691157863" title="Special:BookSources/9780691157863"><bdi>9780691157863</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dharmavinaya&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9780691157863&rft.aulast=Buswell&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Lopez%2C+Donald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fdisplay%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780190681159.001.0001%2Facref-9780190681159-e-1236%23%3A~%3Atext%3DIn%2520Sanskrit%252C%2520the%2520%E2%80%9Cteaching%E2%80%9D%2C%28...%2520...&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|website=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGethin19987–8-36"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGethin19987–8_36-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGethin1998">Gethin (1998)</a>, pp. 7–8. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst2013ix–xi-37"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst2013ix–xi_37-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBronkhorst2013">Bronkhorst (2013)</a>, pp. ix–xi. </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> Beyond Enlightenment: Buddhism, Religion, Modernity by Richard Cohen. Routledge 1999. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-54444-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-54444-0">0-415-54444-0</a>. p. 33. "Donors adopted Sakyamuni Buddha's family name to assert their legitimacy as his heirs, both institutionally and ideologically. To take the name of Sakya was to define oneself by one's affiliation with the buddha, somewhat like calling oneself a Buddhist today. </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> Sakya or Buddhist Origins by Caroline Rhys Davids (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1931) p. 1. "Put away the word "Buddhism" and think of your subject as "Sakya." This will at once place you for your perspective at a true point. You are now concerned to learn less about 'Buddha' and 'Buddhism,' and more about him whom India has ever known as Sakya-muni, and about his men who, as their records admit, were spoken of as the Sakya-sons, or men of the Sakyas." </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> Lopez, Donald S. (1995). Curators of the Buddha, University of Chicago Press. p. 7 </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> Beyond Enlightenment: Buddhism, Religion, Modernity by Richard Cohen. Routledge 1999. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-54444-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-54444-0">0-415-54444-0</a>. p. 33. Bauddha is "a secondary derivative of buddha, in which the vowel's lengthening indicates connection or relation. Things that are bauddha pertain to the buddha, just as things Saiva related to Siva and things Vaisnava belong to Visnu. ... baudda can be both adjectival and nominal; it can be used for doctrines spoken by the buddha, objects enjoyed by him, texts attributed to him, as well as individuals, communities, and societies that offer him reverence or accept ideologies certified through his name. Strictly speaking, Sakya is preferable to bauddha since the latter is not attested at Ajanta. In fact, as a collective noun, bauddha is an outsider's term. The bauddha did not call themselves this in India, though they did sometimes use the word adjectivally (e.g., as a possessive, the buddha's)." </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGethin199813–14-42">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGethin199813–14_42-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGethin199813–14_42-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGethin1998">Gethin (1998)</a>, pp. 13–14. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESwearer2004177-43"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESwearer2004177_43-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSwearer2004">Swearer (2004)</a>, p. 177. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGethin199815–24-44"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGethin199815–24_44-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGethin1998">Gethin (1998)</a>, pp. 15–24. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeownPrebish2010105–106-45">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeownPrebish2010105–106_45-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeownPrebish2010105–106_45-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKeownPrebish2010">Keown & Prebish (2010)</a>, pp. 105–106. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuswell2004352-46"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuswell2004352_46-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBuswell2004">Buswell (2004)</a>, p. 352. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELopez199516-47"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELopez199516_47-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLopez1995">Lopez (1995)</a>, p. 16. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECarrithers198610-48"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarrithers198610_48-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCarrithers1986">Carrithers (1986)</a>, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArmstrong2004xii-49"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArmstrong2004xii_49-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFArmstrong2004">Armstrong (2004)</a>, p. xii. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGombrich198849-52">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGombrich198849_52-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGombrich198849_52-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGombrich1988">Gombrich (1988)</a>, p. 49. </li> <li id="cite_note-Thomas2013p16-54"><a href="#cite_ref-Thomas2013p16_54-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdward_J._Thomas2013" class="citation book cs1">Edward J. Thomas (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Zfb9AQAAQBAJ">The Life of Buddha</a>. Routledge. pp. 16–29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-20121-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-20121-9"><bdi>978-1-136-20121-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Life+of+Buddha&rft.pages=16-29&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-136-20121-9&rft.au=Edward+J.+Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZfb9AQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGombrich198849–50-55"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGombrich198849–50_55-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGombrich1988">Gombrich (1988)</a>, pp. 49–50. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGombrich198818–19,_50–51-56"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGombrich198818–19,_50–51_56-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGombrich1988">Gombrich (1988)</a>, pp. 18–19, 50–51. </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKurt_Tropper2013" class="citation book cs1">Kurt Tropper (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wKFbFXQSqqUC">Tibetan Inscriptions</a>. Brill Academic. pp. 60–61 with footnotes 134–136. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-25241-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-25241-7"><bdi>978-90-04-25241-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tibetan+Inscriptions&rft.pages=60-61+with+footnotes+134-136&rft.pub=Brill+Academic&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-90-04-25241-7&rft.au=Kurt+Tropper&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwKFbFXQSqqUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGombrich198850-58"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGombrich198850_58-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGombrich1988">Gombrich (1988)</a>, p. 50. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGombrich198850–51-59"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGombrich198850–51_59-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGombrich1988">Gombrich (1988)</a>, pp. 50–51. </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> Analayo (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.buddhismuskunde.uni-hamburg.de/pdf/5-personen/analayo/compstudyvol1.pdf">A Comparative Study of the Majjhima-nikāya Volume 1</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221221203202/https://www.buddhismuskunde.uni-hamburg.de/pdf/5-personen/analayo/compstudyvol1.pdf">Archived</a> 21 December 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (Introduction, Studies of Discourses 1 to 90), p. 170. </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWynne2019" class="citation journal cs1">Wynne, Alexander (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jocbs.org/index.php/jocbs/article/view/193">"Did the Buddha exist?"</a>. Journal of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies. 16: 98–148. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221202154933/http://jocbs.org/index.php/jocbs/article/view/193">Archived</a> from the original on 2 December 2022. Retrieved 2 December 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Oxford+Centre+for+Buddhist+Studies&rft.atitle=Did+the+Buddha+exist%3F&rft.volume=16&rft.pages=98-148&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Wynne&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjocbs.org%2Findex.php%2Fjocbs%2Farticle%2Fview%2F193&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWynne20078–23-62">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWynne20078–23_62-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWynne20078–23_62-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWynne20078–23_62-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFWynne2007">Wynne (2007)</a>, pp. 8–23. </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHajime_Nakamura2000" class="citation book cs1">Hajime Nakamura (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Nt8QAQAAIAAJ">Gotama Buddha: A Biography Based on the Most Reliable Texts</a>. Kosei. pp. 127–129. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-4-333-01893-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-4-333-01893-2"><bdi>978-4-333-01893-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230111055826/https://books.google.com/books?id=Nt8QAQAAIAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 10 July 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gotama+Buddha%3A+A+Biography+Based+on+the+Most+Reliable+Texts&rft.pages=127-129&rft.pub=Kosei&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-4-333-01893-2&rft.au=Hajime+Nakamura&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNt8QAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst201319–32-64"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst201319–32_64-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBronkhorst2013">Bronkhorst (2013)</a>, pp. 19–32. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirakawa199322–26-65"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirakawa199322–26_65-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirakawa1993">Hirakawa (1993)</a>, pp. 22–26. </li> <li id="cite_note-Analayo_2011_p._236-67">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Analayo_2011_p._236_67-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Analayo_2011_p._236_67-1">b</a> Analayo (2011). "A Comparative Study of the Majjhima-nikāya Volume 1 (Introduction, Studies of Discourses 1 to 90)", p. 236. </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFK.T.S2020" class="citation book cs1">K.T.S, Sarao (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H5n9DwAAQBAJ&q=history+of+the+mahabodhi+temple">The History of Mahabodhi Temple at Bodh Gaya</a>. Springer Nature. p. 62. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789811580673" title="Special:BookSources/9789811580673"><bdi>9789811580673</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230111055821/https://books.google.com/books?id=H5n9DwAAQBAJ&q=history+of+the+mahabodhi+temple">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Mahabodhi+Temple+at+Bodh+Gaya&rft.pages=62&rft.pub=Springer+Nature&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9789811580673&rft.aulast=K.T.S&rft.aufirst=Sarao&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DH5n9DwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dhistory%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bmahabodhi%2Btemple&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGombrich198849–51-69"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGombrich198849–51_69-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGombrich1988">Gombrich (1988)</a>, pp. 49–51. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeown2003267-70"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeown2003267_70-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKeown2003">Keown (2003)</a>, p. 267. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGethin199854–55-71"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGethin199854–55_71-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGethin1998">Gethin (1998)</a>, pp. 54–55. </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarbara_Crandall2012" class="citation book cs1">Barbara Crandall (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Zq7UAwAAQBAJ">Gender and Religion</a> (2nd ed.). Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 56–58. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-4871-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-4871-1"><bdi>978-1-4411-4871-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230111055820/https://books.google.com/books?id=Zq7UAwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 10 July 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gender+and+Religion&rft.pages=56-58&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Academic&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-4411-4871-1&rft.au=Barbara+Crandall&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZq7UAwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-britannicatipitaka-73">^ <a href="#cite_ref-britannicatipitaka_73-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-britannicatipitaka_73-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-britannicatipitaka_73-2">c</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tipitaka">Tipitaka</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200427112107/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tipitaka">Archived</a> 27 April 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Encyclopædia Britannica (2015) </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSarah_LeVineDavid_N_Gellner2009" class="citation book cs1">Sarah LeVine; David N Gellner (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=e9C1iF3MAYgC">Rebuilding Buddhism</a>. Harvard University Press. pp. 1–19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-04012-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-04012-0"><bdi>978-0-674-04012-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rebuilding+Buddhism&rft.pages=1-19&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-674-04012-0&rft.au=Sarah+LeVine&rft.au=David+N+Gellner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3De9C1iF3MAYgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGethin19981–5-75"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGethin19981–5_75-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGethin1998">Gethin (1998)</a>, pp. 1–5. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGethin2008xv-76"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGethin2008xv_76-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGethin2008">Gethin (2008)</a>, p. xv. </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbraham_Eraly2011" class="citation book cs1">Abraham Eraly (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=te1sqTzTxD8C">The First Spring: The Golden Age of India</a>. Penguin Books. pp. 538, 571. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-670-08478-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-670-08478-4"><bdi>978-0-670-08478-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+First+Spring%3A+The+Golden+Age+of+India&rft.pages=538%2C+571&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-670-08478-4&rft.au=Abraham+Eraly&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dte1sqTzTxD8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGombrich198826–41-78"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGombrich198826–41_78-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGombrich1988">Gombrich (1988)</a>, pp. 26–41. </li> <li id="cite_note-QueenKing1996p17-79">^ <a href="#cite_ref-QueenKing1996p17_79-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-QueenKing1996p17_79-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222">Queen, Christopher. "Introduction: The Shapes and Sources of Engaged Buddhism". In <a href="#CITEREFQueenKing1996">Queen & King (1996)</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6ZsTgY1lNNsC&pg=PA17">17–18</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGombrich198830–31-80"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGombrich198830–31_80-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGombrich1988">Gombrich (1988)</a>, pp. 30–31. </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHajime_Nakamura1983" class="citation book cs1">Hajime Nakamura (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=asNLliQHDNQC">A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy</a>. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 102–104, 264–269, 294–295. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0651-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0651-1"><bdi>978-81-208-0651-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Early+Ved%C4%81nta+Philosophy&rft.pages=102-104%2C+264-269%2C+294-295&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-81-208-0651-1&rft.au=Hajime+Nakamura&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DasNLliQHDNQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988">; Quote: "But the Upanishadic ultimate meaning of the Vedas, was, from the viewpoint of the Vedic canon in general, clearly a new idea.."; p. 95: The [oldest] Upanishads in particular were part of the Vedic corpus (...) When these various new ideas were brought together and edited, they were added on to the already existing Vedic..."; p. 294: "When early Jainism came into existence, various ideas mentioned in the extant older Upanishads were current,....". </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlaus_G._Witz1998" class="citation book cs1">Klaus G. Witz (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2jnPlEqwe_UC">The Supreme Wisdom of the Upaniṣads: An Introduction</a>. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 1–2, 23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1573-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1573-5"><bdi>978-81-208-1573-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Supreme+Wisdom+of+the+Upani%E1%B9%A3ads%3A+An+Introduction&rft.pages=1-2%2C+23&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-81-208-1573-5&rft.au=Klaus+G.+Witz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2jnPlEqwe_UC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988">; Quote: "In the <a href="/wiki/Aranyaka" title="Aranyaka">Aranyakas</a> therefore, thought and inner spiritual awareness started to separate subtler, deeper aspects from the context of ritual performance and myth with which they had been united up to then. This process was then carried further and brought to completion in the <a href="/wiki/Upanishad" class="mw-redirect" title="Upanishad">Upanishads</a>. (...) The knowledge and attainment of the Highest Goal had been there from the Vedic times. But in the Upanishads inner awareness, aided by major intellectual breakthroughs, arrived at a language in which Highest Goal could be dealt with directly, independent of ritual and sacred lore". <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdward_Fitzpatrick_Crangle1994" class="citation book cs1">Edward Fitzpatrick Crangle (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HOzdcIxJy2sC">The Origin and Development of Early Indian Contemplative Practices</a>. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 58 with footnote 148, 22–29, 87–103, for Upanishads–Buddhist Sutta discussion see 65–72. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-03479-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-447-03479-1"><bdi>978-3-447-03479-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origin+and+Development+of+Early+Indian+Contemplative+Practices&rft.pages=58+with+footnote+148%2C+22-29%2C+87-103%2C+for+Upanishads-Buddhist+Sutta+discussion+see+65-72&rft.pub=Otto+Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-3-447-03479-1&rft.au=Edward+Fitzpatrick+Crangle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHOzdcIxJy2sC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Olivelle1992-84"><a href="#cite_ref-Olivelle1992_84-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPatrick_Olivelle1992" class="citation book cs1">Patrick Olivelle (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fB8uneM7q1cC">The Samnyasa Upanisads: Hindu Scriptures on Asceticism and Renunciation</a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 3–5, 68–71. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-536137-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-536137-7"><bdi>978-0-19-536137-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Samnyasa+Upanisads%3A+Hindu+Scriptures+on+Asceticism+and+Renunciation&rft.pages=3-5%2C+68-71&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-19-536137-7&rft.au=Patrick+Olivelle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfB8uneM7q1cC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988">; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristoph_Wulf2016" class="citation book cs1">Christoph Wulf (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_ZxeCwAAQBAJ">Exploring Alterity in a Globalized World</a>. Routledge. pp. 125–126. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-33113-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-33113-1"><bdi>978-1-317-33113-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Exploring+Alterity+in+a+Globalized+World&rft.pages=125-126&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-317-33113-1&rft.au=Christoph+Wulf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_ZxeCwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988">; Quote: "But he [Bronkhorst] talks about the simultaneous emergence of a Vedic and a non-Vedic asceticism. (...) [On Olivelle] Thus, the challenge for old Vedic views consisted of a new theology, written down in the early Upanishads like the Brhadaranyaka and the Mundaka Upanishad. The new set of ideas contained the...." </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> AL Basham (1951), History and Doctrines of the Ajivikas – a Vanished Indian Religion, Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1204-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1204-8">978-81-208-1204-8</a>, pp. 94–103 </li> <li id="cite_note-reginaldray247-86">^ <a href="#cite_ref-reginaldray247_86-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-reginaldray247_86-1">b</a> Reginald Ray (1999), Buddhist Saints in India, Oxford University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513483-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513483-4">978-0-19-513483-4</a>, pp. 237–240, 247–249 </li> <li id="cite_note-wiltshire293-87"><a href="#cite_ref-wiltshire293_87-0">^</a> Martin Wiltshire (1990), Ascetic Figures Before and in Early Buddhism, De Gruyter, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-009896-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-009896-9">978-3-11-009896-9</a>, p. 293 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel2010123–125-88"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel2010123–125_88-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSamuel2010">Samuel (2010)</a>, pp. 123–125. </li> <li id="cite_note-wiltshire226-89"><a href="#cite_ref-wiltshire226_89-0">^</a> Martin Wiltshire (1990), Ascetic Figures Before and in Early Buddhism, De Gruyter, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-009896-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-009896-9">978-3-11-009896-9</a>, pp. 226–227 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShults2014126-90"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShults2014126_90-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShults2014">Shults (2014)</a>, p. 126. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShults2014127-91"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShults2014127_91-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShults2014">Shults (2014)</a>, p. 127. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShults2014125–129-92"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShults2014125–129_92-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShults2014">Shults (2014)</a>, pp. 125–129. </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> P. 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Ashgate. p. 16 with footnote 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-5369-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-5369-1"><bdi>978-0-7546-5369-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buddhism+as+Philosophy%3A+An+Introduction&rft.pages=16+with+footnote+3&rft.pub=Ashgate&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7546-5369-1&rft.au=Mark+Siderits&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbK6O4Z7RyH8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkilton2013" class="citation book cs1">Skilton, Andrew (2013). "22 Buddhism". 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"The Historical Buddha and his Teachings". In: Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophy. Ed. by Potter, Karl H. Vol. VII: Abhidharma Buddhism to 150 AD. Motilal Banarsidass, 1996, pp. 28, 33, 37, 41, 43, 48. </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> Analayo (2011). A Comparative Study of the Majjhima-nikāya. Dharma Drum Academic Publisher. p. 891. </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalomon2020" class="citation news cs1">Salomon, Richard (20 January 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lionsroar.com/how-the-gandharan-manuscripts-change-buddhist-history/">"How the Gandharan Manuscripts Change Buddhist History"</a>. 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A Concise History of Buddhism. 2004. pp. 49, 64 </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> Sujato, Bhante (2012), Sects & Sectarianism: The Origins of Buddhist Schools, Santipada, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-921842-08-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-921842-08-5">978-1-921842-08-5</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey199874–75-142"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey199874–75_142-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarvey1998">Harvey (1998)</a>, pp. 74–75. </li> <li id="cite_note-Crandall2012p56-143"><a href="#cite_ref-Crandall2012p56_143-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarbara_Crandall2012" class="citation book cs1">Barbara Crandall (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Zq7UAwAAQBAJ">Gender and Religion: The Dark Side of Scripture</a> (2nd ed.). 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Metropolitan Museum of Art. pp. 9–11, 14–15, 19–20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58839-524-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58839-524-5"><bdi>978-1-58839-524-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230111060324/https://books.google.com/books?id=vO_-AgAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2023. 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Retrieved 27 September 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hyecho%27s+Journey%3A+The+World+of+Buddhism&rft.pages=XIV&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2017-12-21&rft.isbn=978-0-226-51806-0&rft.au=Donald+S.+Lopez+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSNA6DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPR14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Four-Noble-Truths">"Four Noble Truths: BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY"</a>. Encyclopaedia Britannica. 31 March 2024. <q>Although the term Four Noble Truths is well known in English, it is a misleading translation of the Pali term Chattari-ariya-saccani (Sanskrit: Chatvari-arya-satyani), because noble (Pali: ariya; Sanskrit: arya) refers not to the truths themselves but to those who recognize and understand them. A more accurate rendering, therefore, might be 'four truths for the [spiritually] noble'</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Four+Noble+Truths%3A+BUDDHIST+PHILOSOPHY&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Britannica&rft.date=2024-03-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FFour-Noble-Truths&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGombrich2005a47,_Quote:_"All_phenomenal_existence_[in_Buddhism]_is_said_to_have_three_interlocking_characteristics:_impermanence,_suffering_and_lack_of_soul_or_essence."-207"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGombrich2005a47,_Quote:_"All_phenomenal_existence_[in_Buddhism]_is_said_to_have_three_interlocking_characteristics:_impermanence,_suffering_and_lack_of_soul_or_essence."_207-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGombrich2005a">Gombrich (2005a)</a>, p. 47, Quote: "All phenomenal existence [in Buddhism] is said to have three interlocking characteristics: impermanence, suffering and lack of soul or essence.". </li> <li id="cite_note-britannicaanatta-208"><a href="#cite_ref-britannicaanatta_208-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/anatta">Anatta Buddhism</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210122042635/https://www.britannica.com/topic/anatta">Archived</a> 22 January 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Encyclopædia Britannica (2013) </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> [a] <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristmas_Humphreys2012" class="citation book cs1">Christmas Humphreys (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=V3rYtmCZEIEC">Exploring Buddhism</a>. Routledge. pp. 42–43. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-22877-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-22877-3"><bdi>978-1-136-22877-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230111055822/https://books.google.com/books?id=V3rYtmCZEIEC">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 10 July 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Exploring+Buddhism&rft.pages=42-43&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-136-22877-3&rft.au=Christmas+Humphreys&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DV3rYtmCZEIEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> [b] <a href="#CITEREFGombrich2005a">Gombrich (2005a</a>, p. 47), Quote: "(...) Buddha's teaching that beings have no soul, no abiding essence. This 'no-soul doctrine' (anatta-vada) he expounded in his second sermon." </li> <li id="cite_note-5sourcesanatta-210"><a href="#cite_ref-5sourcesanatta_210-0">^</a> [a] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/anatta">Anatta</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210122042635/https://www.britannica.com/topic/anatta">Archived</a> 22 January 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Encyclopædia Britannica (2013), Quote: "Anatta in Buddhism, the doctrine that there is in humans no permanent, underlying soul. The concept of anatta, or anatman, is a departure from the Hindu belief in atman ("the self")."; [b] Steven Collins (1994), Religion and Practical Reason (Editors: Frank Reynolds, David Tracy), State Univ of New York Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-2217-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-2217-5">978-0-7914-2217-5</a>, p. 64; "Central to Buddhist <a href="/wiki/Soteriology" title="Soteriology">soteriology</a> is the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Anatt%C4%81" title="Anattā">not-self</a> (Pali: anattā, Sanskrit: anātman, the opposed doctrine of ātman is central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briefly, this is the [Buddhist] doctrine that human beings have no soul, no self, no unchanging essence."; [c] John C. Plott et al. (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0158-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0158-5">978-81-208-0158-5</a>, p. 63, Quote: "The Buddhist schools reject any Ātman concept. As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism"; [d] Katie Javanaud (2013), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philosophynow.org/issues/97/Is_The_Buddhist_No-Self_Doctrine_Compatible_With_Pursuing_Nirvana">Is The Buddhist 'No-Self' Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana?</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170913132314/https://philosophynow.org/issues/97/Is_The_Buddhist_No-Self_Doctrine_Compatible_With_Pursuing_Nirvana">Archived</a> 13 September 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Philosophy Now; [e] David Loy (1982), "Enlightenment in Buddhism and Advaita Vedanta: Are Nirvana and Moksha the Same?", International Philosophical Quarterly, Volume 23, Issue 1, pp. 65–74 </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrian_Morris2006" class="citation book cs1">Brian Morris (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PguGB_uEQh4C&pg=PA51">Religion and Anthropology: A Critical Introduction</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 51. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-85241-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-85241-8"><bdi>978-0-521-85241-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230111055822/https://books.google.com/books?id=PguGB_uEQh4C&pg=PA51">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 10 July 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion+and+Anthropology%3A+A+Critical+Introduction&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-521-85241-8&rft.au=Brian+Morris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPguGB_uEQh4C%26pg%3DPA51&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988">, Quote: "(...) anatta is the doctrine of non-self, and is an extreme empiricist doctrine that holds that the notion of an unchanging permanent self is a fiction and has no reality. According to Buddhist doctrine, the individual person consists of five skandhas or heaps – the body, feelings, perceptions, impulses and consciousness. The belief in a self or soul, over these five skandhas, is illusory and the cause of suffering." </li> <li id="cite_note-GombrichScherrer2008p209-212"><a href="#cite_ref-GombrichScherrer2008p209_212-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichard_Francis_GombrichCristina_Anna_Scherrer-Schaub2008" class="citation book cs1">Richard Francis Gombrich; Cristina Anna Scherrer-Schaub (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U7_Rea05eAMC">Buddhist Studies</a>. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 209–210. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-3248-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-3248-0"><bdi>978-81-208-3248-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230111055822/https://books.google.com/books?id=U7_Rea05eAMC">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 10 July 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buddhist+Studies&rft.pages=209-210&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-81-208-3248-0&rft.au=Richard+Francis+Gombrich&rft.au=Cristina+Anna+Scherrer-Schaub&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DU7_Rea05eAMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HoffmanMahinda2013p162-213"><a href="#cite_ref-HoffmanMahinda2013p162_213-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrank_HoffmanDeegalle_Mahinda2013" class="citation book cs1">Frank Hoffman; Deegalle Mahinda (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pSNeAgAAQBAJ">Pali Buddhism</a>. Routledge. pp. 162–165. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-78553-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-78553-5"><bdi>978-1-136-78553-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230111055821/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Pali_Buddhism/pSNeAgAAQBAJ?hl=en">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 10 July 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pali+Buddhism&rft.pages=162-165&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-136-78553-5&rft.au=Frank+Hoffman&rft.au=Deegalle+Mahinda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpSNeAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a> Ulrich Timme Kragh (editor), The Foundation for Yoga Practitioners: The Buddhist Yogācārabhūmi Treatise and Its Adaptation in India, East Asia, and Tibet, Volume 1 Harvard University, Department of South Asian studies, 2013, p. 144. </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://read.84000.co/translation/toh155.html">"The Questions of the Nāga King Sāgara (3) | 84000 Reading Room"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Questions+of+the+N%C4%81ga+King+S%C4%81gara+%283%29+%26%23124%3B+84000+Reading+Room&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fread.84000.co%2Ftranslation%2Ftoh155.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlostermaier2010604-216"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlostermaier2010604_216-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKlostermaier2010">Klostermaier (2010)</a>, p. 604. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJuergensmeyerRoof2011271–272-217">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJuergensmeyerRoof2011271–272_217-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJuergensmeyerRoof2011271–272_217-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJuergensmeyerRoof2011271–272_217-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFJuergensmeyerRoof2011">Juergensmeyer & Roof (2011)</a>, pp. 271–272. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETrainor200458,_Quote:_"Buddhism_shares_with_Hinduism_the_doctrine_of_Samsara,_whereby_all_beings_pass_through_an_unceasing_cycle_of_birth,_death_and_rebirth_until_they_find_a_means_of_liberation_from_the_cycle._However,_Buddhism_differs_from_Hinduism_in_rejecting_the_assertion_that_every_human_being_possesses_a_changeless_soul_which_constitutes_his_or_her_ultimate_identity,_and_which_transmigrates_from_one_incarnation_to_the_next.