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id="toc-England_and_Ireland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#England_and_Ireland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 England and Ireland </div> </a> <ul id="toc-England_and_Ireland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Christians_holding_Muslim_slaves" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christians_holding_Muslim_slaves"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Christians holding Muslim slaves </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christians_holding_Muslim_slaves-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jewish_slave_trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jewish_slave_trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 Jewish slave trade </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jewish_slave_trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slave_trade_at_the_close_of_the_Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slave_trade_at_the_close_of_the_Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8 Slave trade at the close of the Middle Ages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slave_trade_at_the_close_of_the_Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slavery_in_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slavery_in_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Slavery in law </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Slavery_in_law-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Slavery in law subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Slavery_in_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Secular_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secular_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Secular law </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secular_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Canon_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canon_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Canon law </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canon_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slavery_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slavery_in_the_Byzantine_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Slavery in the Byzantine Empire </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slavery_in_the_Byzantine_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slavery_in_the_Islamic_Near_East" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slavery_in_the_Islamic_Near_East"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Slavery in the Islamic Near East </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Slavery_in_the_Islamic_Near_East-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Slavery in the Islamic Near East subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Slavery_in_the_Islamic_Near_East-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Islamic_states" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islamic_states"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Islamic states </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islamic_states-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ottoman_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ottoman_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Ottoman Empire </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ottoman_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slavery_in_the_Crusader_states" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slavery_in_the_Crusader_states"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Slavery in the Crusader states </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slavery_in_the_Crusader_states-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slavery_in_Iberia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slavery_in_Iberia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Slavery in Iberia </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Slavery_in_Iberia-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Slavery in Iberia subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Slavery_in_Iberia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Islamic_Iberia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islamic_Iberia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Islamic Iberia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islamic_Iberia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Christian_Iberia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christian_Iberia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Christian Iberia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christian_Iberia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slavery_in_the_Mediterranean" 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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slavery_in_Poland_and_Lithuania"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Slavery in Poland and Lithuania </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slavery_in_Poland_and_Lithuania-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slavery_in_Scandinavia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slavery_in_Scandinavia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Slavery in Scandinavia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slavery_in_Scandinavia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slavery_in_the_British_Isles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slavery_in_the_British_Isles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Slavery in the British Isles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slavery_in_the_British_Isles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Serfdom_versus_slavery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Serfdom_versus_slavery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Serfdom versus slavery </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Serfdom_versus_slavery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Justifications_for_slavery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Justifications_for_slavery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 Justifications for slavery </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Justifications_for_slavery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 17 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:16.0em;"><caption class="sidebar-outer-title"><a href="/wiki/Homage_(feudal)" title="Homage (feudal)">Feudal titles and status</a></caption><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Reeve_and_Serfs.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Reeve_and_Serfs.jpg/200px-Reeve_and_Serfs.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Reeve_and_Serfs.jpg/300px-Reeve_and_Serfs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Reeve_and_Serfs.jpg/400px-Reeve_and_Serfs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="461" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.3em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Lord_paramount" title="Lord paramount">Lord paramount</a> / <a href="/wiki/Territorial_lord" title="Territorial lord">Territorial lord</a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.3em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Tenant-in-chief" title="Tenant-in-chief">Tenant-in-chief</a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.3em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Mesne_lord" title="Mesne lord">Mesne lord</a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.3em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Lord_of_the_manor" title="Lord of the manor">Lord of the manor</a> / <a href="/wiki/Overlord" title="Overlord">Overlord</a> / <a href="/wiki/Advocatus" title="Advocatus">Vogt</a> / <a href="/wiki/Liege_lord" class="mw-redirect" title="Liege lord">Liege lord</a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.3em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Esquire" title="Esquire">Esquire</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gentleman" title="Gentleman">Gentleman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Landed_gentry" title="Landed gentry">Landed gentry</a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.3em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Franklin_(class)" title="Franklin (class)">Franklin</a> / <a href="/wiki/Yeoman" title="Yeoman">Yeoman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Retinue" title="Retinue">Retinue</a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.3em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Husbandman" title="Husbandman">Husbandman</a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.3em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Free_tenant" title="Free tenant">Free tenant</a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.3em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Domestic_worker" title="Domestic worker">Domestic servant</a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.3em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Vagrancy" title="Vagrancy">Vagabond</a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.3em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">Serf</a> / <a href="/wiki/Villein" title="Villein">Villein</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bordar" class="mw-redirect" title="Bordar">Bordar</a> / <a href="/wiki/Cotter_(farmer)" title="Cotter (farmer)">Cottar</a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.3em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Slave</a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Feudal_status" title="Template:Feudal status"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Feudal_status" title="Template talk:Feudal status"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Feudal_status" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Feudal status"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Slavery in medieval Europe was widespread. Europe and North Africa were part of an interconnected trade network across the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a>, and this included slave trading. During the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">medieval period</a> (500–1500), wartime captives were commonly forced into slavery. As European kingdoms transitioned to <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudal societies</a>, a different legal category of unfree persons – <a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">serfdom</a> –began to replace slavery as the main economic and agricultural engine. Throughout medieval Europe, the perspectives and societal roles of <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">enslaved peoples</a> differed greatly, from some being restricted to agricultural labor to others being positioned as trusted political advisors. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_Middle_Ages">Early Middle Ages</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_medieval_Europe&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early Middle Ages">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Costumes_of_Slaves_or_Serfs_from_the_Sixth_to_the_Twelfth_Centuries.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Costumes_of_Slaves_or_Serfs_from_the_Sixth_to_the_Twelfth_Centuries.png/220px-Costumes_of_Slaves_or_Serfs_from_the_Sixth_to_the_Twelfth_Centuries.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Costumes_of_Slaves_or_Serfs_from_the_Sixth_to_the_Twelfth_Centuries.png/330px-Costumes_of_Slaves_or_Serfs_from_the_Sixth_to_the_Twelfth_Centuries.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Costumes_of_Slaves_or_Serfs_from_the_Sixth_to_the_Twelfth_Centuries.png/440px-Costumes_of_Slaves_or_Serfs_from_the_Sixth_to_the_Twelfth_Centuries.png 2x" data-file-width="1440" data-file-height="1040" /></a><figcaption>Costumes of slaves or serfs, from the sixth to the twelfth centuries.</figcaption></figure> Slavery in the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a> (500–1000) was initially a continuation of earlier <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> practices from <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">late antiquity</a>, and was continued by an influx of captives in the wake of the social chaos caused by the <a href="/wiki/Barbarian_invasions" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbarian invasions">barbarian invasions</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> With the continuation of <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Roman legal practices of slavery</a>, new laws and practices concerning slavery spread throughout Europe.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> For example, the <a href="/wiki/Welsh_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Welsh laws">Welsh laws</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hywel_the_Good" class="mw-redirect" title="Hywel the Good">Hywel the Good</a> included provisions dealing with slaves.<a href="#cite_note-Biermann-Jankowiak-2021-3">[3]</a>(p <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t_FPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA44">44</a>) In the Germanic realms, laws instituted the enslavement of criminals, such as the <a href="/wiki/Visigothic_Code" title="Visigothic Code">Visigothic Code</a>’s prescribing enslavement for criminals who could not pay financial penalties for their crimes<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> and as an actual punishment for various other crimes.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> Such criminals would become slaves to their victims, often with their property. As these peoples <a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianization of Europe">Christianized</a>, the church worked more actively to reduce the practice of holding coreligionists in bondage.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> <a href="/wiki/St._Patrick" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Patrick">St. Patrick</a>, who himself was captured and enslaved at one time, protested an attack that enslaved newly baptized Christians in his <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Saint_Patrick#Letter_to_the_Soldiers_of_Coroticus_(c._450)" class="extiw" title="q:Saint Patrick">letter to the soldiers of Coroticus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Biermann-Jankowiak-2021-3">[3]</a>(p <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t_FPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA43">43</a>) The restoration of order and the growing power of the church slowly transmuted the late Roman slave system of <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a> into <a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">serfdom</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Another major factor was the rise of <a href="/wiki/Balthild_of_Chelles" title="Balthild of Chelles">Bathilde</a> (626–680), queen of the <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a>, who had been enslaved before marrying <a href="/wiki/Clovis_II" title="Clovis II">Clovis II</a>. When she became regent, her government outlawed slave-trading of Christians throughout the <a href="/wiki/Merovingian_dynasty" title="Merovingian dynasty">Merovingian empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> About ten percent of England’s population entered in the <a href="/wiki/Domesday_Book" title="Domesday Book">Domesday Book</a> (1086) were slaves,<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> despite <a href="/wiki/Chattel_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Chattel slavery">chattel slavery</a> of English Christians being nominally discontinued after the <a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman conquest of England">1066 conquest</a>. It is difficult to be certain about slave numbers, however, since the old Roman word for slave (servus) continued to be applied to unfree people whose status later was reflected by the term serf.<a href="#cite_note-PAF-10">[10]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Slave_trade">Slave trade</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_medieval_Europe&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Slave trade">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world#European_slaves" title="History of slavery in the Muslim world">European slaves in the Muslim world</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Varangian_routes.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Varangian_routes.png/260px-Varangian_routes.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Varangian_routes.png/390px-Varangian_routes.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Varangian_routes.png/520px-Varangian_routes.png 2x" data-file-width="872" data-file-height="605" /></a><figcaption>Routes through <a href="/wiki/Slav" class="mw-redirect" title="Slav">Slavic</a> territories used for the slave trade: <a href="/wiki/Volga_trade_route" title="Volga trade route">Volga trade route</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Vikings" title="Vikings">Vikings</a> (<a href="/wiki/Varangians" title="Varangians">Varangians</a>) to the <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Muslim Middle East</a> (red), <a href="/wiki/Route_from_the_Varangians_to_the_Greeks" title="Route from the Varangians to the Greeks">trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks</a> (<a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantines</a>) (blue) – and other trade routes of the 8th–11th centuries (orange)</figcaption></figure> Demand from the <a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_conquests" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Islamic conquests">Islamic world</a>, which arose in the seventh century, dominated the slave trade in Europe during the <a href="/wiki/Medieval_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval period">medieval period</a> (500–1500).<a href="#cite_note-dictslave-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-britannicasurvey-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-battuta-13">[13]</a> For most of that time, the sale of Christian slaves to non-Christians was banned.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In the <a href="/wiki/Pactum_Lotharii" title="Pactum Lotharii">pactum Lotharii</a> of 840 between <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a>, Venice promised not to buy Christian slaves in the Empire, and not to sell Christian slaves to Muslims.<a href="#cite_note-dictslave-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-lotharii-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> The Church prohibited the export of Christian slaves to non-Christian lands, for example in the Council of <a href="/wiki/Koblenz" title="Koblenz">Koblenz</a> in 922, the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_London_(1102)" class="mw-redirect" title="Council of London (1102)">Council of London</a> in 1102, and the Council of <a href="/wiki/Armagh" title="Armagh">Armagh</a> in 1171.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> As a result, most Christian slave merchants focused on moving slaves from non-Christian areas to Muslim Spain, North Africa, and the Middle East; and most non-Christian merchants, although not bound by the Church’s rules, focused on <a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world#Geography_of_the_slave_trade" title="History of slavery in the Muslim world">Muslim markets</a> as well.<a href="#cite_note-dictslave-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-britannicasurvey-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-battuta-13">[13]</a> Arabic silver <a href="/wiki/Dirham" title="Dirham">dirhams</a>, presumably exchanged for slaves, are plentiful in eastern Europe and Southern Sweden, indicating trade routes from <a href="/wiki/Slav" class="mw-redirect" title="Slav">Slavic</a> to <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Muslim territory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-dirhams-17">[17]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Italian_merchants">Italian merchants</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_medieval_Europe&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Italian merchants">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea_slave_trade" title="Black Sea slave trade">Black Sea slave trade</a> and <a href="/wiki/Balkan_slave_trade" title="Balkan slave trade">Balkan slave trade</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Slavery" title="Category:Slavery">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour" title="Forced labour">Forced labour</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Shackles" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/125px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="68" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/188px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/250px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png 2x" data-file-width="498" data-file-height="272" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_21st_century" title="Slavery in the 21st century">Contemporary</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Child_labour" title="Child labour">Child Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_in_the_military" title="Children in the military">Child soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debt_bondage" title="Debt bondage">Debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_marriage" title="Forced marriage">Forced marriage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bride_buying" title="Bride buying">Bride buying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_marriage" title="Child marriage">Child marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">Wife selling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_prostitution" title="Forced prostitution">Forced prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">Human trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Involuntary_servitude" title="Involuntary servitude">Involuntary servitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peon" title="Peon">Peonage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labour" title="Penal labour">Penal labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_contemporary_Africa" title="Slavery in contemporary Africa">Contemporary Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_21st-century_jihadism" title="Slavery in 21st-century jihadism">21st-century jihadism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_slavery" title="Sexual slavery">Sexual slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">Wage slavery</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery" title="History of slavery">Historical</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_antiquity" title="Slavery in antiquity">Antiquity</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Slavery in ancient Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_law#Three_classes" title="Babylonian law">Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Greece" title="Slavery in ancient Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Rome</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Medieval Europe</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancillae" title="Ancillae">Ancillae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Sea_slave_trade" title="Black Sea slave trade">Black Sea slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Slavery in the Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kholop" title="Kholop">Kholop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_slave_trade" title="Prague slave trade">Prague slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">Serfs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_serfdom" title="History of serfdom">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serfdom_in_Russia" title="Serfdom in Russia">In Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_reform_of_1861" title="Emancipation reform of 1861">Emancipation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">Thrall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genoese_slave_trade" title="Genoese slave trade">Genoese slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venetian_slave_trade" title="Venetian slave trade">Venetian slave trade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balkan_slave_trade" title="Balkan slave trade">Balkan slave trade</a></li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of slavery in the Muslim world">Muslim world</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate">Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_al-Andalus" title="Slavery in al-Andalus">Slavery in al-Andalus</a> ‎</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baqt" title="Baqt">Baqt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mukataba" title="Mukataba">Contract of manumission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukhara_slave_trade" title="Bukhara slave trade">Bukhara slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean slave trade">Crimean slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khazar_slave_trade" title="Khazar slave trade">Khazar slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khivan_slave_trade" title="Khivan slave trade">Khivan slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Slavery in the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avret_Pazarlar%C4%B1" title="Avret Pazarları">Avret Pazarları</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_on_the_Barbary_Coast" title="Slavery on the Barbary Coast">Barbary Coast</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_slave_trade" title="Barbary slave trade">slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_pirates" title="Barbary pirates">pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Baltimore" title="Sack of Baltimore">Sack of Baltimore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raid_of_Su%C3%B0uroy" title="Slave raid of Suðuroy">Slave raid of Suðuroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Abductions" title="Turkish Abductions">Turkish Abductions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_concubinage" title="Islamic views on concubinage">Concubinage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of concubinage in the Muslim world">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_malakat_aymanukum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma malakat aymanukum">Ma malakat aymanukum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avret_Pazarlar%C4%B1" title="Avret Pazarları">Avret Pazarları</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harem" title="Harem">Harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_harem" title="Abbasid harem">Abbasid harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Imperial_Harem" title="Ottoman Imperial Harem">Ottoman Imperial Harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_imperial_harem" title="Safavid imperial harem">Safavid imperial harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_harem" title="Qajar harem">Qajar harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarya" title="Jarya">Jarya</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cariye" title="Cariye">Cariye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odalisque" title="Odalisque">Odalisque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiyan" title="Qiyan">Qiyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umm_al-walad" title="Umm al-walad">Umm al-walad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassian_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Circassian slave trade">Circassian slave trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate">Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate">Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate">Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volga_Bulgarian_slave_trade" title="Volga Bulgarian