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<span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Structure, design and construction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structure,_design_and_construction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Types</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Types subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vapor_chamber" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vapor_chamber"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Vapor chamber</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vapor_chamber-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Variable_conductance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Variable_conductance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Variable conductance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Variable_conductance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diode" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diode"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Diode</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diode-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thermosyphons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thermosyphons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Thermosyphons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thermosyphons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Loop" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Loop"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Loop</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Loop-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oscillating_or_pulsating" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oscillating_or_pulsating"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Oscillating or pulsating</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oscillating_or_pulsating-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Heat_transfer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Heat_transfer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Heat transfer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Heat_transfer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Applications</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Applications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Applications subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Spacecraft" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spacecraft"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Spacecraft</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spacecraft-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Computer_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Computer_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Computer systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Computer_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Solar_thermal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Solar_thermal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Solar thermal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Solar_thermal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Permafrost_cooling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Permafrost_cooling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Permafrost cooling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Permafrost_cooling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cooking" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cooking"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Cooking</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cooking-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ventilation_heat_recovery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ventilation_heat_recovery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Ventilation heat recovery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ventilation_heat_recovery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nuclear_power_conversion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nuclear_power_conversion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.7</span> <span>Nuclear power conversion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nuclear_power_conversion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wankel_rotary_combustion_engines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wankel_rotary_combustion_engines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.8</span> <span>Wankel rotary combustion engines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wankel_rotary_combustion_engines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Heat_pipe_heat_exchangers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Heat_pipe_heat_exchangers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.9</span> <span>Heat pipe heat exchangers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Heat_pipe_heat_exchangers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Currently_developed_applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Currently_developed_applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.10</span> <span>Currently developed applications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Currently_developed_applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Heat pipe</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 25 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-25" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">25 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D9%86%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%A8_%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A" title="أنبوب حراري – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أنبوب حراري" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%82%D1%80%D1%8A%D0%B1%D0%B0" title="Топлинна тръба – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Топлинна тръба" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tub_de_calor" title="Tub de calor – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Tub de calor" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tepeln%C3%A1_trubice" title="Tepelná trubice – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Tepelná trubice" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varmer%C3%B8r_(heat-pipe)" title="Varmerør (heat-pipe) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Varmerør (heat-pipe)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C3%A4rmerohr" title="Wärmerohr – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Wärmerohr" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tubo_termosif%C3%B3n_bif%C3%A1sico" title="Tubo termosifón bifásico – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Tubo termosifón bifásico" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%88%D9%84%D9%87_%DA%AF%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="لوله گرمایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="لوله گرمایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caloduc" title="Caloduc – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Caloduc" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%9E%88%ED%8A%B8%ED%8C%8C%EC%9D%B4%ED%94%84" title="히트파이프 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="히트파이프" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipa_bahang" title="Pipa bahang – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pipa bahang" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tubo_di_calore" title="Tubo di calore – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Tubo di calore" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%83_%D1%82%D2%AF%D1%82%D1%96%D0%B3%D1%96" title="Жылу түтігі – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Жылу түтігі" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_pipe" title="Heat pipe – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Heat pipe" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%92%E3%83%BC%E3%83%88%E3%83%91%E3%82%A4%E3%83%97" title="ヒートパイプ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ヒートパイプ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_pipe" title="Heat pipe – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Heat pipe" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tubula%C3%A7%C3%A3o_de_calor" title="Tubulação de calor – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Tubulação de calor" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Тепловая трубка – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Тепловая трубка" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tepeln%C3%A1_trubica" title="Tepelná trubica – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Tepelná trubica" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A4mp%C3%B6putki" title="Lämpöputki – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Lämpöputki" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heatpipe" title="Heatpipe – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Heatpipe" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%97%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%99" title="ท่อความร้อน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ท่อความร้อน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Is%C4%B1_borusu" title="Isı borusu – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Isı borusu" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%B0" title="Теплова труба – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Теплова труба" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%86%B1%E5%B0%8E%E7%AE%A1" title="熱導管 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="熱導管" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q600568#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li 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.ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Lead_too_short plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-lead_too_short" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/60px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/80px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="44" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Lead_section#Length" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Lead section">lead section</a> <b>may be too short to adequately <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Summary_style" title="Wikipedia:Summary style">summarize</a> the key points</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please consider expanding the lead to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Lead_section#Provide_an_accessible_overview" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Lead section">provide an accessible overview</a> of all important aspects of the article.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2024</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Laptop_Heat_Pipe.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Laptop_Heat_Pipe.JPG/290px-Laptop_Heat_Pipe.JPG" decoding="async" width="290" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Laptop_Heat_Pipe.JPG/435px-Laptop_Heat_Pipe.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Laptop_Heat_Pipe.JPG/580px-Laptop_Heat_Pipe.