-218"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETrainor200458,_Quote:_"Buddhism_shares_with_Hinduism_the_doctrine_of_Samsara,_whereby_all_beings_pass_through_an_unceasing_cycle_of_birth,_death_and_rebirth_until_they_find_a_means_of_liberation_from_the_cycle._However,_Buddhism_differs_from_Hinduism_in_rejecting_the_assertion_that_every_human_being_possesses_a_changeless_soul_which_constitutes_his_or_her_ultimate_identity,_and_which_transmigrates_from_one_incarnation_to_the_next._218-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTrainor2004">Trainor (2004)</a>, p. 58, Quote: "Buddhism shares with Hinduism the doctrine of Samsara, whereby all beings pass through an unceasing cycle of birth, death and rebirth until they find a means of liberation from the cycle. However, Buddhism differs from Hinduism in rejecting the assertion that every human being possesses a changeless soul which constitutes his or her ultimate identity, and which transmigrates from one incarnation to the next.. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2010-219">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2010_219-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2010_219-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilson2010">Wilson (2010)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcClelland2010172,_240-220"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcClelland2010172,_240_220-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcClelland2010">McClelland (2010)</a>, pp. 172, 240. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliamsTribeWynne201218–19,_chapter_1-221"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliamsTribeWynne201218–19,_chapter_1_221-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilliamsTribeWynne2012">Williams, Tribe & Wynne (2012)</a>, pp. 18–19, chapter 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConze201371,_Quote:_"Nirvana_is_the_''raison_d'être''_of_Buddhism,_and_its_ultimate_justification."-222"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConze201371,_Quote:_"Nirvana_is_the_''raison_d'être''_of_Buddhism,_and_its_ultimate_justification."_222-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConze2013">Conze (2013)</a>, p. 71, Quote: "Nirvana is the raison d'être of Buddhism, and its ultimate justification.". </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGethin1998119-223"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGethin1998119_223-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGethin1998">Gethin (1998)</a>, p. 119. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuswell2004711–712-224"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuswell2004711–712_224-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBuswell2004">Buswell (2004)</a>, pp. 711–712. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuswellGimello19927–8,_83–84-226"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuswellGimello19927–8,_83–84_226-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBuswellGimello1992">Buswell & Gimello (1992)</a>, pp. 7–8, 83–84. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChoong199928–29,_Quote:_"Seeing_(''passati'')_the_nature_of_things_as_impermanent_leads_to_the_removal_of_the_view_of_self,_and_so_to_the_realisation_of_nirvana."-227"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChoong199928–29,_Quote:_"Seeing_(''passati'')_the_nature_of_things_as_impermanent_leads_to_the_removal_of_the_view_of_self,_and_so_to_the_realisation_of_nirvana."_227-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChoong1999">Choong (1999)</a>, pp. 28–29, Quote: "Seeing (passati) the nature of things as impermanent leads to the removal of the view of self, and so to the realisation of nirvana.". </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERahula201451–58-228"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERahula201451–58_228-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRahula2014">Rahula (2014)</a>, pp. 51–58. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeown1996107-229"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeown1996107_229-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKeown1996">Keown (1996)</a>, p. 107. </li> <li id="cite_note-Leaman2002p23-230"><a href="#cite_ref-Leaman2002p23_230-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOliver_Leaman2002" class="citation book cs1">Oliver Leaman (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vK-GAgAAQBAJ">Eastern Philosophy: Key Readings</a>. Routledge. pp. 23–27. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-68919-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-68919-4"><bdi>978-1-134-68919-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230111055822/https://books.google.com/books?id=vK-GAgAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 10 July 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eastern+Philosophy%3A+Key+Readings&rft.pages=23-27&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-134-68919-4&rft.au=Oliver+Leaman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvK-GAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-231"><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a> [a] <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristmas_Humphreys2012" class="citation book cs1">Christmas Humphreys (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=V3rYtmCZEIEC">Exploring Buddhism</a>. Routledge. pp. 42–43. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-22877-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-22877-3"><bdi>978-1-136-22877-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230111055822/https://books.google.com/books?id=V3rYtmCZEIEC">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 10 July 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Exploring+Buddhism&rft.pages=42-43&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-136-22877-3&rft.au=Christmas+Humphreys&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DV3rYtmCZEIEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> [b] <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrian_Morris2006" class="citation book cs1">Brian Morris (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PguGB_uEQh4C&pg=PA51">Religion and Anthropology: A Critical Introduction</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 51. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-85241-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-85241-8"><bdi>978-0-521-85241-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230111055822/https://books.google.com/books?id=PguGB_uEQh4C&pg=PA51">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 10 July 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion+and+Anthropology%3A+A+Critical+Introduction&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-521-85241-8&rft.au=Brian+Morris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPguGB_uEQh4C%26pg%3DPA51&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988">, Quote: "(...) anatta is the doctrine of non-self, and is an extreme empiricist doctrine that holds that the notion of an unchanging permanent self is a fiction and has no reality. According to Buddhist doctrine, the individual person consists of five skandhas or heaps – the body, feelings, perceptions, impulses and consciousness. The belief in a self or soul, over these five skandhas, is illusory and the cause of suffering." [c] <a href="#CITEREFGombrich2005a">Gombrich (2005a</a>, p. 47), Quote: "(...) Buddha's teaching that beings have no soul, no abiding essence. This 'no-soul doctrine' (anatta-vada) he expounded in his second sermon." </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuswellLopez2003708–709-232">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuswellLopez2003708–709_232-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuswellLopez2003708–709_232-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuswellLopez2003708–709_232-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuswellLopez2003708–709_232-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFBuswellLopez2003">Buswell & Lopez (2003)</a>, pp. 708–709. </li> <li id="cite_note-Neufeldt1986p123-233">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Neufeldt1986p123_233-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Neufeldt1986p123_233-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRonald_Wesley_Neufeldt1986" class="citation book cs1">Ronald Wesley Neufeldt (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iaRWtgXjplQC">Karma and Rebirth: Post Classical Developments</a>. State University of New York Press. pp. 123–131. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87395-990-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87395-990-2"><bdi>978-0-87395-990-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230111055823/https://books.google.com/books?id=iaRWtgXjplQC">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 10 July 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Karma+and+Rebirth%3A+Post+Classical+Developments&rft.pages=123-131&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-87395-990-2&rft.au=Ronald+Wesley+Neufeldt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiaRWtgXjplQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams200274–75-234"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams200274–75_234-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilliams2002">Williams (2002)</a>, pp. 74–75. </li> <li id="cite_note-SwatosKivisto1998p66-235"><a href="#cite_ref-SwatosKivisto1998p66_235-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_H._SwatosPeter_Kivisto1998" class="citation book cs1">William H. Swatos; Peter Kivisto (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6TMFoMFe-D8C">Encyclopedia of Religion and Society</a>. Rowman Altamira. p. 66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-8956-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-8956-1"><bdi>978-0-7619-8956-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230111055832/https://books.google.com/books?id=6TMFoMFe-D8C">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 10 July 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Religion+and+Society&rft.pages=66&rft.pub=Rowman+Altamira&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-7619-8956-1&rft.au=William+H.+Swatos&rft.au=Peter+Kivisto&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6TMFoMFe-D8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013131,_32–34-237"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013131,_32–34_237-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarvey2013">Harvey (2013)</a>, pp. 131, 32–34. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKasulis20061–12-238"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKasulis20061–12_238-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKasulis2006">Kasulis (2006)</a>, pp. 1–12. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey201340–41-239">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey201340–41_239-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey201340–41_239-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey201340–41_239-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey201340–41_239-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey201340–41_239-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarvey2013">Harvey (2013)</a>, pp. 40–41. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrishan199759–78-240"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKrishan199759–78_240-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKrishan1997">Krishan (1997)</a>, pp. 59–78. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey201340-241"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey201340_241-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarvey2013">Harvey (2013)</a>, p. 40. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrishan199747,_55-242"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKrishan199747,_55_242-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKrishan1997">Krishan (1997)</a>, pp. 47, 55. </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorman_C._McClelland2010" class="citation book cs1">Norman C. McClelland (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=S_Leq4U5ihkC">Encyclopedia of Reincarnation and Karma</a>. McFarland. p. 141. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-5675-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-5675-8"><bdi>978-0-7864-5675-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Reincarnation+and+Karma&rft.pages=141&rft.pub=McFarland&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-7864-5675-8&rft.au=Norman+C.+McClelland&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DS_Leq4U5ihkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESpiro1982430_with_footnote_1-244"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpiro1982430_with_footnote_1_244-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSpiro1982">Spiro (1982)</a>, p. 430 with footnote 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-245"><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarl_Potter1986" class="citation book cs1">Karl Potter (1986). Ronald Wesley Neufeldt (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iaRWtgXjplQC">Karma and Rebirth: Post Classical Developments</a>. State University of New York Press. p. 109. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87395-990-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87395-990-2"><bdi>978-0-87395-990-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230111055823/https://books.google.com/books?id=iaRWtgXjplQC">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 10 July 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Karma+and+Rebirth%3A+Post+Classical+Developments&rft.pages=109&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-87395-990-2&rft.au=Karl+Potter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiaRWtgXjplQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELopez2001239–248-246"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELopez2001239–248_246-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLopez2001">Lopez (2001)</a>, pp. 239–248. </li> <li id="cite_note-appletonp129-247">^ <a href="#cite_ref-appletonp129_247-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-appletonp129_247-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNaomi_Appleton2014" class="citation book cs1">Naomi Appleton (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AhT7AgAAQBAJ">Narrating Karma and Rebirth: Buddhist and Jain Multi-Life Stories</a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 129–131. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-91640-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-91640-0"><bdi>978-1-139-91640-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230111055838/https://books.google.com/books?id=AhT7AgAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 10 July 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Narrating+Karma+and+Rebirth%3A+Buddhist+and+Jain+Multi-Life+Stories&rft.pages=129-131&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-139-91640-0&rft.au=Naomi+Appleton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAhT7AgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESpiro1982124–128-248">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpiro1982124–128_248-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpiro1982124–128_248-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSpiro1982">Spiro (1982)</a>, pp. 124–128. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey201345–46-249"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey201345–46_249-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarvey2013">Harvey (2013)</a>, pp. 45–46. </li> <li id="cite_note-Egge2013-250"><a href="#cite_ref-Egge2013_250-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames_Egge2013" class="citation book cs1">James Egge (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y1tcAgAAQBAJ">Religious Giving and the Invention of Karma in Theravada Buddhism</a>. Routledge. pp. 31–34. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-85922-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-85922-9"><bdi>978-1-136-85922-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religious+Giving+and+the+Invention+of+Karma+in+Theravada+Buddhism&rft.pages=31-34&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-136-85922-9&rft.au=James+Egge&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dy1tcAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-251"><a href="#cite_ref-251">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBruce_Reichenbach1990" class="citation book cs1">Bruce Reichenbach (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=euWuCwAAQBAJ">The Law of Karma: A Philosophical Study</a>. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 152–155. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-11899-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-349-11899-1"><bdi>978-1-349-11899-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Law+of+Karma%3A+A+Philosophical+Study&rft.pages=152-155&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-1-349-11899-1&rft.au=Bruce+Reichenbach&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeuWuCwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel2008136-252"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel2008136_252-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSamuel2008">Samuel (2008)</a>, p. 136. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuswellLopez2003589–590-253">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuswellLopez2003589–590_253-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuswellLopez2003589–590_253-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBuswellLopez2003">Buswell & Lopez (2003)</a>, pp. 589–590. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECollins1998135–177,_188,_443-254"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECollins1998135–177,_188,_443_254-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCollins1998">Collins (1998)</a>, pp. 135–177, 188, 443. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBucknell1984-255"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBucknell1984_255-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBucknell1984">Bucknell (1984)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChoong2000141-257"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChoong2000141_257-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChoong2000">Choong (2000)</a>, p. 141. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFuller200555–56-258"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFuller200555–56_258-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFuller2005">Fuller (2005)</a>, pp. 55–56. </li> <li id="cite_note-Collins2010p63-259"><a href="#cite_ref-Collins2010p63_259-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteven_Collins2010" class="citation book cs1">Steven Collins (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=d5pshUYiUVwC">Nirvana: Concept, Imagery, Narrative</a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 33–34, 47–50, 63–64, 74–75, 106. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-88198-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-88198-2"><bdi>978-0-521-88198-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nirvana%3A+Concept%2C+Imagery%2C+Narrative&rft.pages=33-34%2C+47-50%2C+63-64%2C+74-75%2C+106&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-521-88198-2&rft.au=Steven+Collins&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dd5pshUYiUVwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECousins19969-260"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECousins19969_260-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCousins1996">Cousins (1996)</a>, p. 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGombrich199766-261"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGombrich199766_261-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGombrich1997">Gombrich (1997)</a>, p. 66. </li> <li id="cite_note-262"><a href="#cite_ref-262">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteven_Collins2010" class="citation book cs1">Steven Collins (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=d5pshUYiUVwC">Nirvana: Concept, Imagery, Narrative</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 31. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-88198-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-88198-2"><bdi>978-0-521-88198-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nirvana%3A+Concept%2C+Imagery%2C+Narrative&rft.pages=31&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-521-88198-2&rft.au=Steven+Collins&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dd5pshUYiUVwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988">, Quote: "This general scheme remained basic to later Hinduism, to Jainism, and to Buddhism. Eternal salvation, to use the Christian term, is not conceived of as world without end; we have already got that, called samsara, the world of rebirth and redeath: that is the problem, not the solution. The ultimate aim is the timeless state of moksha, or as the Buddhists seem to have been the first to call it, nirvana." </li> <li id="cite_note-263"><a href="#cite_ref-263">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteven_Collins1990" class="citation book cs1">Steven Collins (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8sLMkNn26-gC&pg=PA5">Selfless Persons: Imagery and Thought in Theravada Buddhism</a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 82–84. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-39726-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-39726-1"><bdi>978-0-521-39726-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230111055833/https://books.google.com/books?id=8sLMkNn26-gC&pg=PA5">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 10 July 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Selfless+Persons%3A+Imagery+and+Thought+in+Theravada+Buddhism&rft.pages=82-84&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-521-39726-1&rft.au=Steven+Collins&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8sLMkNn26-gC%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-264"><a href="#cite_ref-264">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRay_Billington2002" class="citation book cs1">Ray Billington (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dACFAgAAQBAJ">Understanding Eastern Philosophy</a>. Routledge. pp. 58–60. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-79348-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-79348-8"><bdi>978-1-134-79348-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230111055833/https://books.google.com/books?id=dACFAgAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 10 July 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+Eastern+Philosophy&rft.pages=58-60&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-134-79348-8&rft.au=Ray+Billington&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdACFAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-265"><a href="#cite_ref-265">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_Loy2009" class="citation book cs1">David Loy (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=R5KHnVVjwKQC">Awareness Bound and Unbound: Buddhist Essays</a>. State University of New York Press. pp. 35–39. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-2680-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-2680-8"><bdi>978-1-4384-2680-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230111055836/https://books.google.com/books?id=R5KHnVVjwKQC">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 10 July 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Awareness+Bound+and+Unbound%3A+Buddhist+Essays&rft.pages=35-39&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4384-2680-8&rft.au=David+Loy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DR5KHnVVjwKQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Choong1999p85-266"><a href="#cite_ref-Choong1999p85_266-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMun-Keat_Choong1999" class="citation book cs1">Mun-Keat Choong (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HJafx7uO0VsC">The Notion of Emptiness in Early Buddhism</a>. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 1–4, 85–88. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1649-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1649-7"><bdi>978-81-208-1649-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230111055835/https://books.google.com/books?id=HJafx7uO0VsC">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 10 July 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Notion+of+Emptiness+in+Early+Buddhism&rft.pages=1-4%2C+85-88&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-81-208-1649-7&rft.au=Mun-Keat+Choong&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHJafx7uO0VsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-268"><a href="#cite_ref-268">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDan_Lusthaus2014" class="citation book cs1">Dan Lusthaus (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QMrKAgAAQBAJ">Buddhist Phenomenology</a>. Routledge. p. 124 with footnotes 2–3 on pp. 266–267. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-97343-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-97343-0"><bdi>978-1-317-97343-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buddhist+Phenomenology&rft.pages=124+with+footnotes+2-3+on+pp.+266-267&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-317-97343-0&rft.au=Dan+Lusthaus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQMrKAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams2005b56,_note_23-269"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams2005b56,_note_23_269-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilliams2005b">Williams (2005b)</a>, p. 56, note 23. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECollins1998191–233-271"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECollins1998191–233_271-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCollins1998">Collins (1998)</a>, pp. 191–233. </li> <li id="cite_note-272"><a href="#cite_ref-272">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_Harvey2013" class="citation book cs1">Peter Harvey (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SfPcAAAAQBAJ">The Selfless Mind: Personality, Consciousness and Nirvana in Early Buddhism</a>. Routledge. pp. 198–226. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-78336-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-78336-4"><bdi>978-1-136-78336-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230111055837/https://books.google.com/books?id=SfPcAAAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 10 July 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Selfless+Mind%3A+Personality%2C+Consciousness+and+Nirvana+in+Early+Buddhism&rft.pages=198-226&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-136-78336-4&rft.au=Peter+Harvey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSfPcAAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-273"><a href="#cite_ref-273">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMun-Keat_Choong1999" class="citation book cs1">Mun-Keat Choong (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HJafx7uO0VsC">The Notion of Emptiness in Early Buddhism</a>. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 21–22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1649-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1649-7"><bdi>978-81-208-1649-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230111055835/https://books.google.com/books?id=HJafx7uO0VsC">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 10 July 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Notion+of+Emptiness+in+Early+Buddhism&rft.pages=21-22&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-81-208-1649-7&rft.au=Mun-Keat+Choong&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHJafx7uO0VsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-274"><a href="#cite_ref-274">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGananath_Obeyesekere2012" class="citation book cs1">Gananath Obeyesekere (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BB1Q0aWJpO8C">The Awakened Ones: Phenomenology of Visionary Experience</a>. Columbia University Press. pp. 145–146. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-15362-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-15362-1"><bdi>978-0-231-15362-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Awakened+Ones%3A+Phenomenology+of+Visionary+Experience&rft.pages=145-146&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-231-15362-1&rft.au=Gananath+Obeyesekere&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBB1Q0aWJpO8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-275"><a href="#cite_ref-275">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdward_Conze2012" class="citation book cs1">Edward Conze (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PwXCAgAAQBAJ">Buddhism: Its Essence and Development</a>. Courier. pp. 125–137. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-17023-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-17023-7"><bdi>978-0-486-17023-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buddhism%3A+Its+Essence+and+Development&rft.pages=125-137&rft.pub=Courier&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-486-17023-7&rft.au=Edward+Conze&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPwXCAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey201375–76-276"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey201375–76_276-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarvey2013">Harvey (2013)</a>, pp. 75–76. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGethin199874–84-277"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGethin199874–84_277-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGethin1998">Gethin (1998)</a>, pp. 74–84. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoogan2003192-279"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoogan2003192_279-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCoogan2003">Coogan (2003)</a>, p. 192. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETrainor200462-280"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETrainor200462_280-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTrainor2004">Trainor (2004)</a>, p. 62. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGowans2004169-281"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGowans2004169_281-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGowans2004">Gowans (2004)</a>, p. 169. </li> <li id="cite_note-Merv_Fowler_1999_65-282"><a href="#cite_ref-Merv_Fowler_1999_65_282-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFowler1999">Fowler (1999)</a>, p. 65 Quote: "For a vast majority of Buddhists in Theravadin countries, however, the order of monks is seen by lay Buddhists as a means of gaining the most merit in the hope of accumulating good karma for a better rebirth." </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey199854-284"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey199854_284-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarvey1998">Harvey (1998)</a>, p. 54. </li> <li id="cite_note-285"><a href="#cite_ref-285">^</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Bowker_(theologian)" title="John Bowker (theologian)">John Bowker</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oxford_Dictionary_of_World_Religions" title="Oxford Dictionary of World Religions">The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions</a> (1997), Oxford University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-213965-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-213965-7">0-19-213965-7</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams200264,_Quote:_In_the_''Mahatanhasankhaya_Sutta''_the_Buddha_[stresses]_that_things_originate_in_dependence_upon_causal_conditioning,_and_this_emphasis_on_causality_describes_the_central_feature_of_Buddhist_ontology._All_elements_of_samsara_exist_in_some_sense_or_another_relative_to_their_causes_and_conditions.-286"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams200264,_Quote:_In_the_''Mahatanhasankhaya_Sutta''_the_Buddha_[stresses]_that_things_originate_in_dependence_upon_causal_conditioning,_and_this_emphasis_on_causality_describes_the_central_feature_of_Buddhist_ontology._All_elements_of_samsara_exist_in_some_sense_or_another_relative_to_their_causes_and_conditions._286-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilliams2002">Williams (2002)</a>, p. 64, Quote: In the Mahatanhasankhaya Sutta the Buddha [stresses] that things originate in dependence upon causal conditioning, and this emphasis on causality describes the central feature of Buddhist ontology. All elements of samsara exist in some sense or another relative to their causes and conditions.. </li> <li id="cite_note-287"><a href="#cite_ref-287">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_Neville2004" class="citation book cs1">Robert Neville (2004). Jeremiah Hackett (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kEER8fGxCfMC">Philosophy of Religion for a New Century: Essays in Honor of Eugene Thomas Long</a>. Jerald Wallulis. Springer. p. 257. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-2073-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-2073-5"><bdi>978-1-4020-2073-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophy+of+Religion+for+a+New+Century%3A+Essays+in+Honor+of+Eugene+Thomas+Long&rft.pages=257&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-2073-5&rft.au=Robert+Neville&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkEER8fGxCfMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988">, Quote: "[Buddhism's ontological hypotheses] that nothing in reality has its own-being and that all phenomena reduce to the relativities of pratitya samutpada. The Buddhist ontological hypothesese deny that there is any ontologically ultimate object such a God, Brahman, the Dao, or any transcendent creative source or principle." </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGethin1998153–155-288"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGethin1998153–155_288-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGethin1998">Gethin (1998)</a>, pp. 153–155. </li> <li id="cite_note-289"><a href="#cite_ref-289">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuy_Debrock2012" class="citation book cs1">Guy Debrock (2012). Paul B. Scheurer (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Y18yBwAAQBAJ">Newton's Scientific and Philosophical Legacy</a>. G. Debrock. Springer. p. 376, note 12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-009-2809-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-009-2809-1"><bdi>978-94-009-2809-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Newton%27s+Scientific+and+Philosophical+Legacy&rft.pages=376%2C+note+12&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-94-009-2809-1&rft.au=Guy+Debrock&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DY18yBwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kalupahana1975p54-290"><a href="#cite_ref-Kalupahana1975p54_290-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_J._Kalupahana1975" class="citation book cs1">David J. Kalupahana (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GOYGAAAAYAAJ">Causality: The Central Philosophy of Buddhism</a>. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 54–60. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-0298-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-0298-1"><bdi>978-0-8248-0298-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Causality%3A+The+Central+Philosophy+of+Buddhism&rft.pages=54-60&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-0298-1&rft.au=David+J.+Kalupahana&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGOYGAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-291"><a href="#cite_ref-291">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGenjun_Sasaki1986" class="citation book cs1">Genjun Sasaki (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vUBPAzlxJPUC">Linguistic Approach to Buddhist Thought</a>. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 67–69. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0038-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0038-0"><bdi>978-81-208-0038-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Linguistic+Approach+to+Buddhist+Thought&rft.pages=67-69&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-81-208-0038-0&rft.au=Genjun+Sasaki&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvUBPAzlxJPUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGethin1998151–152-292"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGethin1998151–152_292-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGethin1998">Gethin (1998)</a>, pp. 151–152. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey201365–72-293"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey201365–72_293-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarvey2013">Harvey (2013)</a>, pp. 65–72. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmmanuel201351–66-294"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmmanuel201351–66_294-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEmmanuel2013">Emmanuel (2013)</a>, pp. 51–66. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey199854,_Quote:_"The_main_concrete_application_of_the_abstract_principle_is_in_the_form_of_a_series_of_conditioned_links_(''nidanas''),_culminating_in_the_arising_of_dukkha."_(...)_"This_[doctrine]_states_the_principle_of_conditionality,_that_all_things,_mental_and_physical,_arise_and_exist_due_to_the_presence_of_certain_conditions,_and_cease_once_their_conditions_are_removed:_nothing_(except_''Nibbana'')_is_independent._The_doctrine_thus_complements_the_teaching_that_no_permanent,_independent_self_can_be_found."-295"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey199854,_Quote:_"The_main_concrete_application_of_the_abstract_principle_is_in_the_form_of_a_series_of_conditioned_links_(''nidanas''),_culminating_in_the_arising_of_dukkha."_(...)_"This_[doctrine]_states_the_principle_of_conditionality,_that_all_things,_mental_and_physical,_arise_and_exist_due_to_the_presence_of_certain_conditions,_and_cease_once_their_conditions_are_removed:_nothing_(except_''Nibbana'')_is_independent._The_doctrine_thus_complements_the_teaching_that_no_permanent,_independent_self_can_be_found."