slave trade">Volga Bulgarian slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_21st-century_jihadism" title="Slavery in 21st-century jihadism">21st century</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bristol_slave_trade" title="Bristol slave trade">Bristol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade_to_Brazil" title="Atlantic slave trade to Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voyages:_The_Trans-Atlantic_Slave_Trade_Database" title="Voyages: The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database">Database</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Slave_Coast" title="Dutch Slave Coast">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Passage" title="Middle Passage">Middle Passage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nantes_slave_trade" title="Nantes slave trade">Nantes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_New_France" title="Slavery in New France">New France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panyarring" title="Panyarring">Panyarring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_colonial_Spanish_America" title="Slavery in colonial Spanish America">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Coast_of_West_Africa" title="Slave Coast of West Africa">Slave Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">Thirteen colonies</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Topics and practice</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghilman" title="Ghilman">Ghilman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk" title="Mamluk">Mamluk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devshirme" title="Devshirme">Devshirme</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding" title="Blackbirding">Blackbirding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coolie" title="Coolie">Coolie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corv%C3%A9e" title="Corvée">Corvée labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Field slaves in the United States">Field slaves in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_slave" title="House slave">House slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_market" title="Slave market">Slave market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raiding" title="Slave raiding">Slave raiding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_children_in_the_military" title="History of children in the military">Child soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_slavery" title="White slavery">White slavery</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Naval</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galley_slave" title="Galley slave">Galley slave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impressment" title="Impressment">Impressment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_pirates" title="Barbary pirates">Pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghaiing" title="Shanghaiing">Shanghaiing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_ship" title="Slave ship">Slave ship</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">By country or region</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Africa" title="Slavery in Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_contemporary_Africa" title="Slavery in contemporary Africa">Contemporary Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">Trans-Saharan slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_slave_trade" title="Red Sea slave trade">Red Sea slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" title="Indian Ocean slave trade">Indian Ocean slave trade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zanzibar_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Zanzibar slave trade">Zanzibar slave trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Angola" title="Slavery in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Chad" title="Human trafficking in Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Comoros" title="Slavery in the Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Ethiopia" title="Slavery in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Mali" title="Slavery in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Mauritania" title="Slavery in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Niger" title="Slavery in Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Nigeria" title="Slavery in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Seychelles" title="Slavery in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Somalia" title="Slavery in Somalia">Somalia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Somali_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Somali slave trade">Somali slave trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_South_Africa" title="Slavery in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Sudan" title="Slavery in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Zanzibar" title="Slavery in Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Americas">North and South America</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Pre-Columbian_America" title="Slavery in Pre-Columbian America">Pre-Columbian America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Aztec slavery">Aztec</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_the_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery among the indigenous peoples of the Americas">Americas indigenous</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery among Native Americans in the United States">U.S. Natives</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Field slaves in the United States">Field slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Female slavery in the United States">female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_slavery_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Contemporary slavery in the United States">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_states_and_free_states" title="Slave states and free states">maps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">partus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labor_in_the_United_States" title="Penal labor in the United States">prison labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_codes" title="Slave codes">Slave codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_the_enslaved_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Treatment of the enslaved in the United States">Treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_trade_in_the_United_States" title="Slave trade in the United States">interregional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_the_United_States" title="Human trafficking in the United States">Human trafficking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Bahamas" title="Slavery in the Bahamas">The Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Canada" title="Slavery in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_British_and_French_Caribbean" title="Slavery in the British and French Caribbean">Caribbean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbados_Slave_Code" title="Barbados Slave Code">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_British_Virgin_Islands" title="Slavery in the British Virgin Islands">British Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Trinidad" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Trinidad">Trinidad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_Noir" title="Code Noir">Code Noir</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Latin_America" title="Slavery in Latin America">Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Brazil" title="Slavery in Brazil">Brazil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lei_%C3%81urea" title="Lei Áurea">Lei Áurea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Colombia" title="Slavery in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Cuba" title="Slavery in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Haiti" title="Slavery in Haiti">Haiti</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restavek" title="Restavek">Restavek</a></li></ul></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/Encomienda" title="Encomienda">Encomienda</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro%E2%80%93Puerto_Ricans" title="Afro–Puerto Ricans">Puerto Rico</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Asia" title="Slavery in Asia">East, Southeast, and South Asia</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Southeast_Asia" title="Human trafficking in Southeast Asia">Human trafficking in Southeast Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Bhutan" title="Slavery in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Brunei" title="Slavery in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_China" title="Slavery in China">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Booi_Aha" title="Booi Aha">Booi Aha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laogai" title="Laogai">Laogai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_system_in_China" title="Penal system in China">penal system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_India" title="Slavery in India">India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debt_bondage_in_India" title="Debt bondage in India">Debt bondage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chukri_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Chukri System">Chukri System</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Indonesia" title="Slavery in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Japan" title="Slavery in Japan">Japan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comfort_women" title="Comfort women">comfort women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Korea" title="Slavery in Korea">Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kwalliso" title="Kwalliso">Kwalliso</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Malaysia" title="Slavery in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Maldives" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Mongol_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Mongol Empire">Slavery in the Mongol Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Thailand" title="Slavery in Thailand">Thailand</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_military_and_prostitution_in_South_Korea" title="United States military and prostitution in South Korea">Yankee princess</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Vietnam" title="Slavery in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Oceania" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Oceania">Australia and Oceania</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Australia" title="Slavery in Australia">Australia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Australia" title="Human trafficking in Australia">Human trafficking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding" title="Blackbirding">Blackbirding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raiding_in_Easter_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave raiding in Easter Island">Slave raiding in Easter Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea">Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding_in_Polynesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackbirding in Polynesia">Blackbirding in Polynesia</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Europe and North Asia</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sex_trafficking_in_Europe" title="Sex trafficking in Europe">Sex trafficking in Europe</a></li> <li>United Kingdom <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labour_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Penal labour in the United Kingdom">Penal Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Britain" title="Slavery in Britain">Slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_slave_trade" title="Danish slave trade">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Slave_Coast" title="Dutch Slave Coast">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour_under_German_rule_during_World_War_II" title="Forced labour under German rule during World War II">Germany in World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Malta" title="Slavery in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Poland" title="Slavery in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Portugal" title="Slavery in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Romania" title="Slavery in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Russia" title="Slavery in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Spain" title="Slavery in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_slave_trade" title="Swedish slave trade">Sweden</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>North Africa and West Asia</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Afghanistan" title="Slavery in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Algeria" title="Slavery in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Bahrain" title="Slavery in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Egypt" title="Slavery in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_the_Middle_East" title="Human trafficking in the Middle East">Human trafficking in the Middle East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Iran" title="Slavery in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Iraq" title="Slavery in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Jordan" title="Slavery in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Kuwait" title="Slavery in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Lebanon" title="Slavery in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Libya" title="Slavery in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Morocco" title="Slavery in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Oman" title="Slavery in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Palestine" title="Slavery in Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Slavery in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Syria" title="Slavery in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Tunisia" title="Slavery in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Qatar" title="Slavery in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Yemen" title="Slavery in Yemen">Yemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_and_religion" title="Slavery and religion">Religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Bible_and_slavery" title="The Bible and slavery">Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_slavery" title="Christian views on slavery">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_slavery" title="Catholic Church and slavery">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mormonism_and_slavery" title="Mormonism and slavery">Mormonism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_slavery" title="Islamic views on slavery">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_slavery" title="Jewish views on slavery">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_and_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Baháʼí Faith and slavery">Baháʼí Faith</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Opposition and resistance</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Abolitionism in the United Kingdom">U.K.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">U.S.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brussels_Anti-Slavery_Conference_1889%E2%80%9390" title="Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90">Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporary_Slavery_Commission" title="Temporary Slavery Commission">Temporary Slavery Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1926_Slavery_Convention" title="1926 Slavery Convention">1926 Slavery Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Committee of Experts on Slavery">Committee of Experts on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advisory_Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery">Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ad_Hoc_Committee_on_Slavery" title="Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery">Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supplementary_Convention_on_the_Abolition_of_Slavery" title="Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery">Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_abolitionists" title="List of abolitionists">Abolitionists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_Slave_Trade_Convention" title="Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention">Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavery_International" title="Anti-Slavery International">Anti-Slavery International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Africa" title="Blockade of Africa">Blockade of Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Africa_Squadron" title="West Africa Squadron">U.K.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Slave_Trade_Patrol" title="African Slave Trade Patrol">U.S.</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Colonization_Society" title="American Colonization Society">Colonization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compensated_emancipation" title="Compensated emancipation">Compensated emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedman" title="Freedman">Freedman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manumission" title="Manumission">Manumission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_suit" title="Freedom suit">Freedom suit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Power" title="Slave Power">Slave Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Songs_of_the_Underground_Railroad" title="Songs of the Underground Railroad">songs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_rebellion" title="Slave rebellion">Slave rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Trade_Act" title="Slave Trade Act">Slave Trade Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_international_law" title="Slavery in international law">International law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Servile_War" title="Third Servile War">Third Servile War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">13th Amendment to the United States Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_abolition_of_slavery_and_serfdom" title="Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom">Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abolition_of_slave_trade_in_Persian_gulf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf (page does not exist)">Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf</a> [<a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%85%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B9%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D8%AA%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%AE%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%AC_%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3" class="extiw" title="fa:ممنوعیت تجارت برده در خلیج فارس">fa</a>]</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_at_common_law" title="Slavery at common law">Common law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude" title="Indentured servitude">Indentured servitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour" title="Forced labour">Forced labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slaves in the United States">Fugitive slaves</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slave_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slave laws in the United States">laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Convention" title="Fugitive Slave Convention">convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slaves" title="List of slaves">List of slaves</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slave_owners" title="List of slave owners">owners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_last_survivors_of_American_slavery" title="List of last survivors of American slavery">last survivors of American slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slavery-related_memorials_and_museums" title="List of slavery-related memorials and museums">List of slavery-related memorials and museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_marriages_in_the_United_States" title="Slave marriages in the United States">Slave marriages in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_narrative" title="Slave narrative">Slave narrative</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_featuring_slavery" title="List of films featuring slavery">films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Songs_of_the_United_States" title="Slave Songs of the United States">songs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_name" title="Slave name">Slave name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_catcher" title="Slave catcher">Slave catcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_patrol" title="Slave patrol">Slave patrol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Slave_Route_Project" title="The Slave Route Project">Slave Route Project</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slave_breeding_in_the_United_States" title="Slave breeding in the United States">breeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_court_cases_in_the_United_States_involving_slavery" title="List of court cases in the United States involving slavery">court cases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_and_slavery" title="George Washington and slavery">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson_and_slavery" title="Thomas Jefferson and slavery">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams_and_abolitionism" title="John Quincy Adams and abolitionism">J.Q. Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_and_slavery" title="Abraham Lincoln and slavery">Lincoln</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forty_acres_and_a_mule" title="Forty acres and a mule">40 acres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedmen's Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_iron_bit" title="Slave iron bit">Iron bit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Day" title="Emancipation Day">Emancipation Day</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Forced_labour" title="Template:Forced labour"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Forced_labour" title="Template talk:Forced labour"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Forced_labour" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Forced labour"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> By the reign of <a href="/wiki/Pope_Zachary" title="Pope Zachary">Pope Zachary</a> (741–752), <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a> had established a thriving slave trade, enslaving people in Italy, among other places, and selling them to the <a href="/wiki/Moors" title="Moors">Moors</a> in Northern Africa (Zacharias himself reportedly forbade such traffic out of Rome).<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> When the sale of Christians to Muslims was banned (<a href="/wiki/Pactum_Lotharii" title="Pactum Lotharii">pactum Lotharii</a><a href="#cite_note-lotharii-14">[14]</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Venetian_slave_trade" title="Venetian slave trade">Venetian slave traders</a> began to sell <a href="/wiki/Slavs" title="Slavs">Slavs</a> and other Eastern European non-Christian slaves in greater numbers via the <a href="/wiki/Balkan_slave_trade" title="Balkan slave trade">Balkan slave trade</a>. Caravans of slaves traveled from Eastern Europe, via the <a href="/wiki/Prague_slave_trade" title="Prague slave trade">Prague slave trade</a> through Alpine passes in Austria, to reach Venice. A record of <a href="/wiki/Raffelstetten_customs_regulations" title="Raffelstetten customs regulations">tolls paid in Raffelstetten</a> (903–906), near <a href="/wiki/St._Florian_Monastery" title="St. Florian Monastery">St. Florian</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Danube" title="Danube">Danube</a>, describes such merchants. Some are Slavic themselves, from <a href="/wiki/Bohemia" title="Bohemia">Bohemia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a>. They had come from <a href="/wiki/Kiev" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiev">Kiev</a> through <a href="/wiki/Przemy%C5%9Bl" title="Przemyśl">Przemyśl</a>, <a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w" title="Kraków">Kraków</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prague" title="Prague">Prague</a>, and Bohemia. The same record values <a href="/wiki/Ancillae" title="Ancillae">female slaves</a> at a <a href="/wiki/Tremissis" title="Tremissis">tremissa</a> (about 1.5 grams of gold or roughly <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style>1⁄3 of a <a href="/wiki/Solidus_(coin)#In_the_Byzantine_period" title="Solidus (coin)">Byzantine solidus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bezant" title="Bezant">nomisma</a>) or <a href="/wiki/Gold_dinar" title="Gold dinar">Islamic gold dinar</a>) and male slaves, who were more numerous, at a saiga (which is much less).<a href="#cite_note-dictslave-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-rafftolls-21">[21]</a> <a href="/wiki/Eunuch" title="Eunuch">Eunuchs</a> were especially valuable, and "castration houses" arose in Venice, as well as other prominent slave markets, to meet this demand.<a href="#cite_note-dirhams-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-valante-22">[22]</a> Venice was far from the only slave trading hub in Italy. Southern Italy boasted slaves from distant regions, including Greece, Bulgaria, Armenia, and Slavic regions. During the 9th and 10th centuries, <a href="/wiki/Amalfi" title="Amalfi">Amalfi</a> was a major exporter of slaves to North Africa.<a href="#cite_note-dictslave-11">[11]</a> <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a>, along with Venice, dominated the trade in the Eastern Mediterranean beginning in the 12th century, and the <a href="/wiki/Venetian_slave_trade" title="Venetian slave trade">Venetian slave traders</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Genoese_slave_trade" title="Genoese slave trade">Genoese slave traders</a> dominated the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea_slave_trade" title="Black Sea slave trade">Black Sea slave trade</a> beginning in the 13th century. They sold both <a href="/wiki/Balts" title="Balts">Baltic</a> and Slavic slaves, as well as <a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Circassians" title="Circassians">Circassians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georgians" title="Georgians">Georgians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkish_people" title="Turkish people">Turks</a> and other ethnic groups of the Black Sea and <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a>, to the Muslim nations of the Middle East.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> Genoa primarily managed the slave trade from <a href="/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimea</a> to <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamluk Egypt">Mamluk Egypt</a>, until the 13th century, when increasing Venetian control over the Eastern Mediterranean allowed Venice to dominate that market.<a href="#cite_note-lughod-24">[24]</a> Between 1414 and 1423 alone, at least 10,000 slaves were sold in Venice.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Iberia">Iberia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_medieval_Europe&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Iberia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_al-Andalus" title="Slavery in al-Andalus">Slavery in al-Andalus</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Targ_niewolnikow_w_Kordowie.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Targ_niewolnikow_w_Kordowie.jpg/220px-Targ_niewolnikow_w_Kordowie.