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2432" /></a><figcaption>A laptop computer heat pipe system</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>heat pipe</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Heat_exchanger" title="Heat exchanger">heat-transfer device</a> that employs <a href="/wiki/Phase_transition" title="Phase transition">phase transition</a> to transfer heat between two solid <a href="/wiki/Interface_(matter)" title="Interface (matter)">interfaces</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Faghri_2016_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Faghri_2016-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the hot interface of a heat pipe, a <a href="/wiki/Volatility_(chemistry)" title="Volatility (chemistry)">volatile</a> liquid in contact with a thermally conductive solid surface turns into a <a href="/wiki/Vapor" title="Vapor">vapor</a> by absorbing heat from that surface. The vapor then travels along the heat pipe to the cold interface and condenses back into a liquid, releasing the <a href="/wiki/Latent_heat" title="Latent heat">latent heat</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Liquid" title="Liquid">liquid</a> then returns to the hot interface through <a href="/wiki/Capillary_action" title="Capillary action">capillary action</a>, <a href="/wiki/Centrifugal_force" title="Centrifugal force">centrifugal force</a>, or gravity and the cycle repeats. </p><p>Due to the very high heat transfer coefficients for <a href="/wiki/Boiling" title="Boiling">boiling</a> and <a href="/wiki/Condensation" title="Condensation">condensation</a>, heat pipes are highly effective thermal conductors. The effective thermal conductivity varies with heat pipe length and can approach <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7002100000000000000♠"></span>100 kW/(m⋅K)</span> for long heat pipes, in comparison with approximately <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6999400000000000000♠"></span>0.4 kW/(m⋅K)</span> for <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Modern CPU heat pipes are typically made of <a href="/wiki/Copper_in_heat_exchangers" title="Copper in heat exchangers">copper</a> and use water as the <a href="/wiki/Working_fluid" title="Working fluid">working fluid</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Jansson_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jansson-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are common in many consumer electronics like desktops, laptops, tablets, and high-end smartphones. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_pipe&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The general principle of heat pipes using gravity, commonly classified as two phase <a href="/wiki/Thermosiphon" title="Thermosiphon">thermosiphons</a>, dates back to the steam age and <a href="/wiki/Angier_March_Perkins" title="Angier March Perkins">Angier March Perkins</a> and his son <a href="/wiki/Loftus_Perkins" title="Loftus Perkins">Loftus Perkins</a> and the "Perkins Tube", which saw widespread use in locomotive boilers and working ovens.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Capillary-based heat pipes were first suggested by R. S. Gaugler of <a href="/wiki/General_Motors" title="General Motors">General Motors</a> in 1942, who patented the idea,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but did not develop it further. </p><p>George Grover independently developed capillary-based heat pipes at <a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_National_Laboratory" title="Los Alamos National Laboratory">Los Alamos National Laboratory</a> in 1963, with his patent of that year<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> being the first to use the term "heat pipe", and he is often referred to as "the inventor of the heat pipe".<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He noted in his notebook:<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"> <p>Such a closed system, requiring no external pumps, may be of particular interest in space reactors in moving heat from the reactor core to a radiating system. In the absence of gravity, the forces must only be such as to overcome the capillary and the drag of the returning vapor through its channels. </p> </blockquote> <p>Grover's suggestion was taken up by <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>, which played a large role in heat pipe development in the 1960s, particularly regarding applications and reliability in space flight. This was understandable given the low weight, high heat flux, and zero power draw of heat pipes – and that they would not be adversely affected by operating in a zero gravity environment. </p><p>The first application of heat pipes in the space program was the thermal equilibration of satellite transponders.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As <a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">satellites</a> orbit, one side is exposed to the direct radiation of the sun while the opposite side is completely dark and exposed to the deep cold of <a href="/wiki/Outer_space" title="Outer space">outer space</a>. This causes severe discrepancies in the temperature (and thus reliability and accuracy) of the transponders. The heat pipe cooling system designed for this purpose managed the high heat fluxes and demonstrated flawless operation with and without the influence of gravity. The cooling system developed was the first use of variable conductance heat pipes to actively regulate heat flow or evaporator temperature. </p><p>NASA has tested heat pipes designed for extreme conditions, with some using liquid sodium metal as the working fluid. Other forms of heat pipes are currently used to cool communication satellites.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Publications in 1967 and 1968 by Feldman, Eastman,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Katzoff first discussed applications of heat pipes for wider uses such as in air conditioning, engine cooling, and electronics cooling. These papers were also the first to mention flexible, arterial, and flat plate heat pipes. Publications in 1969 introduced the concept of the rotational heat pipe with its applications to turbine blade cooling and contained the first discussions of heat pipe applications to cryogenic processes. </p><p>Starting in the 1980s <a href="/wiki/Sony" title="Sony">Sony</a> began incorporating heat pipes into the cooling schemes for some of its commercial electronic products in place of both forced convection and passive finned heat sinks. Initially they were used in receivers and amplifiers, soon spreading to other high heat flux electronics applications. </p><p>During the late 1990s increasingly high heat flux microcomputer CPUs spurred a threefold increase in the number of U.S. heat pipe patent applications. As heat pipes evolved from a specialized industrial heat transfer component to a consumer commodity most development and production moved from the U.S. to Asia. </p><p>Modern CPU heat pipes are typically made of <a href="/wiki/Copper_in_heat_exchangers" title="Copper in heat exchangers">copper</a> and use water as the working fluid.<sup id="cite_ref-Jansson_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jansson-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are common in many consumer electronics like desktops, laptops, tablets, and high-end smartphones. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure,_design_and_construction"><span id="Structure.2C_design_and_construction"></span>Structure, design and construction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_pipe&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Structure, design and construction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Vapor-compression_refrigeration" title="Vapor-compression refrigeration">Vapor-compression refrigeration</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Heat_Pipe_Mechanism.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Longitudinal cross-section of a heat pipe. It is closed at both ends. The 'wick' coats the inside surface, while the inner cavity is filled with vapour. The diagram illustrates heat transfer: 1. (left end of the pipe) working fluid evaporates to vapour absorbing thermal energy; 2. vapour migrates along cavity to lower temperature end; 3. vapour condenses back to fluid and is absorbed by the wick, releasing thermal energy; 4. working fluid flows back to the lower temperature end." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Heat_Pipe_Mechanism.svg/310px-Heat_Pipe_Mechanism.svg.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Heat_Pipe_Mechanism.svg/465px-Heat_Pipe_Mechanism.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Heat_Pipe_Mechanism.svg/620px-Heat_Pipe_Mechanism.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="674" data-file-height="482" /></a><figcaption>Diagram showing components and mechanism for a heat pipe containing a wick</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ekati_Diamond_Mine.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A worker in high visibility clothing and a hard hat examines a long line of pipes about four times his height sticking out of rocky ground." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Ekati_Diamond_Mine.jpg/310px-Ekati_Diamond_Mine.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Ekati_Diamond_Mine.jpg/465px-Ekati_Diamond_Mine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Ekati_Diamond_Mine.jpg/620px-Ekati_Diamond_Mine.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2760" data-file-height="1840" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Heat_pipes" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat pipes">Heat pipes</a> keep ground frozen and inhibit water transfer into the open pit during mining activities at <a href="/wiki/Ekati_Diamond_Mine" title="Ekati Diamond Mine">Ekati Diamond Mine</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CFD_IsoSkin_Heat_Pipe.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/CFD_IsoSkin_Heat_Pipe.gif/220px-CFD_IsoSkin_Heat_Pipe.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/CFD_IsoSkin_Heat_Pipe.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="140" /></a><figcaption>This 100 mm by 100 mm by 10 mm high thin flat heat pipe (heat spreader) animation was created using high resolution CFD analysis and shows temperature contoured flow trajectories, predicted using a <a href="/wiki/Computational_fluid_dynamics" title="Computational fluid dynamics">CFD</a> analysis package</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CFD_Vapor_Chamber_Heat_Sink_Design_v1.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/CFD_Vapor_Chamber_Heat_Sink_Design_v1.gif/220px-CFD_Vapor_Chamber_Heat_Sink_Design_v1.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/CFD_Vapor_Chamber_Heat_Sink_Design_v1.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="320" /></a><figcaption>This 120 mm diameter vapor chamber (heat spreader) heat sink design thermal animation was created using high-resolution CFD analysis and shows temperature contoured heat sink surface and fluid flow trajectories predicted using a <a href="/wiki/Computational_fluid_dynamics" title="Computational fluid dynamics">CFD</a> analysis package</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Laptop_CPU_Heat_Pipe_Cross_Section.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Laptop_CPU_Heat_Pipe_Cross_Section.jpg/220px-Laptop_CPU_Heat_Pipe_Cross_Section.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Laptop_CPU_Heat_Pipe_Cross_Section.jpg/330px-Laptop_CPU_Heat_Pipe_Cross_Section.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Laptop_CPU_Heat_Pipe_Cross_Section.jpg/440px-Laptop_CPU_Heat_Pipe_Cross_Section.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1373" data-file-height="932" /></a><figcaption>Cross section of a heat pipe for cooling the CPU of a laptop computer. Ruler scale is in millimetres</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IsoSkin.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/IsoSkin.png/220px-IsoSkin.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/IsoSkin.png/330px-IsoSkin.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/IsoSkin.png/440px-IsoSkin.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Cut-away view of a 500 μm thick flat heat pipe with a thin planar capillary (aqua coloured)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IsoSkin2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/IsoSkin2.png/220px-IsoSkin2.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/IsoSkin2.png/330px-IsoSkin2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/IsoSkin2.png/440px-IsoSkin2.