_295-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarvey1998">Harvey (1998)</a>, p. 54, Quote: "The main concrete application of the abstract principle is in the form of a series of conditioned links (nidanas), culminating in the arising of dukkha." (...) "This [doctrine] states the principle of conditionality, that all things, mental and physical, arise and exist due to the presence of certain conditions, and cease once their conditions are removed: nothing (except Nibbana) is independent. The doctrine thus complements the teaching that no permanent, independent self can be found.". </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGombrich200647-296"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGombrich200647_296-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGombrich2006">Gombrich (2006)</a>, p. 47. </li> <li id="cite_note-297"><a href="#cite_ref-297">^</a> Siderits, Mark (2007). "Buddhism as philosophy," p. 39 </li> <li id="cite_note-298"><a href="#cite_ref-298">^</a> Shi Huifeng, Is "Illusion" a Prajñāpāramitā Creation? The Birth and Death of a Buddhist Cognitive Metaphor, Fo Guang University, Journal of Buddhist Philosophy, Vol.2, 2016. </li> <li id="cite_note-299"><a href="#cite_ref-299">^</a> Ronkin, Noa (2005). "Early Buddhist Metaphysics: The Making of a Philosophical Tradition" p. 91. RoutledgeCurzon. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELindtner1997324-300"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELindtner1997324_300-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLindtner1997">Lindtner (1997)</a>, p. 324. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013244–245-301">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013244–245_301-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013244–245_301-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarvey2013">Harvey (2013)</a>, pp. 244–245. </li> <li id="cite_note-Crosby,_Kate_2013_p._16-302"><a href="#cite_ref-Crosby,_Kate_2013_p._16_302-0">^</a> Crosby, Kate (2013). "Theravada Buddhism: Continuity, Diversity, and Identity," p. 16. John Wiley & Sons. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey201327–28-303"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey201327–28_303-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarvey2013">Harvey (2013)</a>, pp. 27–28. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams200821-304"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams200821_304-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilliams2008">Williams (2008)</a>, p. 21. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013162-305"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013162_305-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarvey2013">Harvey (2013)</a>, p. 162. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams200827-306">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams200827_306-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams200827_306-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilliams2008">Williams (2008)</a>, p. 27. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013164-307"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013164_307-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarvey2013">Harvey (2013)</a>, p. 164. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey201331-308"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey201331_308-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarvey2013">Harvey (2013)</a>, p. 31. </li> <li id="cite_note-309"><a href="#cite_ref-309">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/dharma.aspx#1">Dharma</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160926234045/http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/dharma.aspx#1">Archived</a> 26 September 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>", The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey201388-310"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey201388_310-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarvey2013">Harvey (2013)</a>, p. 88. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGethin199885–88-311"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGethin199885–88_311-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGethin1998">Gethin (1998)</a>, pp. 85–88. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGethin199892-312"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGethin199892_312-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGethin1998">Gethin (1998)</a>, p. 92. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGethin199886-313"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGethin199886_313-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGethin1998">Gethin (1998)</a>, p. 86. </li> <li id="cite_note-314"><a href="#cite_ref-314">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/thai/lee/triplegem.html">"What is the Triple Gem?"</a>. www.accesstoinsight.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160730060230/http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/thai/lee/triplegem.html">Archived</a> from the original on 30 July 2016. Retrieved 12 April 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.accesstoinsight.org&rft.atitle=What+is+the+Triple+Gem%3F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.accesstoinsight.org%2Flib%2Fthai%2Flee%2Ftriplegem.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-315"><a href="#cite_ref-315">^</a> Williams, Paul (2002), "Buddhist Thought", p. 52, Taylor & Francis Kindle Edition </li> <li id="cite_note-316"><a href="#cite_ref-316">^</a> Siderits, Mark, Buddhism as philosophy, 2017, p. 149. </li> <li id="cite_note-317"><a href="#cite_ref-317">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGold2011" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Gold, Jonathan C. (22 April 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2018/entries/vasubandhu/">"Vasubandhu"</a>. In Edward N. Zalta (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Archive (Summer 2018 Edition). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190705225152/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2018/entries/vasubandhu/">Archived</a> from the original on 5 July 2019. Retrieved 13 April 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Vasubandhu&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy+Archive+%28Summer+2018+Edition%29&rft.date=2011-04-22&rft.aulast=Gold&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fsum2018%2Fentries%2Fvasubandhu%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams2008104-318"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams2008104_318-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilliams2008">Williams (2008)</a>, p. 104. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams2008107-319"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams2008107_319-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilliams2008">Williams (2008)</a>, p. 107. </li> <li id="cite_note-321"><a href="#cite_ref-321">^</a> Brunnholzl, Karl, When the Clouds Part, The Uttaratantra and Its Meditative Tradition as a Bridge between Sutra and Tantra, Snow Lion, Boston & London, 2014, page 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams2008104–105,_108–109,_Quote:_"..._[The_''Mahaparinirvana_Sutra'']_refers_to_the_Buddha_using_the_term_"Self"_in_order_to_win_over_non-Buddhist_ascetics."-322"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams2008104–105,_108–109,_Quote:_"..._[The_''Mahaparinirvana_Sutra'']_refers_to_the_Buddha_using_the_term_"Self"_in_order_to_win_over_non-Buddhist_ascetics."_322-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilliams2008">Williams (2008)</a>, pp. 104–105, 108–109, Quote: "... [The Mahaparinirvana Sutra] refers to the Buddha using the term "Self" in order to win over non-Buddhist ascetics.". </li> <li id="cite_note-323"><a href="#cite_ref-323">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFowler1999">Fowler (1999)</a>, pp. 101–102 Quote: "Some texts of the tathagatagarbha literature, such as the Mahaparinirvana Sutra actually refer to an atman, though other texts are careful to avoid the term. This would be in direct opposition to the general teachings of Buddhism on anatta. Indeed, the distinctions between the general Indian concept of atman and the popular Buddhist concept of Buddha-nature are often blurred to the point that writers consider them to be synonymous." </li> <li id="cite_note-324"><a href="#cite_ref-324">^</a> Suzuki, D.T. (1956), The Lankavatara Sutra: A Mahayana Text. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. p.69 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams2008112-325"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams2008112_325-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilliams2008">Williams (2008)</a>, p. 112. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHookham199196-326"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHookham199196_326-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHookham1991">Hookham (1991)</a>, p. 96. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey201323,_81-327"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey201323,_81_327-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarvey2013">Harvey (2013)</a>, pp. 23, 81. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeown199624,_59-328"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeown199624,_59_328-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKeown1996">Keown (1996)</a>, pp. 24, 59. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey201372-329"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey201372_329-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarvey2013">Harvey (2013)</a>, p. 72. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuswellLopez200349,_''antagrahadrsti''-330"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuswellLopez200349,_''antagrahadrsti''_330-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBuswellLopez2003">Buswell & Lopez (2003)</a>, p. 49, antagrahadrsti. </li> <li id="cite_note-331"><a href="#cite_ref-331">^</a> Carole Anderson (2013), Pain and its Ending, p.143 </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-332">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_332-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_332-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_332-2">c</a> Bucknell, Rod, "The Buddhist Path to Liberation: An Analysis of the Listing of Stages", The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies Volume 7, Number 2, 1984 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGethin2001xiii–xiv-333"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGethin2001xiii–xiv_333-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGethin2001">Gethin (2001)</a>, pp. xiii–xiv. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAjahn_Sucitto201087–88-334"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAjahn_Sucitto201087–88_334-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAjahn_Sucitto2010">Ajahn Sucitto (2010)</a>, pp. 87–88. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGethin199881–83-335"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGethin199881–83_335-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGethin1998">Gethin (1998)</a>, pp. 81–83. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson201364–65-336"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson201364–65_336-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAnderson2013">Anderson (2013)</a>, pp. 64–65. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2016253–255-337"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey2016253–255_337-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarvey2016">Harvey (2016)</a>, pp. 253–255. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodhi20101–13-338"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodhi20101–13_338-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBodhi2010">Bodhi (2010)</a>, pp. 1–13. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliamsTribeWynne201252-339"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliamsTribeWynne201252_339-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilliamsTribeWynne2012">Williams, Tribe & Wynne (2012)</a>, p. 52. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVetter198812–13-340">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVetter198812–13_340-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVetter198812–13_340-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVetter198812–13_340-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVetter198812–13_340-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVetter198812–13_340-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVetter198812–13_340-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFVetter1988">Vetter (1988)</a>, pp. 12–13. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey201383–85-341">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey201383–85_341-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey201383–85_341-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey201383–85_341-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarvey2013">Harvey (2013)</a>, pp. 83–85. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodhi201047–48-342"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodhi201047–48_342-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBodhi2010">Bodhi (2010)</a>, pp. 47–48. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey201383–84-343">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey201383–84_343-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey201383–84_343-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey201383–84_343-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey201383–84_343-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarvey2013">Harvey (2013)</a>, pp. 83–84. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGowans2013440-344">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGowans2013440_344-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGowans2013440_344-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGowans2013">Gowans (2013)</a>, p. 440. </li> <li id="cite_note-345"><a href="#cite_ref-345">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrew_Powell1989" class="citation book cs1">Andrew Powell (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/livingbuddhism00powe">Living Buddhism</a>. University of California Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/livingbuddhism00powe/page/24">24</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-20410-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-20410-2"><bdi>978-0-520-20410-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Living+Buddhism&rft.pages=24&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-520-20410-2&rft.au=Andrew+Powell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flivingbuddhism00powe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-346"><a href="#cite_ref-346">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_L._Weddle2010" class="citation book cs1">David L. Weddle (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/miracleswonderme0000wedd">Miracles: Wonder and Meaning in World Religions</a>. New York University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/miracleswonderme0000wedd/page/118">118</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-9483-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-9483-8"><bdi>978-0-8147-9483-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Miracles%3A+Wonder+and+Meaning+in+World+Religions&rft.pages=118&rft.pub=New+York+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-8147-9483-8&rft.au=David+L.+Weddle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmiracleswonderme0000wedd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVetter198812-347"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVetter198812_347-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVetter1988">Vetter (1988)</a>, p. 12. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey201383,_273–274-348"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey201383,_273–274_348-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarvey2013">Harvey (2013)</a>, pp. 83, 273–274. </li> <li id="cite_note-349"><a href="#cite_ref-349">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartine_Batchelor2014" class="citation book cs1">Martine Batchelor (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fL3mykqlOJcC&pg=PT59">The Spirit of the Buddha</a>. Yale University Press. p. 59. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-17500-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-17500-4"><bdi>978-0-300-17500-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230111055838/https://books.google.com/books?id=fL3mykqlOJcC&pg=PT59">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 10 July 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Spirit+of+the+Buddha&rft.pages=59&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-300-17500-4&rft.au=Martine+Batchelor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfL3mykqlOJcC%26pg%3DPT59&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988">; Quote: "These five trades, O monks, should not be taken up by a lay follower: trading with weapons, trading in living beings, trading in meat, trading in intoxicants, trading in poison." </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey201383-350">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey201383_350-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey201383_350-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarvey2013">Harvey (2013)</a>, p. 83. </li> <li id="cite_note-bucknellkangp12-351"><a href="#cite_ref-bucknellkangp12_351-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoderick_BucknellChris_Kang2013" class="citation book cs1">Roderick Bucknell; Chris Kang (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LSaOAQAAQBAJ">The Meditative Way: Readings in the Theory and Practice of Buddhist Meditation</a>. Routledge. pp. 12–13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-80408-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-80408-3"><bdi>978-1-136-80408-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Meditative+Way%3A+Readings+in+the+Theory+and+Practice+of+Buddhist+Meditation&rft.pages=12-13&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-136-80408-3&rft.au=Roderick+Bucknell&rft.au=Chris+Kang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLSaOAQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-352"><a href="#cite_ref-352">^</a> Yin-shun (2012). "The Way to Buddhahood: Instructions from a Modern Chinese Master," p. 29. Simon and Schuster. </li> <li id="cite_note-353"><a href="#cite_ref-353">^</a> See for example, Tsong-Kha-Pa (2015) "The Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path to Enlightenment", chapter three. Shambala Pubs. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013249-354">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013249_354-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013249_354-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarvey2013">Harvey (2013)</a>, p. 249. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShults2014108-355"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShults2014108_355-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShults2014">Shults (2014)</a>, p. 108. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013244-356"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013244_356-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarvey2013">Harvey (2013)</a>, p. 244. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams2005c398-357">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams2005c398_357-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams2005c398_357-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilliams2005c">Williams (2005c)</a>, p. 398. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcFarlane2001187–193-358"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcFarlane2001187–193_358-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcFarlane2001">McFarlane (2001)</a>, pp. 187–193. </li> <li id="cite_note-Goodman-359"><a href="#cite_ref-Goodman_359-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodman2017" class="citation web cs1">Goodman, Charles (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-indian-buddhism/">"Ethics in Indian and Tibetan Buddhism"</a>. 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Retrieved 17 August 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Access+to+Insight&rft.atitle=What+is+Theravada+Buddhism%3F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.accesstoinsight.org%2Ftheravada.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeown1996106–107,_context:_Chapter_7-421"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeown1996106–107,_context:_Chapter_7_421-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKeown1996">Keown (1996)</a>, pp. 106–107, context: Chapter 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodhi2005268,_439-422"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodhi2005268,_439_422-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBodhi2005">Bodhi (2005)</a>, pp. 268, 439. </li> <li id="cite_note-423"><a href="#cite_ref-423">^</a> De La Vallee Poussin (trans.); Pruden, Leo M. (trans.) Abhidharmakosabhasyam of Vasubandhu. Vol. III, page 925. </li> <li id="cite_note-buddhismuskunde.uni-hamburg.de-424">^ <a href="#cite_ref-buddhismuskunde.uni-hamburg.de_424-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-buddhismuskunde.uni-hamburg.de_424-1">b</a> Anālayo. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.buddhismuskunde.uni-hamburg.de/pdf/5-personen/analayo/briefcriticism.pdf">"A Brief Criticism of the 'Two Paths to Liberation' Theory"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200321164937/https://www.buddhismuskunde.uni-hamburg.de/pdf/5-personen/analayo/briefcriticism.pdf">Archived</a> 21 March 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> JOCBS. 2016 (11): 38-51. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGethin2001xiv-425"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGethin2001xiv_425-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGethin2001">Gethin (2001)</a>, p. xiv. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirakawa1993172–174-426"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirakawa1993172–174_426-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirakawa1993">Hirakawa (1993)</a>, pp. 172–174. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013154,_326-427">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013154,_326_427-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013154,_326_427-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013154,_326_427-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013154,_326_427-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarvey2013">Harvey (2013)</a>, pp. 154, 326. </li> <li id="cite_note-428"><a href="#cite_ref-428">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarl_Olson2009" class="citation book cs1">Carl Olson (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=L62wiLSf0swC">The A to Z of Buddhism</a>. Scarecrow. p. 73. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-7073-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-7073-4"><bdi>978-0-8108-7073-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+A+to+Z+of+Buddhism&rft.pages=73&rft.pub=Scarecrow&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-8108-7073-4&rft.au=Carl+Olson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DL62wiLSf0swC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-429"><a href="#cite_ref-429">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiane_Morgan2010" class="citation book cs1">Diane Morgan (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2vgbURej-qAC&pg=PA125">Essential Buddhism: A Comprehensive Guide to Belief and Practice</a>. ABC-CLIO. p. 125. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-38452-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-38452-3"><bdi>978-0-313-38452-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essential+Buddhism%3A+A+Comprehensive+Guide+to+Belief+and+Practice&rft.pages=125&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-313-38452-3&rft.au=Diane+Morgan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2vgbURej-qAC%26pg%3DPA125&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler199960–62-430">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFowler199960–62_430-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFowler199960–62_430-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFowler199960–62_430-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFowler199960–62_430-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFFowler1999">Fowler (1999)</a>, pp. 60–62. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETrainor200487-431"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETrainor200487_431-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTrainor2004">Trainor (2004)</a>, p. 87. </li> <li id="cite_note-432"><a href="#cite_ref-432">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuis_Gomez2015" class="citation book cs1">Luis Gomez (2015). Donald S. Lopez Jr. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zaC4CgAAQBAJ">Buddhism in Practice</a>. Princeton University Press. pp. 236–243. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-8007-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-8007-2"><bdi>978-1-4008-8007-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buddhism+in+Practice&rft.pages=236-243&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-4008-8007-2&rft.au=Luis+Gomez&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzaC4CgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETrainor200486–87-433"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETrainor200486–87_433-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTrainor2004">Trainor (2004)</a>, pp. 86–87. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowers2007250-434"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPowers2007250_434-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPowers2007">Powers (2007)</a>, p. 250. </li> <li id="cite_note-435"><a href="#cite_ref-435">^</a> Garson, Nathaniel DeWitt (2004). Penetrating the Secret Essence Tantra: Context and Philosophy in the Mahayoga System of rNying-ma Tantra, p. 52 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETrainor200488–89-436"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETrainor200488–89_436-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTrainor2004">Trainor (2004)</a>, pp. 88–89. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuan200758-437">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuan200758_437-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuan200758_437-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKuan2007">Kuan (2007)</a>, p. 58. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETrainor200474-438"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETrainor200474_438-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTrainor2004">Trainor (2004)</a>, p. 74. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConze201339–40-439"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConze201339–40_439-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConze2013">Conze (2013)</a>, pp. 39–40. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler199949–52-440"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFowler199949–52_440-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFowler1999">Fowler (1999)</a>, pp. 49–52. </li> <li id="cite_note-441"><a href="#cite_ref-441">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoseph_Mitsuo_KitagawaFrank_E._ReynoldsTheodore_M._Ludwig1980" class="citation book cs1">Joseph Mitsuo Kitagawa; Frank E. Reynolds; Theodore M. Ludwig (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=p4UeAAAAIAAJ">Transitions and Transformations in the History of Religions: Essays in Honor of Joseph M. Kitagawa</a>. Brill Academic. pp. 56–58. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-06112-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-06112-5"><bdi>978-90-04-06112-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230111060323/https://books.google.com/books?id=p4UeAAAAIAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 10 July 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Transitions+and+Transformations+in+the+History+of+Religions%3A+Essays+in+Honor+of+Joseph+M.+Kitagawa&rft.pages=56-58&rft.pub=Brill+Academic&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-90-04-06112-5&rft.au=Joseph+Mitsuo+Kitagawa&rft.au=Frank+E.+Reynolds&rft.au=Theodore+M.+Ludwig&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dp4UeAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988">, Quote: "Suffering describes the condition of samsaric (this worldly) existence that arises from actions generated by ignorance of anatta and anicca. The doctrines of no-self and impermanence are thus the keystones of dhammic order." </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGethin199873–75,_146–159,_243-442"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGethin199873–75,_146–159,_243_442-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGethin1998">Gethin (1998)</a>, pp. 73–75, 146–159, 243. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuswell2004664–665-443"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuswell2004664–665_443-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBuswell2004">Buswell (2004)</a>, pp. 664–665. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuan200759-444"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuan200759_444-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKuan2007">Kuan (2007)</a>, p. 59. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013237-445"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013237_445-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarvey2013">Harvey (2013)</a>, p. 237. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey1998170-446"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey1998170_446-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarvey1998">Harvey (1998)</a>, p. 170. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETrainor200484–85,_105,_108–109,_112–113,_116,_165,_185-447"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETrainor200484–85,_105,_108–109,_112–113,_116,_165,_185_447-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTrainor2004">Trainor (2004)</a>, pp. 84–85, 105, 108–109, 112–113, 116, 165, 185. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013239–240-448"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013239–240_448-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarvey2013">Harvey (2013)</a>, pp. 239–240. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013243-449"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013243_449-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarvey2013">Harvey (2013)</a>, p. 243. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013243–244-450"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013243–244_450-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarvey2013">Harvey (2013)</a>, pp. 243–244. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2000157–158-451"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey2000157–158_451-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarvey2000">Harvey (2000)</a>, pp. 157–158. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2000156–159-452"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey2000156–159_452-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarvey2000">Harvey (2000)</a>, pp. 156–159. </li> <li id="cite_note-Phelps,_Norm_2004_p._76-453"><a href="#cite_ref-Phelps,_Norm_2004_p._76_453-0">^</a> Phelps, Norm (2004). The Great Compassion: Buddhism & Animal Rights. New York: Lantern Books. p. 76. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59056-069-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-59056-069-8">1-59056-069-8</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-454"><a href="#cite_ref-454">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/canon/sutta/anguttara/an05-177.html">Vanijja Sutta: Business (Wrong Livelihood)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051119074312/http://www.accesstoinsight.org/canon/sutta/anguttara/an05-177.html">Archived</a> 19 November 2005 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-455"><a href="#cite_ref-455">^</a> Phelps, Norm (2004). The Great Compassion: Buddhism & Animal Rights. New York: Lantern Books. pp. 64-65. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59056-069-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-59056-069-8">1-59056-069-8</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2000163-456"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey2000163_456-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarvey2000">Harvey (2000)</a>, p. 163. </li> <li id="cite_note-lopez2004busc1-457">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lopez2004busc1_457-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lopez2004busc1_457-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lopez2004busc1_457-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lopez2004busc1_457-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lopez2004busc1_457-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonald_Lopez2004" class="citation book cs1">Donald Lopez (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6Pd-2IIzip4C">Buddhist Scriptures</a>. Penguin Books. pp. xi–xv. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-190937-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-190937-0"><bdi>978-0-14-190937-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buddhist+Scriptures&rft.pages=xi-xv&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-14-190937-0&rft.au=Donald+Lopez&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6Pd-2IIzip4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGethin199839–41-458"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGethin199839–41_458-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGethin1998">Gethin (1998)</a>, pp. 39–41. </li> <li id="cite_note-459"><a href="#cite_ref-459">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonald_Lopez2004" class="citation book cs1">Donald Lopez (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6Pd-2IIzip4C">Buddhist Scriptures</a>. Penguin Books. pp. xii–xiii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-190937-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-190937-0"><bdi>978-0-14-190937-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buddhist+Scriptures&rft.pages=xii-xiii&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-14-190937-0&rft.au=Donald+Lopez&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6Pd-2IIzip4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGethin2008xiv-460"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGethin2008xiv_460-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGethin2008">Gethin (2008)</a>, p. xiv. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEliot193516-461"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEliot193516_461-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEliot1935">Eliot (1935)</a>, p. 16. </li> <li id="cite_note-462"><a href="#cite_ref-462">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonald_Lopez2004" class="citation book cs1">Donald Lopez (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6Pd-2IIzip4C">Buddhist Scriptures</a>. Penguin Books. pp. xiii–xvii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-190937-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-190937-0"><bdi>978-0-14-190937-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buddhist+Scriptures&rft.pages=xiii-xvii&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-14-190937-0&rft.au=Donald+Lopez&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6Pd-2IIzip4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-lopez2004busc2-463">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lopez2004busc2_463-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lopez2004busc2_463-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonald_Lopez2004" class="citation book cs1">Donald Lopez (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6Pd-2IIzip4C">Buddhist Scriptures</a>. Penguin Books. pp. xi–xxv. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-190937-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-190937-0"><bdi>978-0-14-190937-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buddhist+Scriptures&rft.pages=xi-xxv&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-14-190937-0&rft.au=Donald+Lopez&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6Pd-2IIzip4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGethin199842–43-464"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGethin199842–43_464-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGethin1998">Gethin (1998)</a>, pp. 42–43. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESujatoBrahmali20159–10-465"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESujatoBrahmali20159–10_465-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSujatoBrahmali2015">Sujato & Brahmali (2015)</a>, pp. 9–10. </li> <li id="cite_note-466"><a href="#cite_ref-466">^</a> Mun-Keat Choong (1999). The Notion of Emptiness in Early Buddhism, Motilal Banarsidass, p. 3. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1649-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1649-7">978-81-208-1649-7</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-467"><a href="#cite_ref-467">^</a> e.g. "Mun-keat, Choong (2000), The Fundamental Teachings of Early Buddhism" and "Analayo. Early Buddhist Meditation Studies (Volume 1)" </li> <li id="cite_note-468"><a href="#cite_ref-468">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnālayo2008" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bhikkhu_Analayo" title="Bhikkhu Analayo">Anālayo</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.buddhismuskunde.uni-hamburg.de/pdf/5-personen/analayo/reflect-comp-agama.pdf">"Reflections on Comparative Āgama Studies"</a> (PDF). Chung-Hwa Buddhist Journal. 21. Taipei: Chung-Hwa Institute of Buddhist Studies: 3–21. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1017-7132">1017-7132</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191212122454/https://www.buddhismuskunde.uni-hamburg.de/pdf/5-personen/analayo/reflect-comp-agama.