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Targ_niewolnikow_w_Kordowie.jpg/330px-Targ_niewolnikow_w_Kordowie.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Targ_niewolnikow_w_Kordowie.jpg/440px-Targ_niewolnikow_w_Kordowie.jpg 2x" data-file-width="887" data-file-height="874" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Slavs" title="Slavs">Slavic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">saqaliba</a>) and African slaves in <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Andalusia" class="mw-redirect" title="Córdoba, Andalusia">Córdoba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muslim_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim Spain">Muslim Spain</a>, 1200s</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a>, the Muslim-ruled area of the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a>, (711–1492) imported a large number of slaves to <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Al-Andalus" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Al-Andalus">its own domestic market</a>, as well as served as a staging point for Muslim and Jewish merchants to market slaves to the rest of the Islamic world.<a href="#cite_note-radhanites-26">[26]</a> A ready market, especially for men of fighting age, could be found in <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad Spain">Umayyad Spain</a>, with its need for supplies of new <a href="/wiki/Mamluk" title="Mamluk">Mamluks</a>. <blockquote><a href="/wiki/Al-Hakam_I" title="Al-Hakam I">Al-Hakam</a> was the first monarch of this family who surrounded his throne with a certain splendour and magnificence. He increased the number of mamelukes (slave soldiers) until they amounted to 5,000 horse and 1,000 foot. ... he increased the number of his slaves, eunuchs and servants; had a bodyguard of cavalry always stationed at the gate of his palace and surrounded his person with a guard of mamelukes .... these mamelukes were called Al-haras (the Guard) owing to their all being Christians or foreigners. They occupied two large barracks, with stables for their horses.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-27">[27]</a></blockquote> During the reign of <a href="/wiki/Abd-ar-Rahman_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd-ar-Rahman III">Abd-ar-Rahman III</a> (912–961), there were at first 3,750, then 6,087, and finally 13,750 <a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a>, or Slavic slaves, at <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Andalusia" class="mw-redirect" title="Córdoba, Andalusia">Córdoba</a>, capital of the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Hawqal" title="Ibn Hawqal">Ibn Hawqal</a>, Ibrahim al-Qarawi, and Bishop <a href="/wiki/Liutprand_of_Cremona" title="Liutprand of Cremona">Liutprand of Cremona</a> note that the Jewish merchants of Verdun specialized in castrating slaves, to be sold as eunuch saqaliba, which were enormously popular in Muslim Spain.<a href="#cite_note-dictslave-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-valante-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Roger_Collins" title="Roger Collins">Roger Collins</a> although the role of the <a href="/wiki/Vikings" title="Vikings">Vikings</a> in the slave trade in Iberia remains largely hypothetical, their depredations are clearly recorded. Raids on al-Andalus by Vikings are reported in the years 844, 859, 966 and 971, conforming to the general pattern of such activity concentrating in the mid ninth and late tenth centuries.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-27">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vikings">Vikings</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_medieval_Europe&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Vikings">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Khazar_slave_trade" title="Khazar slave trade">Khazar slave trade</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bukhara_slave_trade" title="Bukhara slave trade">Bukhara slave trade</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LSR_Wikinger_-_Sklavenfesselschloss.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/LSR_Wikinger_-_Sklavenfesselschloss.jpg/220px-LSR_Wikinger_-_Sklavenfesselschloss.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/LSR_Wikinger_-_Sklavenfesselschloss.jpg/330px-LSR_Wikinger_-_Sklavenfesselschloss.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/LSR_Wikinger_-_Sklavenfesselschloss.jpg/440px-LSR_Wikinger_-_Sklavenfesselschloss.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2668" data-file-height="2748" /></a><figcaption>Slave chain lock and key. Sweden, <a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a> (8th–11th centuries)</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Nordic_countries" title="Nordic countries">Nordic countries</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a> (700–1100) practiced slavery. The <a href="/wiki/Vikings" title="Vikings">Vikings</a> called their slaves <a href="/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">thralls</a> (<a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a>: Þræll).<a href="#cite_note-vikings-29">[29]</a> There were also other terms used to describe thralls based on gender, such as ambatt/ambott and deja. Ambott is used in reference to female slaves, as is deja.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> Another name that is indicative of thrall status is bryti, which has associations with food. The word can be understood to mean, cook, and to break bread, which would place a person with this label as the person in charge of food in some manner. There is a runic inscription that describes a man of bryti status named Tolir who was able to marry and acted as the king’s estate manager.<a href="#cite_note-:0-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-32">[32]</a> Another name is muslegoman, which would have been used for a runaway slave.<a href="#cite_note-:3-32">[32]</a> From this, it can be gathered that the different names for those who were thralls indicate position and duties performed.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> A fundamental part of Viking activity was the sale and taking of captives.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> The thralls were mostly from Western Europe, among them many <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxons" title="Anglo-Saxons">Anglo-Saxons</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celts</a>. Many Irish slaves were brought on expeditions for the <a href="/wiki/Settlement_of_Iceland" title="Settlement of Iceland">colonization of Iceland</a> (874–930).<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> Raids on monasteries provided a source of young, educated slaves who could be sold in Venice or via the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea_slave_trade" title="Black Sea slave trade">Black Sea slave trade</a> to Byzantium for high prices. Scandinavian trade centers stretched eastwards from <a href="/wiki/Hedeby" title="Hedeby">Hedeby</a> in Denmark and <a href="/wiki/Birka" title="Birka">Birka</a> in Sweden to <a href="/wiki/Staraya_Ladoga" title="Staraya Ladoga">Staraya Ladoga</a> in northern Russia before the end of the 8th century.<a href="#cite_note-valante-22">[22]</a> The collection of slaves was a by-product of conflict. The <a href="/wiki/Annales_Fuldenses" title="Annales Fuldenses">Annals of Fulda</a> recorded that Franks who had been defeated by a group of Vikings in 880 CE were taken as captives after being defeated.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> Viking groups would have political conflicts that also resulted in the taking of captives.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> This traffic continued into the 9th century as Scandinavians founded more trade centers at <a href="/wiki/Kaupang" title="Kaupang">Kaupang</a> in southwestern Norway and <a href="/wiki/Novgorod" class="mw-redirect" title="Novgorod">Novgorod</a>, farther south than Staraya Ladoga, and Kiev, farther south still and closer to <a href="/wiki/Byzantium" title="Byzantium">Byzantium</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dublin" title="Dublin">Dublin</a> and other northwestern European Viking settlements were established as gateways through which captives were traded northwards. Thralls could be bought and sold at slave markets. An account from the <a href="/wiki/Laxd%C3%A6la_saga" title="Laxdæla saga">Laxdoela Saga</a> spoke of how during the 10th century there would be a meeting of kings every third year on the <a href="/wiki/Branno_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Branno Island">Branno Islands</a> where negotiations and trades for slaves would take place.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> Though slaves could be bought and sold, it was more common to sell captives from other nations.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> The 10th-century Persian traveler <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Rustah" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Rustah">Ibn Rustah</a> described how Vikings, the <a href="/wiki/Varangians" title="Varangians">Varangians</a> or <a href="/wiki/Rus%27_Khaganate" title="Rus' Khaganate">Rus</a>, terrorized and enslaved the <a href="/wiki/East_Slavs" title="East Slavs">Slavs</a> taken in their raids along the <a href="/wiki/Volga_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Volga River">Volga River</a>.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> Slaves were often sold south, to <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> via the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea_slave_trade" title="Black Sea slave trade">Black Sea slave trade</a>, or to Muslim buyers, via paths such as the <a href="/wiki/Volga_trade_route" title="Volga trade route">Volga trade route</a> through the <a href="/wiki/Khazar_slave_trade" title="Khazar slave trade">Khazar slave trade</a> and later the <a href="/wiki/Volga_Bulgarian_slave_trade" title="Volga Bulgarian slave trade">Volga Bulgarian slave trade</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Bukhara_slave_trade" title="Bukhara slave trade">Bukhara slave trade</a> in Central Asia and from there to <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate">slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate</a>. People taken captive during the Viking raids in Western Europe, such as Ireland, could be sold to <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_al-Andalus" title="Slavery in al-Andalus">Moorish Spain</a> via the <a href="/wiki/Dublin_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Dublin slave trade">Dublin slave trade</a><a href="#cite_note-aroundtheworldineightyyears.com-42">[42]</a> or transported to <a href="/wiki/Hedeby" title="Hedeby">Hedeby</a> or <a href="/wiki/Br%C3%A4nn%C3%B6" title="Brännö">Brännö</a> and from there via the <a href="/wiki/Volga_trade_route" title="Volga trade route">Volga trade route</a> to present day Russia, where slaves and furs were sold to Muslim merchants in exchange for Arab silver <a href="/wiki/Dirham" title="Dirham">dirham</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silk" title="Silk">silk</a>, which have been found in <a href="/wiki/Birka" title="Birka">Birka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wolin" title="Wolin">Wollin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dublin" title="Dublin">Dublin</a>;<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> initially this trade route between Europe and the Abbasid Caliphate passed <a href="/wiki/Khazar_slave_trade" title="Khazar slave trade">via the Khazar Kaghanate</a>,<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> but from the early 10th-century onward it went via <a href="/wiki/Volga_Bulgarian_slave_trade" title="Volga Bulgarian slave trade">Volga Bulgaria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Fadlan" title="Ahmad ibn Fadlan">Ahmad ibn Fadlan</a> of <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> provides an account of the other end of this trade route, namely of <a href="/wiki/Volga_Vikings" class="mw-redirect" title="Volga Vikings">Volga Vikings</a> selling Slavic slaves to middle-eastern merchants.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> Finland proved another source for Viking slave raids.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> Slaves from Finland or <a href="/wiki/Baltic_states" title="Baltic states">Baltic states</a> were traded as far as <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">central Asia</a>,<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> that is the <a href="/wiki/Bukhara_slave_trade" title="Bukhara slave trade">Bukhara slave trade</a>, connecting it to the <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate">slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate</a> in the Middle East. Captives may have been traded far within the Viking trade network, and within that network, it was possible to be sold again. In the Life of <a href="/wiki/Fintan_of_Rheinau" title="Fintan of Rheinau">St. Findan</a>, the Irishman was bought and sold three times after being taken captive by a Viking group.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mongols">Mongols</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_medieval_Europe&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Mongols">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Slave_trade_in_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Slave trade in the Mongol Empire">Slave trade in the Mongol Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Asia_13th_Century.pdf" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Asia_13th_Century.pdf/page1-220px-Asia_13th_Century.pdf.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Asia_13th_Century.pdf/page1-330px-Asia_13th_Century.pdf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Asia_13th_Century.pdf/page1-440px-Asia_13th_Century.pdf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1650" data-file-height="1275" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a> and its subsequent divisions with the khanate of the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a> in green, 13th century</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol invasions">Mongol invasions</a> and conquests in the 13th century added a new force in the slave trade, and the <a href="/wiki/Slave_trade_in_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Slave trade in the Mongol Empire">slave trade in the Mongol Empire</a> established an international slave market. The Mongols enslaved skilled individuals, women and children and marched them to <a href="/wiki/Karakorum" title="Karakorum">Karakorum</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sarai_(city)" title="Sarai (city)">Sarai</a>, whence they were sold throughout <a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a>. Many of these slaves were shipped to the slave market in <a href="/wiki/Novgorod_Republic" title="Novgorod Republic">Novgorod</a>.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venetians</a> merchants in <a href="/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimea</a> were involved in the slave trade with the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a>.<a href="#cite_note-dictslave-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-lughod-24">[24]</a> In 1441, <a href="/wiki/Haci_I_Giray" class="mw-redirect" title="Haci I Giray">Haci I Giray</a> declared independence from the Golden Horde and established the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Khanate" title="Crimean Khanate">Crimean Khanate</a>. In the time of the Crimean Khanate, Crimeans engaged in frequent raids into the <a href="/wiki/Danubian_principalities" class="mw-redirect" title="Danubian principalities">Danubian principalities</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth">Poland-Lithuania</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Muscovy</a>. For each captive, the khan received a fixed share (savğa) of 10% or 20%. The campaigns by Crimean forces categorize into "sefers", officially declared military operations led by the khans themselves, and çapuls, raids undertaken by groups of noblemen, sometimes illegally because they contravened treaties concluded by the khans with neighbouring rulers. For a long time, until the early 18th century, the khanate maintained a massive slave trade with the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> and the Middle East known as the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean slave trade">Crimean slave trade</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Genoese_colony" class="mw-redirect" title="Genoese colony">Genoese colony</a> of <a href="/wiki/Caffa" class="mw-redirect" title="Caffa">Caffa</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a> coast of Crimea was one of the best known and significant trading ports and slave markets.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Tatars" title="Crimean Tatars">Crimean Tatar</a> raiders enslaved more than 1 million Eastern Europeans.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="England_and_Ireland">England and Ireland</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_medieval_Europe&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: England and Ireland">edit</a>]</div> In medieval <a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>, as a commonly traded commodity slaves could, like cattle, become a form of internal or trans-border currency.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> In 1102, the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_London_in_1102" title="Council of London in 1102">Council of London</a> convened by <a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm of Canterbury</a> obtained a resolution against the <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Britain" title="Slavery in Britain">slave trade in England</a> which was aimed mainly at the sale of English slaves <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Ireland" title="Slavery in Ireland">to the Irish</a>.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Christians_holding_Muslim_slaves">Christians holding Muslim slaves</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_medieval_Europe&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Christians holding Muslim slaves">edit</a>]</div> Although the primary flow of slaves was toward Muslim countries, as evident in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of slavery in the Muslim world">history of slavery in the Muslim world</a>, Christians did acquire Muslim slaves; in Southern France, in the 13th century, "the enslavement of Muslim captives was still fairly common".<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> There are records, for example, of <a href="/wiki/Saracen" title="Saracen">Saracen</a> slave girls sold in <a href="/wiki/Marseilles" class="mw-redirect" title="Marseilles">Marseilles</a> in 1248,<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> a date which coincided with the fall of <a href="/wiki/Seville" title="Seville">Seville</a> and its surrounding area, to raiding Christian <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">crusaders</a>, an event during which a large number of Muslim women from this area were enslaved as war booty, as it has been recorded in some Arabic poetry, notably by the poet <a href="/wiki/Salih_ben_Sharif_al-Rundi" class="mw-redirect" title="Salih ben Sharif al-Rundi">al-Rundi</a>, who was contemporary to the events. Additionally, the possession of slaves was legal in 13th century Italy; many Christians held Muslim slaves throughout the country. These Saracen slaves were often captured by pirates and brought to Italy from Muslim Spain or North Africa. During the 13th century, most of the slaves in the Italian trade city of <a href="/wiki/Genoa" title="Genoa">Genoa</a> were of Muslim origin. These Muslim slaves were owned by royalty, military orders or groups, independent entities, and the church itself.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> Christians also sold Muslim slaves captured in war. The Order of the <a href="/wiki/Knights_Hospitaller" title="Knights Hospitaller">Knights of Malta</a> attacked pirates and Muslim ships, and their base became a center for slave trading, selling captured <a href="/wiki/North_Africans" class="mw-redirect" title="North Africans">North Africans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Turkish_people" title="Turkish people">Turks</a>. <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a> remained a slave market until well into the late 18th century. One thousand slaves were required to man the galleys (ships) of the Order.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> While they would at times seize Muslims as slaves, it was more likely that Christian armies would kill their enemies, rather than take them into servitude.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jewish_slave_trade">Jewish slave trade</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_medieval_Europe&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Jewish slave trade">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Radhanite" title="Radhanite">Radhanite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_slavery#Post-Talmud_to_1800s" title="Jewish views on slavery">Jewish views on slavery</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gniezno_Boleslaus_II.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Gniezno_Boleslaus_II.jpg/230px-Gniezno_Boleslaus_II.jpg" decoding="async" width="230" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Gniezno_Boleslaus_II.jpg/345px-Gniezno_Boleslaus_II.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Gniezno_Boleslaus_II.jpg/460px-Gniezno_Boleslaus_II.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1310" /></a><figcaption>Christian slaves stand with Jewish merchants while bishop pleads for their release with duke of <a href="/wiki/Bohemia" title="Bohemia">Bohemia</a>, 1100s<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a></figcaption></figure> The role of Jewish merchants in the early medieval slave trade has been subject to much misinterpretation and distortion. Although medieval records demonstrate that there were Jews who owned slaves in medieval Europe, Toch (2013) notes that the claim repeated in older sources, such as those by Charles Verlinden, that Jewish merchants where the primary dealers in European slaves is based on misreadings of primary documents from that era. Contemporary Jewish sources do not attest any large-scale slave trade or ownership of slaves which may be distinguished from the wider phenomenon of early medieval European slavery. The trope of the Jewish dealer of Christian slaves was additionally a prominent <a href="/wiki/Antisemitic_trope" title="Antisemitic trope">canard</a> in medieval European <a href="/wiki/Anti-Semitism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Semitism">anti-Semitic</a> propaganda.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slave_trade_at_the_close_of_the_Middle_Ages">Slave trade at the close of the Middle Ages</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_medieval_Europe&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Slave trade at the close of the Middle Ages">edit</a>]</div> As more and more of Europe <a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianized</a>, and open hostilities between Christian and Muslim nations intensified, large-scale slave trade moved to more distant sources. Sending slaves to Egypt, for example, was forbidden by the papacy in 1317, 1323, 1329, 1338, and, finally, 1425, as slaves sent to Egypt would often become soldiers, and end up fighting their former Christian owners. Although the repeated bans indicate that such trade still occurred, they also indicate that it became less desirable.<a href="#cite_note-dictslave-11">[11]</a> In the 16th century, African slaves replaced almost all other ethnicities and religious enslaved groups in Europe.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Slavery_in_law">Slavery in law</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_medieval_Europe&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Slavery in law">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Secular_law">Secular law</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_medieval_Europe&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Secular law">edit</a>]</div> Slavery was heavily regulated in <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a>, which was reorganized in the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> by <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Iuris_Civilis" class="mw-redirect" title="Corpus Iuris Civilis">Corpus Iuris Civilis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> Although the Corpus was lost to the West for centuries, it was rediscovered in the 11th and 12th centuries,<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> and led to the foundation of law schools in Italy and France.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> According to the Corpus, the natural state of humanity is freedom, but the "law of nations" may supersede natural law and reduce certain people to slavery. The basic definition of slave in Romano-Byzantine law was:<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> <ul><li>anyone whose mother was a slave</li> <li>anyone who has been captured in battle</li> <li>anyone who has sold himself to pay a debt</li></ul> It was, however, possible to become a freedman or a full citizen; the Corpus, like Roman law, had extensive and complicated rules for <a href="/wiki/Manumission" title="Manumission">manumission</a> of slaves.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> The slave trade in England was officially abolished in 1102.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a> slavery was forbidden in the 15th century; it was replaced by the second enserfment. In <a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a>, slavery was formally abolished in 1588.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Canon_law">Canon law</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_medieval_Europe&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Canon law">edit</a>]</div> In fact, there was an explicit legal justification given for the enslavement of Muslims, found in the <a href="/wiki/Decretum_Gratiani" title="Decretum Gratiani">Decretum Gratiani</a> and later expanded upon by the 14th century jurist <a href="/wiki/Oldradus_de_Ponte" title="Oldradus de Ponte">Oldradus de Ponte</a>: the Bible states that <a href="/wiki/Hagar_(Bible)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hagar (Bible)">Hagar</a>, the slave girl of <a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a>, was beaten and cast out by Abraham’s wife <a href="/wiki/Sarah" title="Sarah">Sarah</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:4-75">[75]</a> The Decretum, like the Corpus, defined a slave as anyone whose mother was a slave.<a href="#cite_note-:4-75">[75]</a> Otherwise, the canons were concerned with slavery only in ecclesiastical contexts: slaves for instance were not permitted to be ordained as clergy.