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Thin flat heat pipe (heat spreader) with remote heat sink and fan</figcaption></figure> <p>A typical heat pipe consists of a sealed pipe or tube made of a material that is compatible with the working fluid such as <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> for water heat pipes, or <a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a> for ammonia heat pipes. Typically, a <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_pump" title="Vacuum pump">vacuum pump</a> is used to remove the air from the empty heat pipe. The heat pipe is partially filled with a <i>working fluid</i> and then sealed. The working fluid mass is chosen so that the heat pipe contains both vapor and liquid over the <a href="/wiki/Operating_temperature" title="Operating temperature">operating temperature</a> range.<sup id="cite_ref-Faghri_2016_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Faghri_2016-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The stated/recommended operating temperature of a given heat pipe system is critically important. Below the operating temperature, the liquid is too cold and cannot vaporize into a gas. Above the operating temperature, all the liquid has turned to gas, and the environmental temperature is too high for any of the gas to condense. <a href="/wiki/Thermal_conduction" title="Thermal conduction">Thermal conduction</a> is still possible through the walls of the heat pipe, but at a greatly reduced rate of thermal transfer. In addition, for a given heat input, it is necessary that a minimum temperature of the working fluid be attained; while at the other end, any additional increase (deviation) in the heat transfer coefficient from the initial design will tend to inhibit the heat pipe action. This can be counterintuitive, in the sense that if a heat pipe system is aided by a fan, then the heat pipe operation may break down, resulting in a reduced effectiveness of the thermal management system—potentially severely reduced. The operating temperature and the maximum heat transport capacity of a heat pipe—limited by its capillary or other structure used to return the fluid to the hot area (centrifugal force, gravity, etc.)—are therefore inescapably and closely related.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Working fluids are chosen according to the temperatures at which the heat pipe must operate, with examples ranging from <a href="/wiki/Liquid_helium" title="Liquid helium">liquid helium</a> for extremely low temperature applications (2–4 <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">K</a>) to <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a> (523–923 K), <a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">sodium</a> (873–1473 K) and even <a href="/wiki/Indium" title="Indium">indium</a> (2000–3000 K) for extremely high temperatures. The vast majority of heat pipes for room temperature applications use <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a> (213–373 K), <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(chemistry)" title="Alcohol (chemistry)">alcohol</a> (<a href="/wiki/Methanol" title="Methanol">methanol</a> (283–403 K) or <a href="/wiki/Ethanol" title="Ethanol">ethanol</a> (273–403 K)), or <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a> (298–573 K) as the working fluid. Copper/water heat pipes have a copper envelope, use water as the working fluid and typically operate in the temperature range of 20 to 150 °C (293–423 K).<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-google1_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-google1-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Water heat pipes are sometimes filled by partially filling with water, heating until the water boils and displaces the air, and then sealed while hot. </p><p>For the heat pipe to transfer heat, it must contain <a href="/wiki/Vapor%E2%80%93liquid_equilibrium" title="Vapor–liquid equilibrium">saturated</a> liquid and its vapor (gas phase). The saturated liquid vaporizes and travels to the condenser, where it is cooled and turned back to a saturated liquid. In a standard heat pipe, the condensed liquid is returned to the evaporator using a wick structure exerting a <a href="/wiki/Capillary_action" title="Capillary action">capillary action</a> on the liquid phase of the working fluid. Wick structures used in heat pipes include <a href="/wiki/Sintered" class="mw-redirect" title="Sintered">sintered</a> <a href="/wiki/Powder_metallurgy" title="Powder metallurgy">metal powder</a>, screen, and grooved wicks, which have a series of grooves parallel to the pipe axis. When the condenser is located above the evaporator in a gravitational field, gravity can return the liquid. In this case, the heat pipe is a <a href="/wiki/Thermosiphon" title="Thermosiphon">thermosiphon</a>. Finally, rotating heat pipes use centrifugal forces to return liquid from the condenser to the evaporator.<sup id="cite_ref-Faghri_2016_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Faghri_2016-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Heat pipes contain no mechanical moving parts and typically require no maintenance, though non-condensable gases that diffuse through the pipe's walls, that result from breakdown of the working fluid, or that exist as original impurities in the material, may eventually reduce the pipe's effectiveness at transferring heat.<sup id="cite_ref-Faghri_2016_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Faghri_2016-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The advantage of heat pipes over many other heat-dissipation mechanisms is their great efficiency in transferring heat. A pipe one inch in diameter and two feet long can transfer 3.7 kW (13,000 BTU/h) at 1,800 °F (980 °C) with only 18 °F (10 °C) drop from end to end.<sup id="cite_ref-google1_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-google1-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some heat pipes have demonstrated a <a href="/wiki/Heat_flux" title="Heat flux">heat flux</a> of more than 23 kW/cm<sup>2</sup>, about four times the heat flux through the surface of the Sun.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Heat pipes have an envelope, a wick, and a working fluid. Heat pipes are designed for very long term operation with no maintenance, so the heat pipe wall and wick must be compatible with the working fluid. Some material/working fluids pairs that appear to be compatible are not. For example, water in an aluminum envelope will develop significant amounts of non-condensable gas within hours or days, hindering normal heat pipe operation. This issue is primarily due to the oxidation and corrosion of aluminum in the presence of water, which releases hydrogen gas that accumulates as a non-condensable gas.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since heat pipes were rediscovered by <a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Grover&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="George Grover (page does not exist)">George Grover</a> in 1963, extensive life tests have been conducted to determine compatible envelope/fluid pairs, some going on for decades. In a heat pipe life test, heat pipes are operated for long periods of time, and monitored for problems such as non-condensable gas generation, material transport, and corrosion.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most commonly used envelope (and wick)/fluid pairs include:<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Copper envelope with water working fluid for <a href="/wiki/Thermal_management_of_electronic_devices_and_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal management of electronic devices and systems">electronics cooling</a>. This is by far the most common type of heat pipe.</li> <li>Copper or steel envelope with refrigerant <a href="/wiki/1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane" title="1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane">R134a</a> working fluid for energy recovery in <a href="/wiki/HVAC" class="mw-redirect" title="HVAC">HVAC</a> systems.</li> <li>Aluminium envelope with ammonia working fluid for <a href="/wiki/Spacecraft_thermal_control" title="Spacecraft thermal control">spacecraft thermal control</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superalloy" title="Superalloy">Superalloy</a> envelope with alkali metal (cesium, potassium, sodium) working fluid for high temperature heat pipes, most commonly used for calibrating primary temperature measurement devices.</li></ul> <p>Other pairs include stainless steel envelopes with nitrogen, oxygen, neon, hydrogen, or helium working fluids at temperatures below 100 K, copper/methanol heat pipes for electronics cooling when the heat pipe must operate below the water range, aluminium/ethane heat pipes for spacecraft thermal control in environments when ammonia can freeze, and <a href="/wiki/Refractory_metals" title="Refractory metals">refractory metal</a> envelope/lithium working fluid for high temperature (above 1,050 °C (1,320 K; 1,920 °F)) applications.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Heat pipes must be tuned to particular cooling conditions. The choice of pipe material, size, and coolant all have an effect on the optimal temperatures at which heat pipes work. When used outside of its design heat range, the heat pipe's <a href="/wiki/Thermal_conductivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal conductivity">thermal conductivity</a> is effectively reduced to the <a href="/wiki/Heat_conduction" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat conduction">heat conduction</a> properties of its solid metal casing alone. In the case of a <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> casing, that is around 1/80 of the original flux. This is because outside the intended temperature range the working fluid will not undergo phase change; below the range, the working fluid never vaporizes, and above the range it never condenses. </p><p>Most manufacturers cannot make a traditional heat pipe smaller than 3 mm in diameter due to material limitations.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Heat pipes containing graphene have been demonstrated which can improve cooling performance in electronics.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_pipe&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In addition to standard, constant conductance heat pipes (CCHPs), there are a number of other types of heat pipes,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including: </p> <ul><li>Vapor chambers (planar heat pipes), which are used for heat flux transformation, and isothermalization of surfaces</li> <li>Variable conductance heat pipes (VCHPs), which use a non-condensable gas (NCG) to change the heat pipe effective thermal conductivity as power or the heat sink conditions change</li> <li>Pressure controlled heat pipes (PCHPs), which are a VCHP where the volume of the reservoir, or the NCG mass can be changed, to give more precise temperature control</li> <li>Diode heat pipes, which have a high thermal conductivity in the forward direction, and a low thermal conductivity in the reverse direction</li> <li>Thermosyphons, which are heat pipes where the liquid is returned to the evaporator by gravitational/accelerational forces,</li> <li>Rotating heat pipes, where the liquid is returned to the evaporator by centrifugal forces</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vapor_chamber">Vapor chamber</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_pipe&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Vapor chamber"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Thin planar heat pipes (<a href="/wiki/Heat_spreader" title="Heat spreader">heat spreaders</a> or flat heat pipes) have the same primary components as tubular heat pipes: a <a href="/wiki/Hermetically_sealed" class="mw-redirect" title="Hermetically sealed">hermetically sealed</a> hollow vessel, a working fluid, and a closed-loop capillary recirculation system.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, an internal support structure or a series of posts are generally used in a vapor chamber to accommodate clamping pressures sometimes up to 90 psi (620 kPa). This helps prevent collapse of the flat top and bottom when the pressure is applied. </p><p>There are two main applications for vapor chambers. First, they are used when high powers and heat fluxes are applied to a relatively small evaporator.