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 12 December 2019. Retrieved 6 September 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chung-Hwa+Buddhist+Journal&rft.atitle=Reflections+on+Comparative+%C4%80gama+Studies&rft.volume=21&rft.pages=3-21&rft.date=2008&rft.issn=1017-7132&rft.au=An%C4%81layo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.buddhismuskunde.uni-hamburg.de%2Fpdf%2F5-personen%2Fanalayo%2Freflect-comp-agama.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarder2000282–283-469"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarder2000282–283_469-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWarder2000">Warder (2000)</a>, pp. 282–283. </li> <li id="cite_note-470"><a href="#cite_ref-470">^</a> Crosby, Kate (2013). Theravada Buddhism: Continuity, Diversity, and Identity. 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University Press of America. pp. 137–138. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7618-5950-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7618-5950-5"><bdi>978-0-7618-5950-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Emotions+and+Spirituality+in+Religions+and+Spiritual+Movements&rft.pages=137-138&rft.pub=University+Press+of+America&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-7618-5950-5&rft.au=Erika+Wilson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlSUY9LqXPdQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-492"><a href="#cite_ref-492">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_M_Koller2016" class="citation book cs1">John M Koller (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lgg3DAAAQBAJ">The Indian Way: An Introduction to the Philosophies & Religions of India</a>. Routledge. pp. 157–160. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-315-50740-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-315-50740-8"><bdi>978-1-315-50740-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Indian+Way%3A+An+Introduction+to+the+Philosophies+%26+Religions+of+India&rft.pages=157-160&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-315-50740-8&rft.au=John+M+Koller&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dlgg3DAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-493"><a href="#cite_ref-493">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSamuels1997" class="citation journal cs1">Samuels, Jeffrey (July 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalcommons.wku.edu/phil_rel_fac_pub/12">"The Bodhisattva Ideal in Theravāda Buddhist Theory and Practice: A Reevaluation of the Bodhisattva-Śrāvaka Opposition"</a>. Philosophy East and West. 47 (3). University of Hawai'i Press: 399–415. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1399912">10.2307/1399912</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1399912">1399912</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210203032843/https://digitalcommons.wku.edu/phil_rel_fac_pub/12/">Archived</a> from the original on 3 February 2021. Retrieved 11 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy+East+and+West&rft.atitle=The+Bodhisattva+Ideal+in+Therav%C4%81da+Buddhist+Theory+and+Practice%3A+A+Reevaluation+of+the+Bodhisattva-%C5%9Ar%C4%81vaka+Opposition&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=399-415&rft.date=1997-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1399912&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1399912%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Samuels&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcommons.wku.edu%2Fphil_rel_fac_pub%2F12&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeownPrebish2013"Bodhisattva,_Career_in_the_Theravada"-494">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeownPrebish2013"Bodhisattva,_Career_in_the_Theravada"_494-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeownPrebish2013"Bodhisattva,_Career_in_the_Theravada"_494-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKeownPrebish2013">Keown & Prebish (2013)</a>, "Bodhisattva, Career in the Theravada". </li> <li id="cite_note-495"><a href="#cite_ref-495">^</a> Johnston, William M. (2013) "Encyclopedia of Monasticism" p. 600. Routledge. </li> <li id="cite_note-496"><a href="#cite_ref-496">^</a> Hay, Jeff (2009). "World Religions" p. 189. Greenhaven Publishing LLC. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirakawa199368-497"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirakawa199368_497-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirakawa1993">Hirakawa (1993)</a>, p. 68. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDutt198853-498"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDutt198853_498-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDutt1988">Dutt (1988)</a>, p. 53. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirakawa199334-499"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirakawa199334_499-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirakawa1993">Hirakawa (1993)</a>, p. 34. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDutt198855-500"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDutt198855_500-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDutt1988">Dutt (1988)</a>, p. 55. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDutt198857–59-501"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDutt198857–59_501-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDutt1988">Dutt (1988)</a>, pp. 57–59. </li> <li id="cite_note-502"><a href="#cite_ref-502">^</a> Huu Phuoc Le (2010). Buddhist Architecture. Grafikol. </li> <li id="cite_note-503"><a href="#cite_ref-503">^</a> Schedneck, Brooke (2015). Thailand's International Meditation Centers: Tourism and the Global Commodification of Religious Practices. 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European Journal of International Law. 14 (4): 619–651. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fejil%2F14.4.619">10.1093/ejil/14.4.619</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+International+Law&rft.atitle=The+Destruction+of+the+Buddhas+of+Bamiyan+and+International+Law&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=619-651&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fejil%2F14.4.619&rft.aulast=Francioni&rft.aufirst=F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fejil%252F14.4.619&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-509"><a href="#cite_ref-509">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6991058.stm">"Attack on giant Pakistan Buddha"</a>. BBC News. 12 September 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160419052538/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6991058.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 19 April 2016. Retrieved 4 June 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Attack+on+giant+Pakistan+Buddha&rft.date=2007-09-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fsouth_asia%2F6991058.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-510"><a href="#cite_ref-510">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/buddhism">Buddhism</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181205003348/https://www.etymonline.com/word/buddhism">Archived</a> 5 December 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/buddhist">Buddhist</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181205003346/https://www.etymonline.com/word/buddhist">Archived</a> 5 December 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Etymology, Douglas Harper </li> <li id="cite_note-511"><a href="#cite_ref-511">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pali-Text-Society">Pali Text Society</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181204195700/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pali-Text-Society">Archived</a> 4 December 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Encyclopaedia Britannica </li> <li id="cite_note-:10-512"><a href="#cite_ref-:10_512-0">^</a> Prothero, The White Buddhist, 175. Olcott's approach to Buddhism and the terminology of Protestant Buddhism and "creolization" (Prothero) is extensively discussed in K.A. McMahan," 'Creolization' in American Religious History. The Metaphysical Nature of Henry Steel Olcott, PhD dissertation, unpublished manuscript (Ann Arbor 2008). </li> <li id="cite_note-513"><a href="#cite_ref-513">^</a> Coleman, James William, The New Buddhism: The Western Transformation of an Ancient Tradition, Oxford University Press, pp. 203–204. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKonik2009ix-514"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKonik2009ix_514-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKonik2009">Konik (2009)</a>, p. ix. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayes2013172-515"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHayes2013172_515-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHayes2013">Hayes (2013)</a>, p. 172. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELamb2001258-516"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELamb2001258_516-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLamb2001">Lamb (2001)</a>, p. 258. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGowans201418–23,_76–88-517"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGowans201418–23,_76–88_517-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGowans2014">Gowans (2014)</a>, pp. 18–23, 76–88. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeown200960–63,_74–85,_185–187-518"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeown200960–63,_74–85,_185–187_518-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKeown2009">Keown (2009)</a>, pp. 60–63, 74–85, 185–187. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler199965-519"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFowler199965_519-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFowler1999">Fowler (1999)</a>, p. 65. </li> <li id="cite_note-520"><a href="#cite_ref-520">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJan_Goldman2014" class="citation book cs1">Jan Goldman (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bjeaBAAAQBAJ">The War on Terror Encyclopedia</a>. ABC-CLIO. pp. 360–362. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61069-511-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61069-511-4"><bdi>978-1-61069-511-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+War+on+Terror+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=360-362&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-61069-511-4&rft.au=Jan+Goldman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbjeaBAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHenderson200242-521"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHenderson200242_521-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHenderson2002">Henderson (2002)</a>, p. 42. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETamney199868-522"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETamney199868_522-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTamney1998">Tamney (1998)</a>, p. 68. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEParanjpe1998351-523"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParanjpe1998351_523-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFParanjpe1998">Paranjpe (1998)</a>, p. 351. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPavāra2009xv–xviii-524"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPavāra2009xv–xviii_524-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPavāra2009">Pavāra (2009)</a>, pp. xv–xviii. </li> <li id="cite_note-525"><a href="#cite_ref-525">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcMahan2004" class="citation journal cs1">McMahan, David L. (2004). "Buddhism: Introducing the Buddhist Experience (review)". Philosophy East and West. 54 (2): 268–270. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fpew.2004.0006">10.1353/pew.2004.0006</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170189446">170189446</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy+East+and+West&rft.atitle=Buddhism%3A+Introducing+the+Buddhist+Experience+%28review%29&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=268-270&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fpew.2004.0006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A170189446%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=McMahan&rft.aufirst=David+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeownPrebish201325-526"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeownPrebish201325_526-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKeownPrebish2013">Keown & Prebish (2013)</a>, p. 25. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEQueen2013524–529-527"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQueen2013524–529_527-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFQueen2013">Queen (2013)</a>, pp. 524–529. </li> <li id="cite_note-Skaria_2015-528">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Skaria_2015_528-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Skaria_2015_528-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkaria2015" class="citation journal cs1">Skaria, A. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00856401.2015.1049726">"Ambedkar, Marx and the Buddhist Question"</a>. Journal of South Asian Studies. 38 (3): 450–452. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00856401.2015.1049726">10.1080/00856401.2015.1049726</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+South+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=Ambedkar%2C+Marx+and+the+Buddhist+Question&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=450-452&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00856401.2015.1049726&rft.aulast=Skaria&rft.aufirst=A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F00856401.2015.1049726&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zelliot-529">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Zelliot_529-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zelliot_529-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEleanor_Zelliot2015" class="citation book cs1">Eleanor Zelliot (2015). Knut A. Jacobsen (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tPBWCgAAQBAJ">Routledge Handbook of Contemporary India</a>. Taylor & Francis. pp. 13, 361–370. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-40357-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-40357-9"><bdi>978-1-317-40357-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230111060324/https://books.google.com/books?id=tPBWCgAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 15 August 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Routledge+Handbook+of+Contemporary+India&rft.pages=13%2C+361-370&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-317-40357-9&rft.au=Eleanor+Zelliot&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtPBWCgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeownPrebish201324–26-530"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeownPrebish201324–26_530-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKeownPrebish2013">Keown & Prebish (2013)</a>, pp. 24–26. </li> <li id="cite_note-531"><a href="#cite_ref-531">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGary_Tartakov2003" class="citation book cs1">Gary Tartakov (2003). Rowena Robinson (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eNsoAAAAYAAJ">Religious Conversion in India: Modes, Motivations, and Meanings</a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 192–213. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-566329-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-566329-7"><bdi>978-0-19-566329-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221206144339/https://books.google.com/books?id=eNsoAAAAYAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 6 December 2022. Retrieved 4 December 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religious+Conversion+in+India%3A+Modes%2C+Motivations%2C+and+Meanings&rft.pages=192-213&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-566329-7&rft.au=Gary+Tartakov&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeNsoAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013385-532"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey2013385_532-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarvey2013">Harvey (2013)</a>, p. 385. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams2008125–128-533"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams2008125–128_533-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilliams2008">Williams (2008)</a>, pp. 125–128. </li> <li id="cite_note-534"><a href="#cite_ref-534">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRory_Mackenzie2007" class="citation book cs1">Rory Mackenzie (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Or99AgAAQBAJ">New Buddhist Movements in Thailand: Towards an Understanding of Wat Phra Dhammakaya and Santi Asoke</a>. Routledge. pp. 175–179. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-13262-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-13262-1"><bdi>978-1-134-13262-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230111060325/https://books.google.com/books?id=Or99AgAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 5 December 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Buddhist+Movements+in+Thailand%3A+Towards+an+Understanding+of+Wat+Phra+Dhammakaya+and+Santi+Asoke&rft.pages=175-179&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-134-13262-1&rft.au=Rory+Mackenzie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOr99AgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-535"><a href="#cite_ref-535">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin_MartyR_Scott_Appleby1994" class="citation book cs1">Martin Marty; R Scott Appleby (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qd5yzP5hdiEC">Fundamentalisms Observed</a>. University of Chicago Press. pp. 660–667. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-50878-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-50878-8"><bdi>978-0-226-50878-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230111060325/https://books.google.com/books?id=qd5yzP5hdiEC">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 5 December 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamentalisms+Observed&rft.pages=660-667&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-226-50878-8&rft.au=Martin+Marty&rft.au=R+Scott+Appleby&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dqd5yzP5hdiEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-536"><a href="#cite_ref-536">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOppenheimer2014" class="citation web cs1">Oppenheimer, Mark (18 December 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2014/12/the-zen-predator-of-the-upper-east-side/383831/">"The Zen Predator of the Upper East Side"</a>. The Atlantic. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190304105305/https://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2014/12/the-zen-predator-of-the-upper-east-side/383831/">Archived</a> from the original on 4 March 2019. Retrieved 3 March 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&rft.atitle=The+Zen+Predator+of+the+Upper+East+Side&rft.date=2014-12-18&rft.aulast=Oppenheimer&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fnational%2Farchive%2F2014%2F12%2Fthe-zen-predator-of-the-upper-east-side%2F383831%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-537"><a href="#cite_ref-537">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCorder2018" class="citation web cs1">Corder, Mike (14 September 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2018-09-14/dalai-lama-meets-alleged-victims-of-abuse-by-buddhist-gurus">"Dalai Lama Meets Alleged Victims of Abuse by Buddhist Gurus"</a>. US News. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210416075105/https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2018-09-14/dalai-lama-meets-alleged-victims-of-abuse-by-buddhist-gurus">Archived</a> from the original on 16 April 2021. Retrieved 4 March 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=US+News&rft.atitle=Dalai+Lama+Meets+Alleged+Victims+of+Abuse+by+Buddhist+Gurus&rft.date=2018-09-14&rft.aulast=Corder&rft.aufirst=Mike&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usnews.com%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Farticles%2F2018-09-14%2Fdalai-lama-meets-alleged-victims-of-abuse-by-buddhist-gurus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-538"><a href="#cite_ref-538">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSperryAtwood2018" class="citation web cs1">Sperry, Rod Meade; Atwood, Haleigh (30 March 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lionsroar.com/against-the-stream-to-investigate-allegations-of-sexual-misconduct-by-founding-teacher-noah-levine/">"Against the Stream to investigate allegations of sexual misconduct by Noah Levine; results expected within a month"</a>. Lion's Roar. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181022163537/https://www.lionsroar.com/against-the-stream-to-investigate-allegations-of-sexual-misconduct-by-founding-teacher-noah-levine/">Archived</a> from the original on 22 October 2018. Retrieved 21 January 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Lion%27s+Roar&rft.atitle=Against+the+Stream+to+investigate+allegations+of+sexual+misconduct+by+Noah+Levine%3B+results+expected+within+a+month&rft.date=2018-03-30&rft.aulast=Sperry&rft.aufirst=Rod+Meade&rft.au=Atwood%2C+Haleigh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lionsroar.com%2Fagainst-the-stream-to-investigate-allegations-of-sexual-misconduct-by-founding-teacher-noah-levine%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-539"><a href="#cite_ref-539">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShute2018" class="citation news cs1">Shute, Joe (9 September 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210902101126/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/09/09/tibetan-buddhism-facing-abuse-scandal/">"Why Tibetan Buddhism is facing up to its own abuse scandal"</a>. Daily Telegraph. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/09/09/tibetan-buddhism-facing-abuse-scandal/">the original</a> on 2 September 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Daily+Telegraph&rft.atitle=Why+Tibetan+Buddhism+is+facing+up+to+its+own+abuse+scandal&rft.date=2018-09-09&rft.aulast=Shute&rft.aufirst=Joe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fnews%2F2018%2F09%2F09%2Ftibetan-buddhism-facing-abuse-scandal%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-540"><a href="#cite_ref-540">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarion_Dapsance2014" class="citation book cs1">Marion Dapsance (28 September 2014). "When Fraud Is Part of a Spiritual Path: A Tibetan Lama's Plays on Reality and Illusion". In Amanda van Eck Duymaer van Twist (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BrGlBAAAQBAJ">Minority Religions and Fraud: In Good Faith</a>. Ashgate Publishing. p. 171. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4724-0913-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4724-0913-3"><bdi>978-1-4724-0913-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230111060325/https://books.google.com/books?id=BrGlBAAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 11 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=When+Fraud+Is+Part+of+a+Spiritual+Path%3A+A+Tibetan+Lama%27s+Plays+on+Reality+and+Illusion&rft.btitle=Minority+Religions+and+Fraud%3A+In+Good+Faith&rft.pages=171&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing&rft.date=2014-09-28&rft.isbn=978-1-4724-0913-3&rft.au=Marion+Dapsance&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBrGlBAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-541"><a href="#cite_ref-541">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSperry2017" class="citation web cs1">Sperry, Rod Meade (11 August 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lionsroar.com/after-allegations-sogyal-rinpoche-retires-from-rigpa/">"After allegations, Sogyal Rinpoche retires from Rigpa"</a>. Lion's Roar. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170817203919/https://www.lionsroar.com/after-allegations-sogyal-rinpoche-retires-from-rigpa/">Archived</a> from the original on 17 August 2017. Retrieved 9 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Lion%27s+Roar&rft.atitle=After+allegations%2C+Sogyal+Rinpoche+retires+from+Rigpa&rft.date=2017-08-11&rft.aulast=Sperry&rft.aufirst=Rod+Meade&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lionsroar.com%2Fafter-allegations-sogyal-rinpoche-retires-from-rigpa%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Goble_2019_p.-542"><a href="#cite_ref-Goble_2019_p._542-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoble2019" class="citation book cs1">Goble, Geoffrey C. (11 October 2019). "Buddhism is Not a Religion". The History of Buddhism. ABC-CLIO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4408-6404-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4408-6404-9"><bdi>978-1-4408-6404-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Buddhism+is+Not+a+Religion&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Buddhism&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2019-10-11&rft.isbn=978-1-4408-6404-9&rft.aulast=Goble&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Herbrechtsmeier_1993_p._1-543"><a href="#cite_ref-Herbrechtsmeier_1993_p._1_543-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerbrechtsmeier1993" class="citation journal cs1">Herbrechtsmeier, William (1993). "Buddhism and the Definition of Religion: One More Time". Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion. 32 (1): 1–18. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1386910">10.2307/1386910</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1386910">1386910</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+for+the+Scientific+Study+of+Religion&rft.atitle=Buddhism+and+the+Definition+of+Religion%3A+One+More+Time&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-18&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1386910&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1386910%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Herbrechtsmeier&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lion's_Roar-544">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lion's_Roar_544-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lion's_Roar_544-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lionsroar.com/is-buddhism-a-religion-philosophy-way-of-life-or-science-of-mind/">"Is Buddhism a religion, philosophy, way of life, or science of mind?"</a>. Lion's Roar. Retrieved 16 February 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Lion%27s+Roar&rft.atitle=Is+Buddhism+a+religion%2C+philosophy%2C+way+of+life%2C+or+science+of+mind%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lionsroar.com%2Fis-buddhism-a-religion-philosophy-way-of-life-or-science-of-mind%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_der_Velde201422-545"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvan_der_Velde201422_545-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFvan_der_Velde2014">van der Velde 2014</a>, p. 22. </li> <li id="cite_note-Aich_2013_p._165-546"><a href="#cite_ref-Aich_2013_p._165_546-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAich2013" class="citation journal cs1">Aich, Tapas Kumar (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3705677">"Buddha philosophy and western psychology"</a>. Indian Journal of Psychiatry. 55 (6): S165-70. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4103%2F0019-5545.105517">10.4103/0019-5545.105517</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0019-5545">0019-5545</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3705677">3705677</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23858249">23858249</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Indian+Journal+of+Psychiatry&rft.atitle=Buddha+philosophy+and+western+psychology&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=S165-70&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3705677%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0019-5545&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23858249&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4103%2F0019-5545.105517&rft.aulast=Aich&rft.aufirst=Tapas+Kumar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3705677&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-547"><a href="#cite_ref-547">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSouthwold1978">Southwold 1978</a>, pp. 362–379: "From Olcott's catechism grew the tradition of Buddhist ambivalence (if not outright hostility) toward the concept of religion, but his catechism had a religious origin in Olcott's own liberal Protestant Christian background. He took his challenge to be one of purifying Buddhism by returning to the fundamental teaching of the founder as recorded in its authoritative scriptures. The teaching he found in these texts had much in common with the liberal Protestantism of the late nineteenth century. It was opposed to 'superstitious' practices, suspicious of miracles and the supernatural, and respectful of the canons of reason."</li><li><a href="#CITEREFStewart2018">Stewart 2018</a>: "The view that Buddhism is a 'philosophy' and 'not a religion' is a prime example of nineteenth-century Orientalist scholarship entering into the Western public consciousness that persists even now [...] [b]ut such a view is overly reductionist."</li><li><a href="#CITEREFvan_der_Velde2014">van der Velde 2014</a>, pp. 30–31: "What was practice in 19th and early 20th century Asia was often considered aberrational, a perversion of what was once a pure practice. The purity of this practice was supposedly lost once Buddhism changed into the religion it now was in Asia. The original dharma could be reconstructed if the teachings were liberated from the 'cultural' and 'local' Asian context [...] In fact, our perception of Buddhism is still colored by these presuppositions."</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brazier_Brazier_2015_h916-548"><a href="#cite_ref-Brazier_Brazier_2015_h916_548-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrazier2015" class="citation web cs1">Brazier, Dharmavidya David (30 May 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tricycle.org/article/buddhism-is-a-religion/">"It Needs Saying: Buddhism is a Religion"</a>. Tricycle: The Buddhist Review. Retrieved 7 February 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Tricycle%3A+The+Buddhist+Review&rft.atitle=It+Needs+Saying%3A+Buddhism+is+a+Religion&rft.date=2015-05-30&rft.aulast=Brazier&rft.aufirst=Dharmavidya+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftricycle.org%2Farticle%2Fbuddhism-is-a-religion%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-549"><a href="#cite_ref-549">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDan_Arnold_and_Alicia_Turner2018" class="citation web cs1">Dan Arnold and Alicia Turner (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/05/opinion/buddhists-violence-tolerance.html">"Why Are We Surprised When Buddhists Are Violent?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. Retrieved 16 February 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Why+Are+We+Surprised+When+Buddhists+Are+Violent%3F&rft.date=2018&rft.au=Dan+Arnold+and+Alicia+Turner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2018%2F03%2F05%2Fopinion%2Fbuddhists-violence-tolerance.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthwold1978363-550"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthwold1978363_550-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthwold1978">Southwold 1978</a>, p. 363. </li> <li id="cite_note-551"><a href="#cite_ref-551">^</a> See <a href="/wiki/%C4%80gama_(Buddhism)" title="Āgama (Buddhism)">Āgama (Buddhism)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-552"><a href="#cite_ref-552">^</a> Fang, Litian (2018). "Chinese Buddhism and Traditional Culture," p. 212. Routledge. </li> <li id="cite_note-553"><a href="#cite_ref-553">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDreyfus1997" class="citation book cs1">Dreyfus, George (1997). Recognizing Reality: Dharmakirti's Philosophy and its Tibetan Interpretations. SUNY. pp. 15–16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Recognizing+Reality%3A+Dharmakirti%27s+Philosophy+and+its+Tibetan+Interpretations&rft.pages=15-16&rft.pub=SUNY&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Dreyfus&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">ISBN missing</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDutt1988332–333-554"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDutt1988332–333_554-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDutt1988">Dutt (1988)</a>, pp. 332–333. </li> <li id="cite_note-555"><a href="#cite_ref-555">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCush2004" class="citation book cs1">Cush, Denise (2004). "British Buddhism and the New Age". In <a href="/wiki/James_R._Lewis_(scholar)" title="James R. Lewis (scholar)">Lewis, James R.</a> (ed.). The Encyclopedic Sourcebook of New Age Religions. <a href="/wiki/Prometheus_Books" title="Prometheus Books">Prometheus Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59102-040-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-59102-040-9"><bdi>1-59102-040-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=British+Buddhism+and+the+New+Age&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedic+Sourcebook+of+New+Age+Religions&rft.pub=Prometheus+Books&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=1-59102-040-9&rft.aulast=Cush&rft.aufirst=Denise&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-556"><a href="#cite_ref-556">^</a> Fromm, Erich (1989, 2002). The Art of Being. NY: Continuum. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8264-0673-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8264-0673-4">0-8264-0673-4</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-557"><a href="#cite_ref-557">^</a> Kabat-Zinn, Jon (2005). Coming to Our Senses: Healing Ourselves and the World Through Mindfulness. pp. 12–13. Hyperion. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7868-8654-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-7868-8654-4">0-7868-8654-4</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-558"><a href="#cite_ref-558">^</a> Hoffer (ed.); Freud and the Buddha: The Couch and the Cushion. </li> <li id="cite_note-559"><a href="#cite_ref-559">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm, Erich</a>, <a href="/wiki/D._T._Suzuki" title="D. T. Suzuki">D. T. Suzuki</a> & Richard De Martino (1960). Zen Buddhism and Psychoanalysis. pp. 77–78, NY: Harper & Row. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-090175-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-090175-6">0-06-090175-6</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnsonGrim201334–37-560"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnsonGrim201334–37_560-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJohnsonGrim2013">Johnson & Grim (2013)</a>, pp. 34–37. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey20135-561"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey20135_561-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarvey2013">Harvey (2013)</a>, p. 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-562"><a href="#cite_ref-562">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.china-zentrum.de/fileadmin/redaktion/RCTC_2012-3.29-54_Wenzel-Teuber_Statistical_Overview_2011.pdf">People's Republic of China: Religions and Churches Statistical Overview 2011</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303184353/http://www.china-zentrum.de/fileadmin/redaktion/RCTC_2012-3.29-54_Wenzel-Teuber_Statistical_Overview_2011.pdf">Archived</a> 3 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Katharina Wenzel-Teuber (2011), China Zentrum, Germany </li> <li id="cite_note-564"><a href="#cite_ref-564">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.asiasocietymuseum.org/region_results.asp?RegionID=6&CountryID=14&ChapterID=38">"ASIA SOCIETY: THE COLLECTION IN CONTEXT"</a>. www.asiasocietymuseum.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210416092020/https://www.asiasocietymuseum.org/region_results.asp?RegionID=6&CountryID=14&ChapterID=38">Archived</a> from the original on 16 April 2021. Retrieved 31 March 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.asiasocietymuseum.org&rft.atitle=ASIA+SOCIETY%3A+THE+COLLECTION+IN+CONTEXT&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.asiasocietymuseum.org%2Fregion_results.asp%3FRegionID%3D6%26CountryID%3D14%26ChapterID%3D38&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-565"><a href="#cite_ref-565">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlanet" class="citation web cs1">Planet, Lonely. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lonelyplanet.com/china/hong-kong/background/other-features/af97b38c-7398-4ff0-94a1-5fe469b38888/a/nar/af97b38c-7398-4ff0-94a1-5fe469b38888/355975">"Religion & Belief in Hong Kong, China"</a>. 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Retrieved 31 March 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Lonely+Planet&rft.atitle=Religion+%26+Belief+in+Hong+Kong%2C+China&rft.aulast=Planet&rft.aufirst=Lonely&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lonelyplanet.com%2Fchina%2Fhong-kong%2Fbackground%2Fother-features%2Faf97b38c-7398-4ff0-94a1-5fe469b38888%2Fa%2Fnar%2Faf97b38c-7398-4ff0-94a1-5fe469b38888%2F355975&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-566"><a href="#cite_ref-566">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.holidify.com/pages/religion-in-macau-4189.html">"Religion in Macau - Festivals and Places of Worship - Holidify"</a>. www.holidify.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200922214423/https://www.holidify.com/pages/religion-in-macau-4189.html">Archived</a> from the original on 22 September 2020. 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Retrieved 10 July 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nirvana+and+Other+Buddhist+Felicities&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-521-57054-1&rft.aulast=Collins&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZ2go_y5KYyoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConze2013" class="citation cs2">Conze, Edward (2013), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kY5TAQAAQBAJ">Buddhist Thought in India: Three Phases of Buddhist Philosophy</a>, Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-54231-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-54231-4"><bdi>978-1-134-54231-4</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230111060830/https://books.google.com/books?id=kY5TAQAAQBAJ">archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2023, retrieved 10 July 2016</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buddhist+Thought+in+India%3A+Three+Phases+of+Buddhist+Philosophy&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-134-54231-4&rft.aulast=Conze&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkY5TAQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoogan2003" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Coogan" title="Michael Coogan">Coogan, Michael D.