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Slavery_in_the_Byzantine_Empire">Slavery in the Byzantine Empire</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_medieval_Europe&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Slavery in the Byzantine Empire">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Slavery in the Byzantine Empire">Slavery in the Byzantine Empire</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Slavery_in_the_Islamic_Near_East">Slavery in the Islamic Near East</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_medieval_Europe&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Slavery in the Islamic Near East">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of slavery in the Muslim world">Slavery in the Islamic world</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate">Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate</a></div> The ancient and medieval <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a> includes modern day <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> and <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, with strong connections to the rest of the <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North African</a> coastline. All of these areas were ruled by either the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantines</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Persians</a> at the end of <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">late antiquity</a>. Pre-existing <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Slavery in the Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> (i.e. Roman) and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Iran" title="Slavery in Iran">Persian institutions of slavery</a> may have influenced the development of <a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_slavery" title="Islamic views on slavery">institutions of slavery in Islamic law and jurisprudence</a>.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Likewise, some scholars have argued for the influence of <a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_slavery" title="Jewish views on slavery">Rabbinic tradition in regards to slavery</a> on the development of Islamic legal thought.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> Whatever the relationship between these different legal traditions, many similarities exist between the practice of <a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of slavery in the Muslim world">Islamic slavery</a> in the early Middle Ages and the practices of early medieval Byzantines and western Europeans. The status of freed slaves under Islamic rule, who continued to owe services to their former masters, bears a strong similarity to <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">slavery in ancient Rome</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Greece" title="Slavery in ancient Greece">slavery in ancient Greece</a>. However, the practice of slavery in the early medieval Near East also grew out of slavery practices in currency among pre-Islamic Arabs.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islamic_states">Islamic states</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_medieval_Europe&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Islamic states">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Egypt" title="Slavery in Egypt">Slavery in Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate">Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate">Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Mamluk_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Mamluk Sultanate">Slavery in the Mamluk Sultanate</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg/220px-Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg/330px-Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg/440px-Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="413" /></a><figcaption>Rise of <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a> and its expansion to the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean world">Mediterranean region</a> from 622 to 750 AD <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a>, 622–632</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a>, 632–661</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a>, 661–750</div></figcaption></figure> Like the Old and New Testaments and Greek and Roman law codes, the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a> takes the institution of slavery for granted, though it urges kindness toward slaves and eventual manumission, especially for slaves who convert to Islam.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> In early Middle Ages, many slaves in Islamic society served as such for only a short period of time—perhaps an average of seven years.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> Like their European counterparts, early medieval <a href="/wiki/Islamic_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic slave trade">Islamic slave traders</a> preferred slaves who were not co-religionists and hence focused on "pagans" from <a href="/wiki/Inner_Asia" title="Inner Asia">inner Asia</a>, Europe, and especially from sub-Saharan Africa.<a href="#cite_note-Wright,_2007,_p._3-82">[82]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Manumission" title="Manumission">practice of manumission</a> may have contributed to the integration of former slaves into the wider society. However, under <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">sharia</a> law, <a href="/wiki/Conversion_to_Islam" title="Conversion to Islam">conversion to Islam</a> did not necessitate manumission.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> Slaves were employed in heavy labor as well as in domestic contexts. Because of <a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_concubinage" title="Islamic views on concubinage">Quranic allowance of concubinage</a>,<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> early Islamic traders, in contrast to Byzantine and early modern slave traders, imported large numbers of female slaves.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> The very earliest Islamic states did not create corps of slave soldiers (a practice familiar from later contexts) but did integrate freedmen into armies, which may have contributed to the rapid expansion of <a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_conquests" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Islamic conquests">early Islamic conquest</a>.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> By the 9th century, use of slaves in Islamic armies, particularly <a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turks</a> in cavalry units and Africans in infantry units, was a relatively common practice.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> In Egypt, <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Tulun" title="Ahmad ibn Tulun">Ahmad ibn Tulun</a> imported thousands of black slaves to wrestle independence from the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a> in Iraq in 868.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Ikhshidid_dynasty" title="Ikhshidid dynasty">Ikhshidid dynasty</a> used black slave units to liberate itself from Abbasid rule after the Abbasids destroyed ibn Tulun’s autonomous empire in 935.<a href="#cite_note-Lev,_David_Ayalon-90">[90]</a> Black professional soldiers were most associated with the <a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid dynasty</a>, which incorporated more professional black soldiers than the previous two dynasties.<a href="#cite_note-Lev,_David_Ayalon-90">[90]</a> It was the Fatimids who first incorporated black professional slave soldiers into the cavalry, despite massive opposition from Central Asian Turkish <a href="/wiki/Mamluk" title="Mamluk">Mamluks</a>, who saw the African contingent as a threat to their role as the leading military unit in the Egyptian army.<a href="#cite_note-Lev,_David_Ayalon-90">[90]</a><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slaves_Zadib_Yemen_13th_century_BNF_Paris.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Slaves_Zadib_Yemen_13th_century_BNF_Paris.jpg/220px-Slaves_Zadib_Yemen_13th_century_BNF_Paris.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Slaves_Zadib_Yemen_13th_century_BNF_Paris.jpg/330px-Slaves_Zadib_Yemen_13th_century_BNF_Paris.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Slaves_Zadib_Yemen_13th_century_BNF_Paris.jpg/440px-Slaves_Zadib_Yemen_13th_century_BNF_Paris.jpg 2x" data-file-width="829" data-file-height="910" /></a><figcaption>13th-century slave market in <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a></figcaption></figure>In the later half of the Middle Ages, the expansion of Islamic rule further into the Mediterranean, the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a> established the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" title="Indian Ocean slave trade">Saharan-Indian Ocean slave trade</a>.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> This network was a large market for African slaves, transporting approximately four million African slaves from its 7th century inception to its 20th century demise.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> Ironically, the consolidation of borders in the Islamic Near East changed the face of the slave trade.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis,_Race_and_Slavery-93">[93]</a> A rigid Islamic code, coupled with crystallizing frontiers, favored slave purchase and tribute over capture as lucrative slave avenues.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis,_Race_and_Slavery-93">[93]</a> Even the sources of slaves shifted from the <a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a> and <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> to <a href="/wiki/Indochina" class="mw-redirect" title="Indochina">Indochina</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> Patterns of preference for slaves in the Near East, as well as patterns of use, continued into the later Middle Ages with only slight changes. Slaves were employed in many activities, including agriculture, industry, the military, and domestic labor. Women were prioritized over men, and usually served in the domestic sphere as menials, <a href="/wiki/Concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Concubinage in the Muslim world">concubines</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cariye" title="Cariye">cariye</a>), or wives.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis,_Race_and_Slavery,_p._14-95">[95]</a> Domestic and commercial slaves were mostly better off than their agricultural counterparts, either becoming family members or business partners rather than condemned to a grueling life in a chain gang. There are references to gangs of slaves, mostly African, put to work in drainage projects in <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, salt and gold mines in the <a href="/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara">Sahara</a>, and sugar and cotton plantations in North Africa and Spain. References to this latter type of slavery are rare, however.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis,_Race_and_Slavery,_p._14-95">[95]</a> <a href="/wiki/Eunuch" title="Eunuch">Eunuchs</a> were the most prized and sought-after type of slave. The most fortunate slaves found employment in politics or the military. In the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Devshirme" title="Devshirme">Devşirme system</a> groomed young slave boys for civil or military service.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> Young Christian boys were uprooted from their conquered villages periodically as a levy, and were employed in government, entertainment, or the army, depending on their talents.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis,_Race_and_Slavery-93">[93]</a> Slaves attained great success from this program, some winning the post of <a href="/wiki/Grand_vizier" title="Grand vizier">Grand Vizier</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Sultan" title="Sultan">Sultan</a> and others positions in the <a href="/wiki/Janissaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Janissaries">Janissaries</a>.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> It is a bit of a misnomer to classify these men as "slaves", because in the Ottoman Empire, they were referred to as <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Slavery in the Ottoman Empire">kul</a>, or, slaves "of the Gate", or Sultanate.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> While not slaves per se under Islamic law, these Devşrime alumni remained under the Sultan’s discretion. The Islamic Near East extensively relied upon professional slave soldiers, and was known for having them compose the core of armies.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis,_Race_and_Slavery-93">[93]</a> The institution was conceived out of political predicaments and reflected the attitudes of the time, and was not indicative of political decline or financial bankruptcy.<a href="#cite_note-Lev,_David_Ayalon-90">[90]</a> Slave units were desired because of their unadulterated loyalty to the ruler, since they were imported and therefore could not threaten the throne with local loyalties or alliances. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ottoman_Empire">Ottoman Empire</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_medieval_Europe&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Ottoman Empire">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Slavery in the Ottoman Empire">Slavery in the Ottoman Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Janissary_Recruitment_in_the_Balkans-Suleymanname.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Janissary_Recruitment_in_the_Balkans-Suleymanname.jpg/220px-Janissary_Recruitment_in_the_Balkans-Suleymanname.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Janissary_Recruitment_in_the_Balkans-Suleymanname.jpg/330px-Janissary_Recruitment_in_the_Balkans-Suleymanname.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Janissary_Recruitment_in_the_Balkans-Suleymanname.jpg/440px-Janissary_Recruitment_in_the_Balkans-Suleymanname.jpg 2x" data-file-width="683" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a> painting of <a href="/wiki/Balkan" class="mw-redirect" title="Balkan">Balkan</a> children in red being forcibly taken under the <a href="/wiki/Dev%C5%9Firme" class="mw-redirect" title="Devşirme">devşirme</a> ("blood tax") system as soldier-slaves for the <a href="/wiki/Janissary" title="Janissary">janissary</a> army</figcaption></figure> Slavery was an important part of Ottoman society. The <a href="/wiki/Byzantine-Ottoman_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine-Ottoman wars">Byzantine-Ottoman wars</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_wars_in_Europe" title="Ottoman wars in Europe">Ottoman wars in Europe</a> brought large numbers of Christian slaves into the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> In the middle of the 14th century, <a href="/wiki/Murad_I" title="Murad I">Murad I</a> built his own personal slave army called the <a href="/wiki/Kap%C4%B1kulu" title="Kapıkulu">Kapıkulu</a>. The new force was based on the sultan’s right to a fifth of the war booty, which he interpreted to include captives taken in battle. The captive slaves were converted to Islam and trained in the sultan’s personal service.<a href="#cite_note-auto-100">[100]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Dev%C5%9Firme" class="mw-redirect" title="Devşirme">devşirme</a> (translated "blood tax" or "child collection"), young Christian boys from <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a> were taken away from their homes and families, converted to Islam and enlisted into special soldier classes of the <a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Military of the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman army</a>. These soldier classes were named <a href="/wiki/Janissary" title="Janissary">Janissaries</a>, the most famous branch of the Kapıkulu. The Janissaries eventually became a decisive factor in the Ottoman military conquests in Europe.<a href="#cite_note-auto-100">[100]</a> Most of the military commanders of the Ottoman forces, imperial administrators and de facto rulers of the Ottoman Empire, such as <a href="/wiki/Pargal%C4%B1_%C4%B0brahim_Pasha" class="mw-redirect" title="Pargalı İbrahim Pasha">Pargalı İbrahim Pasha</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sokollu_Mehmet_Pa%C5%9Fa" class="mw-redirect" title="Sokollu Mehmet Paşa">Sokollu Mehmet Paşa</a>, were recruited in this way.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> By 1609 the Sultan’s Kapıkulu forces increased to about 100,000.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Harem" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Harem">concubines of the Ottoman Sultan</a> consisted chiefly of purchased slaves. Because Islamic law forbade Muslims to enslave fellow Muslims, the Sultan’s concubines were generally of Christian origin (<a href="/wiki/Cariye" title="Cariye">cariye</a>). The mother of a Sultan, though technically a slave, received the extremely powerful title of Valide Sultan, and at times became effective ruler of the Empire (see <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_women" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultanate of women">Sultanate of women</a>). One notable example was <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6sem_Sultan" title="Kösem Sultan">Kösem Sultan</a>, daughter of a Greek Christian priest, who dominated the Ottoman Empire during the early decades of the 17th century.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> Another notable example was <a href="/wiki/Roxelana" title="Roxelana">Roxelana</a>, the favourite wife of <a href="/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent" title="Suleiman the Magnificent">Suleiman the Magnificent</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Slavery_in_the_Crusader_states">Slavery in the Crusader states</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_medieval_Europe&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Slavery in the Crusader states">edit</a>]</div> As a result of the crusades, thousands of Muslims and Christians were sold into slavery. Once sold into slavery most were never heard from again, so it is challenging to find evidence of specific slave experiences.<a href="#cite_note-:0-31">[31]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Crusade" class="mw-redirect" title="Crusade">crusader</a> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem" title="Kingdom of Jerusalem">Kingdom of Jerusalem</a>, founded in 1099, at most 120,000 Franks ruled over 350,000 Muslims, Jews, and native Eastern Christians.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> Following the initial invasion and conquest, sometimes accompanied by massacres or expulsions of Jews and Muslims, a peaceable co-existence between followers of the three religions prevailed.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> The Crusader states inherited many slaves. To this may have been added some Muslims taken as captives of war. The Kingdom’s largest city, <a href="/wiki/Akko" class="mw-redirect" title="Akko">Acre</a>, had a large slave market; however, the vast majority of Muslims and Jews remained free. The laws of Jerusalem declared that former Muslim slaves, if genuine converts to Christianity, must be freed.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> In 1120, the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Nablus" title="Council of Nablus">Council of Nablus</a> forbade sexual relations between crusaders and their female Muslim slaves:<a href="#cite_note-Hans_E._Mayer_1982_pp._531-533-108">[108]</a> if a man raped his own slave, he would be castrated, but if he raped someone else’s slave, he would be castrated and exiled from the kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-Hans_E._Mayer_1982_pp._531-533-108">[108]</a> But Benjamin Z. Kedar argued that the canons of the Council of Nablus were in force in the 12th century but had fallen out of use by the thirteenth. Marwan Nader questions this and suggests that the canons may not have applied to the whole kingdom at all times.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> Christian law mandated Christians could not enslave other Christians; however, enslaving non-Christians was acceptable. In fact, military orders frequently enslaved Muslims and used slave labor for agricultural estates.<a href="#cite_note-:0-31">[31]</a> No Christian, whether Western or Eastern, was permitted by law to be sold into slavery, but this fate was as common for Muslim prisoners of war as it was for Christian prisoners taken by the Muslims. In the later medieval period, some slaves were used to oar Hospitaller ships. Generally, it was a relatively small number non-Christian slaves in medieval Europe, and this number significantly decreased by the end of the medieval period.<a href="#cite_note-:0-31">[31]</a> The 13th-century <a href="/wiki/Assizes_of_Jerusalem" title="Assizes of Jerusalem">Assizes of Jerusalem</a> dealt more with fugitive slaves and the punishments ascribed to them, the prohibition of slaves testifying in court, and manumission of slaves, which could be accomplished, for example, through a will, or by conversion to Christianity. Conversion was apparently used as an excuse to escape slavery by Muslims who would then continue to practise Islam; crusader lords often refused to allow them to convert, and <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_IX" title="Pope Gregory IX">Pope Gregory IX</a>, contrary to both the laws of Jerusalem and the canon laws that he himself was partially responsible for compiling, allowed for Muslim slaves to remain enslaved even if they had converted. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Slavery_in_Iberia">Slavery in Iberia</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_medieval_Europe&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Slavery in Iberia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Spain" title="Slavery in Spain">Slavery in Spain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Portugal" title="Slavery in Portugal">Slavery in Portugal</a></div> Communities of Muslims, Christians, and Jews existed on both sides of the political divide between Muslim and Christian kingdoms in Medieval Iberia: Al-Andalus hosted Jewish and Christian communities while Christian Iberia hosted Muslim and Jewish communities.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> Christianity had introduced the ethos that banned the enslavement of fellow Christians, an ethos that was reinforced by the banning of the enslavement of co-religionists during the rise of Islam.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> Additionally, the <a href="/wiki/Dar_al-islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Dar al-islam">Dar al-Islam</a> protected ‘people of the book’ (Christians and Jews living in Islamic lands) from enslavement, an immunity which also applied to Muslims living in Christian Iberia. Despite these restrictions, criminal or indebted Muslims and Christians in both regions were still subject to judicially-sanctioned slavery.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islamic_Iberia">Islamic Iberia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_medieval_Europe&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Islamic Iberia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Al-Andalus" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Al-Andalus">Slavery in Al-Andalus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Morocco" title="Slavery in Morocco">Slavery in Morocco</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Al-Andalus732.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Al-Andalus732.svg/220px-Al-Andalus732.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Al-Andalus732.svg/330px-Al-Andalus732.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Al-Andalus732.svg/440px-Al-Andalus732.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="863" data-file-height="717" /></a><figcaption>Al-Andalus in 732</figcaption></figure> An early economic pillar of the Islamic empire in Iberia (<a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a>) during the eighth century was the slave trade. Due to <a href="/wiki/Manumission" title="Manumission">manumission</a> being a form of piety under Islamic law, slavery in Muslim Spain couldn't maintain the same level of auto-reproduction as societies with older slave populations. Therefore, Al-Andalus relied on trade systems as an external means of replenishing the supply of enslaved people.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> Forming relations between the Umayyads, Khārijites and 'Abbāsids, the flow of trafficked people from the main routes of the Sahara towards <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> served as a highly lucrative trade configuration. The archaeological evidence of human trafficking and proliferation of early trade in this case follows numismatics and materiality of text.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> This monetary structure of consistent gold influx proved to be a tenet in the development of Islamic commerce.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> In this regard, the slave trade outperformed and was the most commercially successful venture for maximizing capital.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> This major change in the form of numismatics serves as a paradigm shift from the previous Visigothic economic arrangement. Additionally, it demonstrates profound change from one regional entity to another, the direct transfer of people and pure coinage from one religiously similar semi-autonomous province to another. The medieval <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a> was the scene of episodic <a href="/wiki/Warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Warfare">warfare</a> among Muslims and Christians (although sometimes Muslims and Christians were allies). Periodic raiding expeditions were sent from <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a> to ravage the Christian Iberian kingdoms, bringing back booty and people. For example, in a raid on <a href="/wiki/Lisbon" title="Lisbon">Lisbon</a> in 1189 the <a href="/wiki/Almohad" class="mw-redirect" title="Almohad">Almohad</a> caliph <a href="/wiki/Yaqub_al-Mansur" title="Yaqub al-Mansur">Yaqub al-Mansur</a> took 3,000 female and child captives, and his governor of <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Spain" title="Córdoba, Spain">Córdoba</a> took 3,000 Christian slaves in a subsequent attack upon <a href="/wiki/Silves_Municipality,_Portugal" class="mw-redirect" title="Silves Municipality, Portugal">Silves</a> in 1191; an offensive by <a href="/wiki/Alfonso_VIII_of_Castile" title="Alfonso VIII of Castile">Alfonso VIII of Castile</a> in 1182 brought him over two-thousand Muslim slaves.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> These raiding expeditions also included the Sa’ifa (summer) incursions, a tradition produced during the Amir reign of Cordoba. In addition to acquiring wealth, some of these Sa’ifa raids sought to bring mostly male captives, often eunuchs, back to Al-Andalus. They were generically referred to as <a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a>, the Arab word for Slavs.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> Slavs’ status as the most common group in the slave trade by the tenth century led to the development of the word “slave.”<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> The Saqaliba were mostly assigned to palaces as guards, concubines, and eunuchs, although they were sometimes privately owned.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> Along with Christians and Slavs, Sub-Saharan Africans were also held as slaves, brought back from the caravan trade in the Sahara. Slaves in Islamic lands were generally used for domestic, military, and administrative purposes, rarely used for agriculture or large-scale manufacturing. Christians living in Al-Andalus were not allowed to hold authority over Muslims, but they were permitted to hold non-Muslim slaves.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Christian_Iberia">Christian Iberia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_medieval_Europe&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Christian Iberia">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Iberia1300.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Iberia1300.png/220px-Iberia1300.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Iberia1300.png/330px-Iberia1300.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/Iberia1300.png 2x" data-file-width="387" data-file-height="324" /></a><figcaption>Iberia in AD 1300. (Partially based on Euratlas map of Europe, 1300.)