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Heat input to the evaporator vaporizes liquid, which flows in two dimensions to the condenser surfaces. After the vapor condenses on the condenser surfaces, capillary forces in the wick return the condensate to the evaporator. Note that most vapor chambers are insensitive to gravity, and will still operate when inverted, with the evaporator above the condenser. In this application, the vapor chamber acts as a heat flux transformer, cooling a high heat flux from an electronic chip or laser diode, and transforming it to a lower heat flux that can be removed by natural or forced convection. With special evaporator wicks, vapor chambers can remove 2000 W over 4 cm<sup>2</sup>, or 700 W over 1 cm<sup>2</sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another major usage of vapor chambers is for cooling purposes in gaming laptops. As vapor chambers are a flatter and more two-dimensional method of heat dissipation, sleeker gaming laptops benefit hugely from them as compared to traditional heat pipes. For example, the vapor chamber cooling in Lenovo's Legion 7i was its most unique selling point (although it was misadvertised as all models having vapor chambers, while in fact only a few had<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). </p><p>Second, compared to a one-dimensional tubular heat pipe, the width of a two-dimensional heat pipe allows an adequate cross section for heat flow even with a very thin device. These thin planar heat pipes are finding their way into "height sensitive" applications, such as notebook computers and surface mount circuit board cores. It is possible to produce flat heat pipes as thin as 1.0 mm (slightly thicker than a 0.76 mm <a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_7813" title="ISO/IEC 7813">credit card</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Variable_conductance">Variable conductance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_pipe&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Variable conductance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Standard heat pipes are constant conductance devices, where the heat pipe operating temperature is set by the source and sink temperatures, the thermal resistances from the source to the heat pipe, and the thermal resistances from the heat pipe to the sink. In these heat pipes, the temperature drops linearly as the power or condenser temperature is reduced. For some applications, such as satellite or research balloon thermal control, the electronics will be overcooled at low powers, or at the low sink temperatures. Variable conductance heat pipes (VCHPs) are used to passively maintain the temperature of the electronics being cooled as power and sink conditions change.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Variable conductance heat pipes have two additions compared to a standard heat pipe: 1. a reservoir, and 2. a non-condensable gas (NCG) added to the heat pipe, in addition to the working fluid. This non-condensable gas is typically argon for standard Variable conductance heat pipes, and helium for thermosyphons. When the heat pipe is not operating, the non-condensable gas and working fluid vapor are mixed throughout the heat pipe vapor space. When the variable conductance heat pipe is operating, the non-condensable gas is swept toward the condenser end of the heat pipe by the flow of the working fluid vapor. Most of the non-condensable gas is located in the reservoir, while the remainder blocks a portion of the heat pipe condenser. The variable conductance heat pipe works by varying the active length of the condenser. When the power or heat sink temperature is increased, the heat pipe vapor temperature and pressure increase. The increased vapor pressure forces more of the non-condensable gas into the reservoir, increasing the active condenser length and the heat pipe conductance. Conversely, when the power or heat sink temperature is decreased, the heat pipe vapor temperature and pressure decrease, and the non-condensable gas expands, reducing the active condenser length and heat pipe conductance. The addition of a small heater on the reservoir, with the power controlled by the evaporator temperature, will allow thermal control of roughly ±1-2 °C. In one example, the evaporator temperature was maintained in a ±1.65 °C control band, as power was varied from 72 to 150 W, and heat sink temperature varied from +15 °C to −65 °C. </p><p>Pressure controlled heat pipes (PCHPs) can be used when tighter temperature control is required.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a pressure controlled heat pipe, the evaporator temperature is used to either vary the reservoir volume, or the amount of non-condensable gas in the heat pipe. Pressure controlled heat pipes have shown milli-Kelvin temperature control.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diode">Diode</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_pipe&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Diode"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Conventional heat pipes transfer heat in either direction, from the hotter to the colder end of the heat pipe. Several different heat pipes act as a <a href="/wiki/Thermal_diode" title="Thermal diode">thermal diode</a>, transferring heat in one direction, while acting as an insulator in the other:<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thermosyphon#Heat_pipes" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermosyphon">Thermosyphons</a>, which only transfer heat from the bottom to the top of the thermosyphon, where the condensate returns by gravity. When the thermosyphon is heated at the top, there is no liquid available to evaporate.</li> <li>Rotating heat pipes, where the heat pipe is shaped so that liquid can only travel by centrifugal forces from the nominal evaporator to the nominal condenser. Again, no liquid is available when the nominal condenser is heated.</li> <li>Vapor trap diode heat pipes.</li> <li>Liquid trap diode heat pipes.</li></ul> <p><span class="anchor" id="Vapor_Trap_Diode"></span><span class="anchor" id="Vapor_trap_diode_heat_pipe"></span> A vapor trap diode is fabricated in a similar fashion to a variable conductance heat pipe, with a gas reservoir at the end of the condenser. During fabrication, the heat pipe is charged with the working fluid and a controlled amount of a non-condensable gas (NCG). During normal operation, the flow of the working fluid vapor from the evaporator to the condenser sweeps the non-condensable gas into the reservoir, where it does not interfere with the normal heat pipe operation. When the nominal condenser is heated, the vapor flow is from the nominal condenser to the nominal evaporator. The non-condensable gas is dragged along with the flowing vapor, completely blocking the nominal evaporator, and greatly increasing the thermal resistivity of the heat pipe. In general, there is some heat transfer to the nominal adiabatic section. Heat is then conducted through the heat pipe walls to the evaporator. In one example, a vapor trap diode carried 95 W in the forward direction, and only 4.3 W in the reverse direction.<sup id="cite_ref-1-act.com_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1-act.com-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span class="anchor" id="Liquid_Trap_Diode"></span><span class="anchor" id="Liquid_Trap_Diode_Heat_Pipe"></span><span class="anchor" id="Liquid_trap_diode"></span><span class="anchor" id="Liquid_trap_diode_heat_pipe"></span> A liquid trap diode has a wicked reservoir at the evaporator end of the heat pipe, with a separate wick that is not in communication with the wick in the remainder of the heat pipe.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During normal operation, the evaporator and reservoir are heated. The vapor flows to the condenser, and liquid returns to the evaporator by capillary forces in the wick. The reservoir eventually dries out, since there is no method for returning liquid. When the nominal condenser is heated, liquid condenses in the evaporator and the reservoir. While the liquid can return to the nominal condenser from the nominal evaporator, the liquid in the reservoir is trapped, since the reservoir wick is not connected. Eventually, all of the liquid is trapped in the reservoir, and the heat pipe ceases operation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thermosyphons">Thermosyphons</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_pipe&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Thermosyphons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most heat pipes use a wick to return the liquid from the condenser to the evaporator, allowing the heat pipe to operate in any orientation. The liquid is sucked up back to the evaporator by <a href="/wiki/Capillary_action" title="Capillary action">capillary action</a>, similar to the way that a sponge sucks up water when an edge is placed in contact with a pool of water. However the maximum adverse elevation (evaporator over condenser) is relatively small, on the order of 25 cm long for a typical water heat pipe. </p><p>If, however, the evaporator is located below the condenser, the liquid can drain back by gravity instead of requiring a wick, and the distance between the two can be much longer. Such a gravity-aided heat pipe is known as a <a href="/wiki/Thermosyphon#Heat_pipes" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermosyphon">thermosyphon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a thermosyphon, liquid working fluid is vaporized by a heat supplied to the evaporator at the bottom of the heat pipe. The vapor travels to the condenser at the top of the heat pipe, where it condenses. The liquid then drains back to the bottom of the heat pipe by gravity, and the cycle repeats. Thermosyphons are diode heat pipes; when heat is applied to the condenser end, there is no condensate available, and hence no way to form vapor and transfer heat to the evaporator. </p><p>While a typical terrestrial water heat pipe is less than 30 cm long, thermosyphons are often several meters long. The thermosyphons used to cool the Alaska pipe line were roughly 11 to 12 m long. Even longer thermosyphons have been proposed for the extraction of geothermal energy. For example, Storch et al. fabricated a 53 mm I.D., 92 m long propane thermosyphon that carried roughly 6 kW of heat.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their scalability to large sizes also makes them relevant for solar thermal <sup id="cite_ref-g975_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-g975-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and HVAC applications.<sup id="cite_ref-s337_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-s337-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Loop">Loop</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_pipe&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Loop"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Loop_heat_pipe" title="Loop heat pipe">loop heat pipe</a> (LHP) is a passive two-phase transfer device related to the heat pipe. It can carry higher power over longer distances by having co-current liquid and vapor flow, in contrast to the <a href="/wiki/Counter-current_flow" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter-current flow">counter-current flow</a> in a heat pipe.<sup id="cite_ref-NTRS_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NTRS-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This allows the wick in a loop heat pipe to be required only in the evaporator and compensation chamber. <a href="/wiki/Micro_loop_heat_pipe" class="mw-redirect" title="Micro loop heat pipe">Micro loop heat pipes</a> have been developed and successfully employed in a wide sphere of applications both on the ground and in space. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oscillating_or_pulsating">Oscillating or pulsating</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_pipe&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Oscillating or pulsating"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An oscillating heat pipe (OHP), also known as a pulsating heat pipe (PHP), is only partially filled with liquid working fluid. The pipe is arranged in a serpentine pattern in which freely moving liquid and vapor segments alternate.