</a>, ed. 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S. Cousins">Cousins, L.S.</a> (1996), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101220043745/http://indology.info/papers/cousins/">"The Dating of the Historical Buddha: A Review Article"</a>, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Series 3 (6.1): 57–63, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1356186300014760">10.1017/S1356186300014760</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162929573">162929573</a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://indology.info/papers/cousins/">the original</a> on 20 December 2010, retrieved 11 July 2007</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Royal+Asiatic+Society&rft.atitle=The+Dating+of+the+Historical+Buddha%3A+A+Review+Article&rft.volume=Series+3&rft.issue=6.1&rft.pages=57-63&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS1356186300014760&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162929573%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Cousins&rft.aufirst=L.S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Findology.info%2Fpapers%2Fcousins%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988">; reprinted in Williams, Buddhism, volume I; NB in the online transcript a little text has been accidentally omitted: in section 4, between "... none of the other contributions in this section envisage a date before 420 B.C." and "to 350 B.C." insert "Akira Hirakawa defends the short chronology and Heinz Bechert himself sets a range from 400 B.C."</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavidson2003" class="citation cs2">Davidson, Ronald M. 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Psychology Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-34293-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-34293-3"><bdi>978-0-415-34293-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230111060831/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ork586jWfK4C&pg=PA55">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2023. 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title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-289223-2"><bdi>978-0-19-289223-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foundations+of+Buddhism&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-19-289223-2&rft.aulast=Gethin&rft.aufirst=Rupert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffoundationsofbud00rupe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGethin2001" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Rupert_Gethin" title="Rupert Gethin">Gethin, Rupert</a> (2001) [1992], The Buddhist Path to Awakening: A Study of the Bodhi-Pakkhiyā Dhammā (2nd ed.), Oxford: Oneworld Publications, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85168-285-0" 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Retrieved 10 July 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buddhism%3A+The+origins+and+nature+of+Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na+Buddhism%3B+Some+Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na+religious+topics&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-415-33229-3&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLwSRqVKQ46MC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2005c" class="citation book cs1">Williams, Paul (2005c). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pgrZnmKUKtgC">Buddhism: Critical Concepts in Religious Studies</a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-33226-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-33226-2"><bdi>978-0-415-33226-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230111060834/https://books.google.com/books?id=pgrZnmKUKtgC">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 10 July 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buddhism%3A+Critical+Concepts+in+Religious+Studies&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-415-33226-2&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpgrZnmKUKtgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2008" class="citation cs2">Williams, Paul (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GMN-AgAAQBAJ">Mahayana Buddhism: the doctrinal foundations</a>, London: Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-35653-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-35653-4"><bdi>978-0-415-35653-4</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230111060834/https://books.google.com/books?id=GMN-AgAAQBAJ">archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2023, retrieved 10 July 2016</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mahayana+Buddhism%3A+the+doctrinal+foundations&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-415-35653-4&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGMN-AgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliamsTribeWynne2012" class="citation cs2">Williams, Paul; Tribe, Anthony; Wynne, Alexander (2012), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NOLfCgAAQBAJ">Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition</a> (2nd ed.), Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-57179-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-57179-1"><bdi>978-0-415-57179-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buddhist+Thought%3A+A+Complete+Introduction+to+the+Indian+Tradition&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-415-57179-1&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Tribe%2C+Anthony&rft.au=Wynne%2C+Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNOLfCgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-52088-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-52088-4">978-1-136-52088-4</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWynne2007" class="citation cs2">Wynne, Alexander (2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2LZ9AgAAQBAJ">The Origin of Buddhist Meditation</a>, Routledge Critical Studies in Buddhism, Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-42387-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-42387-8"><bdi>978-0-415-42387-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origin+of+Buddhist+Meditation&rft.series=Routledge+Critical+Studies+in+Buddhism&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-415-42387-8&rft.aulast=Wynne&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2LZ9AgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Yin_98" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Yin_Shun" title="Yin Shun">Yin Shun</a> (1998), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/waytobuddhahood00yins">The Way to Buddhahood: Instructions from a Modern Chinese Master</a>, translated by Yeung H. Wing, Wisdom Publications, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86171-133-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86171-133-8"><bdi>978-0-86171-133-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Way+to+Buddhahood%3A+Instructions+from+a+Modern+Chinese+Master&rft.pub=Wisdom+Publications&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-86171-133-8&rft.au=Yin+Shun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwaytobuddhahood00yins&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZürcher1972" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Erik_Z%C3%BCrcher" title="Erik Zürcher">Zürcher, Erik</a> (1972), The Buddhist Conquest of China, Leiden: E.J. Brill</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Buddhist+Conquest+of+China&rft.pub=Leiden%3A+E.J.+Brill&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=Z%C3%BCrcher&rft.aufirst=Erik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhism" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output 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href="https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20150625131436/https://www.eastwestcenter.org/sites/default/files/filemanager/ASDP/WabashDePauw2014/Buddhist_Asia_Bibliography_China_and_Tibet.pdf">Buddhist Bibliography (China and Tibet)</a>, East West Center</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unm.edu/~rhayes/numata.html">Ten Philosophical Questions: Buddhism</a>, Richard Hayes, Leiden University</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org">Readings in Theravada Buddhism</a>, Access to Insight</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://terebess.hu/zen/hakuin.html">Readings in Zen Buddhism</a>, Hakuin Ekaku (Ed: Monika Bincsik)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dsbcproject.org">Readings in Sanskrit Buddhist Canon</a>, Nagarjuna Institute—UWest</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tipitaka.org/index.shtml">Readings in Buddhism</a>, Vipassana 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href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080106085643/http://www.vam.ac.uk/collections/asia/asia_features/buddhism/index.html">Buddhism – objects, art and history</a>, V&A Museum</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tricycle.org/beginners/">Buddhism for Beginners</a>, Tricycle</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 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width="25" height="26" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Buddhism_Symbol.png/38px-Buddhism_Symbol.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Buddhism_Symbol.png/50px-Buddhism_Symbol.png 2x" data-file-width="267" data-file-height="278" /></a>   Topics in <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Buddhism</a>   <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_flag" title="Buddhist flag"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Buddhism.svg/25px-Flag_of_Buddhism.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Buddhism.svg/38px-Flag_of_Buddhism.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Buddhism.svg/50px-Flag_of_Buddhism.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="300" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #FFD068;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Buddhism" title="Outline of Buddhism">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Buddhism" title="Glossary of Buddhism">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Buddhism-related_articles" title="Index of Buddhism-related articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Buddhism" title="Outline of Buddhism">Foundations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Noble_Truths" title="Four Noble Truths">Four Noble Truths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refuge_in_Buddhism" title="Refuge in Buddhism">Three Jewels</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">Buddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sangha" title="Sangha">Sangha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path" title="Noble Eightfold Path">Noble Eightfold Path</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">Nirvana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Way" title="Middle Way">Middle Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">The Buddha</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tath%C4%81gata" title="Tathāgata">Tathāgata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha%27s_Birthday" title="Buddha's Birthday">Birthday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_sights" title="Four sights">Four sights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Eight_Great_Events_in_the_Life_of_Buddha" title="The Eight Great Events in the Life of Buddha">Eight Great Events</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Renunciation" title="Great Renunciation">Great Renunciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_characteristics_of_the_Buddha" title="Physical characteristics of the Buddha">Physical characteristics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_of_Buddha_in_art" title="Life of Buddha in art">Life of Buddha in art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha_footprint" title="Buddha footprint">Footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relics_associated_with_Buddha" title="Relics associated with Buddha">Relics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iconography_of_Gautama_Buddha_in_Laos_and_Thailand" title="Iconography of Gautama Buddha in Laos and Thailand">Iconography in Laos and Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depictions_of_Gautama_Buddha_in_film" title="Depictions of Gautama Buddha in film">Films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracles_of_Gautama_Buddha" title="Miracles of Gautama Buddha">Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_of_Gautama_Buddha" title="Family of Gautama Buddha">Family</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Auddhodana" title="Śuddhodana">Suddhodāna (father)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_(mother_of_the_Buddha)" title="Maya (mother of the Buddha)">Māyā (mother)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahapajapati_Gotami" title="Mahapajapati Gotami">Mahapajapati Gotamī (aunt, adoptive mother)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ya%C5%9Bodhar%C4%81" title="Yaśodharā">Yaśodharā (wife)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C4%81hula" title="Rāhula">Rāhula (son)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80nanda" title="Ānanda">Ānanda (cousin)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devadatta" title="Devadatta">Devadatta (cousin)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_places_where_Gautama_Buddha_stayed" title="List of places where Gautama Buddha stayed">Places where the Buddha stayed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha_in_world_religions" title="Gautama Buddha in world religions">Buddha in world religions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattvas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avalokite%C5%9Bvara" title="Avalokiteśvara">Avalokiteśvara</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guanyin" title="Guanyin">Guanyin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manjushri" title="Manjushri">Mañjuśrī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahasthamaprapta" title="Mahasthamaprapta">Mahāsthāmaprāpta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80k%C4%81%C5%9Bagarbha" title="Ākāśagarbha">Ākāśagarbha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%E1%B9%A3itigarbha" title="Kṣitigarbha">Kṣitigarbha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samantabhadra_(Bodhisattva)" title="Samantabhadra (Bodhisattva)">Samantabhadra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrapani" title="Vajrapani">Vajrapāṇi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skanda_(Buddhism)" title="Skanda (Buddhism)">Skanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tara_(Buddhism)" title="Tara (Buddhism)">Tārā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maitreya" title="Maitreya">Metteyya/Maitreya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Disciples_of_Gautama_Buddha" title="Category:Disciples of Gautama Buddha">Disciples</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kaundinya" title="Kaundinya">Kaundinya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assaji" title="Assaji">Assaji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C4%81riputra" title="Śāriputra">Sāriputta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maudgalyayana" title="Maudgalyayana">Mahamoggallāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80nanda" title="Ānanda">Ānanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81k%C4%81%C5%9Byapa" title="Mahākāśyapa">Mahākassapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%E1%B9%85gulim%C4%81la" title="Aṅgulimāla">Aṅgulimāla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anuruddha" title="Anuruddha">Anuruddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katyayana_(Buddhist)" title="Katyayana (Buddhist)">Mahākaccana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanda_(half-brother_of_Buddha)" title="Nanda (half-brother of Buddha)">Nanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subh%C5%ABti" title="Subhūti">Subhūti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pu%E1%B9%87%E1%B9%87a_Mant%C4%81n%C4%ABputta" title="Puṇṇa Mantānīputta">Puṇṇa Mantānīputta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Up%C4%81li" title="Upāli">Upāli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahapajapati_Gotami" title="Mahapajapati Gotami">Mahapajapati Gotamī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khema" title="Khema">Khema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uppalavanna" title="Uppalavanna">Uppalavanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asita" title="Asita">Asita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Channa_(Buddhist)" title="Channa (Buddhist)">Channa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yasa" title="Yasa">Yasa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Buddhism" title="Glossary of Buddhism">Key concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avidy%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Avidyā (Buddhism)">Avidyā (Ignorance)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bardo" title="Bardo">Bardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhicitta" title="Bodhicitta">Bodhicitta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha-nature" title="Buddha-nature">Buddha-nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhamma_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhamma theory">Dhamma theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_hindrances" title="Five hindrances">Five hindrances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indriya" title="Indriya">Indriya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karma_in_Buddhism" title="Karma in Buddhism">Karma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleshas_(Buddhism)" title="Kleshas (Buddhism)">Kleshas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_factors_(Buddhism)" title="Mental factors (Buddhism)">Mental factors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mindstream" title="Mindstream">Mindstream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parinirvana" title="Parinirvana">Parinirvana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da" title="Pratītyasamutpāda">Pratītyasamutpāda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebirth_(Buddhism)" title="Rebirth (Buddhism)">Rebirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra_(Buddhism)" title="Saṃsāra (Buddhism)">Saṃsāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%85kh%C4%81ra" title="Saṅkhāra">Saṅkhāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skandha" title="Skandha">Skandha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ta%E1%B9%87h%C4%81" title="Taṇhā">Taṇhā (Craving)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tath%C4%81t%C4%81" title="Tathātā">Tathātā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fetter_(Buddhism)" title="Fetter (Buddhism)">Ten Fetters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_marks_of_existence" title="Three marks of existence">Three marks of existence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Impermanence_(Buddhism)" title="Impermanence (Buddhism)">Anicca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Du%E1%B8%A5kha" title="Duḥkha">Dukkha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatt%C4%81" title="Anattā">Anattā</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_truths_doctrine" title="Two truths doctrine">Two truths doctrine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_cosmology" title="Buddhist cosmology">Cosmology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ten_realms" title="Ten realms">Ten spiritual realms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six_Paths" title="Six Paths">Six Paths</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deva_(Buddhism)" title="Deva (Buddhism)">Deva realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_beings_in_Buddhism" title="Human beings in Buddhism">Human realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asura_(Buddhism)" title="Asura (Buddhism)">Asura realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preta" title="Preta">Hungry Ghost realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animals_in_Buddhism" title="Animals in Buddhism">Animal realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naraka_(Buddhism)" title="Naraka (Buddhism)">Naraka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trailokya" title="Trailokya">Three planes of existence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Buddhism" title="Schools of Buddhism">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chinese Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Zen" title="Japanese Zen">Japanese Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Seon" title="Korean Seon">Korean Seon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thi%E1%BB%81n" title="Thiền">Vietnamese Thiền</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Pure Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rissh%C5%AB_(Buddhism)" title="Risshū (Buddhism)">Risshū</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nichiren_Buddhism" title="Nichiren Buddhism">Nichiren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogachara</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Esoteric_Buddhism" title="Chinese Esoteric Buddhism">Chinese Esoteric Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shingon_Buddhism" title="Shingon Buddhism">Shingon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzogchen" title="Dzogchen">Dzogchen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navayana" title="Navayana">Navayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_schools" title="Early Buddhist schools">Early Buddhist schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-sectarian_Buddhism" title="Pre-sectarian Buddhism">Pre-sectarian Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_points_unifying_Therav%C4%81da_and_Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na" title="Basic points unifying Theravāda and Mahāyāna">Basic points unifying Theravāda and Mahāyāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern,_Eastern_and_Northern_Buddhism" title="Southern, Eastern and Northern Buddhism">Southern, Eastern and Northern Buddhism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Buddhist_practices" title="Category:Buddhist practices">Practices</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhavana" title="Bhavana">Bhavana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhipakkhiy%C4%81dhamm%C4%81" title="Bodhipakkhiyādhammā">Bodhipakkhiyādhammā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmavihara" title="Brahmavihara">Brahmavihara</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maitr%C4%AB" title="Maitrī">Mettā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karu%E1%B9%87%C4%81" title="Karuṇā">Karuṇā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudita" title="Mudita">Mudita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upek%E1%B9%A3%C4%81" title="Upekṣā">Upekkha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddh%C4%81bhi%E1%B9%A3eka" title="Buddhābhiṣeka">Buddhābhiṣeka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C4%81na" title="Dāna">Dāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_devotion" title="Buddhist devotion">Devotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deity_yoga" title="Deity yoga">Deity yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhyana_in_Buddhism" title="Dhyana in Buddhism">Dhyāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_in_Buddhism" title="Faith in Buddhism">Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Strengths" title="Five Strengths">Five Strengths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iddhipada" title="Iddhipada">Iddhipada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_meditation" title="Buddhist meditation">Meditation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mantra#Buddhism" title="Mantra">Mantras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamma%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADh%C4%81na" title="Kammaṭṭhāna">Kammaṭṭhāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anussati" title="Anussati">Recollection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simran" title="Simran">Smarana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anapanasati" title="Anapanasati">Anapanasati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samatha-vipassan%C4%81" title="Samatha-vipassanā">Samatha-vipassanā</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vipassana_movement" title="Vipassana movement">Vipassana movement</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shikantaza" title="Shikantaza">Shikantaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zazen" title="Zazen">Zazen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tukdam" title="Tukdam">Tukdam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koan" title="Koan">Koan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganana" title="Ganana">Ganana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandala" title="Mandala">Mandala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonglen" title="Tonglen">Tonglen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tantra" title="Tantra">Tantra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tert%C3%B6n" title="Tertön">Tertön</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terma_(religion)" title="Terma (religion)">Terma</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merit_(Buddhism)" title="Merit (Buddhism)">Merit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mindfulness" title="Mindfulness">Mindfulness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mindful_Yoga" title="Mindful Yoga">Mindful Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satipatthana" title="Satipatthana">Satipatthana</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nekkhamma" title="Nekkhamma">Nekkhamma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nianfo" title="Nianfo">Nianfo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81ramit%C4%81" title="Pāramitā">Pāramitā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paritta" title="Paritta">Paritta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_devotion" title="Buddhist devotion">Puja</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Offering_(Buddhism)" title="Offering (Buddhism)">Offerings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostration_(Buddhism)" title="Prostration (Buddhism)">Prostration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_music" title="Buddhist music">Music</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refuge_in_Buddhism" title="Refuge in Buddhism">Refuge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C4%81dhu_(Pali_word)" title="Sādhu (Pali word)">Sādhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satya" title="Satya">Satya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sacca" title="Sacca">Sacca</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Factors_of_Awakening" title="Seven Factors of Awakening">Seven Factors of Enlightenment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sati_(Buddhism)" title="Sati (Buddhism)">Sati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhamma_vicaya" title="Dhamma vicaya">Dhamma vicaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%ABti" title="Pīti">Pīti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passaddhi" title="Passaddhi">Passaddhi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Śīla</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Five_precepts" title="Five precepts">Five precepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight_precepts" title="Eight precepts">Eight precepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva_vow" title="Bodhisattva vow">Bodhisattva vow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pratimok%E1%B9%A3a" title="Pratimokṣa">Pratimokṣa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Threefold_Training" title="Threefold Training">Threefold Training</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Śīla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samadhi" title="Samadhi">Samadhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Prajñā (Buddhism)">Prajñā</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C4%ABrya" title="Vīrya">Vīrya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Right_Exertions" title="Four Right Exertions">Four Right Exertions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-two_vows_of_Ambedkar" title="Twenty-two vows of Ambedkar">Twenty-two vows of Ambedkar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">Nirvana</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">Bodhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddhahood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pratyekabuddhay%C4%81na" title="Pratyekabuddhayāna">Pratyekabuddhayāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_stages_of_awakening" title="Four stages of awakening">Four stages of awakening</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sot%C4%81panna" title="Sotāpanna">Sotāpanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakadagami" title="Sakadagami">Sakadagami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An%C4%81g%C4%81mi" title="Anāgāmi">Anāgāmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arhat" title="Arhat">Arhat</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_monasticism" title="Buddhist monasticism">Monasticism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhikkhu" title="Bhikkhu">Bhikkhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhikkhun%C4%AB" title="Bhikkhunī">Bhikkhunī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanera" title="Samanera">Śrāmaṇera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanera" title="Samanera">Śrāmaṇerī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anag%C4%81rika" title="Anagārika">Anagārika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajahn" title="Ajahn">Ajahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayadaw" title="Sayadaw">Sayadaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen_master" title="Zen master">Zen master</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C5%8Dshi" title="Rōshi">Rōshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lama" title="Lama">Lama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rinpoche" title="Rinpoche">Rinpoche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geshe" title="Geshe">Geshe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulku" title="Tulku">Tulku</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_tulku" title="Western tulku">Western tulku</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kappiya" title="Kappiya">Kappiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donchee" title="Donchee">Donchee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Householder_(Buddhism)" title="Householder (Buddhism)">Householder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Up%C4%81saka_and_Up%C4%81sik%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Upāsaka and Upāsikā">Upāsaka and Upāsikā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achar_(Buddhism)" title="Achar (Buddhism)">Achar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Ar%C4%81vaka" title="Śrāvaka">Śrāvaka</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ten_principal_disciples" title="Ten principal disciples">Ten principal disciples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaolin_Monastery" title="Shaolin Monastery">Shaolin Monastery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhists" title="List of Buddhists">Major figures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">The Buddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagasena" title="Nagasena">Nagasena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C5%9Bvagho%E1%B9%A3a" title="Aśvaghoṣa">Aśvaghoṣa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna" title="Nagarjuna">Nagarjuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asanga" title="Asanga">Asanga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva" title="Kumārajīva">Kumārajīva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhaghosa" title="Buddhaghosa">Buddhaghosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhap%C4%81lita" title="Buddhapālita">Buddhapālita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dign%C4%81ga" title="Dignāga">Dignāga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhidharma" title="Bodhidharma">Bodhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhiyi" title="Zhiyi">Zhiyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wen_of_Sui" title="Emperor Wen of Sui">Emperor Wen of Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songtsen_Gampo" title="Songtsen Gampo">Songtsen Gampo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shandao" title="Shandao">Shandao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Padmasambhava" title="Padmasambhava">Padmasambhava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saraha" title="Saraha">Saraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ati%C5%9Ba" title="Atiśa">Atiśa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naropa" title="Naropa">Naropa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karmapa" title="Karmapa">Karmapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C5%8Dnen" title="Hōnen">Hōnen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shinran" title="Shinran">Shinran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C5%8Dgen" title="Dōgen">Dōgen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nichiren" title="Nichiren">Nichiren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamarpa" title="Shamarpa">Shamarpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalai_Lama" title="Dalai Lama">Dalai Lama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panchen_Lama" title="Panchen Lama">Panchen Lama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajahn_Mun" title="Ajahn Mun">Ajahn Mun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">B. R. Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajahn_Chah" title="Ajahn Chah">Ajahn Chah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%ADch_Nh%E1%BA%A5t_H%E1%BA%A1nh" title="Thích Nhất Hạnh">Thích Nhất Hạnh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_texts" title="Buddhist texts">Texts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_texts" title="Early Buddhist texts">Early Buddhist texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka" title="Tripiṭaka">Tripiṭaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahayana_sutras" title="Mahayana sutras">Mahayana sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pali_Canon" title="Pali Canon">Pali Canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhist_canon" title="Chinese Buddhist canon">Chinese Buddhist canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist_canon" title="Tibetan Buddhist canon">Tibetan Buddhist canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhammapada" title="Dhammapada">Dhammapada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">Sutra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinaya" title="Vinaya">Vinaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamak%C4%81la%E1%B9%83k%C4%81ra" title="Madhyamakālaṃkāra">Madhyamakālaṃkāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharmad%C4%ABpa" title="Abhidharmadīpa">Abhidharmadīpa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_by_country" title="Buddhism by country">Countries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Afghanistan" title="Buddhism in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Bangladesh" title="Buddhism in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Bhutan" title="Buddhism in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Cambodia" title="Buddhism in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_China" title="Buddhism in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism_in_India" title="History of Buddhism in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Indonesia" title="Buddhism in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Japan" title="Buddhism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Buddhism" title="Korean Buddhism">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Laos" title="Buddhism in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Malaysia" title="Buddhism in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Maldives" title="Buddhism in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Mongolia" title="Buddhism in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Myanmar" title="Buddhism in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Nepal" title="Buddhism in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Pakistan" title="Buddhism in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Philippines" title="Buddhism in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Russia" title="Buddhism in Russia">Russia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Buryatia" title="Buddhism in Buryatia">Buryatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Kalmykia" title="Buddhism in Kalmykia">Kalmykia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_in_Tuva&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Buddhism in Tuva (page does not exist)">Tuva</a> (<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC_%D0%B2_%D0%A2%D1%8B%D0%B2%D0%B5" class="extiw" title="ru:Буддизм в Тыве">ru</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Singapore" title="Buddhism in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Buddhism in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Taiwan" title="Buddhism in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Thailand" title="Buddhism in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Vietnam" title="Buddhism in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Africa" title="Buddhism in Africa">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Senegal" title="Buddhism in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_South_Africa" title="Buddhism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Central_Asia" title="Buddhism in Central Asia">Central Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Uzbekistan" title="Buddhism in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Middle_East" title="Buddhism in the Middle East">Middle East</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Iran" title="Buddhism in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Buddhism in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_West" title="Buddhism in the West">Western countries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Argentina" title="Buddhism in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Australia" title="Buddhism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Brazil" title="Buddhism in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Canada" title="Buddhism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Costa_Rica" title="Buddhism in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Buddhism in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_France" title="Buddhism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Germany" title="Buddhism in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Italy" title="Buddhism in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Mexico" title="Buddhism in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_New_Zealand" title="Buddhism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Norway" title="Buddhism in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Poland" title="Buddhism in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Sweden" title="Buddhism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Switzerland" title="Buddhism in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Ukraine" title="Buddhism in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Buddhism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_United_States" title="Buddhism in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Venezuela" title="Buddhism in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism" title="History of Buddhism">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Buddhism" title="Timeline of Buddhism">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashoka" title="Ashoka">Ashoka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanishka" title="Kanishka">Kanishka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_councils" title="Buddhist councils">Buddhist councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism_in_India" title="History of Buddhism in India">History of Buddhism in India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Buddhism_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent">Decline of Buddhism in India</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huichang_persecution_of_Buddhism" title="Huichang persecution of Buddhism">Huichang persecution of Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhism" title="Greco-Buddhism">Greco-Buddhism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gandharan_Buddhism" title="Gandharan Buddhism">Gandharan Buddhism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gandh%C4%81ran_Buddhist_texts" title="Gandhāran Buddhist texts">Texts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menander_I" title="Menander I">Menander I</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_the_Roman_world" title="Buddhism and the Roman world">Buddhism and the Roman world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_West" title="Buddhism in the West">Buddhism in the West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silk_Road_transmission_of_Buddhism" title="Silk Road transmission of Buddhism">Silk Road transmission of Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Buddhists" title="Persecution of Buddhists">Persecution of Buddhists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Afghanistan" title="Buddhism in Afghanistan">In Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_crisis" title="Buddhist crisis">In Vietnam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rim%C3%A9_movement" title="Rimé movement">Rimé movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banishment_of_Buddhist_monks_from_Nepal" title="Banishment of Buddhist monks from Nepal">Banishment of Buddhist monks from Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalit_Buddhist_movement" title="Dalit Buddhist movement">Dalit Buddhist movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Tibet_by_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China">Chinese invasion of Tibet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1959_Tibetan_uprising" title="1959 Tibetan uprising">1959 Tibetan uprising</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinhalese_Buddhist_nationalism" title="Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism">Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_modernism" title="Buddhist modernism">Buddhist modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vipassana_movement" title="Vipassana movement">Vipassana movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/969_Movement" title="969 Movement">969 Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engaged_Buddhism" title="Engaged Buddhism">Engaged Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Buddhism" title="Women in Buddhism">Women in Buddhism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_atomism" title="Buddhist atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_studies" title="Buddhist studies">Buddhology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creator_in_Buddhism" title="Creator in Buddhism">Creator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_democracy" title="Buddhism and democracy">Buddhism and democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_economics" title="Buddhist economics">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight_Consciousnesses" title="Eight Consciousnesses">Eight Consciousnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engaged_Buddhism" title="Engaged Buddhism">Engaged Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_eschatology" title="Buddhist eschatology">Eschatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhism and evolution">Evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Buddhism" title="Humanistic Buddhism">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_logico-epistemology" title="Buddhist logico-epistemology">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reality_in_Buddhism" title="Reality in Buddhism">Reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_Buddhism" title="Secular Buddhism">Secular Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_socialism" title="Buddhist socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_unanswerable_questions" title="The unanswerable questions">The unanswerable questions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Buddhism" title="Culture of Buddhism">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_architecture" title="Buddhist architecture">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_temple" title="Buddhist temple">Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vih%C4%81ra" title="Vihāra">Vihāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyaung" title="Kyaung">Kyaung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wat" title="Wat">Wat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination_hall" title="Ordination hall">Ordination hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stupa" title="Stupa">Stupa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pagoda" title="Pagoda">Pagoda</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_pagoda" title="Burmese pagoda">Burmese pagoda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candi_of_Indonesia" title="Candi of Indonesia">Candi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzong_architecture" title="Dzong architecture">Dzong architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhist_architecture_in_China" title="List of Buddhist architecture in China">List of Buddhist architecture in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Buddhist_architecture" title="Japanese Buddhist architecture">Japanese Buddhist architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_temples_in_Korea" title="Buddhist temples in Korea">Buddhist temples in Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_temple_art_and_architecture" title="Thai temple art and architecture">Thai temple art and architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist_architecture" title="Tibetan Buddhist architecture">Tibetan Buddhist architecture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_art" title="Buddhist art">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhist_art" title="Greco-Buddhist art">Greco-Buddhist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhi_Tree" title="Bodhi Tree">Bodhi Tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Budai" title="Budai">Budai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha_in_art" title="Buddha in art">Buddha in art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_calendar" title="Buddhist calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_cuisine" title="Buddhist cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_funeral" title="Buddhist funeral">Funeral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_holidays" title="Buddhist holidays">Holidays</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vesak" title="Vesak">Vesak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uposatha" title="Uposatha">Uposatha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%81gha_P%C5%ABj%C4%81" title="Māgha Pūjā">Māgha Pūjā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asalha_Puja" title="Asalha Puja">Asalha Puja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vassa" title="Vassa">Vassa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaya_Sri_Maha_Bodhi" title="Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi">Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasaya_(clothing)" title="Kasaya (clothing)">Kasaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahabodhi_Temple" title="Mahabodhi Temple">Mahabodhi Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mantra" title="Mantra">Mantra</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Om_mani_padme_hum" title="Om mani padme hum">Om mani padme hum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudra" title="Mudra">Mudra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_music" title="Buddhist music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_pilgrimage_sites" title="Buddhist pilgrimage sites">Pilgrimage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lumbini" title="Lumbini">Lumbini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_Devi_Temple,_Lumbini" title="Maya Devi Temple, Lumbini">Maya Devi Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodh_Gaya" title="Bodh Gaya">Bodh Gaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarnath" title="Sarnath">Sarnath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushinagar" title="Kushinagar">Kushinagar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_poetry" title="Buddhist poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japamala" title="Japamala">Prayer beads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hama_yumi" title="Hama yumi">Hama yumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer_wheel" title="Prayer wheel">Prayer wheel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_symbolism" title="Buddhist symbolism">Symbolism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dharmachakra" title="Dharmachakra">Dharmachakra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_flag" title="Buddhist flag">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhavacakra" title="Bhavacakra">Bhavacakra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swastika" title="Swastika">Swastika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thangka" title="Thangka">Thangka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_the_Tooth" title="Temple of the Tooth">Temple of the Tooth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_vegetarianism" title="Buddhist vegetarianism">Vegetarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Buddhism-related_articles" title="Index of Buddhism-related articles">Miscellaneous</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhij%C3%B1%C4%81" title="Abhijñā">Abhijñā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha" title="Amitābha">Amitābha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahm%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Brahmā (Buddhism)">Brahmā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma_talk" title="Dharma talk">Dharma talk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinayana" title="Hinayana">Hinayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iddhi" title="Iddhi">Iddhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalpa_(time)" title="Kalpa (time)">Kalpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koliya" title="Koliya">Koliya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lineage_(Buddhism)" title="Lineage (Buddhism)">Lineage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mara_(demon)" title="Mara (demon)">Māra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddhi" title="Siddhi">Siddhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_language" title="Sacred language">Sacred languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pali" title="Pali">Pāḷi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Comparative_Buddhism" title="Category:Comparative Buddhism">Comparison</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_and_Buddhism" title="Baháʼí Faith and Buddhism">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Christianity" title="Buddhism and Christianity">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_influences_on_Christianity" title="Buddhist influences on Christianity">Influences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_Buddhism_and_Christianity" title="Comparison of Buddhism and Christianity">Comparison</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Eastern_religions" title="Buddhism and Eastern religions">East Asian religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Gnosticism" title="Buddhism and Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Hinduism" title="Buddhism and Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Jainism" title="Buddhism and Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Buddhist" title="Jewish Buddhist">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_psychology" title="Buddhism and psychology">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_science" title="Buddhism and science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Theosophy" title="Buddhism and Theosophy">Theosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_violence" title="Buddhism and violence">Violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Western_philosophy" title="Buddhism and Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Buddhism-related_lists" title="Category:Buddhism-related lists">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_bodhisattvas" title="List of bodhisattvas">Bodhisattvas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhas" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Buddhas">Buddhas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhists" title="List of Buddhists">Buddhists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_suttas" title="List of suttas">Suttas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">Sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhist_temples" title="List of Buddhist temples">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhist_festivals" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Buddhist festivals">Festivals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #FFD068;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Buddhism" title="Category:Buddhism">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Dharma_Wheel_(2).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg/16px-Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg/24px-Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg/32px-Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="697" data-file-height="697" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Buddhism" title="Portal:Buddhism">Buddhism portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="The_Buddha_(Gautama_Buddha)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffd068;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Gautama_Buddha" title="Template:Gautama Buddha"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Gautama_Buddha" title="Template talk:Gautama Buddha"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Gautama_Buddha" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Gautama Buddha"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="The_Buddha_(Gautama_Buddha)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">The Buddha</a> (<a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">Gautama Buddha</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhammacakkappavattana_Sutta" title="Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta">Core teachings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Noble_Truths" title="Four Noble Truths">Four Noble Truths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path" title="Noble Eightfold Path">Noble Eightfold Path</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Way" title="Middle Way">Middle Way</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhavacana" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhavacana">Sayings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhists" title="List of Buddhists">Disciples</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ten_principal_disciples" title="Ten principal disciples">ten principal disciples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_sights" title="Four sights">Four sights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Eight_Great_Events_in_the_Life_of_Buddha" title="The Eight Great Events in the Life of Buddha">Eight Great Events</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Renunciation" title="Great Renunciation">Great Renunciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_of_Gautama_Buddha" title="Family of Gautama Buddha">Family</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maya_(mother_of_the_Buddha)" title="Maya (mother of the Buddha)">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Auddhodana" title="Śuddhodana">Śuddhodana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahapajapati_Gotami" title="Mahapajapati Gotami">Mahapajapati Gotami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ya%C5%9Bodhar%C4%81" title="Yaśodharā">Yaśodharā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C4%81hula" title="Rāhula">Rāhula</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_places_where_Gautama_Buddha_stayed" title="List of places where Gautama Buddha stayed">Places</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lumbini" title="Lumbini">Lumbini</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bodh_Gaya" title="Bodh Gaya">Bodh Gaya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bodhi_Tree" title="Bodhi Tree">Bodhi Tree</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mahabodhi_Temple" title="Mahabodhi Temple">Mahabodhi Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_pilgrimage_sites" title="Buddhist pilgrimage sites">pilgrimage sites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracles_of_Gautama_Buddha" title="Miracles of Gautama Buddha">Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha%27s_Birthday" title="Buddha's Birthday">Birthday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modak" title="Modak">Modak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asita" title="Asita">Prophecy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_characteristics_of_the_Buddha" title="Physical characteristics of the Buddha">Physical characteristics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81parinibb%C4%81%E1%B9%87a_Sutta" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahāparinibbāṇa Sutta">Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relics_associated_with_Buddha" title="Relics associated with Buddha">Relics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cetiya" title="Cetiya">Cetiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relic_of_the_tooth_of_the_Buddha" title="Relic of the tooth of the Buddha">tooth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha_footprint" title="Buddha footprint">footprint</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha_in_art" title="Buddha in art">Buddha in art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Life_of_Buddha_in_art" title="Life of Buddha in art">life in art</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iconography_of_Gautama_Buddha_in_Laos_and_Thailand" title="Iconography of Gautama Buddha in Laos and Thailand">Iconography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depictions_of_Gautama_Buddha_in_film" title="Depictions of Gautama Buddha in film">Films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha_in_world_religions" title="Gautama Buddha in world religions">Gautama Buddha in world religions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha_in_Hinduism" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha in Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffd068;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:Search/Gautama_Buddha" class="extiw" title="commons:Special:Search/Gautama Buddha">Commons</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/13px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/20px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/27px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /> <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Gautama_Buddha" class="extiw" title="wikiquote:Special:Search/Gautama Buddha">Wikiquote</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Religion" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Religion_topics" title="Template:Religion topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Religion_topics" title="Template 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style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">Haredi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Orthodox_Judaism" title="Modern Orthodox Judaism">Modern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_Zionism" title="Religious Zionism">Zionist</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymanot" title="Haymanot">Haymanot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Judaism" title="Reconstructionist Judaism">Reconstructionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Renewal" title="Jewish Renewal">Renewal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Judaism" title="Humanistic Judaism">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_movements" title="Jewish religious movements">list</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches" title="Eastern Catholic Churches">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodoxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Oriental Orthodoxy">Oriental Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nestorianism" title="Nestorianism">Nestorianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Church_of_the_East" title="Ancient Church of the East">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Church_of_the_East" title="Assyrian Church of the East">Assyrian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Protestantism" title="Proto-Protestantism">Proto-Protestantism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hussites" title="Hussites">Hussites</a>/<a href="/wiki/Moravian_Church" title="Moravian Church">Moravians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waldensians" title="Waldensians">Waldensians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptism" title="Anabaptism">Anabaptism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amish" title="Amish">Amish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schwarzenau_Brethren" title="Schwarzenau Brethren">Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hutterites" title="Hutterites">Hutterites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mennonites" title="Mennonites">Mennonites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schwenkfelder_Church" title="Schwenkfelder Church">Schwenkfelder Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congregational_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregational church">Congregationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presbyterianism" title="Presbyterianism">Presbyterianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Reformed_Protestantism" title="Continental Reformed Protestantism">Reformed</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_Christianity" title="Charismatic Christianity">Charismatic Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_movement" title="Charismatic movement">Charismatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-charismatic_movement" title="Neo-charismatic movement">Neo-charismatic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">Evangelicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Apostolic_Church" title="Catholic Apostolic Church">Irvingism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_movement" title="Holiness movement">Holiness</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondenominational_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Nondenominational Christianity">Nondenominational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plymouth_Brethren" title="Plymouth Brethren">Plymouth Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakerism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_Movement" title="Restoration Movement">Restorationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esoteric_Christianity" title="Esoteric Christianity">Esoteric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Christian_Community" title="The Christian Community">The Christian Community</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Catholicism" title="Independent Catholicism">Independent Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Catholic_Church" title="Old Catholic Church">Old Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaizers" title="Judaizers">Judaizers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nontrinitarianism" title="Nontrinitarianism">Nontrinitarianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bible_Student_movement" title="Bible Student movement">Bible Students</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bible_Student_movement#Associated_Bible_Students" title="Bible Student movement">Associated Bible Students</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Bible_Students" title="Free Bible Students">Free Bible Students</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friends_of_Man" title="Friends of Man">Friends of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo#Kitawala" title="Religion in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Kitawala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laymen%27s_Home_Missionary_Movement" title="Laymen's Home Missionary Movement">Laymen's Home Missionary Movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christadelphians" title="Christadelphians">Christadelphians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mormonism" title="Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oneness_Pentecostalism" title="Oneness Pentecostalism">Oneness Pentecostalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritual_Christianity" title="Spiritual Christianity">Spiritual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_New_Church_(Swedenborgian)" title="The New Church (Swedenborgian)">Swedenborgianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolstoyan_movement" title="Tolstoyan movement">Tolstoyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitarianism" title="Unitarianism">Unitarianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations" title="List of Christian denominations">list</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunnism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ash%27arism" title="Ash'arism">Ash'arism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maturidism" title="Maturidism">Maturidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atharism" title="Atharism">Atharism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salafi_movement" title="Salafi movement">Salafism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wahhabism" title="Wahhabism">Wahhabism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_modernism" title="Islamic modernism">Modernist Salafism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shi'ism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alawites" title="Alawites">Alawism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali-Illahism" title="Ali-Illahism">Ali-Illahism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isma%27ilism" title="Isma'ilism">Isma'ilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelver_Shi%27ism" title="Twelver Shi'ism">Twelver Shi'ism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaydism" title="Zaydism">Zaydism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharijites" title="Kharijites">Khawarij</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibadi_Islam" title="Ibadi Islam">Ibadism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alevism" title="Alevism">Alevism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ishikism" title="Ishikism">Ishikism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_Alevism" title="Kurdish Alevism">Kurdish Alevism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmadiyya" title="Ahmadiyya">Ahmadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahdawi_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahdawi movement">Mahdavism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quranism" title="Quranism">Quranism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milah_Abraham" title="Milah Abraham">Milah Abraham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-denominational_Muslim" title="Non-denominational Muslim">Non-denominational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_schools_and_branches" title="Islamic schools and branches">list</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A1bism" title="Bábism">Bábism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azali" title="Azali">Azalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Druze" title="Druze">Druze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaeism" title="Mandaeism">Mandaeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rastafari" title="Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritanism" title="Samaritanism">Samaritanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_religions" title="Iranian religions">Iranian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoroastrian">Zoroastrian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism_in_Russia" title="Zoroastrianism in Russia">Blagovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilm-e-Khshnoom" title="Ilm-e-Khshnoom">Ilm-e-Khshnoom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mazdaznan" title="Mazdaznan">Mazdaznan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Kurdish</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shabakism" class="mw-redirect" title="Shabakism">Shabakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yarsanism" title="Yarsanism">Yarsanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assianism" title="Assianism">Assianism/Uatsdin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roshani_movement" title="Roshani movement">Roshani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manichaeism" title="Manichaeism">Manichaeism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Manichaeism" title="Chinese Manichaeism">Chinese Manichaeism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazd%C3%A2nism" title="Yazdânism">Yazdânism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazidism" title="Yazidism">Yazidism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_religions" title="Eastern religions">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">East Asian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Chinese folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luo_teaching" title="Luo teaching">Luoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuo_folk_religion" title="Nuo folk religion">Nuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_salvationist_religions" title="Chinese salvationist religions">Salvationist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xiantiandao" title="Xiantiandao">Xiantiandao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiguandao" title="Yiguandao">Yiguandao</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_ritual_mastery_traditions" title="Chinese ritual mastery traditions">Folk Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yao_folk_religion" title="Yao folk religion">Yao Taoism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Japan" title="Religion in Japan">Japonic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shinto" title="Shinto">Shinto</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shinto_sects_and_schools" title="Shinto sects and schools">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shugend%C5%8D" title="Shugendō">Shugendō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenrikyo" title="Tenrikyo">Tenrikyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ryukyuan_religion" title="Ryukyuan religion">Ryukyuan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Korea" title="Religion in Korea">Korean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korean_shamanism" title="Korean shamanism">Korean shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheondoism" title="Cheondoism">Cheondoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeung_San_Do" title="Jeung San Do">Jeungsanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Vietnam" title="Religion in Vietnam">Vietnamese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_folk_religion" title="Vietnamese folk religion">Vietnamese folk religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1o_M%E1%BA%ABu" title="Đạo Mẫu">Đạo Mẫu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caodaism" title="Caodaism">Caodaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C3%B2a_H%E1%BA%A3o" title="Hòa Hảo">Hoahaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1o_B%E1%BB%ADu_S%C6%A1n_K%E1%BB%B3_H%C6%B0%C6%A1ng" title="Đạo Bửu Sơn Kỳ Hương">Đạo Bửu Sơn Kỳ Hương</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vaishnavism" title="Vaishnavism">Vaishnavism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Krishnaism" title="Krishnaism">Krishnaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Vaishnavism" title="Sri Vaishnavism">Sri Vaishnavism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahma_Sampradaya" title="Brahma Sampradaya">Brahma Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pushtimarg" class="mw-redirect" title="Pushtimarg">Pushtimarg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahanubhava" title="Mahanubhava">Mahanubhava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramanandi_Sampradaya" title="Ramanandi Sampradaya">Ramanandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warkari" title="Warkari">Warkari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swaminarayan_Sampradaya" title="Swaminarayan Sampradaya">Swaminarayan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaivism" title="Shaivism">Shaivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shaiva_Siddhanta" title="Shaiva Siddhanta">Shaiva Siddhanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganapatya" title="Ganapatya">Ganapatya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashmir_Shaivism" title="Kashmir Shaivism">Kashmiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kapalika" title="Kapalika">Kapalika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaumaram" title="Kaumaram">Kaumaram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingayatism" title="Lingayatism">Lingayatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nath" class="mw-redirect" title="Nath">Nath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balinese_Hinduism" title="Balinese Hinduism">Balinese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaktism" title="Shaktism">Shaktism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smarta_tradition" title="Smarta tradition">Smartism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saura_(Hinduism)" title="Saura (Hinduism)">Sauraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arauta" title="Śrauta">Śrauta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sant_Mat" title="Sant Mat">Sant Mat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_reform_movements" title="Hindu reform movements">Neo-Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_denominations" title="Hindu denominations">list</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Buddhism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a>/<a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a>/<a href="/wiki/Thi%E1%BB%81n" title="Thiền">Thiền</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Amidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nichiren_Buddhism" title="Nichiren Buddhism">Nichiren</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_modernism" title="Buddhist modernism">Neo-Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Buddhism" title="Schools of Buddhism">list</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ayyavazhi" title="Ayyavazhi">Ayyavazhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalash_people#Religion" title="Kalash people">Kalash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digambara" title="Digambara">Digambara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Avet%C4%81mbara" title="Śvetāmbara">Śvetāmbara</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarnaism" title="Sarnaism">Sarnaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirat_Mundhum" title="Kirat Mundhum">Kirat Mundhum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedda#Religion" title="Vedda">Vedda religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravidassia" title="Ravidassia">Ravidassia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikhism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khalsa" title="Khalsa">Khalsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sects_of_Sikhism" title="Sects