</figcaption></figure> Contrary to suppositions of historians such as <a href="/wiki/Marc_Bloch" title="Marc Bloch">Marc Bloch</a>, slavery thrived as an institution in medieval Christian Iberia.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Slavery existed in the region under the Romans, and continued to do so under the <a href="/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigoths</a>. From the fifth to the early 8th century, large portions of the Iberian Peninsula were ruled by <a href="/wiki/Visigothic_Kingdom" title="Visigothic Kingdom">Christian Visigothic Kingdoms</a>, whose rulers worked to codify human bondage. In the 7th century, <a href="/wiki/Chindasuinth" title="Chindasuinth">King Chindasuinth</a> issued the <a href="/wiki/Visigothic_Code" title="Visigothic Code">Visigothic Code</a> (Liber Iudiciorum), to which subsequent Visigothic kings added new legislation. Although the Visigothic Kingdom collapsed in the early 8th century, portions of the Visigothic Code were still observed in parts of Spain in the following centuries. The Code, with its pronounced and frequent attention to the legal status of slaves, reveals the continuation of slavery as an institution in post-Roman Spain. The Code regulated the social conditions, behavior, and punishments of slaves in early medieval Spain. The marriage of slaves and free or freed people was prohibited. Book III, title II, iii ("Where a Freeborn Woman Marries the Slave of Another or a Freeborn Man the Female Slave of Another") stipulates that if a free woman marries another person’s slave, the couple is to be separated and given 100 lashes. Furthermore, if the woman refuses to leave the slave, then she becomes the property of the slave’s master. Likewise, any children born to the couple would follow the father’s condition and be slaves.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> Unlike <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a>, in which only slaves were liable to corporal punishment,<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> under Visigothic law, people of any social status were subject to corporal punishment. However, the physical punishment, typically beatings, administered to slaves was consistently harsher than that administered to freed or free people. Slaves could also be compelled to give testimony under torture. For example, slaves could be tortured to reveal the adultery of their masters, and it was illegal to free a slave for fear of what he or she might reveal under torture.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> Slaves' greater liability to physical punishment and judicial torture suggests their inferior social status in the eyes of Visigothic lawmakers. Slavery remained persistent in Christian Iberia after the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_conquest_of_Hispania" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad conquest of Hispania">Umayyad invasions</a> in the 8th century, and the Visigothic law codes continued to control slave ownership. However, as William Phillips notes, medieval Iberia should not be thought of as a slave society, but rather as a society that owned slaves.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> Slaves accounted for a relatively small percentage of the population, and did not make up a significant portion of the labor pool. Furthermore, while the existence of slavery continued from the earlier period, the use of slaves in post-Visigothic Christian Iberia differed from early periods. Ian Wood has suggests that, under the Visigoths, the majority of the slave population lived and worked on rural estates.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> After the Muslim invasions, slave owners (especially in the kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragon" title="Kingdom of Aragon">Aragon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Valencia" title="Kingdom of Valencia">Valencia</a>) moved away from using slaves as field laborers or in work gangs, and did not press slaves into military service.<a href="#cite_note-Phillips_19-129">[129]</a> Slaves tended to be owned singly rather than in large groups. There appear to have been many more female than male slaves, and they were most often used as domestic servants, or to supplement free labor.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-Phillips_19-129">[129]</a> In this respect, slave institutions in Aragon, especially, closely resembled those of other Mediterranean Christian kingdoms in France and Italy.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> In the kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Leon" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Leon">León</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Castile" title="Kingdom of Castile">Castile</a>, slavery followed the Visigothic model more closely than in the littoral kingdoms. Slaves in León and Castile were more likely to be employed as field laborers, supplanting free labor to support an aristocratic estate society.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> These trends in slave populations and use changed in the wake of the Black Death in 1348, which significantly increased the demand for slaves across the whole of the peninsula.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> Christians were not the only slaveholders in Christian Iberia. Both Jews and Muslims living under Christian rule owned slaves, though more commonly in Aragon and Valencia than in Castile.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> After the conquest of Valencia in 1245, the Kingdom of Aragon prohibited the possession of Christian slaves by Jews, though they were still permitted to hold Muslim or pagan slaves.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> The main role of Iberian Jews in the slave trade came as facilitators: Jews acted as slave brokers and agents of transfer between the Christian and Muslim kingdoms.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-138">[138]</a> This role caused some degree of fear among Christian populations. A letter from <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_XI" title="Pope Gregory XI">Pope Gregory XI</a> to the Bishop of <a href="/wiki/Cordoba,_Andalusia" class="mw-redirect" title="Cordoba, Andalusia">Cordoba</a> in 1239 addressed rumors that the Jews were involved in kidnapping and selling Christian women and children into slavery while their husbands were away fighting the Muslims.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-138">[138]</a> Despite these worries, the primary role of Jewish slave traders lay in facilitating the exchange of captives between Muslim and Christian rulers, one of the primary threads of economic and political connectivity between Christian and Muslim Iberia.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-138">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> In the early period after the fall of the Visigothic kingdom in the 8th century, slaves primarily came into Christian Iberia through trade with the Muslim kingdoms of the south.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> Most were Eastern European, captured in battles and raids, with the heavy majority being <a href="/wiki/Slavs" title="Slavs">Slavs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> However, the ethnic composition of slaves in Christian Iberia shifted over the course of the Middle Ages. Slaveholders in the Christian kingdoms gradually moved away from owning Christians, in accordance with Church proscriptions. In the middle of the medieval period most slaves in Christian Iberia were Muslim, either captured in battle with the Islamic states from the southern part of the peninsula, or taken from the eastern Mediterranean and imported into Iberia by merchants from cities such as <a href="/wiki/Genoa" title="Genoa">Genoa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> The Christian kingdoms of Iberia frequently traded their Muslim captives back across the border for payments of money or kind. Indeed, historian James Broadman writes that this type of redemption offered the best chance for captives and slaves to regain their freedom.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> The sale of Muslim captives, either back to the Islamic southern states or to third-party slave brokers, supplied one of the means by which Aragon and Castile financed the <a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a>. Battles and sieges provided large numbers of captives; after the siege of <a href="/wiki/Almeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Almeria">Almeria</a> in 1147, sources report that <a href="/wiki/Alfonso_VII_of_Le%C3%B3n" class="mw-redirect" title="Alfonso VII of León">Alfonso VII of León</a> sent almost 10,000 of the city’s Muslim women and children to Genoa to be sold into slavery as partial repayment of Genoese assistance in the campaign.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> Towards the end of the Reconquista, however, this source of slaves became increasingly exhausted. Muslim rulers were increasingly unable to pay ransoms, and the Christian capture of large centers of population in the south made wholesale enslavement of Muslim populations impractical.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> The loss of an Iberian Muslim source of slaves further encouraged Christians to look to other sources of manpower. Beginning with the first Portuguese slave raid in sub-Saharan Africa in 1411, the focus of slave importation began to shift from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic World, and the racial composition of slaves in Christian Iberia began to include an increasing number of Sub-Saharan Africans.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> Between 1489 and 1497 almost 2,100 black slaves were shipped from Portugal to Valencia.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-150">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto3-151">[151]</a> By the end of the 15th century, Spain held the largest population of black Africans in Europe, with a small, but growing community of black ex-slaves.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-150">[150]</a> In the mid 16th century Spain imported up to 2,000 black African slaves annually through Portugal, and by 1565 most of <a href="/wiki/Seville" title="Seville">Seville’s</a> 6,327 slaves (out of a total population of 85,538) were black Africans.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-150">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto3-151">[151]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Slavery_in_the_Mediterranean">Slavery in the Mediterranean</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_medieval_Europe&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Slavery in the Mediterranean">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Malta" title="Slavery in Malta">Slavery in Malta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genoese_slave_trade" title="Genoese slave trade">Genoese slave trade</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Venetian_slave_trade" title="Venetian slave trade">Venetian slave trade</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Republik_Venedig_Handelswege01.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Republik_Venedig_Handelswege01.png/220px-Republik_Venedig_Handelswege01.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Republik_Venedig_Handelswege01.png/330px-Republik_Venedig_Handelswege01.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Republik_Venedig_Handelswege01.png/440px-Republik_Venedig_Handelswege01.png 2x" data-file-width="943" data-file-height="501" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Maritime republics</a> of <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a> (red) and <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a> (green) and their trade routes in the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean world">Mediterranean region</a></figcaption></figure> In the Mediterranean region, individuals became enslaved through war and conquest, piracy, and frontier raiding. Additionally, some courts would sentence people to slavery, and even some people sold themselves or their children into slavery due to extreme poverty.<a href="#cite_note-:1-152">[152]</a> The incentive for slavery in the Mediterranean was the greed of the slavers. The motivation behind many raids was to make money from the resulting slaves, with no political or religious agenda. Also, state and religious institutions frequently participated in the ransoming of individuals, so piracy became a lucrative market. This meant some individuals were returned home while others were sold away.<a href="#cite_note-:1-152">[152]</a> For those who traded in the Mediterranean, it was the humanity and intellect of these enslaved peoples that made them valuable merchandise worth commodifying. To purchase an individual was to purchase their labor, autonomy, and faith; religious conversion was often a motivation for these transactions. Additionally, religious division was the fundamental basis of law for the ownership of slaves during this period; it was not legal for Christians, Muslims, or Jewish people to enslave fellow believers. However, the enslavement, and compulsory conversion, of nonbelievers or people from other religions was permissible.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> There were markets throughout the Mediterranean where enslaved people were bought and sold. In Italy the major slave trade centers were Venice and Genoa; in Iberia they were Barcelona and Valencia; and islands off the Mediterranean including Majorca, Sardinia, Sicily, Crete, Rhodes, Cyprus, and Chios also participated in slave markets. From these markets merchants would sell enslaved people domestically, or transport them to somewhere enslaved people were more in demand.<a href="#cite_note-:1-152">[152]</a> For example, the Italian slave market often found itself selling to Egypt in order to meet the Mamluk demand for slaves. This demand caused Venice and Genoa to compete with one another for control of Black Sea trading ports.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> The duties and expectations of slaves varied geographically; however, in the Mediterranean, it was most common for enslaved people to work in the households of elites. Enslaved people also worked in agricultural fields, but this was infrequent across the Mediterranean. It was most common in Venetian Crete, Genoese Chios, and Cyprus where enslaved people worked in vineyards, fields, and sugar mills. These were colonial societies, and enslaved people worked with free laborers in these areas. Enslaved women were sought after the most and therefore sold at the highest prices. This reflects the desire for domestic workers in elite households; however, enslaved women also could face sexual exploitation.<a href="#cite_note-:1-152">[152]</a> Furthermore, even if freed from their stations, the former masters of these women often maintained power over them by becoming their employers or patrons.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Slavery_in_Moldavia_and_Wallachia">Slavery in Moldavia and Wallachia</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_medieval_Europe&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Slavery in Moldavia and Wallachia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Romania" title="Slavery in Romania">Slavery in Romania</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%C8%98tefan_cel_Mare._Danie_s%C4%83la%C8%99e_de_%C8%9Bigani_pentru_Episcopia_R%C4%83d%C4%83u%C8%9Bi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/%C8%98tefan_cel_Mare._Danie_s%C4%83la%C8%99e_de_%C8%9Bigani_pentru_Episcopia_R%C4%83d%C4%83u%C8%9Bi.jpg/220px-%C8%98tefan_cel_Mare._Danie_s%C4%83la%C8%99e_de_%C8%9Bigani_pentru_Episcopia_R%C4%83d%C4%83u%C8%9Bi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/%C8%98tefan_cel_Mare._Danie_s%C4%83la%C8%99e_de_%C8%9Bigani_pentru_Episcopia_R%C4%83d%C4%83u%C8%9Bi.jpg/330px-%C8%98tefan_cel_Mare._Danie_s%C4%83la%C8%99e_de_%C8%9Bigani_pentru_Episcopia_R%C4%83d%C4%83u%C8%9Bi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/%C8%98tefan_cel_Mare._Danie_s%C4%83la%C8%99e_de_%C8%9Bigani_pentru_Episcopia_R%C4%83d%C4%83u%C8%9Bi.jpg/440px-%C8%98tefan_cel_Mare._Danie_s%C4%83la%C8%99e_de_%C8%9Bigani_pentru_Episcopia_R%C4%83d%C4%83u%C8%9Bi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="380" /></a><figcaption>Donation deed in which <a href="/wiki/Stephen_III_of_Moldavia" class="mw-redirect" title="Stephen III of Moldavia">Stephen III of Moldavia</a> donates a number of sălașe of Roma slaves to the Rădăuţi bishopric</figcaption></figure> Slavery existed on the territory of present-day <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a> while under <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">The Ottoman Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> rulership, from before the founding of the principalities of <a href="/wiki/Wallachia" title="Wallachia">Wallachia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moldavia" title="Moldavia">Moldavia</a> in 13th–14th century, until it was <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">abolished</a> in stages during the 1840s and 1850s before the independence of the <a href="/wiki/United_Principalities_of_Moldavia_and_Wallachia" title="United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia">United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia</a> was allowed, and also until 1783, in <a href="/wiki/Transylvania" title="Transylvania">Transylvania</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bukovina" title="Bukovina">Bukovina</a> (parts of the <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a> and later <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">The Austria-Hungarian Empire</a>). Most slaves were of <a href="/wiki/Roma_minority_in_Romania" class="mw-redirect" title="Roma minority in Romania">Roma</a> (Gypsy) ethnicity and a significant number of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rum%C3%A2ni&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rumâni (page does not exist)">Rumâni</a> [<a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rum%C3%A2ni_(categorie_social%C4%83)" class="extiw" title="ro:Rumâni (categorie socială)">ro</a>] in <a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">serfdom</a> slavery. Historian <a href="/wiki/Nicolae_Iorga" title="Nicolae Iorga">Nicolae Iorga</a> associated the Roma people’s arrival with the 1241 <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion of Europe</a> and considered their slavery as a vestige of that era. The practice of enslaving prisoners may also have been taken from the <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongols</a>. The ethnic identity of the "Tatar slaves" is unknown, they could have been captured <a href="/wiki/Tatars" title="Tatars">Tatars</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cumans" title="Cumans">Cumans</a>, or the slaves of Tatars and Cumans.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> While it is possible that some Romani people were slaves or auxiliary troops of the Mongols or Tatars and <a href="/wiki/Nogai_Horde" title="Nogai Horde">Nogai Horde</a>, the bulk of them came from south of the <a href="/wiki/Danube" title="Danube">Danube</a> at the end of the 14th century, some time before the <a href="/wiki/Foundation_of_Wallachia" class="mw-redirect" title="Foundation of Wallachia">foundation of Wallachia</a>. The Roma slaves were owned by the <a href="/wiki/Boyars_of_Moldavia_and_Wallachia" title="Boyars of Moldavia and Wallachia">boyars</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Wallachian_Revolution_of_1848" title="Wallachian Revolution of 1848">Wallachian Revolution of 1848</a>), the Christian Orthodox monasteries, or the state. They were used only as smiths, <a href="/wiki/Gold_panning" title="Gold panning">gold panners</a> and as agricultural workers. The Rumâni were only owned by <a href="/wiki/Boyars_of_Moldavia_and_Wallachia" title="Boyars of Moldavia and Wallachia">Boyars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Orthodox_Church" title="Romanian Orthodox Church">Monasteries</a>, until the <a href="/wiki/Independence_of_Romania" class="mw-redirect" title="Independence of Romania">Independence of Romania</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> on 9 May 1877. They were considered less valuable because they were taxable, only skilled at agricultural work and could not be used as tribute. It was common for both boyars and monasteries to register their Romanian <a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">serfs</a> as "Gypsies" so that they would not pay the taxes that were imposed on the serfs.<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> Any Romanian, regardless of gender, marrying a Roma would immediately become a slave that could be used as tribute. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Slavery_in_Russia">Slavery in Russia</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_medieval_Europe&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Slavery in Russia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Russia" title="Slavery in Russia">Slavery in Russia</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Crimean%E2%80%93Nogai_slave_raids_in_Eastern_Europe" title="Crimean–Nogai slave raids in Eastern Europe">Crimean–Nogai slave raids in Eastern Europe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kholop" title="Kholop">Crimean slave raids</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Crimean_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean slave trade">Crimean slave trade</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:17.0em;"><caption class="sidebar-outer-title"><a href="/wiki/Early_Slavs" title="Early Slavs">Early Slavic status </a></caption><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D1%81%D0%BE_%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D1%81%D0%BE_%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8.jpg/200px-%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D1%81%D0%BE_%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D1%81%D0%BE_%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8.jpg/300px-%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D1%81%D0%BE_%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D1%81%D0%BE_%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8.jpg/400px-%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D1%81%D0%BE_%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1599" data-file-height="885" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.3em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Knyaz" title="Knyaz">Knyaz</a> (sovereign)</td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.3em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Boyar" title="Boyar">Boyar</a> / <a href="/wiki/Szlachta" title="Szlachta">Szlachta</a> (noble)</td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.3em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Druzhina" title="Druzhina">Druzhinnik</a> (retainer)</td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.3em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Smerd" title="Smerd">Smerd</a> (free tenant)</td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.3em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Kholop" title="Kholop">Kholop</a> (slave)</td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Early_Slavic_status" title="Template:Early Slavic status"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Early_Slavic_status" title="Template talk:Early Slavic status"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Early_Slavic_status" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Early Slavic status"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> In <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a> and <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>, the slaves were usually classified as <a href="/wiki/Kholop" title="Kholop">kholops</a>. A kholop's master had unlimited power over his life: he could kill him, sell him, or use him as payment upon a <a href="/wiki/Debt" title="Debt">debt</a>. The master, however, was responsible before the law for his kholop’s actions. A person could become a kholop as a result of capture, selling himself or herself, being sold for debts or committed <a href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">crimes</a>, or marriage to a kholop. Until the late 10th century, the kholops represented a majority among the servants who worked lordly lands. By the 16th century, slavery in Russia consisted mostly of those who sold themselves into slavery owing to poverty.<a href="#cite_note-Richard_Hellie_1984-158">[158]</a> They worked predominantly as household servants, among the richest families, and indeed generally produced less than they consumed.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> Laws forbade the freeing of slaves in times of famine, to avoid feeding them, and slaves generally remained with the family a long time; the <a href="/wiki/Domostroy" title="Domostroy">Domostroy</a>, an advice book, speaks of the need to choose slaves of good character and to provide for them properly.<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> Slavery remained a major institution in Russia until 1723, when <a href="/wiki/Peter_the_Great" title="Peter the Great">Peter the Great</a> converted the household slaves into house <a href="/wiki/Serfs" class="mw-redirect" title="Serfs">serfs</a>. Russian agricultural slaves were formally converted into serfs earlier in 1679.<a href="#cite_note-Richard_Hellie_1984-158">[158]</a> In 1382, the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a> under <a href="/wiki/Tokhtamysh" title="Tokhtamysh">Tokhtamysh</a> sacked <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a>, burning the city and carrying off thousands of inhabitants as slaves. For years, the khanates of <a href="/wiki/Khanate_of_Kazan" title="Khanate of Kazan">Kazan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Astrakhan_Khanate" title="Astrakhan Khanate">Astrakhan</a> routinely made raids on Russian principalities for slaves and to plunder towns. Russian chronicles record about 40 raids of <a href="/wiki/List_of_Kazan_khans" title="List of Kazan khans">Kazan khans</a> on Russian territories in the first half of the 16th century.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> In 1521, the combined forces of Crimean khan <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_I_Giray" title="Mehmed I Giray">Mehmed I Giray</a> and his Kazan allies attacked Moscow and captured thousands of slaves.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> About 30 major <a href="/wiki/Tatars" title="Tatars">Tatar</a> raids were recorded into <a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Muscovite</a> territories between 1558 and 1596.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> In 1571, the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Tatars" title="Crimean Tatars">Crimean Tatars</a> attacked and sacked Moscow, burning everything but the <a href="/wiki/Kremlin" title="Kremlin">Kremlin</a> and taking thousands of captives as slaves for the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean slave trade">Crimean slave trade</a>.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimea</a>, about 75% of the population consisted of slaves.<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Slavery_in_Poland_and_Lithuania">Slavery in Poland and Lithuania</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_medieval_Europe&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Slavery in Poland and Lithuania">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Poland" title="Slavery in Poland">Slavery in Poland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Lithuania" title="Slavery in Lithuania">Slavery in Lithuania</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lithuanian_Statute_I.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Lithuanian_Statute_I.jpg/170px-Lithuanian_Statute_I.