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Oscillation takes place in the working fluid; the pipe remains motionless. These have been investigated for many applicaoling tions, including cooling photovoltaic panels,<sup id="cite_ref-r018_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-r018-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> cooling electronic devices,<sup id="cite_ref-PCPpipeElec_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PCPpipeElec-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> heat recovery systems, fuel cell systems,<sup id="cite_ref-g453_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-g453-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-a705_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-a705-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> HVAC systems,<sup id="cite_ref-r822_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-r822-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and desalination.<sup id="cite_ref-PCPPHPdesal_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PCPPHPdesal-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More and more, PHPs are synergistically combined with <a href="/wiki/Phase_change_material" class="mw-redirect" title="Phase change material">phase change materials</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-PCPpipeElec_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PCPpipeElec-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PCPPHPdesal_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PCPPHPdesal-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Heat_transfer">Heat transfer</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_pipe&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Heat transfer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Heat pipes employ phase change to transfer thermal energy from one point to another by the <a href="/wiki/Vaporization" title="Vaporization">vaporization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Condensation" title="Condensation">condensation</a> of a working fluid or coolant. Heat pipes rely on a temperature difference between the ends of the pipe, and cannot lower temperatures at either end below the ambient temperature (hence they tend to equalize the temperature within the pipe). </p><p>When one end of the heat pipe is heated, the working fluid inside the pipe at that end vaporizes and increases the vapor pressure inside the cavity of the heat pipe. The <a href="/wiki/Latent_heat" title="Latent heat">latent heat</a> of vaporization absorbed by the working fluid reduces the temperature at the hot end of the pipe. </p><p>The vapor pressure over the hot liquid working fluid at the hot end of the pipe is higher than the equilibrium vapor pressure over the condensing working fluid at the cooler end of the pipe, and this pressure difference drives a rapid mass transfer to the condensing end where the excess vapor condenses, releases its latent heat, and warms the cool end of the pipe. Non-condensing gases (caused by contamination for instance) in the vapor impede the gas flow and reduce the effectiveness of the heat pipe, particularly at low temperatures, where vapor pressures are low. The speed of molecules in a gas is approximately the speed of sound, and in the absence of noncondensing gases (i.e., if there is only a gas phase present) this is the upper limit to the velocity with which they could travel in the heat pipe. In practice, the speed of the vapor through the heat pipe is limited by the rate of condensation at the cold end and far lower than the molecular speed.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Note/explanation: The condensation rate is very close to the sticking coefficient times the molecular speed times the gas density, if the condensing surface is very cold. However, if the surface is close to the temperature of the gas, the evaporation caused by the finite temperature of the surface largely cancels this heat flux. If the temperature difference is more than some tens of degrees, the vaporization from the surface is typically negligible, as can be assessed from the vapor pressure curves. In most cases, with very efficient heat transport through the gas, it is very challenging to maintain such significant temperature differences between the gas and the condensing surface. Moreover, this temperature differences of course corresponds to a large effective thermal resistance by itself. The bottleneck is often less severe at the heat source, as the gas densities are higher there, corresponding to higher maximum heat fluxes. </p><p>The condensed working fluid then flows back to the hot end of the pipe. In the case of vertically oriented heat pipes the fluid may be moved by the force of gravity. In the case of heat pipes containing wicks, the fluid is returned by <a href="/wiki/Capillary_action" title="Capillary action">capillary action</a>. </p><p>When making heat pipes, there is no need to create a vacuum in the pipe. One simply boils the working fluid in the heat pipe until the resulting vapor has purged the non-condensing gases from the pipe, and then seals the end. </p><p>An interesting property of heat pipes is the temperature range over which they are effective. Initially, it might be suspected that a water-charged heat pipe only works when the hot end reaches the boiling point (100 °C, 212 °F, at normal atmospheric pressure) and steam is transferred to the cold end. However, the boiling point of water depends on the absolute pressure inside the pipe. In an evacuated pipe, water vaporizes from its <a href="/wiki/Triple_point" title="Triple point">triple point</a> (0.01 °C, 32 °F) to its <a href="/wiki/Critical_point_(thermodynamics)" title="Critical point (thermodynamics)">critical point</a> (374 °C; 705 °F), as long as the heat pipe contains both liquid and vapor. Thus a heat pipe can operate at hot-end temperatures as low as just slightly warmer than the melting point of the working fluid, although the maximum rate of heat transfer is low at temperatures below 25 °C (77 °F). Similarly, a heat pipe with water as a working fluid can work well above the atmospheric boiling point (100 °C, 212 °F). The maximum temperature for long term water heat pipes is 270 °C (518 °F), with heat pipes operating up to 300 °C (572 °F) for short term tests.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The main reason for the effectiveness of heat pipes is the vaporization and condensation of the working fluid. The <a href="/wiki/Heat_of_vaporization" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat of vaporization">heat of vaporization</a> greatly exceeds the specific <a href="/wiki/Heat_capacity" title="Heat capacity">heat capacity</a>. Using water as an example, the energy needed to evaporate one gram of water is 540 times the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of that same one gram of water by 1 °C. Almost all of that energy is rapidly transferred to the "cold" end when the fluid condenses there, making a very effective heat transfer system with no moving parts.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_pipe&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spacecraft">Spacecraft</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_pipe&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Spacecraft"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Grooved_Aluminum_Extrusion_for_Spacecraft_Heat_Pipes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Grooved_Aluminum_Extrusion_for_Spacecraft_Heat_Pipes.jpg/220px-Grooved_Aluminum_Extrusion_for_Spacecraft_Heat_Pipes.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Grooved_Aluminum_Extrusion_for_Spacecraft_Heat_Pipes.jpg/330px-Grooved_Aluminum_Extrusion_for_Spacecraft_Heat_Pipes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Grooved_Aluminum_Extrusion_for_Spacecraft_Heat_Pipes.jpg/440px-Grooved_Aluminum_Extrusion_for_Spacecraft_Heat_Pipes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3224" data-file-height="2184" /></a><figcaption>Heat pipes on spacecraft typically use a grooved aluminium extrusion as the envelope.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aluminum-Ammonia_Variable_Conductance_Heat_Pipe_for_Spacecraft_Thermal_Control.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Aluminum-Ammonia_Variable_Conductance_Heat_Pipe_for_Spacecraft_Thermal_Control.tif/lossless-page1-170px-Aluminum-Ammonia_Variable_Conductance_Heat_Pipe_for_Spacecraft_Thermal_Control.tif.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="757" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Aluminum-Ammonia_Variable_Conductance_Heat_Pipe_for_Spacecraft_Thermal_Control.tif/lossless-page1-255px-Aluminum-Ammonia_Variable_Conductance_Heat_Pipe_for_Spacecraft_Thermal_Control.tif.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Aluminum-Ammonia_Variable_Conductance_Heat_Pipe_for_Spacecraft_Thermal_Control.tif/lossless-page1-340px-Aluminum-Ammonia_Variable_Conductance_Heat_Pipe_for_Spacecraft_Thermal_Control.tif.png 2x" data-file-width="897" data-file-height="3992" /></a><figcaption>Typical grooved aluminium-ammonia VCHP for spacecraft thermal control, with the evaporator section on the bottom, and the non-condensable gas reservoir just below the valve<sup id="cite_ref-1-act.com_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1-act.com-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Spacecraft_thermal_control" title="Spacecraft thermal control">spacecraft thermal control</a> system has the function to keep all components on the spacecraft within their acceptable temperature range. This is complicated by the following: </p> <ul><li>Widely varying external conditions, such as <a href="/wiki/Eclipse" title="Eclipse">eclipses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micro-g_environment" class="mw-redirect" title="Micro-g environment">Micro-g environment</a></li> <li>Heat removal from the spacecraft by <a href="/wiki/Thermal_radiation" title="Thermal radiation">thermal radiation</a> only</li> <li>Limited electrical power available, favoring passive solutions</li> <li>Long lifetimes, with no possibility of maintenance</li></ul> <p>Some spacecraft are designed to last for 20 years, so heat transport without electrical power or moving parts is desirable. Rejecting the heat by thermal radiation means that large radiator panes (multiple square meters) are required. Heat pipes and <a href="/wiki/Loop_heat_pipe" title="Loop heat pipe">loop heat pipes</a> are used extensively in spacecraft, since they don't require any power to operate, operate nearly isothermally, and can transport heat over long distances. </p><p>Grooved wicks are used in spacecraft heat pipes, as shown in the first photograph in this section. The heat pipes are formed by extruding aluminium, and typically have an integral flange to increase the heat transfer area, which lowers the temperature drop. Grooved wicks are used in spacecraft, instead of the screen or sintered wicks used for terrestrial heat pipes, since the heat pipes don't have to operate against gravity in space. This allows spacecraft heat pipes to be several meters long, in contrast to the roughly 25 cm maximum length for a water heat pipe operating on Earth. Ammonia is the most common working fluid for spacecraft heat pipes. Ethane is used when the heat pipe must operate at temperatures below the ammonia freezing temperature. </p><p>The second figure shows a typical grooved aluminium/ammonia variable conductance heat pipe (VCHP) for spacecraft thermal control. The heat pipe is an aluminium extrusion, similar to that shown in the first figure. The bottom flanged area is the evaporator. Above the evaporator, the flange is machined off to allow the adiabatic section to be bent. The condenser is shown above the adiabatic section. The non-condensable gas (NCG) reservoir is located above the main heat pipe. The valve is removed after filling and sealing the heat pipe. When electric heaters are used on the reservoir, the evaporator temperature can be controlled within ±2 K of the setpoint. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computer_systems">Computer systems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_pipe&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Computer systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Heatsink_with_heat_pipes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Heatsink_with_heat_pipes.jpg/220px-Heatsink_with_heat_pipes.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Heatsink_with_heat_pipes.jpg/330px-Heatsink_with_heat_pipes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Heatsink_with_heat_pipes.jpg/440px-Heatsink_with_heat_pipes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1832" data-file-height="2109" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Heat_sink" title="Heat sink">heat sink</a> (aluminium) with heat pipes (copper)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Laptop_Heatpipe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Laptop_Heatpipe.jpg/300px-Laptop_Heatpipe.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Laptop_Heatpipe.jpg/450px-Laptop_Heatpipe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Laptop_Heatpipe.jpg/600px-Laptop_Heatpipe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Typical heat pipe configuration within a consumer laptop. The heat pipes conduct waste heat away from the CPU, GPU and voltage regulators, transferring it to a heatsink coupled with a cooling fan that acts as a fluid-to-fluid heat exchanger.</figcaption></figure> <p>Heat pipes began to be used in computer systems in the late 1990s,<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> when increased power requirements and subsequent increases in heat emission resulted in greater demands on cooling systems. They are now extensively used in many modern computer systems, typically to move heat away from components such as <a href="/wiki/CPU" class="mw-redirect" title="CPU">CPUs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Graphics_processing_unit" title="Graphics processing unit">GPUs</a> to heat sinks where thermal energy may be dissipated into the environment. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Solar_thermal">Solar thermal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_pipe&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Solar thermal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Heat pipes are also widely used in <a href="/wiki/Solar_thermal" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar thermal">solar thermal</a> <a href="/wiki/Water_heating" title="Water heating">water heating</a> applications in combination with evacuated tube solar collector arrays. In these applications, distilled water is commonly used as the heat transfer fluid inside a sealed length of copper tubing that is located within an evacuated glass tube and oriented towards the Sun. In connecting pipes, the heat transport occurs in the liquid steam phase because the thermal transfer medium is converted into steam in a large section of the collecting pipeline.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In solar thermal water heating applications, an individual absorber tube of an evacuated tube collector is up to 40% more efficient compared to more traditional "flat plate" solar water collectors. This is largely due to the vacuum that exists within the tube, which slows down convective and conductive heat loss. Relative efficiencies of the evacuated tube system are reduced however, when compared to flat plate collectors because the latter have a larger aperture size and can absorb more solar energy per unit area. This means that while an individual evacuated tube has better insulation (lower conductive and convective losses) due to the vacuum created inside the tube, an array of tubes found in a completed solar assembly absorbs less energy per unit area due to there being less absorber surface area pointed toward the Sun because of the rounded design of an evacuated tube collector. Therefore, real world efficiencies of both designs are about the same. </p><p>Evacuated tube collectors reduce the need for anti-freeze additives since the vacuum helps slow heat loss. However, under prolonged exposure to freezing temperatures the heat transfer fluid can still freeze and precautions must be taken to ensure that the freezing liquid does not damage the evacuated tube when designing systems for such environments. Properly designed solar thermal water heaters can be frost protected down to more than -3 °C with special additives and are being used in <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a> to heat water.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Permafrost_cooling">Permafrost cooling</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_pipe&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Permafrost cooling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alaska_Pipeline_Closeup_Underneath.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Alaska_Pipeline_Closeup_Underneath.jpg/170px-Alaska_Pipeline_Closeup_Underneath.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Alaska_Pipeline_Closeup_Underneath.jpg/255px-Alaska_Pipeline_Closeup_Underneath.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Alaska_Pipeline_Closeup_Underneath.jpg/340px-Alaska_Pipeline_Closeup_Underneath.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Trans-Alaska_Pipeline_System" title="Trans-Alaska Pipeline System">Alaska pipeline</a> support legs cooled by heat pipe thermosyphons to keep <a href="/wiki/Permafrost" title="Permafrost">permafrost</a> frozen.</figcaption></figure> <p>Building on <a href="/wiki/Permafrost" title="Permafrost">permafrost</a> is difficult because heat from the structure can thaw the permafrost. Heat pipes are used in some cases to avoid the risk of destabilization. For example, in the <a href="/wiki/Trans-Alaska_Pipeline_System" title="Trans-Alaska Pipeline System">Trans-Alaska Pipeline System</a> residual ground heat remaining in the oil as well as heat produced by friction and turbulence in the moving oil could conduct down the pipe's support legs and melt the permafrost on which the supports are anchored. This would cause the pipeline to sink and possibly be damaged. To prevent this, each vertical support member has been mounted with four vertical heat pipe <a href="/wiki/Thermosyphon" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermosyphon">thermosyphons</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The significant feature of a thermosyphon is that it is passive and does not require any external power to operate. During the winter, the air is colder than the ground around the supports. The liquid at the bottom of the thermosyphon is vaporized by heat absorbed from the ground, cooling the surrounding permafrost and lowering its temperature. During the summer, the thermosyphons stop operating, since there is no gas condensing at the top of the heat pipe, but the extreme air cooling during the winter causes condensation and the liquid to flow down. In the <a href="/wiki/Trans-Alaska_Pipeline_System" title="Trans-Alaska Pipeline System">Trans-Alaska Pipeline System</a> initially ammonia was used as the working fluid, however this was replaced with carbon dioxide due to blockages.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Heat pipes are also used to keep the permafrost frozen alongside parts of the <a href="/wiki/Qinghai%E2%80%93Tibet_Railway" class="mw-redirect" title="Qinghai–Tibet Railway">Qinghai–Tibet Railway</a> where the embankment and track absorb the sun's heat. Vertical heat pipes on either side of relevant formations prevent that heat from spreading any further into the surrounding permafrost. </p><p>Depending on application there are several thermosyphon designs:<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> thermoprobe, <a href="/wiki/Thermopile" title="Thermopile">thermopile</a>, depth thermosyphon, sloped-thermosyphon foundation, flat loop thermosyphon foundation, and hybrid flat loop thermosyphon foundation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cooking">Cooking</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_pipe&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Cooking"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first commercial heat pipe product was the "Thermal Magic Cooking Pin" developed by Energy Conversion Systems, Inc. and first sold in 1966.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cooking pins used water as the working fluid. The envelope was stainless steel, with an inner copper layer for compatibility. During operation, one end of the heat pipe is poked through the roast. The other end extends into the oven where it draws heat to the middle of the roast. The high effective conductivity of the heat pipe reduces the cooking time for large pieces of meat by one-half.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The principle has also been applied to camping stoves. The heat pipe transfers a large volume of heat at low temperature to allow goods to be baked and other dishes to be cooked in camping-type situations.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ventilation_heat_recovery">Ventilation heat recovery</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_pipe&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Ventilation heat recovery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Heating,_ventilation_and_air-conditioning" class="mw-redirect" title="Heating, ventilation and air-conditioning">heating, ventilation and air-conditioning</a> (HVAC) systems, heat pipes are positioned within the supply and exhaust air streams of an air-handling system or in the exhaust gases of an industrial process, in order to recover the heat energy. </p><p>The device consists of a battery of multi-row finned heat pipe tubes located within both the supply and exhaust air streams. The system recovers heat from the exhaust and transfers it to the intake. </p><p>Because of the characteristics of the device, better efficiencies are obtained when the unit is positioned upright with the supply-air side mounted over the exhaust air side, which allows the liquid refrigerant to flow quickly back to the evaporator aided by the force of gravity. Generally, gross heat transfer efficiencies of up to 75% are claimed by manufacturers.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nuclear_power_conversion">Nuclear power conversion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_pipe&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Nuclear power conversion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Grover and his colleagues were working on cooling systems for <a href="/wiki/Atomic_battery" title="Atomic battery">nuclear power cells</a> for <a href="/wiki/Spacecraft" title="Spacecraft">space craft</a>, where extreme thermal conditions are encountered. These alkali metal heat pipes transferred heat from the heat source to a <a href="/wiki/Thermionic_converter" title="Thermionic converter">thermionic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Thermoelectric_generator" title="Thermoelectric generator">thermoelectric converter</a> to generate electricity. </p><p>Since the early 1990s, numerous nuclear reactor power systems have been proposed using heat pipes for transporting heat between the reactor core and the power conversion system.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first nuclear reactor to produce electricity using heat pipes was first operated on September 13, 2012, in a demonstration using flattop fission.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wankel_rotary_combustion_engines">Wankel rotary combustion engines</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_pipe&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Wankel rotary combustion engines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ignition of the fuel mixture always takes place in the same part of <a href="/wiki/Wankel_engine" title="Wankel engine">Wankel engines</a>, inducing thermal <a href="/wiki/Thermal_expansion" title="Thermal expansion">dilatation</a> disparities that reduce power output, impair fuel economy, and accelerate wear. In the SAE paper 2014-01-2160, by Wei Wu et al., describes: 'A Heat Pipe Assisted Air-Cooled Rotary Wankel Engine for Improved Durability, Power and Efficiency',<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> they obtained a reduction in top engine temperature from 231 °C to 129 °C, and the temperature difference reduced from 159 °C to 18 °C for a typical small-chamber-displacement air-cooled <a href="/wiki/Unmanned_aerial_vehicle" title="Unmanned aerial vehicle">unmanned aerial vehicle</a> engine. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Heat_pipe_heat_exchangers">Heat pipe heat exchangers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_pipe&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Heat pipe heat exchangers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Heat_exchanger" title="Heat exchanger">Heat exchangers</a> transfer heat from a hot stream to a cold stream of air, water or oil. A heat pipe heat exchanger contains several heat pipes of which each acts as an individual heat exchanger itself. This increases efficiency, life span and safety. In case that one heat pipe breaks, only a small amount of liquid is released which is critical for certain industrial processes such as aluminium casting. Additionally, with one broken heat pipe the heat pipe heat exchanger still remains operable. </p><p>Under the direction of Professor <a href="/wiki/Hussam_Jouhara" title="Hussam Jouhara">Hussam Jouhara</a> of Brunel University London, the EU-funded ETEKINA project used a new model of heat pipe heat exchanger to recover over 40% of waste heat from various industrial factories across Europe between 2017 and 2022. <sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Currently_developed_applications">Currently developed applications</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_pipe&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Currently developed applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Due to the great adaptability of heat pipes, research explores the implementation of heat pipes into various systems: </p> <ul><li>Improving the efficiency of geothermal heating to prevent slippery roads during winter in cold climate zones <sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Increased efficiency of photovoltaic cells by coupling the solar panel to a heat pipe system. This transports heat away from overheated panels to maintain optimal temperature for maximum energy generation. Additionally, the tested set up seizes the recovered thermal heat to warm, for instance, water <sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Hybrid control rod heat pipes to shut down a nuclear reactor in case of an emergency and simultaneously transferring decay heat away to prevent the reactor from running hot <sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_pipe&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heat_sink" title="Heat sink">Heat sink</a> – Passive heat exchanger that transfers heat</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loop_heat_pipe" title="Loop heat pipe">Loop heat pipe</a> – two-phase heat transfer device<span style="display:none" class="category-wikidata-fallback-annotation">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermoelectric_cooling" title="Thermoelectric cooling">Thermoelectric cooling</a> – Electrically powered heat-transfer</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_pipe&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Faghri_2016-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Faghri_2016_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Faghri_2016_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Faghri_2016_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Faghri_2016_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFFaghri2016" class="citation book cs1">Faghri, A. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books/about/Heat_Pipe_Science_and_Technology.html?id=5n2kAQAACAAJ"><i>Heat Pipe Science and Technology</i></a> (2nd ed.). Global Digital Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Heat+Pipe+Science+and+Technology&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Global+Digital+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Faghri&rft.aufirst=A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%2Fabout%2FHeat_Pipe_Science_and_Technology.html%3Fid%3D5n2kAQAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHeat+pipe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/thermal-conductivity-metals-d_858.html">"Thermal conductivity of common metals, metallic elements and Alloys"</a>. <i>www.engineeringtoolbox.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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ARRL: <span class="nowrap">3–</span>9<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 14,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=QEX&rft.atitle=Heat+Pipes&rft.issue=Jul-Aug2010&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3-%3C%2Fspan%3E9&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Jansson&rft.aufirst=Dick&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.arrl.org%2Ffiles%2Ffile%2FQEX_Next_Issue%2FJul-Aug_2010%2FJansson.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHeat+pipe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Heat Pipes", Fifth Edition, D. A. Reay, P.A. 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Lester (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281006127">"The performance of a novel flat heat pipe based thermal and PV/T(photovoltaic and thermal systems) solar collector that can be used as an energy-active building envelope material"</a>. <i>Energy</i>. <b>108</b>: <span class="nowrap">148–</span>154. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016Ene...108..148J">2016Ene...108..148J</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.energy.2015.07.063">10.1016/j.energy.2015.07.063</a> – via Elsevier, Research Gate.</cite><span 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style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_changes_per_hour" title="Air changes per hour">Air changes per hour</a> (ACH)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bake-out" title="Bake-out">Bake-out</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building_envelope" title="Building envelope">Building envelope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convection" title="Convection">Convection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dilution_(equation)" title="Dilution (equation)">Dilution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_energy_consumption" title="Domestic energy consumption">Domestic energy consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enthalpy" title="Enthalpy">Enthalpy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluid_dynamics" title="Fluid dynamics">Fluid dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_compressor" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas compressor">Gas compressor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_pump_and_refrigeration_cycle" title="Heat pump and refrigeration cycle">Heat pump and refrigeration cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_transfer" title="Heat transfer">Heat transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humidity" title="Humidity">Humidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infiltration_(HVAC)" title="Infiltration (HVAC)">Infiltration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latent_heat" title="Latent heat">Latent heat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noise_control" title="Noise control">Noise control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outgassing" title="Outgassing">Outgassing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particulates" title="Particulates">Particulates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychrometrics" title="Psychrometrics">Psychrometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensible_heat" title="Sensible heat">Sensible heat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stack_effect" title="Stack effect">Stack effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_comfort" title="Thermal comfort">Thermal comfort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_destratification" title="Thermal destratification">Thermal destratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_mass" title="Thermal mass">Thermal mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">Thermodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vapour_pressure_of_water" title="Vapour pressure of water">Vapour pressure of water</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align: middle;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absorption-compression_heat_pump" title="Absorption-compression heat pump">Absorption-compression heat pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absorption_refrigerator" title="Absorption refrigerator">Absorption refrigerator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_barrier" title="Air barrier">Air barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_conditioning" title="Air conditioning">Air conditioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antifreeze" title="Antifreeze">Antifreeze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automobile_air_conditioning" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobile air conditioning">Automobile air conditioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_building" title="Autonomous building">Autonomous building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building_insulation_material" title="Building insulation material">Building insulation materials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_heating" title="Central heating">Central heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_solar_heating" title="Central solar heating">Central solar heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilled_beam" title="Chilled beam">Chilled beam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilled_water" title="Chilled water">Chilled water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constant_air_volume" title="Constant air volume">Constant air volume</a> (CAV)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coolant" title="Coolant">Coolant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross_ventilation" title="Cross ventilation">Cross ventilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dedicated_outdoor_air_system" title="Dedicated outdoor air system">Dedicated outdoor air system</a> (DOAS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_water_source_cooling" title="Deep water source cooling">Deep water source cooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demand_controlled_ventilation" title="Demand controlled ventilation">Demand controlled ventilation</a> (DCV)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Displacement_ventilation" title="Displacement ventilation">Displacement ventilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_cooling" title="District cooling">District cooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_heating" title="District heating">District heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_heating" title="Electric heating">Electric heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_recovery_ventilation" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy recovery ventilation">Energy recovery ventilation</a> (ERV)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firestop" title="Firestop">Firestop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced-air" title="Forced-air">Forced-air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced-air_gas" title="Forced-air gas">Forced-air gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_cooling" title="Free cooling">Free cooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_recovery_ventilation" title="Heat recovery ventilation">Heat recovery ventilation</a> (HRV)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_heat" title="Hybrid heat">Hybrid heat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydronics" title="Hydronics">Hydronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_storage_air_conditioning" title="Ice storage