of Sikhism">Sects</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_religion" title="Ethnic religion">Ethnic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Altaic_languages" title="Altaic languages">Altaic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_mythology" title="Turkic mythology">Turko</a>-<a href="/wiki/Mongolian_shamanism" title="Mongolian shamanism">Mongolic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burkhanism" title="Burkhanism">Burkhanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tengrism" title="Tengrism">Tengrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vattisen_Yaly" title="Vattisen Yaly">Vattisen Yaly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tungusic_creation_myth" title="Tungusic creation myth">Tungusic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evenks#Religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Evenks">Evenki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_shamanism" title="Manchu shamanism">Manchu</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sarna_(place)" title="Sarna (place)">Sarnaism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parmalim" title="Parmalim">Batak Parmalim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayak_people#Religion_and_festivals" title="Dayak people">Dayak</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kaharingan" title="Kaharingan">Kaharingan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Sabahan_religions" title="Traditional Sabahan religions">Traditional Sabahan religions</a></li></ul></li> <li>Indonesian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aliran_Kepercayaan" title="Aliran Kepercayaan">Aliran Kepercayaan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kejaw%C3%A8n" title="Kejawèn">Kejawèn</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kapitayan" title="Kapitayan">Kapitayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pemena" title="Pemena">Karo Pemena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_folk_religion" title="Malaysian folk religion">Malaysian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Philippine_folk_religions" title="Indigenous Philippine folk religions">Philippine Dayawism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_religious_beliefs_of_the_Tagalog_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous religious beliefs of the Tagalog people">Tagalog</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesian_mythology" title="Polynesian mythology">Polynesian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_religion" title="Hawaiian religion">Hawaiian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_M%C4%81ori_people" title="Religion of Māori people">Māori</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marapu" title="Marapu">Sumbese Marapu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunda_Wiwitan" title="Sunda Wiwitan">Sundanese Wiwitan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Native_American_religions" title="Native American religions">Native American</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abenaki_mythology" title="Abenaki mythology">Abenaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Native_religion" title="Alaska Native religion">Alaskan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anishinaabe_traditional_beliefs" title="Anishinaabe traditional beliefs">Anishinaabe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ojibwe#Spiritual_beliefs" title="Ojibwe">Ojibwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midewiwin" title="Midewiwin">Midewiwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wabunowin" title="Wabunowin">Wabunowin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apache#Religion" title="Apache">Apache</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackfoot_mythology" title="Blackfoot mythology">Blackfoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_narratives_of_Indigenous_Californians" title="Traditional narratives of Indigenous Californians">Californian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kuksu_(religion)" title="Kuksu (religion)">Kuksu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miwok_mythology" title="Miwok mythology">Miwok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ohlone_mythology" title="Ohlone mythology">Ohlone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomo_religion" title="Pomo religion">Pomo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilote_mythology" title="Chilote mythology">Chilote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw_mythology" title="Choctaw mythology">Choctaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crow_religion" title="Crow religion">Crow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_Dance" title="Ghost Dance">Ghost Dance</a>/<a href="/wiki/Sun_Dance" title="Sun Dance">Sun Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guarani_mythology" title="Guarani mythology">Guarani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haida_mythology" title="Haida mythology">Haida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ho-Chunk_mythology" title="Ho-Chunk mythology">Ho-Chunk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iroquois_mythology" title="Iroquois mythology">Iroquois</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_spiritual_beliefs" title="Cherokee spiritual beliefs">Cherokee</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Mothers_Society" title="Four Mothers Society">Four Mothers Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keetoowah_Nighthawk_Society" title="Keetoowah Nighthawk Society">Keetoowah Society</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longhouse_Religion" title="Longhouse Religion">Longhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohawk_people#Religion" title="Mohawk people">Mohawk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_mythology" title="Creek mythology">Muscogee Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_mythology" title="Seneca mythology">Seneca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wyandot_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Wyandot religion">Wyandot</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jivaroan_peoples#Religion" title="Jivaroan peoples">Jivaroan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwakwaka%CA%BCwakw_mythology" title="Kwakwakaʼwakw mythology">Kwakwakaʼwakw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lenape_mythology" title="Lenape mythology">Lenape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mapuche_religion" title="Mapuche religion">Mapuche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_religion" title="Mesoamerican religion">Mesoamerican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_religion" title="Aztec religion">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_religion" title="Maya religion">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pur%C3%A9pecha_religion" title="Purépecha religion">Purépecha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muisca_mythology" title="Muisca mythology">Muisca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Church" title="Native American Church">Native American Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo#Spiritual_and_religious_beliefs" title="Navajo">Navajo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuu-chah-nulth_mythology" title="Nuu-chah-nulth mythology">Nuu-chah-nulth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pawnee_mythology" title="Pawnee mythology">Pawnee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_religion" title="Pueblo religion">Pueblo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acoma_Pueblo#Religion" title="Acoma Pueblo">Acoma Pueblo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hopi_mythology" title="Hopi mythology">Hopi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuni_mythology" title="Zuni mythology">Zuni</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sioux#Religion" title="Sioux">Sioux</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lakota_religion" title="Lakota religion">Lakota</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wocekiye" title="Wocekiye">Wocekiye</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsimshian_mythology" title="Tsimshian mythology">Tsimshian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ute_mythology" title="Ute mythology">Ute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_religions#Washat_Dreamers_Religion" title="Native American religions">Washat Dreamers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaqui#Yaqui_cosmology_and_religion" title="Yaqui">Yaqui</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tai_peoples" title="Tai peoples">Tai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Miao_people" title="Miao people">Miao</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahom_religion" title="Ahom religion">Ahom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_folk_religion" title="Miao folk religion">Hmongism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mo_(religion)" title="Mo (religion)">Mo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_folk_religion" title="Tai folk religion">Satsana Phi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tibeto-Burman_languages" title="Tibeto-Burman languages">Tibeto-Burmese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bon" title="Bon">Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_folk_religion" title="Burmese folk religion">Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzhuism" title="Benzhuism">Benzhuism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bimoism" title="Bimoism">Bimoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathouism" title="Bathouism">Bathouism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mun_(religion)" title="Mun (religion)">Bongthingism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dongba" title="Dongba">Dongba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donyi-Polo" title="Donyi-Polo">Donyi-Polo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraka" class="mw-redirect" title="Heraka">Heraka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirat_Mundhum" title="Kirat Mundhum">Kiratism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiang_folk_religion" title="Qiang folk religion">Qiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanamahism" title="Sanamahism">Sanamahism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_African_religions" title="Traditional African religions">Traditional African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">North African</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Berber_religion" title="Traditional Berber religion">Berber</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_Guanche_People" title="Church of the Guanche People">Guanche church</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Africa" title="Religion in Africa">Sub-Saharan African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kamba_people" title="Kamba people">Akamba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akan_religion" title="Akan religion">Akan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baluba_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Baluba mythology">Baluba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bantu_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Bantu mythology">Bantu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kongo_religion" title="Kongo religion">Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zulu_traditional_religion" title="Zulu traditional religion">Zulu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushongo_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Bushongo mythology">Bushongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinka_religion" title="Dinka religion">Dinka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogon_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Dogon religion">Dogon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Efik_mythology" title="Efik mythology">Efik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dahomean_religion" title="Dahomean religion">Fon and Ewe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ik_people" title="Ik people">Ik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotuko_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Lotuko mythology">Lotuko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lozi_mythology" title="Lozi mythology">Lozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugbara_mythology" title="Lugbara mythology">Lugbara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maasai_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Maasai mythology">Maasai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mbuti_mythology" title="Mbuti mythology">Mbuti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odinala" title="Odinala">Odinala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_religion" title="San religion">San</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serer_religion" title="Serer religion">Serer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumbuka_mythology" title="Tumbuka mythology">Tumbuka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urhobo_people" title="Urhobo people">Urhobo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waaqeffanna" title="Waaqeffanna">Waaqeffanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoruba_religion" title="Yoruba religion">Yoruba</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/If%C3%A1" title="Ifá">Ifá</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_diaspora_religions" title="African diaspora religions">Diasporic</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9" title="Candomblé">Candomblé</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9_Bantu" title="Candomblé Bantu">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9_Jej%C3%A9" title="Candomblé Jejé">Jejé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9_Ketu" title="Candomblé Ketu">Ketu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comfa" title="Comfa">Comfa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convince" title="Convince">Convince</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Espiritismo" title="Espiritismo">Espiritismo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumina" title="Kumina">Kumina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obeah" title="Obeah">Obeah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palo_(religion)" title="Palo (religion)">Palo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quimbanda" title="Quimbanda">Quimbanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santer%C3%ADa" title="Santería">Santería</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tambor_de_Mina" title="Tambor de Mina">Tambor de Mina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinidad_Orisha" title="Trinidad Orisha">Trinidad Orisha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbanda" title="Umbanda">Umbanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Vodou" title="Haitian Vodou">Vodou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Voodoo" title="Louisiana Voodoo">Voodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winti" title="Winti">Winti</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other ethnic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_religion_and_mythology" title="Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology">Aboriginal Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_religion" title="Inuit religion">Inuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papuan_mythology" title="Papuan mythology">Papuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism_in_Siberia" title="Shamanism in Siberia">Siberian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/New_religious_movement" title="New religious movement">New religious movements</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Syncretic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism_in_Russia" title="Zoroastrianism in Russia">Blagovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmoism" title="Brahmoism">Brahmoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coconut_Religion" title="Coconut Religion">Coconut Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falun_Gong" title="Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_new_religions" title="Japanese new religions">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meivazhi" title="Meivazhi">Meivazhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modekngei" title="Modekngei">Modekngei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Acropolis" title="New Acropolis">New Acropolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Thought" title="New Thought">New Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajneesh_movement" title="Rajneesh movement">Rajneesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rastafari" title="Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roerichism" title="Roerichism">Roerichism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Sant_Mat_movements" title="Contemporary Sant Mat movements">Sant Mat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radha_Soami" title="Radha Soami">Radha Soami</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(movement)" title="Spiritualism (movement)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subud" title="Subud">Subud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tensegrity_(Castaneda)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tensegrity (Castaneda)">Tensegrity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thelema" title="Thelema">Thelema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theosophy" title="Theosophy">Theosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Theosophy" title="Neo-Theosophy">Neo-Theosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agni_Yoga" title="Agni Yoga">Agni Yoga</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_Meditation" title="Transcendental Meditation">Transcendental Meditation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitarian_Universalism" title="Unitarian Universalism">Unitarian Universalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_White_Brotherhood" title="Universal White Brotherhood">White Brotherhood</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Modern_paganism" title="Modern paganism">Modern paganism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>African <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Godianism" title="Godianism">Godianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hetanism" title="Hetanism">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_neopaganism" title="Baltic neopaganism">Baltic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dievtur%C4%ABba" title="Dievturība">Dievturība</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romuva_(religion)" title="Romuva (religion)">Romuva</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasian_neopaganism" title="Caucasian neopaganism">Caucasian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abkhaz_neopaganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Abkhaz neopaganism">Abkhaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adyghe_Xabze" title="Adyghe Xabze">Circassian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_neopaganism" title="Celtic neopaganism">Celtic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Druidry_(modern)" title="Druidry (modern)">Druidry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heathenry_(new_religious_movement)" title="Heathenry (new religious movement)">Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenism_(modern_religion)" title="Hellenism (modern religion)">Hellenism (modern religion)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoshamanism" title="Neoshamanism">Neoshamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assianism" title="Assianism">Ossetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheistic_reconstructionism" title="Polytheistic reconstructionism">Polytheistic reconstructionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Roman_religion" title="Reconstructionist Roman religion">Italo-Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kemetism" title="Kemetism">Kemetism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zalmoxianism" title="Zalmoxianism">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_Native_Faith" title="Slavic Native Faith">Slavic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Authentism" title="Russian Authentism">Authentism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uralic_neopaganism" title="Uralic neopaganism">Uralic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_neopaganism" title="Estonian neopaganism">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Finnish_paganism" title="Modern Finnish paganism">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Native_Faith" title="Hungarian Native Faith">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mari_religion" title="Mari religion">Mari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erzyan_native_religion" title="Erzyan native religion">Erzya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A1mi_shamanism" title="Sámi shamanism">Sámi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Udmurt_Vos" title="Udmurt Vos">Udmurt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wicca" title="Wicca">Wicca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zalmoxianism" title="Zalmoxianism">Zalmoxianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_modern_pagan_movements" title="List of modern pagan movements">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">De novo</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthroposophy" title="Anthroposophy">Anthroposophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Christian_Community" title="The Christian Community">The Christian Community</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discordianism" title="Discordianism">Discordianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eckankar" title="Eckankar">Eckankar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Way" title="Fourth Way">Fourth Way</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goddess_movement" title="Goddess movement">Goddess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jediism" title="Jediism">Jediism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satanism" title="Satanism">Satanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientology" title="Scientology">Scientology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UFO_religion" title="UFO religion">UFO religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ra%C3%ABlism" title="Raëlism">Raëlism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Historical_religions" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">Historical religions</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_religion" title="Prehistoric religion">Prehistoric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_religion" title="Paleolithic religion">Paleolithic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ainu_people#Religion" title="Ainu people">Ainu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia">Arabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_mythology" title="Armenian mythology">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_mythology" title="Latvian mythology">Latvian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_mythology" title="Lithuanian mythology">Lithuanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prussian_mythology" title="Prussian mythology">Old Prussian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_mythology" title="Basque mythology">Basque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Celtic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Druid" title="Druid">Druidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_mythology" title="Irish mythology">Irish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cook_Islands_mythology" title="Cook Islands mythology">Cook Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_folk_religion" title="Dravidian folk religion">Dravidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">Egyptian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atenism" title="Atenism">Atenism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_religion" title="Etruscan religion">Etruscan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_mythology" title="Finnish mythology">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuegians#Spiritual_culture" title="Fuegians">Fuegian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Selk%27nam_mythology" title="Selk'nam mythology">Selk'nam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_mythology" title="Georgian mythology">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Germanic_mythology" title="Continental Germanic mythology">Continental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_paganism" title="Frankish paganism">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Greek</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhism" title="Greco-Buddhism">Greco-Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeticism" title="Hermeticism">Hermeticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_mysteries" title="Greco-Roman mysteries">Mysteries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orphism_(religion)" title="Orphism (religion)">Orphism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanches#System_of_beliefs" title="Guanches">Guanche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation#Religion" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Harappan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_mythology_and_religion" title="Hittite mythology and religion">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_mythology" title="Hungarian mythology">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurrian_religion" title="Hurrian religion">Hurrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illinois_Confederacy#Religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Illinois Confederacy">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_mythology" title="Inca mythology">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamaican_Maroon_religion" title="Jamaican Maroon religion">Jamaican Maroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manichaeism" title="Manichaeism">Manichaeism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdak" title="Mazdak">Mazdakism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanesian_mythology" title="Melanesian mythology">Melanesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion" title="Ancient Mesopotamian religion">Mesopotamian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_religion" title="Babylonian religion">Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_religion" title="Sumerian religion">Sumerian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesian_mythology" title="Micronesian mythology">Micronesian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nauruan_Indigenous_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nauruan Indigenous religion">Nauruan Indigenous religion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olmec_religion" title="Olmec religion">Olmec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_mythology" title="Paleo-Balkan mythology">Paleo-Balkan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_folk_beliefs" class="mw-redirect" title="Albanian folk beliefs">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dacian_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Dacian mythology">Dacian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illyrian_religion" title="Illyrian religion">Illyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thracian_religion" title="Thracian religion">Thracian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian religion">Proto-Indo-Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Iranian_religion" title="Ancient Iranian religion">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basketmaker_III_Era#Culture_and_religion" title="Basketmaker III Era">Ancestral Pueblo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_II_Period#Culture_and_religion" title="Pueblo II Period">Pueblo II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_III_Period#Culture_and_religion" title="Pueblo III Period">Pueblo III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_IV_Period#Culture_and_religion" title="Pueblo IV Period">Pueblo IV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapa_Nui_mythology" title="Rapa Nui mythology">Rapa Nui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cybele" title="Cybele">Cult of Magna Mater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_religion" title="Gallo-Roman religion">Gallo-Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_imperial_cult" title="Roman imperial cult">Imperial cult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysteries_of_Isis" title="Mysteries of Isis">Mysteries of Isis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Semitic_religion" title="Ancient Semitic religion">Semitic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_religion" title="Canaanite religion">Canaanite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punic_religion" title="Punic religion">Punic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yahwism" title="Yahwism">Yahwism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scythian_religion" title="Scythian religion">Scythian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_mythology" title="Somali mythology">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongan_religion" title="Tongan religion">Tongan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urartu#Religion" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vainakh_religion" title="Vainakh religion">Vainakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zapotec_civilization#Religion_and_Myth" title="Zapotec civilization">Zapotec</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostasy" title="Apostasy">Apostasy</a> / <a href="/wiki/Religious_disaffiliation" title="Religious disaffiliation">Disaffiliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_behaviour" title="Religious behaviour">Behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief#Religion" title="Belief">Beliefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Call_to_prayer" title="Call to prayer">Call to prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laicism" title="Laicism">Laicism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Laity" title="Laity">Laity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Covenant_(religion)" title="Covenant (religion)">Covenant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_conversion" title="Religious conversion">Conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deity" title="Deity">Deities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_denomination" title="Religious denomination">Denomination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entheogen" title="Entheogen">Entheogens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_religion" title="Ethnic religion">Ethnic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_worship" title="Fire worship">Fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_religion" title="Folk religion">Folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goddess" title="Goddess">Goddess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_religion" title="Indigenous religion">Indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meditation" title="Meditation">Meditation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monasticism" title="Monasticism">Monasticism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monk" title="Monk">Monk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novice" title="Novice">Novice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nun" title="Nun">Nun</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_mythology" title="Religion and mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination" title="Ordination">Ordination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthodoxy" title="Orthodoxy">Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthopraxy" title="Orthopraxy">Orthopraxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">Paganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer" title="Prayer">Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophecy" title="Prophecy">Prophecy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_experience" title="Religious experience">Religious experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritual" title="Ritual">Ritual</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liturgy" title="Liturgy">Liturgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritual_purification" title="Ritual purification">Purification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacrifice" title="Sacrifice">Sacrifice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_space" title="Sacred space">Sacred space</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_waters" title="Sacred waters">Bodies of water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_grove" title="Sacred grove">Groves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_mountains" title="Sacred mountains">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_tree" title="Sacred tree">Trees</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">Spirituality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernatural" title="Supernatural">Supernatural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_symbol" title="Religious symbol">Symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_text" title="Religious text">Text</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_views_on_truth" title="Religious views on truth">Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_and_religion" title="Water and religion">Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worship" title="Worship">Worship</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Worship_of_heavenly_bodies" title="Worship of heavenly bodies">Astral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_worship" title="Nature worship">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Place_of_worship" title="Place of worship">Place</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">Theism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dualism_in_cosmology" title="Dualism in cosmology">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henotheism" title="Henotheism">Henotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nontheism" title="Nontheism">Nontheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transtheism" title="Transtheism">Transtheism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religious_studies" title="Religious studies">Religious studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_religion" title="Anthropology of religion">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science_of_religion" title="Cognitive science of religion">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_religion" title="Comparative religion">Comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religion" title="Evolutionary origin of religion">Evolutionary origin of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_religion" title="Evolutionary psychology of religion">Evolutionary psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_religion" title="Neuroscience of religion">Neurotheology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_religion" title="Psychology of religion">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_religion" title="Sociology of religion">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soteriology" title="Soteriology">Soteriology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salvation" title="Salvation">Salvation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_about_religion" title="Theories about religion">Theories about religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_and_religion" title="Women and religion">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Religion_and_society" title="Category:Religion and society">Religion and society</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_agriculture" title="Religion and agriculture">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_business" title="Religion and business">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clericalism" title="Clericalism">Clericalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Clergy" title="Clergy">Clergy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monasticism" title="Monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination" title="Ordination">Ordination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priest" title="Priest">Priest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_conversion" title="Religious conversion">Conversion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_assimilation" title="Religious assimilation">Assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missionary" title="Missionary">Missionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proselytism" title="Proselytism">Proselytism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_and_religion" title="Disability and religion">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_education" title="Religious education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_fanaticism" title="Religious fanaticism">Fanaticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Freedom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_pluralism" title="Religious pluralism">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syncretism" title="Syncretism">Syncretism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Toleration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universalism" title="Universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Growth_of_religion" title="Growth of religion">Growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_happiness" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion and happiness">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homosexuality_and_religion" title="Homosexuality and religion">Homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minority_religion" title="Minority religion">Minorities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_church" title="National church">National church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Importance_of_religion_by_country" title="Importance