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Lithuanian_Statute_I.jpg/255px-Lithuanian_Statute_I.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Lithuanian_Statute_I.jpg/340px-Lithuanian_Statute_I.jpg 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="551" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Statutes_of_Lithuania" title="Statutes of Lithuania">Statutes of Lithuania</a> banned slavery, 1529</figcaption></figure> Slavery in Poland existed on the territory of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland_(Piasts)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Poland (Piasts)">Kingdom of Poland</a> during the times of the <a href="/wiki/Piast_dynasty" title="Piast dynasty">Piast dynasty</a>;<a href="#cite_note-bardach40-41-166">[166]</a> however, slavery was restricted to those captured during war. In some special cases and for limited periods <a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">serfdom</a> was also applied to debtors. Slavery was banned officially in 1529 and prohibition on slavery was one of the most important of the <a href="/wiki/Statutes_of_Lithuania" title="Statutes of Lithuania">Statutes of Lithuania</a>, which had to be implemented before the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy of Lithuania</a> could join the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a> in 1569. The First Statute was drafted in 1522 and came into power in 1529 by the initiative of the <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Council_of_Lords" title="Lithuanian Council of Lords">Lithuanian Council of Lords</a>. It has been proposed that the codification was initiated by <a href="/wiki/Grand_Chancellor_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Chancellor of Lithuania">Grand Chancellor of Lithuania</a> <a href="/wiki/Miko%C5%82aj_Radziwi%C5%82%C5%82_(1470%E2%80%931521)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mikołaj Radziwiłł (1470–1521)">Mikołaj Radziwiłł</a> as a reworking and expansion of the 15th century <a href="/wiki/Casimir%27s_Code" title="Casimir's Code">Casimir's Code</a>.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Slavery_in_Scandinavia">Slavery in Scandinavia</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_medieval_Europe&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Slavery in Scandinavia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Denmark" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Denmark">Slavery in Denmark</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Sweden" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Sweden">Slavery in Sweden</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">Thrall</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LSR_Wikinger_-_Sklavenfessel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/LSR_Wikinger_-_Sklavenfessel.jpg/170px-LSR_Wikinger_-_Sklavenfessel.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/LSR_Wikinger_-_Sklavenfessel.jpg/255px-LSR_Wikinger_-_Sklavenfessel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/LSR_Wikinger_-_Sklavenfessel.jpg/340px-LSR_Wikinger_-_Sklavenfessel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Viking-era slave chains</figcaption></figure> The evidence indicates that slavery in Scandinavia was more common in southern regions, as there are  fewer northern provincial laws that contain mentions of slavery. Likewise, slaves were likely numerous but consolidated under the ownership of elites as chattel labor on large farm estates.<a href="#cite_note-:6-168">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> The laws from 12th and 13th centuries describe the legal status of two categories. According to the Norwegian <a href="/wiki/Gulating" title="Gulating">Gulating</a> code (in about 1160), domestic slaves could not, unlike foreign slaves, be sold out of the country. This and other laws defined slaves as their master’s property at the same level as cattle; if either were harmed then the perpetrator was responsible for damages, but if either caused damage to property then the owners were held accountable.<a href="#cite_note-:3-32">[32]</a> It also described a procedure for giving a slave their freedom. According to the Law of Scania<a href="#cite_note-:7-170">[170]</a> slaves could be granted freedom or redeem it themselves, upon which they must then be accepted into a new kin group or face societal ostracization.<a href="#cite_note-:7-170">[170]</a> The Law of Scania indicates free men may become slaves as a way to atone for a crime with the implication they would be eventually freed. Likewise, the Gotlander Guta Lag indicates slavery could be for a fixed period and as a method to pay for debt.<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> Within the Older Västgöta Law widows are only allowed to remarry if an enslaved fostre or fostra could manage the farm in her absence. Likewise, the Younger Västgöta Law indicates further trust for fostre and fostra as they could occasionally be entrusted with the master’s keys. Likewise, some fostre were in such a trusted position they could undertake military actions while a slave.<a href="#cite_note-:3-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-:7-170">[170]</a> Yet, for all their independence, any children of fostre or fostra were still property of their masters.<a href="#cite_note-:3-32">[32]</a> A freed slave did not have full legal status; for example, the punishment for killing a former slave was low. A former slave’s son also had a low status, but higher than that of his parents. Women were commonly taken as slaves and forced into concubinage for lords. The children of these women had little formal rights with inheritance and legitimacy possible should they be needed for succession or favored by their parents, but nothing was guaranteed.<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> Slavery began to be replaced by a feudal-style tenant farmer economy wherein free men tied to the land worked farms for a lord reducing the need for slaves<a href="#cite_note-:7-170">[170]</a><a href="#cite_note-:6-168">[168]</a> The Norwegian law code from 1274, <a href="/wiki/Landslov" class="mw-redirect" title="Landslov">Landslov</a> (Land’s law), does not mention slaves, but former slaves. Thus it seems that slavery was abolished in Norway by this time.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In Denmark, slavery was gradually replaced by serfdom (hoveriet) in the 13th-century, and in Sweden, slavery was abolished in 1334 and not replaced with serfdom, which never existed in Sweden.<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Slavery_in_the_British_Isles">Slavery in the British Isles</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_medieval_Europe&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Slavery in the British Isles">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Britain" title="Slavery in Britain">Slavery in Britain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Ireland" title="Slavery in Ireland">Slavery in Ireland</a></div> British <a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Wales in the Middle Ages">Wales</a> and Gaelic <a href="/wiki/Gaelic_Ireland" title="Gaelic Ireland">Ireland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Scotland in the Middle Ages">Scotland</a> were among the last areas of Christian Europe to give up their institution of slavery. Under Gaelic custom, prisoners of war were routinely taken as slaves. During the period that slavery was disappearing across most of western Europe, it was reaching its height in the British Isles: with the Viking invasions and the subsequent warring between Scandinavians and the natives, the number of captives taken as slaves drastically increased. The Irish church was vehemently opposed to slavery and blamed the 1169 <a href="/wiki/Norman_invasion_of_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman invasion of Ireland">Norman invasion</a> on divine punishment for the practice, along with local acceptance of <a href="/wiki/Polygyny" title="Polygyny">polygyny</a> and <a href="/wiki/Divorce" title="Divorce">divorce</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Serfdom_versus_slavery">Serfdom versus slavery</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_medieval_Europe&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Serfdom versus slavery">edit</a>]</div> In considering how serfdom evolved from slavery, historians who study the divide between slavery and serfdom encounter several issues of <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiography</a> and methodology. Some historians believe that slavery transitioned into serfdom (a view that has only been around for the last 200 years), though there is disagreement among them regarding how rapid this transition was.<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> Pierre Bonnassie, a medieval historian, thought that the chattel slavery of the ancient world ceased to exist in the Europe of the 10th century and was followed by <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudal</a> serfdom.<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> Jean-Pierre Devroey thinks that the shift from slavery to serfdom was gradual as well in some parts of the continent.<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> Other areas, though, did not have what he calls "western-style serfdom" after the end of slavery, such as the rural areas of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceC-177">[177]</a> Complicating this issue is that regions in Europe often had both serfs and slaves simultaneously. In northwestern Europe, a transition from slavery to serfdom happened by the 12th century. The Catholic Church promoted the transformation by giving the example. Enslavement of fellow Catholics was prohibited in 992 and manumission was declared to be a pious act. However it remained legal to enslave people of other religions and dogmas.<a href="#cite_note-auto2-178">[178]</a> Generally speaking, regarding how slaves differed from serfs, the underpinnings of slavery and serfdom are debated as well. Dominique Barthélemy, among others, has questioned the very premises for neatly distinguishing serfdom from slavery, arguing that a binary classification masks the many shades of servitude.<a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a> Of particular interest to historians is the role of serfdom and slavery within the state, and the implications that held for both serf and slave. Some think that slavery was the exclusion of people from the public sphere and its institutions, whereas serfdom was a complex form of dependency that usually lacked a codified basis in the legal system.<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> Wendy Davies argues that serfs, like slaves, also became excluded from the public judicial system and that judicial matters were attended to in the private courts of their respective lords.<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> Despite the scholarly disagreement, it is possible to piece together a general picture of slavery and serfdom. Slaves typically owned no property, and were in fact the property of their masters. Slaves worked full-time for their masters and operated under a negative <a href="/wiki/Incentives" class="mw-redirect" title="Incentives">incentive structure</a>; in other words, failure to work resulted in physical punishment.<a href="#cite_note-:2-182">[182]</a> Serfs held plots of land, which was essentially a form of "payment" that the lord offered in exchange for the serf’s service.<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> Serfs worked part-time for the masters and part-time for themselves and had opportunities to accumulate personal wealth that often did not exist for the slave.<a href="#cite_note-:2-182">[182]</a> Slaves were generally imported from foreign countries or continents, via the <a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery" title="History of slavery">slave trade</a>. Serfs were typically indigenous Europeans and were not subject to the same involuntary movements as slaves. Serfs worked in family units, whereas the concept of family was generally murkier for slaves.<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> At any given moment, a slave’s family could be torn apart via trade, and masters often used this threat to coerce compliant behavior from the slave.<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a> The end of serfdom is also debated, with Georges Duby pointing to the early 12th century as a rough end point for "serfdom in the strict sense of the term".<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a> Other historians dispute this assertion, citing discussions and the mention of serfdom as an institution during later dates (such as in 13th century <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>, or in Central Europe, where the rise of serfdom coincided with its decline in Western Europe). There are several approaches to get a time span for the transition, and <a href="/wiki/Lexicography" title="Lexicography">lexicography</a> is one such method. There is supposedly a clear shift in diction when referencing those who were either slaves or serfs at approximately 1000, though there is not a consensus on how significant this shift is, or if it even exists.<a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a> In addition, <a href="/wiki/Numismatists" class="mw-redirect" title="Numismatists">numismatists</a> shed light on the decline of serfdom. There is a widespread theory that the introduction of currency hastened the decline of serfdom because it was preferable to pay for labor rather than depend on feudal obligations. Some historians argue that landlords began selling serfs their land – and hence, their freedom – during periods of <a href="/wiki/Economic_inflation" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic inflation">economic inflation</a> across Europe.<a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a> Other historians argue that the end of slavery came from the royalty, who gave serfs freedom through edicts and legislation in an attempt to broaden their tax base.<a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a> The absence of serfdom in some parts of medieval Europe raises several questions. Devroey thinks it is because slavery was not born out of economic structures in these areas, but was rather a societal practice.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceC-177">[177]</a> Heinrich Fichtenau points out that in Central Europe, there was not a labor market strong enough for slavery to become a necessity.<a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Justifications_for_slavery">Justifications for slavery</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_medieval_Europe&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Justifications for slavery">edit</a>]</div> In late Rome, the official attitude toward slavery was ambivalent. According to <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Juris_Civilis" title="Corpus Juris Civilis">Justinian’s legal code</a>, slavery was defined as "an institution according to the law of nations whereby one person falls under the <a href="/wiki/Property_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Property rights">property rights</a> of another, contrary to nature".<a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a> Justifications for slavery throughout the medieval period were dominated by the perception of religious difference. Slaves were often outsiders taken in war. As such, Hebrew and Islamic thinking both conceived of the slave as an "enemy within".<a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a> In the Christian tradition, <a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">pagans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heretics" class="mw-redirect" title="Heretics">heretics</a> were similarly considered enemies of the faith who could be justly enslaved. In theory, slaves who converted could embark on the path to freedom, but practices were inconsistent: masters were not obliged to <a href="/wiki/Manumission" title="Manumission">manumit</a> them and the practice of baptising slaves was often discouraged.<a href="#cite_note-Rayborn,_p.93-193">[193]</a> The enslavement of co-religionists was discouraged, if not forbidden, for Christians, Jews, and Muslims alike. Consequently, northern European pagans and black Africans were a target for all three religious groups. Ethnic and religious difference were conflated in the justification of slavery.<a href="#cite_note-Rayborn,_p.93-193">[193]</a> A major Christian justification for the use of slavery, especially against those with dark skin, was the <a href="/wiki/Curse_of_Ham" title="Curse of Ham">Curse of Ham</a>. The Curse of Ham refers to a biblical parable (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%209:20-27">Gen. 9:20–27</a>) in which <a href="/wiki/Ham_(son_of_Noah)" title="Ham (son of Noah)">Ham</a>, the son of <a href="/wiki/Noah" title="Noah">Noah</a>, sins by seeing his father inebriated and naked, although scholars differ on the exact nature of Ham’s transgression. Noah then curses Ham’s offspring, <a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a>, with being a "servant of servants unto his brethren". Although race or skin color is not mentioned, many Jewish, Christian and Muslim scholars began to interpret the passage as a curse of both slavery and black skin, in an attempt to justify the enslavement of people of color, specifically those of African descent.<a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a> In the medieval period, however, it was also used by some Christians as a justification for serfdom. Muslim sources in the 7th century allude to the Curse of Ham gaining relevance as a justifying myth for the Islamic world’s longstanding enslavement of Africans. The apparent discrepancy between the notion of human liberty founded in <a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">natural law</a> and the recognition of slavery by <a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">canon law</a> was resolved by a legal "compromise": enslavement was allowable given a just cause, which could then be defined by papal authority.<a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a> The state of slavery was thought to be closely tied to <a href="/wiki/Original_sin" title="Original sin">original sin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a> Towards the middle of the 15th century, the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_slavery" title="Catholic Church and slavery">Catholic Church</a>, in particular the Papacy, took an active role in offering justifications for the enslavement of Saracens, pagans, infidels, and "other enemies of Christ". In 1452, a <a href="/wiki/Papal_bull" title="Papal bull">papal bull</a> entitled <a href="/wiki/Dum_Diversas" title="Dum Diversas">Dum Diversas</a> authorized <a href="/wiki/Afonso_V_of_Portugal" title="Afonso V of Portugal">King Afonso V of Portugal</a> to enslave any "Saracens" or "pagans" he encountered. The Pope, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Nicholas_V" title="Pope Nicholas V">Pope Nicholas V</a>, recognized King Alfonso’s military action as legitimate in the form of the papal bull, and declared the <blockquote>full and free power, through the Apostolic authority by this edict, to invade, conquer, fight, and subjugate the Saracens and pagans, and other infidels and other enemies of Christ, and ... to reduce their persons into perpetual servitude ...<a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a></blockquote> In a follow-up bull, released in 1455 and entitled <a href="/wiki/Romanus_Pontifex" title="Romanus Pontifex">Romanus Pontifex</a>, Pope Nicholas V reiterated his support for the enslavement of infidels in the context of Portugal’s monopoly on North African trade routes.<a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a> Historians such as Timothy Rayborn have contended that religious justifications served to mask the economic necessities underlying the institution of slavery.<a href="#cite_note-Rayborn,_p.93-193">[193]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_medieval_Europe&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_slavery" title="Catholic Church and slavery">Catholic Church and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity and slavery">Christianity and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery" title="History of slavery">History of slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_slavery" title="Islamic views on slavery">Islamic views on slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Greece" title="Slavery in ancient Greece">Slavery in ancient Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Slavery in ancient Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_antiquity" title="Slavery in antiquity">Slavery in antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Bible_and_slavery" title="The Bible and slavery">The Bible and slavery</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_medieval_Europe&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRio2017" class="citation book cs1">Rio, Alice (30 March 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=V6OpDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA23">Slavery After Rome, 500–1100</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-100902-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-100902-0"><bdi>978-0-19-100902-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+After+Rome%2C+500%E2%80%931100&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017-03-30&rft.isbn=978-0-19-100902-0&rft.aulast=Rio&rft.aufirst=Alice&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DV6OpDgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRodriguez1997" class="citation book cs1">Rodriguez, Junius P. (December 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA596">"Slavery in medieval Europe"</a>. The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery. ABC-CLIO. p. 596. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87436-885-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87436-885-7"><bdi>978-0-87436-885-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Slavery+in+medieval+Europe&rft.btitle=The+Historical+Encyclopedia+of+World+Slavery&rft.pages=596&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=1997-12&rft.isbn=978-0-87436-885-7&rft.aulast=Rodriguez&rft.aufirst=Junius+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DATq5_6h2AT0C%26pg%3DPA596&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> 2 volumes </li> <li id="cite_note-Biermann-Jankowiak-2021-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Biermann-Jankowiak-2021_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Biermann-Jankowiak-2021_3-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBiermannJankowiak2021" class="citation book cs1">Biermann, Felix; Jankowiak, Marek (18 November 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t_FPEAAAQBAJ">The Archaeology of Slavery in Early Medieval Northern Europe: The invisible commodity</a>. Springer Nature. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-73291-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-030-73291-2"><bdi>978-3-030-73291-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Archaeology+of+Slavery+in+Early+Medieval+Northern+Europe%3A+The+invisible+commodity&rft.pub=Springer+Nature&rft.date=2021-11-18&rft.isbn=978-3-030-73291-2&rft.aulast=Biermann&rft.aufirst=Felix&rft.au=Jankowiak%2C+Marek&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dt_FPEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-vgoth-code-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-vgoth-code_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vgoth-code_4-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vgoth-code_4-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vgoth-code_4-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScott,_S.P." class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Scott, S.P. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libro.uca.edu/vcode/vg4-4.htm">"Forum judicum"</a> [The Visigothic Code]. libro.uca.edu/vcode (in Latin). Conway, AR: University of Central Arkansas.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=libro.uca.edu%2Fvcode&rft.atitle=Forum+judicum&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibro.uca.edu%2Fvcode%2Fvg4-4.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> Forum judicum<a href="#cite_note-vgoth-code-4">[4]</a>(<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libro.uca.edu/vcode/vg4-4.htm#l1">Book IV, Title IV</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> Forum judicum<a href="#cite_note-vgoth-code-4">[4]</a>(<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libro.uca.edu/vcode/vg3-1.htm#l3">Book III, Title I, item III</a>)<a href="#cite_note-vgoth-code-4">[4]</a>(<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libro.uca.edu/vcode/vg3-3.htm#l3">Book III, Title III, item III</a>)<a href="#cite_note-vgoth-code-4">[4]</a>(<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libro.uca.edu/vcode/vg3-4.htm#l1">Book III, Title IV</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRio2017" class="citation book cs1">Rio, Alice (30 March 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=V6OpDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA39">Slavery After Rome, 500-1100</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 39. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-100902-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-100902-0"><bdi>978-0-19-100902-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+After+Rome%2C+500-1100&rft.pages=39&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017-03-30&rft.isbn=978-0-19-100902-0&rft.aulast=Rio&rft.aufirst=Alice&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DV6OpDgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA39&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFouracreGerberding1996" class="citation book cs1">Fouracre, Paul; Gerberding, Richard A. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uifpAAAAIAAJ">Late Merovingian France: History and hagiography</a>. Manchester University Press. pp. 97–99 & <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uifpAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA111640–720">111</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7190-4791-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-7190-4791-9"><bdi>0-7190-4791-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Late+Merovingian+France%3A+History+and+hagiography&rft.pages=97-99+%26+111&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-7190-4791-9&rft.aulast=Fouracre&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Gerberding%2C+Richard+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuifpAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090227083435/http://www.domesdaybook.net/helpfiles/hs2970.htm">"Slave"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Domesday_Book" title="Domesday Book">Domesday Book</a>. 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Istituto Veneto di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti, Classe di Scienze Morali e Lettere Ser. 2, vol. 99 (1939–40) p. 11–49 </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160626095624/http://arielcaliban.org/PX_pacta_veneta.pdf">"Pacta Veneta. A chronology in four steps. PAX TIBI MARCE Venice: government, law, jurisprudence Venezia: istituzioni, diritto, giurisprudenza"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.arielcaliban.org/PX_pacta_veneta.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 26 June 2016. 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Duchesne (Volume 1). 1886. p. 426–439. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/duchesne01">Available on archive.org</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15743b.htm">"CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Pope St. Zachary"</a>. newadvent.org. Retrieved 24 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=newadvent.org&rft.atitle=CATHOLIC+ENCYCLOPEDIA%3A+Pope+St.+Zachary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Fcathen%2F15743b.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> Reverend Alban Butler. "St. Zachary, Pope and Confessor". The Lives of the Saints, Volume 3. 1866. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.bartleby.com/210/3/152.html">[1]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-rafftolls-21"><a href="#cite_ref-rafftolls_21-0">^</a> MGH, Leges, Capitularia regum Francorum, II, ed. by A. Boretius, Hanovre, 1890, p. 250–252 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/capitulariaregum01bore">(available on-line)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-valante-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-valante_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-valante_22-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-valante_22-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFValante2013" class="citation book cs1">Valante, Mary A. (2013). "Castrating Monks: Vikings, the Slave Trade, and the Value of Eunuchs". In Tracy, Larissa (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7722/j.ctt2tt1pr">Castration and Culture in the Middle Ages</a>. Boydell & Brewer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84384-351-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84384-351-1"><bdi>978-1-84384-351-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7722/j.ctt2tt1pr">10.7722/j.ctt2tt1pr</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Castrating+Monks%3A+Vikings%2C+the+Slave+Trade%2C+and+the+Value+of+Eunuchs&rft.btitle=Castration+and+Culture+in+the+Middle+Ages&rft.pub=Boydell+%26+Brewer&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.7722%2Fj.ctt2tt1pr%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-1-84384-351-1&rft.aulast=Valante&rft.aufirst=Mary+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.7722%2Fj.ctt2tt1pr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C&pg=PA45">Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800</a>. 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ABC-CLIO. p. 674. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780874368857" title="Special:BookSources/9780874368857"><bdi>9780874368857</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Historical+Encyclopedia+of+World+Slavery&rft.pages=674&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=9780874368857&rft.au=Junius+P+Rodriguez&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DATq5_6h2AT0C%26pg%3DPA674&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuhn1973" class="citation book cs1">Kuhn, Hans (1973). Amt. 1. Sprachlichee. RGA 1:258. p. 258.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Amt.+1.+Sprachlichee&rft.pages=258&rft.pub=RGA+1%3A258&rft.date=1973&rft.aulast=Kuhn&rft.aufirst=Hans&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-31">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_31-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_31-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_31-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_31-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSusan_Jane_Allen2017" class="citation book cs1">Susan Jane Allen (2017). An Introduction to the Crusades. North York, Ontario, Canada. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4426-0023-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4426-0023-2"><bdi>978-1-4426-0023-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/983482121">983482121</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+the+Crusades&rft.place=North+York%2C+Ontario%2C+Canada&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F983482121&rft.isbn=978-1-4426-0023-2&rft.au=Susan+Jane+Allen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_32-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_32-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_32-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_32-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSawyer2000" class="citation book cs1">Sawyer, Birgit (2000). The Viking-Age Rune-Stones: custom and commemoration in early medieval Scandinavia. OUP Oxford.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Viking-Age+Rune-Stones%3A+custom+and+commemoration+in+early+medieval+Scandinavia&rft.pub=OUP+Oxford&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Sawyer&rft.aufirst=Birgit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrink2021" class="citation web cs1">Brink, Stefan (23 September 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197532355.003.0004">"Scandinavian Slavery"</a>. Thraldom. Oxford University Press. pp. 70–76. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foso%2F9780197532355.003.0004">10.1093/oso/9780197532355.003.0004</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-753235-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-753235-5"><bdi>978-0-19-753235-5</bdi></a>. Retrieved 22 November 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Thraldom&rft.atitle=Scandinavian+Slavery&rft.pages=70-76&rft.date=2021-09-23&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foso%2F9780197532355.003.0004&rft.isbn=978-0-19-753235-5&rft.aulast=Brink&rft.aufirst=Stefan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1093%2Foso%2F9780197532355.003.0004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeebøll-Holm2020" class="citation journal cs1">Heebøll-Holm, Thomas K. (4 June 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03468755.2020.1748106">"Piratical slave-raiding – the demise of a Viking practice in high medieval Denmark"</a>. Scandinavian Journal of History. 46 (4): 431–454. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03468755.2020.1748106">10.1080/03468755.2020.1748106</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0346-8755">0346-8755</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:219919380">219919380</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scandinavian+Journal+of+History&rft.atitle=Piratical+slave-raiding+%E2%80%93+the+demise+of+a+Viking+practice+in+high+medieval+Denmark&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=431-454&rft.date=2020-06-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A219919380%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0346-8755&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F03468755.2020.1748106&rft.aulast=Heeb%C3%B8ll-Holm&rft.aufirst=Thomas+K.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1080%2F03468755.2020.1748106&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mnh.si.edu/vikings/voyage/subset/iceland/history.html">Iceland History</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReuter2013" class="citation cs2">Reuter, Timothy (1 January 2013), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.7765/9781526112736.00009">"The text – The Annals of Fulda"</a>, The Annals of Fulda, Manchester University Press, p. 88, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7765%2F9781526112736.00009">10.7765/9781526112736.00009</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781526112736" title="Special:BookSources/9781526112736"><bdi>9781526112736</bdi></a>, retrieved 22 November 2021</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Annals+of+Fulda&rft.atitle=The+text+%E2%80%93+The+Annals+of+Fulda&rft.pages=88&rft.date=2013-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7765%2F9781526112736.00009&rft.isbn=9781526112736&rft.aulast=Reuter&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.7765%2F9781526112736.00009&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFE.g._Mac_Airt_and_Mac_Niocaill1983" class="citation book cs1">E.g. Mac Airt and Mac Niocaill (1983). The Annals of Ulster, to AD 1131. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies. p. 311.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Annals+of+Ulster%2C+to+AD+1131&rft.place=Dublin&rft.pages=311&rft.pub=Dublin+Institute+for+Advanced+Studies&rft.date=1983&rft.au=E.g.+Mac+Airt+and+Mac+Niocaill&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTschan1959" class="citation book cs1">Tschan, Francis J., ed. (1959). Adam of Bremen. History of the Archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 190, bk. 4, ch.6.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Adam+of+Bremen.+History+of+the+Archbishops+of+Hamburg-Bremen&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=190%2C+bk.+4%2C+ch.6&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1959&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMagnussonPalsson1969" class="citation book cs1">Magnusson, Magnus; Palsson, Hermann (1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/223343478">Laxdaela saga ; Translated with an introduction by Magnus Magnusson and Hermann Palsson</a>. Penguin. p. 64. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/223343478">223343478</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Laxdaela+saga+%3B+Translated+with+an+introduction+by+Magnus+Magnusson+and+Hermann+Palsson.&rft.pages=64&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=1969&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F223343478&rft.aulast=Magnusson&rft.aufirst=Magnus&rft.au=Palsson%2C+Hermann&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F223343478&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrag1982" class="citation journal cs1">Krag, Claus (1982). "Treller og Trellehold". Historisk Tidsskrift 61 (3): 209–227.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historisk+Tidsskrift+61&rft.atitle=Treller+og+Trellehold&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=209-227&rft.date=1982&rft.aulast=Krag&rft.aufirst=Claus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> Niels Skyum-Nielsen, "Nordic Slavery in an International Context," Medieval Scandinavia 11 (1978–79) 126–48 </li> <li id="cite_note-aroundtheworldineightyyears.com-42"><a href="#cite_ref-aroundtheworldineightyyears.com_42-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aroundtheworldineightyyears.com/viking-dublin/">"The Slave Market of Dublin"</a>. 23 April 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Slave+Market+of+Dublin&rft.date=2013-04-23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aroundtheworldineightyyears.com%2Fviking-dublin%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> The New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume 3, C.900-c.1024. (1995). Storbritannien: Cambridge University Press. p. 91 </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> The World of the Khazars: New Perspectives. Selected Papers from the Jerusalem 1999 International Khazar Colloquium. (2007). Nederländerna: Brill. p. 232 </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> The New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume 3, C.900-c.1024. (1995). Storbritannien: Cambridge University Press. p. 504 </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131001082748/http://www.uib.no/jais/v003ht/03-001-025Montgom1.htm">"James E. Montgomery, IBN FAḌLĀN AND THE RŪSIYYAH"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uib.no/jais/v003ht/03-001-025Montgom1.htm">the original</a> on 1 October 2013. Retrieved 24 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=James+E.+Montgomery%2C+IBN+FA%E1%B8%8CL%C4%80N+AND+THE+R%C5%AASIYYAH&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uib.no%2Fjais%2Fv003ht%2F03-001-025Montgom1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.medievalists.net/2014/04/medieval-slave-traders-go-finland/">"Why did Medieval Slave Traders go to Finland?"</a>. 17 April 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Why+did+Medieval+Slave+Traders+go+to+Finland%3F&rft.date=2014-04-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.medievalists.net%2F2014%2F04%2Fmedieval-slave-traders-go-finland%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> Medieval slave trade routes in Eastern Europe extended from Finland and the Baltic Countries to Central Asia <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.uef.fi/en/-/ita-euroopan-orjakaupan-reitit-ulottuivat-keskiajalla-suomesta-ja-baltiasta-keski-aasiaan">[2]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141210083057/http://www.uef.fi/en/-/ita-euroopan-orjakaupan-reitit-ulottuivat-keskiajalla-suomesta-ja-baltiasta-keski-aasiaan">Archived</a> 10 December 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> Korpela, Jukka. The Baltic Finnic People in the Medieval and Pre-Modern Eastern European Slave Trade, in 'Russian History, Volume 41, Issue 1' p. 85-117 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://booksandjournals.brillonline.com/content/journals/10.1163/18763316-04101006">[3]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSomerville2014" class="citation book cs1">Somerville, Angus A., trans. (2014). The Viking Age: A Reader. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. 195–198.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Viking+Age%3A+A+Reader&rft.place=Toronto&rft.pages=195-198&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Somerville&rft.aufirst=Angus+A.%2C+trans.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/rubruck.html">"William of Rubruck's Account of the Mongols"</a>. depts.washington.edu. 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Retrieved 24 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Life+in+13th+Century+Novgorod+%E2%80%93+Women+and+Class+Structure&rft.date=2009-10-26&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgeocities.com%2Fmedievalnovgorod%2Fnov10.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sras.org/news2.phtml?m=477">"The Effects of the Mongol Empire on Russia"</a>. Retrieved 24 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Effects+of+the+Mongol+Empire+on+Russia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sras.org%2Fnews2.phtml%3Fm%3D477&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157">Historical survey > Slave societies</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalina_I._Yermolenko2010" class="citation book cs1">Galina I. Yermolenko (15 July 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xjyVS72I2ocC">Roxolana in European Literature, History and Culture</a>. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 111. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-6761-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-6761-2"><bdi>978-0-7546-6761-2</bdi></a>. Retrieved 31 May 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roxolana+in+European+Literature%2C+History+and+Culture&rft.pages=111&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing%2C+Ltd.&rft.date=2010-07-15&rft.isbn=978-0-7546-6761-2&rft.au=Galina+I.+Yermolenko&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxjyVS72I2ocC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbelly2011" class="citation book cs1">Campbelly, Jamesetta (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UN8CAR5EEmgC">"Part I: The Romans to the Norman Conquest, 500 BC – AD 1066"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/J._C._D._Clark" title="J. C. D. Clark">Clark, Jonathan</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worldbyitselfhis0000clar/page/23">A World by Itself: A History of the British Isles</a>. Random House. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worldbyitselfhis0000clar/page/23">23</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780712664967" title="Special:BookSources/9780712664967"><bdi>9780712664967</bdi></a>. <q>Whatever currency was in use [in Ireland in antiquity], it was not coin – as in other pre-coin economies, there was a system of conventional valuations in which female slaves, for example, were important units.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Part+I%3A+The+Romans+to+the+Norman+Conquest%2C+500+BC+%E2%80%93+AD+1066&rft.btitle=A+World+by+Itself%3A+A+History+of+the+British+Isles&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780712664967&rft.aulast=Campbelly&rft.aufirst=Jamesetta&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUN8CAR5EEmgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeenan2004" class="citation book cs1">Keenan, Desmond (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=k2Ol_XFFH_oC">The True Origins of Irish Society</a>. Xlibris Corporation. p. 152. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781465318695" title="Special:BookSources/9781465318695"><bdi>9781465318695</bdi></a>. <q>For the slave raiders, slaves were a valuable currency. You could sell them to buy wine and other luxury goods. There was always a market for them. There was always an unending supply of them, if only you were stronger than your neighbour. [...] For the Irish, slave-raiding was a lucrative extension to the cattle-raiding.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+True+Origins+of+Irish+Society&rft.pages=152&rft.pub=Xlibris+Corporation&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9781465318695&rft.aulast=Keenan&rft.aufirst=Desmond&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dk2Ol_XFFH_oC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrawley1910" class="citation cs2">Crawley, John J. (1910), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ewtn.com/library/MARY/ANSELM.HTM">Lives of the Saints</a>, John J. Crawley & Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lives+of+the+Saints&rft.pub=John+J.+Crawley+%26+Co.&rft.date=1910&rft.aulast=Crawley&rft.aufirst=John+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ewtn.com%2Flibrary%2FMARY%2FANSELM.HTM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSturges2015" class="citation book cs1">Sturges, Robert S. (2015). Aucassin and Nicolette. East Lansing: Michigan State UP. p. xv. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781611861570" title="Special:BookSources/9781611861570"><bdi>9781611861570</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aucassin+and+Nicolette&rft.place=East+Lansing&rft.pages=xv&rft.pub=Michigan+State+UP&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781611861570&rft.aulast=Sturges&rft.aufirst=Robert+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/1248serfs5.asp">"Internet History Sourcebooks Project"</a>. sourcebooks.fordham.edu. Retrieved 24 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=sourcebooks.fordham.edu&rft.atitle=Internet+History+Sourcebooks+Project&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsourcebooks.fordham.edu%2Fsource%2F1248serfs5.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnne_Taylor2007" class="citation journal cs1">Anne Taylor, Julie (1 April 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080/13602000701308889">"Freedom and Bondage among Muslims in Southern Italy during the Thirteenth Century"</a>. Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs. 27 (1): 72–73. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13602000701308889">10.1080/13602000701308889</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1360-2004">1360-2004</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:216117913">216117913</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Muslim+Minority+Affairs&rft.atitle=Freedom+and+Bondage+among+Muslims+in+Southern+Italy+during+the+Thirteenth+Century&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=72-73&rft.date=2007-04-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A216117913%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1360-2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F13602000701308889&rft.aulast=Anne+Taylor&rft.aufirst=Julie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%2F13602000701308889&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCassar1968" class="citation journal cs1">Cassar, P (24 July 1968). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1033829">"A medical service for slaves in Malta during the rule of the Order of St. John of Jerusalem"</a>. Medical History. 12 (3): 270–277. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0025727300013314">10.1017/s0025727300013314</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1033829">1033829</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4875614">4875614</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medical+History&rft.atitle=A+medical+service+for+slaves+in+Malta+during+the+rule+of+the+Order+of+St.+John+of+Jerusalem.&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=270-277&rft.date=1968-07-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1033829%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F4875614&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0025727300013314&rft.aulast=Cassar&rft.aufirst=P&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1033829&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090112130548/http://www.hmml.org/centers/malta/hospitallers/hospitallers.html">"Brief History of the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem"</a>. Hmml.org. 23 September 2010. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hmml.org/centers/malta/hospitallers/hospitallers.html">the original</a> on 12 January 2009. Retrieved 4 December 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Brief+History+of+the+Knights+of+St.+John+of+Jerusalem&rft.pub=Hmml.org&rft.date=2010-09-23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hmml.org%2Fcenters%2Fmalta%2Fhospitallers%2Fhospitallers.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZilfi2016" class="citation journal cs1">Zilfi, Madeline C. (25 November 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/view/journals/jemh/20/6/article-p592_6.xml">"Mediterranean Slavery Revisited (500-1800): Neue Perspektiven auf Mediterrane Sklaverei (500-1800), written by Stefan Hanss and Juliane Schiel"</a>. Journal of Early Modern History. 20 (6): 594–595. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F15700658-00200006-05">10.1163/15700658-00200006-05</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1385-3783">1385-3783</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Early+Modern+History&rft.atitle=Mediterranean+Slavery+Revisited+%28500-1800%29%3A+Neue+Perspektiven+auf+Mediterrane+Sklaverei+%28500-1800%29%2C+written+by+Stefan+Hanss+and+Juliane+Schiel&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=594-595&rft.date=2016-11-25&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F15700658-00200006-05&rft.issn=1385-3783&rft.aulast=Zilfi&rft.aufirst=Madeline+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrill.com%2Fview%2Fjournals%2Fjemh%2F20%2F6%2Farticle-p592_6.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalamat1976" class="citation book cs1">Malamat, Abraham (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2kSovzudhFUC&pg=PR9">A History of the Jewish People</a>. Harvard University Press. pp. ix, 564. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-39731-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-39731-6"><bdi>978-0-674-39731-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Jewish+People&rft.pages=ix%2C+564&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-674-39731-6&rft.aulast=Malamat&rft.aufirst=Abraham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2kSovzudhFUC%26pg%3DPR9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFToch2013" class="citation book cs1">Toch, Michael (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Bf8yAQAAQBAJ">The Economic History of European Jews: Late Antiquity and Early Middle Ages</a>. Leiden, The Netherlands: Koninklijke Brill nV. pp. 178–190. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004235397" title="Special:BookSources/9789004235397"><bdi>9789004235397</bdi></a>. Retrieved 3 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Economic+History+of+European+Jews%3A+Late+Antiquity+and+Early+Middle+Ages&rft.place=Leiden%2C+The+Netherlands&rft.pages=178-190&rft.pub=Koninklijke+Brill+nV&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9789004235397&rft.aulast=Toch&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBf8yAQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> Klein, Herbert. The Atlantic Slave Trade. </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRodriguez1997" class="citation book cs1">Rodriguez, Junius P. (December 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA550">The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery [2 Volumes]</a>. ABC-CLIO. p. 550. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87436-885-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87436-885-7"><bdi>978-0-87436-885-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Historical+Encyclopedia+of+World+Slavery+%5B2+Volumes%5D&rft.pages=550&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=1997-12&rft.isbn=978-0-87436-885-7&rft.aulast=Rodriguez&rft.aufirst=Junius+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DATq5_6h2AT0C%26pg%3DPA550&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerman1977" class="citation journal cs1">Berman, Harold J. (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1340133">"The Origins of Western Legal Science"</a>. Harvard Law Review. 90 (5): 894–943, 898. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1340133">10.2307/1340133</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0017-811X">0017-811X</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1340133">1340133</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Law+Review&rft.atitle=The+Origins+of+Western+Legal+Science&rft.volume=90&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=894-943%2C+898&rft.date=1977&rft.issn=0017-811X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1340133%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1340133&rft.aulast=Berman&rft.aufirst=Harold+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1340133&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlburn1959" class="citation book cs1">Alburn, Cary R. (June 1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rxLudzNw2h4C&pg=PA564">"Corpus Juris Civilis: A Historical Romance"</a>. ABA Journal. American Bar Association. p. 564.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Corpus+Juris+Civilis%3A+A+Historical+Romance&rft.btitle=ABA+Journal&rft.pages=564&rft.pub=American+Bar+Association&rft.date=1959-06&rft.aulast=Alburn&rft.aufirst=Cary+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrxLudzNw2h4C%26pg%3DPA564&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFordham_University,_Internet_History_Sourcebooks_Project" class="citation web cs1">Fordham University, Internet History Sourcebooks Project. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/basis/535institutes.asp">"Book I: Of Persons, Section III: Law of Persons"</a>. Corpus Iurus Civilis: The Institutes, 535 CE. Retrieved 24 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Corpus+Iurus+Civilis%3A+The+Institutes%2C+535+CE&rft.atitle=Book+I%3A+Of+Persons%2C+Section+III%3A+Law+of+Persons&rft.au=Fordham+University%2C+Internet+History+Sourcebooks+Project&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsourcebooks.fordham.edu%2Fbasis%2F535institutes.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFordham_University,_Internet_History_Sourcebooks_Project." class="citation web cs1">Fordham University, Internet History Sourcebooks Project. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/basis/535institutes.asp">"Book I: Of Persons, Section V: Freedmen"</a>. Corpus Iurus Civilis: The Institutes, 535 CE. Retrieved 3 August 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Corpus+Iurus+Civilis%3A+The+Institutes%2C+535+CE&rft.atitle=Book+I%3A+Of+Persons%2C+Section+V%3A+Freedmen.&rft.au=Fordham+University%2C+Internet+History+Sourcebooks+Project.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsourcebooks.fordham.edu%2Fbasis%2F535institutes.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britsattheirbest.com/freedom/f_time_12th_century.htm">"BRITISH HISTORY THE STORY of FREEDOM LIBERTY! THE TIMELINE Freedom & justice go hand in hand"</a>. britsattheirbest.com. Retrieved 24 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=britsattheirbest.com&rft.atitle=BRITISH+HISTORY+THE+STORY+of+FREEDOM+LIBERTY%21+THE+TIMELINE+Freedom+%26+justice+go+hand+in+hand&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britsattheirbest.com%2Ffreedom%2Ff_time_12th_century.