of religion by country">National religiosity levels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_politics" title="Religion in politics">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religious_populations" title="List of religious populations">Populations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religiocentrism" title="Religiocentrism">Religiocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schism" title="Schism">Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetarianism_and_religion" title="Vegetarianism and religion">Vegetarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_video_games" title="Religion and video games">Video games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence" title="Religious violence">Violence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_terrorism" title="Religious terrorism">Terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sectarian_violence" title="Sectarian violence">Sectarian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wealth_and_religion" title="Wealth and religion">Wealth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Irreligion" title="Irreligion">irreligion</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antireligion" title="Antireligion">Antireligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_religion" title="Criticism of religion">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_deconstruction" title="Positive deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_theology" title="Secular theology">Secular theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularization" title="Secularization">Secularization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religions_and_spiritual_traditions" title="List of religions and spiritual traditions">Unaffiliated</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Overviews and <a href="/wiki/Category:Religion-related_lists" title="Category:Religion-related lists">lists</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Table_of_prophets_of_Abrahamic_religions" title="Table of prophets of Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic prophets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_who_have_been_considered_deities" title="List of people who have been considered deities">Deification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_deities" title="Lists of deities">Deities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_founders_of_religious_traditions" title="List of founders of religious traditions">Founders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_religion-related_articles" title="Index of religion-related articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_peaceful_gatherings" title="List of largest peaceful gatherings">Mass gatherings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_God" title="Names of God">Names of God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_new_religious_movements" title="List of new religious movements">New religious movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religious_organizations" title="List of religious organizations">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_religion" title="Outline of religion">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religions_and_spiritual_traditions" title="List of religions and spiritual traditions">Religions and spiritual traditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_studies" title="Religious studies">Scholars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_religion" title="Timeline of religion">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Religion_by_country" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Religion by country</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Africa" title="Religion in Africa">Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Algeria" title="Religion in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Angola" title="Religion in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Benin" title="Religion in Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Botswana" title="Religion in Botswana">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Burkina_Faso" title="Religion in Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Burundi" title="Religion in Burundi">Burundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cameroon" title="Religion in Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cape_Verde" title="Religion in Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Central_African_Republic" title="Religion in the Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Chad" title="Religion in Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Comoros" title="Religion in the Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Religion in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Religion in the Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Djibouti" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Egypt" title="Religion in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Equatorial_Guinea" title="Religion in Equatorial Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Eritrea" title="Religion in Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Eswatini" title="Religion in Eswatini">Eswatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ethiopia" title="Religion in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Gabon" title="Religion in Gabon">Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Gambia" title="Religion in the Gambia">Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ghana" title="Religion in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Guinea" title="Religion in Guinea">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Guinea-Bissau" title="Religion in Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ivory_Coast" title="Religion in Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kenya" title="Religion in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Lesotho" title="Religion in Lesotho">Lesotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Liberia" title="Religion in Liberia">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Libya" title="Religion in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Madagascar" title="Religion in Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Malawi" title="Religion in Malawi">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mali" title="Religion in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mauritania" title="Religion in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mauritius" title="Religion in Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Morocco" title="Religion in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mozambique" title="Religion in Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Namibia" title="Religion in Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Niger" title="Religion in Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nigeria" title="Religion in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Rwanda" title="Religion in Rwanda">Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" title="Religion in São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Senegal" title="Religion in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Seychelles" title="Religion in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Sierra_Leone" title="Religion in Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Somalia" title="Religion in Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_Africa" title="Religion in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_Sudan" title="Religion in South Sudan">South Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Sudan" title="Religion in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tanzania" title="Religion in Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Togo" title="Religion in Togo">Togo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tunisia" title="Religion in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Uganda" title="Religion in Uganda">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Zambia" title="Religion in Zambia">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Zimbabwe" title="Religion in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Asia" title="Religion in Asia">Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Afghanistan" title="Religion in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Armenia" title="Religion in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Azerbaijan" title="Religion in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bahrain" title="Religion in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bangladesh" title="Religion in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bhutan" title="Religion in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Brunei" title="Religion in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cambodia" title="Religion in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cyprus" title="Religion in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_East_Timor" title="Religion in East Timor">East Timor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Religion in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Hong_Kong" title="Religion in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_India" title="Religion in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Indonesia" title="Religion in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iran" title="Religion in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iraq" title="Religion in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Israel" title="Religion in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Japan" title="Religion in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Jordan" title="Religion in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kazakhstan" title="Religion in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Korea" title="Religion in Korea">Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_North_Korea" title="Religion in North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_Korea" title="Religion in South Korea">South Korea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kuwait" title="Religion in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kyrgyzstan" title="Religion in Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Laos" title="Religion in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Lebanon" title="Religion in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Macau" title="Religion in Macau">Macau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Malaysia" title="Religion in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Maldives" title="Religion in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mongolia" title="Religion in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Myanmar" title="Religion in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nepal" title="Religion in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Oman" title="Religion in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Pakistan" title="Religion in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_State_of_Palestine" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in the State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Philippines" title="Religion in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Qatar" title="Religion in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Religion in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Singapore" title="Religion in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Religion in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Syria" title="Religion in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Taiwan" title="Religion in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tajikistan" title="Religion in Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Thailand" title="Religion in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Turkey" title="Religion in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Turkmenistan" title="Religion in Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="Religion in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Uzbekistan" title="Religion in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Vietnam" title="Religion in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Yemen" title="Religion in Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Europe" title="Religion in Europe">Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Albania" title="Religion in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Andorra" title="Religion in Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Austria" title="Religion in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Belarus" title="Religion in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Belgium" title="Religion in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Religion in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bulgaria" title="Religion in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Croatia" title="Religion in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Religion in the Czech Republic">Czechia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Denmark" title="Religion in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Estonia" title="Religion in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Finland" title="Religion in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_France" title="Religion in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Germany" title="Religion in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Greece" title="Religion in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Hungary" title="Religion in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iceland" title="Religion in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Religion in the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Italy" title="Religion in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kosovo" title="Religion in Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Latvia" title="Religion in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Liechtenstein" title="Religion in Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Lithuania" title="Religion in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Luxembourg" title="Religion in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Malta" title="Religion in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Moldova" title="Religion in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Monaco" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Monaco">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Montenegro" title="Religion in Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Netherlands" title="Religion in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_North_Macedonia" title="Religion in North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Norway" title="Religion in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Poland" title="Religion in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Portugal" title="Religion in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Romania" title="Religion in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Russia" title="Religion in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_San_Marino" title="Religion in San Marino">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Serbia" title="Religion in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Slovakia" title="Religion in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Slovenia" title="Religion in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Spain" title="Religion in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Sweden" title="Religion in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Switzerland" title="Religion in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ukraine" title="Religion in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Religion in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_England" title="Religion in England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Northern_Ireland" title="Religion in Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Scotland" title="Religion in Scotland">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Wales" title="Religion in Wales">Wales</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_North_America" title="Religion in North America">North America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="Religion in Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Bahamas" title="Religion in the Bahamas">Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Barbados" title="Religion in Barbados">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Belize" title="Religion in Belize">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Canada" title="Religion in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Costa_Rica" title="Religion in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cuba" title="Religion in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Dominica" title="Religion in Dominica">Dominica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Religion in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_El_Salvador" title="Religion in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Grenada" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Grenada">Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Guatemala" title="Religion in Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Haiti" title="Religion in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Honduras" title="Religion in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Jamaica" title="Religion in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mexico" title="Religion in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nicaragua" title="Religion in Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Panama" title="Religion in Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Saint Kitts and Nevis">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Saint_Lucia" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Religion in Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_States" title="Religion in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Oceania" title="Religion in Oceania">Oceania</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Australia" title="Religion in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Fiji" title="Religion in Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kiribati" title="Religion in Kiribati">Kiribati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Marshall_Islands" title="Religion in the Marshall Islands">Marshall 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class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_America" title="Religion in South America">South America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Argentina" title="Religion in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bolivia" title="Religion in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Brazil" title="Religion in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Chile" title="Religion in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Colombia" title="Religion in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ecuador" title="Religion in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Guyana" title="Religion in Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Paraguay" title="Religion in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Peru" title="Religion in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Suriname" title="Religion in Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Uruguay" title="Religion in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Venezuela" title="Religion in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Religion" 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3.66% 145.808 30 Template:Refn"," 2.78% 110.650 9 Template:Transliteration"," 2.66% 105.953 26 Template:ISBN"," 2.59% 103.096 45 Template:Main"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"2.689","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":26607474,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\nanchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAbraham_Eraly2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAich2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAjahn_Sucitto2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAkira_HirakawaPaul_Groner1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlex_Wayman1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlexander2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAnalayo2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAnderson2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAndrew_Powell1989\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFAnn_HeirmanStephan_Peter_Bumbacher2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAnālayo2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFArmstrong2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAvison2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarbara_Crandall2012\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFBeckwith2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBhikkhu_Sujato\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBodhi2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBodhi2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBodhi2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBodhi_Bhikkhu1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrazier2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrian_Morris2006\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFBronkhorst1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBronkhorst1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBronkhorst2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBronkhorst2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBruce_Reichenbach1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBruno_Petzold1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBucknell1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBuswell2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBuswellGimello1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBuswellLopez2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBuswellLopez2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarl_Olson2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarrithers1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarter1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChoong1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChoong2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChristmas_Humphreys2012\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFChristoph_Wulf2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClausDiamondMills2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCollins1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCollins2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConze2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoogan2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCorder2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCousins1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCush2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDalton2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDamien_Keown2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDan_Arnold_and_Alicia_Turner2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDan_Lusthaus2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavid_J._Kalupahana1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavid_L._Weddle2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavid_Loy2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavidson2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDiane_Morgan2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDonald_Lopez2004\"] = 4,\n [\"CITEREFDonald_S._Lopez_Jr.2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDreyfus1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDutt1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdward_Conze2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdward_Fitzpatrick_Crangle1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdward_J._Thomas2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEleanor_Zelliot2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEliade_et_al.1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEliot1935\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEmmanuel2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFErika_Wilson2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFowler1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrancioni2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrank_HoffmanDeegalle_Mahinda2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrauwallner1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFuller2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFunayama2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGananath_Obeyesekere2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGary_Tartakov2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGenjun_Sasaki1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGethin1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGethin2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGethin2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoble2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGold2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGombrich1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGombrich1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGombrich1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGombrich2005a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGombrich2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGombrich2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoodman2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGowans2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGowans2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGowans2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuy_Debrock2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHajime_Nakamura1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHajime_Nakamura2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarvey1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarvey2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarvey2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarvey2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHayes2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHenderson2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHerbrechtsmeier1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHill2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHirakawa1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHookham1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHorigan1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJaini2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJames_Egge2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJan_Goldman2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJason_Neelis2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohn_Guy2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohn_M_Koller2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnsonGrim2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJonathan_H._X._LeeKathleen_M._Nadeau2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJong1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJoseph_Mitsuo_KitagawaFrank_E._ReynoldsTheodore_M._Ludwig1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJuergensmeyerRoof2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFK.T.S2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFK._T._S._SaraoJefferey_Long2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKarl_Potter1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKasulis2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKenneth_W._Morgan1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeown1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeown2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeown2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeown2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeownPrebish2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeownPrebish2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeownPrebish2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKingsland2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKlaus_G._Witz1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKlostermaier2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKonik2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrishan1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuah1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuan2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKudara2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKurt_Tropper2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLamb2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLars_Fogelin2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLedgerwood2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis_HodousWilliam_E._Soothill2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLindtner1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLopez1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLopez2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLopez2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLuis_Gomez2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLusthaus2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMakransky1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarion_Dapsance2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMark_Siderits2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartin_MartyR_Scott_Appleby1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartine_Batchelor2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatthews1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcClelland2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcFarlane2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcMahan2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMiller1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMitchell2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMonier-Williams1899\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoudgil2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMun-Keat_Choong1999\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFN._Ross_Reat1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNaomi_Appleton2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNattier2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNorman1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNorman1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNorman_C._McClelland2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNyanatiloka1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOliver_Leaman2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOppenheimer2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParanjpe1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPatrick_Olivelle1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPavāra2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeter_Harvey2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPlanet\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPowers2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQueen1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQueen2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQueenKing1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRahula2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRatanakul2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRay_Billington2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReynoldsTucci\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRhys_DavidsStede1921–1925\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichard_Francis_GombrichCristina_Anna_Scherrer-Schaub2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoach2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobert_Neville2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobinsonJohnson1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobinsonJohnson1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoderick_BucknellChris_Kang2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRonald_Wesley_Neufeldt1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRory_Mackenzie2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSalomon2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSamuel2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSamuel2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSamuels1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSarah_LeVineDavid_N_Gellner2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchmidt-Leukel2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchmithausen1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchopen2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchuhmacherWoener1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSheila_Canby1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShults2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShute2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSiderits2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSkaria2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSkilling1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSkilling1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSkilton2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSkorupski1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSouthwold1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSperry2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSperryAtwood2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpiro1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSteven_Collins1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSteven_Collins2010\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFStewart2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSujatoBrahmali2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSwearer2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTamney1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaonga\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTerwiel2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrainor2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVetter1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWallis2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWarder2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWelch1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWells2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWerner1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhite2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhite2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliam_H._SwatosPeter_Kivisto1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams2005a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams2005b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams2005c\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliamsTribeWynne2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilson2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWynne2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWynne2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFXinru_Liu2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYuichi1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZürcher1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_der_Velde2014\"] = 1,\n [\"Yin_98\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 1,\n [\"According to whom\"] = 2,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Better source needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Buddhism\"] = 1,\n [\"Buddhism topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 5,\n [\"Citation\"] = 112,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 111,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 18,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 28,\n [\"Col div\"] = 1,\n [\"Colend\"] = 1,\n [\"Doi\"] = 2,\n [\"Efn\"] = 1,\n [\"Em\"] = 2,\n [\"EngvarB\"] = 1,\n [\"Example needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Fact\"] = 1,\n [\"For timeline\"] = 1,\n [\"Full citation needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Gautama Buddha\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvc\"] = 5,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 3,\n [\"Harvp\"] = 3,\n [\"Harvtxt\"] = 7,\n [\"IAST\"] = 1,\n [\"IPAc-en\"] = 2,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 26,\n [\"ISBN?\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 3,\n [\"Langx\"] = 3,\n [\"Literal translation\"] = 5,\n [\"Literally\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 45,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 3,\n [\"Nbsp\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 1,\n [\"PancaKhandha\"] = 1,\n [\"Pipe\"] = 4,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-move\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect2\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 2,\n [\"Refn\"] = 30,\n [\"Religion topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Respell\"] = 2,\n [\"See also\"] = 3,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 3,\n [\"Sfnp\"] = 357,\n [\"Sfnref\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sic\"] = 2,\n [\"Sister project links\"] = 1,\n [\"Snd\"] = 4,\n [\"TOC limit\"] = 1,\n [\"Transliteration\"] = 6,\n [\"Unbulleted list citebundle\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 14,\n [\"Where?\"] = 1,\n [\"Which?\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","400","14.9"],["?","340","12.7"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","340","12.7"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","340","12.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","140","5.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","120","4.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","100","3.7"],["(for generator)","80","3.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","60","2.2"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","60","2.2"],["[others]","700","26.1"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-6df7948d6c-trhsr","timestamp":"20241127201433","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script 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