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24160">"Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to History"</a>. Retrieved 24 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Welcome+to+Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica%27s+Guide+to+History&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fblackhistory%2Farticle-24160&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-75">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_75-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_75-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaplan2018" class="citation book cs1">Kaplan, Lindsay (7 December 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eFByDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA144">Figuring Racism in Medieval Christianity</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 144. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-067824-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-067824-1"><bdi>978-0-19-067824-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Figuring+Racism+in+Medieval+Christianity&rft.pages=144&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2018-12-07&rft.isbn=978-0-19-067824-1&rft.aulast=Kaplan&rft.aufirst=Lindsay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeFByDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA144&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllain2012" class="citation book cs1">Allain, Jean (27 September 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=n_KAvAjkEbsC&pg=PA38">The Legal Understanding of Slavery: From the Historical to the Contemporary</a>. OUP Oxford. p. 38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-966046-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-966046-9"><bdi>978-0-19-966046-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Legal+Understanding+of+Slavery%3A+From+the+Historical+to+the+Contemporary&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=OUP+Oxford&rft.date=2012-09-27&rft.isbn=978-0-19-966046-9&rft.aulast=Allain&rft.aufirst=Jean&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dn_KAvAjkEbsC%26pg%3DPA38&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> Crone, Patricia. Roman, Provincial, and Islamic Law: The Origins of the Islamic Patronate. Cambridge University Press, 1987. </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> Wegner, J. R. "Islamic and Talmudic Jurisprudence: The Four Roots of Islamic Law and their Talmudic Counterparts," The American Journal of Legal History, 26, 1 (1982): p. 25-71. </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> Lewis, Bernard, Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry. Oxford University Press, 1990, p. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> Lewis, 1990, p. 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> Wright, John, The Trans-Saharan Slave Trade. Routledge, 2007, p. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-Wright,_2007,_p._3-82"><a href="#cite_ref-Wright,_2007,_p._3_82-0">^</a> Wright, 2007, p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> Wright, 2007, p. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> IV:3, XXIII:6; XXXIII:50–52; LXX:30 </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> Ali, Kecia. Marriage and Slavery in Early Islam. Harvard University Press, 2010; Wright, 2007, p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> Lewis, 1990, p. 62. </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> Bacharach, Jere L., "African Military Slaves in the Medieval Middle East: The Cases of Iraq (869–955) and Egypt (868–1171)." International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 13, No. 4 (Nov., 1981) 471–495. </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> Savage, E., "Berbers and Blacks: Ibadi Slave Traffic in Eighth-Century North Africa", The Journal of African History, Vol. 33, No. 3 (1992), 351–368. </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> Yaacov Lev, David Ayalon (1914–1998) and the history of Black Military Slavery in medieval Islam, Der Islam 90.1 (January 2013): Accessed 22 November 2014, doi: <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?action=interpret&id=GALE%7CA330005344&v=2.1&u=nysl_sc_cornl&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w&authCount=1">[4]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lev,_David_Ayalon-90">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lev,_David_Ayalon_90-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lev,_David_Ayalon_90-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lev,_David_Ayalon_90-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lev,_David_Ayalon_90-3">d</a> Lev, David Ayalon </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> Jere L. Bacharach, African Military Slaves in the Muslim Middle East. BlackPast.org. Retrieved 20 November 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.blackpast.org/perspectives/african-military-slaves-muslim-middle-east">[5]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> Bernard Lewis, Race and Slavery in the Middle East. (Oxford University Press, 1994). Retrieved 19 November 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://legacy.fordham.edu/halsall/med/lewis1.asp">[6]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lewis,_Race_and_Slavery-93">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis,_Race_and_Slavery_93-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis,_Race_and_Slavery_93-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis,_Race_and_Slavery_93-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis,_Race_and_Slavery_93-3">d</a> Lewis, Race and Slavery </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> Lewis, Race and Slavery, p. 11 </li> <li id="cite_note-Lewis,_Race_and_Slavery,_p._14-95">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis,_Race_and_Slavery,_p._14_95-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis,_Race_and_Slavery,_p._14_95-1">b</a> Lewis, Race and Slavery, p. 14 </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> Lewis, Race and Slavery, pp. 11–12 </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> Lewis, Race and Slavery, p. 12 </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> Lewis, Race and Slavery, p. 71 </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhillips1985" class="citation book cs1">Phillips, William D. Jr. (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0B8NAQAAIAAJ&q=Byzantine-Ottoman%20wars%20slavery&pg=PA37">Slavery from Roman Times to the Early Transatlantic Trade</a>. Manchester: Manchester University Press. p. 37. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-1825-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-1825-1"><bdi>978-0-7190-1825-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+from+Roman+Times+to+the+Early+Transatlantic+Trade&rft.place=Manchester&rft.pages=37&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-7190-1825-1&rft.aulast=Phillips&rft.aufirst=William+D.+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0B8NAQAAIAAJ%26q%3DByzantine-Ottoman%2520wars%2520slavery%26pg%3DPA37&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-100">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_100-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_100-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=266205">"Janissary"</a>. everything2.com. Retrieved 24 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=everything2.com&rft.atitle=Janissary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.everything2.com%2Findex.pl%3Fnode_id%3D266205&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/med/lewis1.asp">"Internet History Sourcebooks Project"</a>. sourcebooks.fordham.edu. Retrieved 24 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=sourcebooks.fordham.edu&rft.atitle=Internet+History+Sourcebooks+Project&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsourcebooks.fordham.edu%2Fmed%2Flewis1.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061018065828/http://schonwalder.com/Such-n-Such/huns.htm">"The Turks: History and Culture"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://schonwalder.com/Such-n-Such/huns.htm">the original</a> on 18 October 2006. Retrieved 24 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Turks%3A+History+and+Culture&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fschonwalder.com%2FSuch-n-Such%2Fhuns.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://coursesa.matrix.msu.edu/~fisher/hst373/readings/inalcik6.html">"In the Service of the State and Military Class"</a>. Retrieved 24 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=In+the+Service+of+the+State+and+Military+Class&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcoursesa.matrix.msu.edu%2F~fisher%2Fhst373%2Freadings%2Finalcik6.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> See generally Jay Winik (2007), The Great Upheaval. </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> Benjamin Z. Kedar, "The Subjected Muslims of the Frankish Levant", in The Crusades: The Essential Readings, ed. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_F._Madden" title="Thomas F. Madden">Thomas F. Madden</a>, Blackwell, 2002, p. 244. Originally published in Muslims Under Latin Rule, 1100–1300, ed. James M. Powell, Princeton University Press, 1990. Kedar quotes his numbers from <a href="/wiki/Joshua_Prawer" title="Joshua Prawer">Joshua Prawer</a>, Histoire du royaume latin de Jérusalem, tr. G. Nahon, Paris, 1969, vol. 1, pp. 498, 568–72. </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Tyerman" title="Christopher Tyerman">Christopher Tyerman</a>, God’s War, A new History of the Crusades pp. 226–228. quote = "Just as non-muslim communities survived under Islam, so non-Christians lived unfree but largely unmolested in Frankish outremer. After the early massacres, displacements and expulsions of Muslims and Jews from conquered cities, coexistence, rather than integration or persecution prevailed ... At Acre, where the two faiths shared a converted mosque as well as a suburban shrine, Muslim visitors were treated fairly and efficiently. Mosques still operated openly in Tyre and elsewhere." </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> Christopher Tyerman, God’s War, A new History of the Crusades, p. 230. </li> <li id="cite_note-Hans_E._Mayer_1982_pp._531-533-108">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hans_E._Mayer_1982_pp._531-533_108-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hans_E._Mayer_1982_pp._531-533_108-1">b</a> Hans E. Mayer, "The Concordat of Nablus" (<a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Ecclesiastical_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Ecclesiastical History">Journal of Ecclesiastical History</a> 33 (October 1982)), pp. 531–533. </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> Benjamin Z. Kedar, On the origins of the earliest laws of Frankish Jerusalem: The canons of the Council of Nablus, 1120 (<a href="/wiki/Speculum_(journal)" title="Speculum (journal)">Speculum</a> 74, 1999), pp. 330–331; Marwan Nader, Burgesses and Burgess Law in the Latin Kingdoms of Jerusalem and Cyprus (1099–1325) (Ashgate: 2006), pg. 45. </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFD.2014" class="citation book cs1">D., Phillips, William (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/913510589">Slavery in Medieval and Early Modern Iberia</a>. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-4491-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-4491-5"><bdi>978-0-8122-4491-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/913510589">913510589</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+in+Medieval+and+Early+Modern+Iberia&rft.pages=20&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F913510589&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-4491-5&rft.aulast=D.&rft.aufirst=Phillips%2C+William&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F913510589&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFynn-Paul2009" class="citation journal cs1">Fynn-Paul, Jeffrey (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40586930">"Empire, Monotheism and Slavery in the Greater Mediterranean Region from Antiquity to the Early Modern Era"</a>. Past & Present (205): 13. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0031-2746">0031-2746</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40586930">40586930</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Past+%26+Present&rft.atitle=Empire%2C+Monotheism+and+Slavery+in+the+Greater+Mediterranean+Region+from+Antiquity+to+the+Early+Modern+Era&rft.issue=205&rft.pages=13&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40586930%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0031-2746&rft.aulast=Fynn-Paul&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40586930&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFynn-Paul2017" class="citation cs2">Fynn-Paul, Jeffrey (2017), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1163/9789004346611_021">"Empire, Monotheism and Slavery in the Greater Mediterranean Region from Antiquity to the Early Modern Era"</a>, Critical Readings on Global Slavery (4 vols.), Brill, pp. 553–587, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004346611_021">10.1163/9789004346611_021</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004346611" title="Special:BookSources/9789004346611"><bdi>9789004346611</bdi></a>, retrieved 6 December 2021</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Critical+Readings+on+Global+Slavery+%284+vols.%29&rft.atitle=Empire%2C+Monotheism+and+Slavery+in+the+Greater+Mediterranean+Region+from+Antiquity+to+the+Early+Modern+Era&rft.pages=553-587&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789004346611_021&rft.isbn=9789004346611&rft.aulast=Fynn-Paul&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1163%2F9789004346611_021&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> Fynn-Paul, p. 26. </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJankowiak2017" class="citation journal cs1">Jankowiak, Marek (20 January 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0020743816001240">"What Does the Slave Trade in the Saqaliba Tell Us about Early Islamic Slavery?"</a>. International Journal of Middle East Studies. 49 (1): 171. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0020743816001240">10.1017/s0020743816001240</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0020-7438">0020-7438</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:165127852">165127852</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Middle+East+Studies&rft.atitle=What+Does+the+Slave+Trade+in+the+Saqaliba+Tell+Us+about+Early+Islamic+Slavery%3F&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=171&rft.date=2017-01-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A165127852%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0020-7438&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0020743816001240&rft.aulast=Jankowiak&rft.aufirst=Marek&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252Fs0020743816001240&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> Gaiser, A. (2014) "Slaves and Silver across the Strait of Gibraltar: Politics and Trade between Umayyad Iberia and Khārijite North Africa" in Liang, Y.G. et al. (eds.) Spanning the Strait: Studies in Unity in the Western Mediterranean, Leiden: Brill, pp. 42. </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> Gaiser, A. (2014) "Slaves and Silver across the Strait of Gibraltar: Politics and Trade between Umayyad Iberia and Khārijite North Africa" in Liang, Y.G. et al. (eds.) Spanning the Strait: Studies in Unity in the Western Mediterranean, Leiden: Brill, pp. 44. </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> Gutierrez, J. and Valor, M. (2014) "Trade, Transport and Travel" in Valor, M. and Gutierrez, A. (eds.) The Archaeology of Medieval Spain 1100–1500, Sheffield: Equinox, pp. 124. </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> Gaiser, A. 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University of Michigan Press: 95–110. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41419689">41419689</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Memoirs+of+the+American+Academy+in+Rome&rft.atitle=A+Corpus+of+Inscriptions%3A+representing+slave+marks+in+Antiquity.&rft.volume=55&rft.pages=95-110&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41419689%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Kamen&rft.aufirst=Deborah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScott" class="citation web cs1">Scott, S.P. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libro.uca.edu/vcode/vg3-4.pdf">"The Visigothic Code"</a> (PDF). 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"Black Africans in Renaissance Spanish Literature". In Earle, T.F.; Lowe, K.J.P. (eds.). Black Africans in Renaissance Europe. 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The Mediterranean world : from the fall of Rome to the rise of Napoleon. Dursteler, Eric. Baltimore. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4214-1901-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4214-1901-5"><bdi>978-1-4214-1901-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/921240187">921240187</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mediterranean+world+%3A+from+the+fall+of+Rome+to+the+rise+of+Napoleon&rft.place=Baltimore&rft.date=2016-05-23&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F921240187&rft.isbn=978-1-4214-1901-5&rft.au=O%27Connell%2C+Monique%2C+1974%E2%80%93&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarker2019" class="citation book cs1">Barker, Hannah (27 September 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.9783/9780812296488/html">That Most Precious Merchandise</a>. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 209–212. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.9783%2F9780812296488">10.9783/9780812296488</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780812296488" title="Special:BookSources/9780812296488"><bdi>9780812296488</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:219875156">219875156</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=That+Most+Precious+Merchandise&rft.pages=209-212&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2019-09-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A219875156%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.9783%2F9780812296488&rft.isbn=9780812296488&rft.aulast=Barker&rft.aufirst=Hannah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.degruyter.com%2Fdocument%2Fdoi%2F10.9783%2F9780812296488%2Fhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> Barker, p. 211. </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> Barker, p. 210. </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> Viorel Achim, The Roma in Romanian History, <a href="/wiki/Central_European_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Central European University Press">Central European University Press</a>, Budapest, 2004, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/963-9241-84-9" title="Special:BookSources/963-9241-84-9">963-9241-84-9</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> Marushiakova and Vesselin, p. 103 </li> <li id="cite_note-Richard_Hellie_1984-158">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Richard_Hellie_1984_158-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Richard_Hellie_1984_158-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Hellie" title="Richard Hellie">Richard Hellie</a>, Slavery in Russia, 1450–1725 (1984) </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> Carolyn Johnston Pouncey, The <a href="/wiki/Domostroy" title="Domostroy">Domostroi</a>: Rules for Russian Households in the Time of Ivan the Terrible, p15 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8014-9689-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8014-9689-6">0-8014-9689-6</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> Carolyn Johnston Pouncey, The Domostroi: Rules for Russian Households in the Time of Ivan the Terrible, p33 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8014-9689-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8014-9689-6">0-8014-9689-6</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> The Full Collection of the Russian Annals, vol.13, SPb, 1904 </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.allempires.com/article/index.php?q=The_Crimean_Khanate">"The Tatar Khanate of Crimea – All Empires"</a>. allempires.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=allempires.com&rft.atitle=The+Tatar+Khanate+of+Crimea+%E2%80%93+All+Empires&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.allempires.com%2Farticle%2Findex.php%3Fq%3DThe_Crimean_Khanate&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://coursesa.matrix.msu.edu/~fisher/hst373/readings/inalcik6.html">"Supply of Slaves"</a>. 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"Introduction". Serfdom and Slavery: Studies in Legal Bondage. London: Addison Wesley Longman Limited. p. 12.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Serfdom+and+Slavery%3A+Studies+in+Legal+Bondage&rft.place=London&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=Addison+Wesley+Longman+Limited&rft.aulast=Bush&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEngerman" class="citation book cs1">Engerman, Stanley. "Slavery, serfdom and other forms of coerced labour: similarities and differences". Serfdom and Slavery: Studies in Legal Bondage. London: Addison Wesley Longman Limited. p. 38.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Slavery%2C+serfdom+and+other+forms+of+coerced+labour%3A+similarities+and+differences&rft.btitle=Serfdom+and+Slavery%3A+Studies+in+Legal+Bondage&rft.place=London&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=Addison+Wesley+Longman+Limited&rft.aulast=Engerman&rft.aufirst=Stanley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFichtenau1984" class="citation book cs1">Fichtenau, Heinrich (1984). Living in the 10th century: Mentalities and Social Orders. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 372.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Living+in+the+10th+century%3A+Mentalities+and+Social+Orders&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=372&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Fichtenau&rft.aufirst=Heinrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> David Graeber, Debt: The First 5000 Years (Brooklyn, New York: Melville House, 2011), ch. 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Orlando_Patterson" title="Orlando Patterson">Orlando Patterson</a>, Slavery and Social Death: A Comparative Study (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1982), pp. 40–41. </li> <li id="cite_note-Rayborn,_p.93-193">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rayborn,_p.93_193-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rayborn,_p.93_193-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rayborn,_p.93_193-2">c</a> Timothy Rayborn, The Violent Pilgrimage: Christians, Muslims and Holy Conflicts, 850–1150, Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland, 2013, p. 93. </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> David M. Goldenberg, The Curse of Ham: Race and Slavery in Early Judaism, Christianity, and Islam (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005). </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a> Walter Ullmann, Medieval Papalism (Routledge, 1949), p. 57. </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> David Brion Davis, The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1966), pp. 92–94. </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> Pope Nicholas V, "Dum diversas" (1452), in Bullarium patronatus Portugalliae regum in ecclesiis Africae, Asiae atque Oceaniae (1868) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6NDmAAAAMAAJ&dq=%22in%20perpetuam%20servitutem%22&pg=PA22">p. 22.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> Pope Nicholas V (1452), "Dum Diversas (English Translation)", Unam Sanctam Catholicam, 5 February 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://unamsanctamcatholicam.blogspot.com/2011/02/dum-diversas-english-translation.html">http://unamsanctamcatholicam.blogspot.com/2011/02/dum-diversas-english-translation.html</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> Frances Gardiner Davenport, European Treaties Bearing on the History of the United States and Its Dependencies to 1648 (Washington, D.C.), pp. 20–26. </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_medieval_Europe&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Barker, Hannah "Slavery in Medieval Europe." Oxford Bibliographies (2019) <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195396584/obo-9780195396584-0276.xml">[7]</a></li> <li>Barker, Hannah <a href="/wiki/That_Most_Precious_Merchandise:_The_Mediterranean_Trade_in_Black_Sea_Slaves,_1260-1500" class="mw-redirect" title="That Most Precious Merchandise: The Mediterranean Trade in Black Sea Slaves, 1260-1500">That Most Precious Merchandise: The Mediterranean Trade in Black Sea Slaves, 1260-1500</a> (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2019)</li> <li>Campbell, Gwyn et al. eds. Women and Slavery, Vol. 1: Africa, the Indian Ocean World, and the Medieval North Atlantic (2007)</li> <li>Dockès, Pierre. Medieval Slavery and Liberation (1989)</li> <li>Frantzen, Allen J., and Douglas Moffat, eds. The Work of Work: Servitude, Slavery and Labor in Medieval England (1994)</li> <li>Karras, Ruth Mazo. Slavery and Society in Medieval Scandinavia (Yale University Press, 1988)</li> <li>Perry, Craig et al. eds. The Cambridge World History of Slavery: Volume 2 AD500-AD1420 (Cambridge University Press, 2021)</li> <li>Phillips, William D. Slavery from Roman Times to the Early Transatlantic Trade (Manchester University Press, 1985)</li> <li>Rio, Alice. Slavery After Rome, 500-1100 (Oxford University Press, 2017) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=54675">online review</a></li> <li>Stuard, Susan Mosher. "Ancillary evidence for the decline of medieval slavery." Past & Present 149 (1995): 3-28 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/651097">online</a>.</li> <li>Verhulst, Adriaan. "The decline of slavery and the economic expansion of the Early Middle Ages." Past & Present No. 133 (Nov., 1991), pp. 195–203 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/650772">online</a></li> <li>Wyatt David R. Slaves and warriors in medieval Britain and Ireland, 800–1200 (2009)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Agriculture in the Middle Ages">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_architecture" title="Medieval architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_art" title="Medieval art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_and_state_in_medieval_Europe" title="Church and state in medieval Europe">Church and State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_cuisine" title="Medieval cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_dance" title="Medieval dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_demography" title="Medieval demography">Demography</a></li> <li><a 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philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_poetry" title="Medieval poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_science_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="European science in the Middle Ages">Science</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_technology" title="Medieval technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_theatre" title="Medieval theatre">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_warfare" title="Medieval warfare">Warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Women in the Middle Ages">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Ages_(historiography)" title="Dark Ages (historiography)">Dark Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Disability 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