air conditioning">Ice storage air conditioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitchen_ventilation" title="Kitchen ventilation">Kitchen ventilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed-mode_ventilation" title="Mixed-mode ventilation">Mixed-mode ventilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microgeneration" title="Microgeneration">Microgeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_cooling" title="Passive cooling">Passive cooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling" title="Passive daytime radiative cooling">Passive daytime radiative cooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_house" title="Passive house">Passive house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_ventilation" title="Passive ventilation">Passive ventilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiant_heating_and_cooling" title="Radiant heating and cooling">Radiant heating and cooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiant_cooling" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiant cooling">Radiant cooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiant_heating" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiant heating">Radiant heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radon_mitigation" title="Radon mitigation">Radon mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refrigeration" title="Refrigeration">Refrigeration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_heat" title="Renewable heat">Renewable heat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Room_air_distribution" title="Room air distribution">Room air distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_air_heat" title="Solar air heat">Solar air heat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_combisystem" title="Solar combisystem">Solar combisystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_cooling" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar cooling">Solar cooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_heating" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar heating">Solar heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_insulation" title="Thermal insulation">Thermal insulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermosiphon" title="Thermosiphon">Thermosiphon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underfloor_air_distribution" title="Underfloor air distribution">Underfloor air distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underfloor_heating" title="Underfloor heating">Underfloor heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vapor_barrier" title="Vapor barrier">Vapor barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vapor-compression_refrigeration" title="Vapor-compression refrigeration">Vapor-compression refrigeration</a> (VCRS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_air_volume" title="Variable air volume">Variable air volume</a> (VAV)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_refrigerant_flow" title="Variable refrigerant flow">Variable refrigerant flow</a> (VRF)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ventilation_(architecture)" title="Ventilation (architecture)">Ventilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_heat_recycling" title="Water heat recycling">Water heat recycling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align: middle;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_conditioner_inverter" class="mw-redirect" title="Air conditioner inverter">Air conditioner inverter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_door" title="Air door">Air door</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_filter" title="Air filter">Air filter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_handler" title="Air handler">Air handler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_ioniser" title="Air ioniser">Air ionizer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air-mixing_plenum" title="Air-mixing plenum">Air-mixing plenum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_purifier" title="Air purifier">Air purifier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_source_heat_pump" title="Air source heat pump">Air source heat pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attic_fan" title="Attic fan">Attic fan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automatic_balancing_valve" title="Automatic balancing valve">Automatic balancing valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back_boiler" title="Back boiler">Back boiler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barrier_pipe" title="Barrier pipe">Barrier pipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blast_damper" title="Blast damper">Blast damper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boiler" title="Boiler">Boiler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrifugal_fan" title="Centrifugal fan">Centrifugal fan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_heater" title="Ceramic heater">Ceramic heater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiller" title="Chiller">Chiller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condensate_pump" title="Condensate pump">Condensate pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condenser_(heat_transfer)" title="Condenser (heat transfer)">Condenser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condensing_boiler" title="Condensing boiler">Condensing boiler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convection_heater" title="Convection heater">Convection heater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compressor" title="Compressor">Compressor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooling_tower" title="Cooling tower">Cooling tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damper_(flow)" title="Damper (flow)">Damper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehumidifier" title="Dehumidifier">Dehumidifier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duct_(flow)" title="Duct (flow)">Duct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economizer" title="Economizer">Economizer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrostatic_precipitator" title="Electrostatic precipitator">Electrostatic precipitator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evaporative_cooler" title="Evaporative cooler">Evaporative cooler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evaporator" title="Evaporator">Evaporator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exhaust_hood" class="mw-redirect" title="Exhaust hood">Exhaust hood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expansion_tank" title="Expansion tank">Expansion tank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fan_(machine)" title="Fan (machine)">Fan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fan_coil_unit" title="Fan coil unit">Fan coil unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fan_filter_unit" title="Fan filter unit">Fan filter unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fan_heater" title="Fan heater">Fan heater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_damper" title="Fire damper">Fire damper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fireplace" title="Fireplace">Fireplace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fireplace_insert" title="Fireplace insert">Fireplace insert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freeze_stat" title="Freeze stat">Freeze stat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flue" title="Flue">Flue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freon" title="Freon">Freon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fume_hood" title="Fume hood">Fume hood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Furnace_(house_heating)" class="mw-redirect" title="Furnace (house heating)">Furnace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_compressor" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas compressor">Gas compressor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_heater" title="Gas heater">Gas heater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gasoline_heater" title="Gasoline heater">Gasoline heater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grease_duct" title="Grease duct">Grease duct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grille_(architecture)" title="Grille (architecture)">Grille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground-coupled_heat_exchanger" title="Ground-coupled heat exchanger">Ground-coupled heat exchanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_source_heat_pump" title="Ground source heat pump">Ground source heat pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_exchanger" title="Heat exchanger">Heat exchanger</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Heat pipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_pump" title="Heat pump">Heat pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heating_film" title="Heating film">Heating film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heating_system" title="Heating system">Heating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HEPA" title="HEPA">HEPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_efficiency_glandless_circulating_pump" title="High efficiency glandless circulating pump">High efficiency glandless circulating pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-pressure_cut-off_switch" class="mw-redirect" title="High-pressure cut-off switch">High-pressure cut-off switch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humidifier" title="Humidifier">Humidifier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrared_heater" title="Infrared heater">Infrared heater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inverter_compressor" title="Inverter compressor">Inverter compressor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerosene_heater" title="Kerosene heater">Kerosene heater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louver" title="Louver">Louver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_room" title="Mechanical room">Mechanical room</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_heater" title="Oil heater">Oil heater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Packaged_terminal_air_conditioner" title="Packaged terminal air conditioner">Packaged terminal air conditioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plenum_space" title="Plenum space">Plenum space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressurisation_ductwork" title="Pressurisation ductwork">Pressurisation ductwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_duct_work" title="Process duct work">Process duct work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiator_(heating)" title="Radiator (heating)">Radiator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiator_reflector" title="Radiator reflector">Radiator reflector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recuperator" title="Recuperator">Recuperator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refrigerant" title="Refrigerant">Refrigerant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Register_(air_and_heating)" title="Register (air and heating)">Register</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reversing_valve" title="Reversing valve">Reversing valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Run-around_coil" title="Run-around coil">Run-around coil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sail_switch" title="Sail switch">Sail switch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scroll_compressor" title="Scroll compressor">Scroll compressor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_chimney" title="Solar chimney">Solar chimney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar-assisted_heat_pump" title="Solar-assisted heat pump">Solar-assisted heat pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_heater" title="Space heater">Space heater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoke_canopy" title="Smoke canopy">Smoke canopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoke_damper" title="Smoke damper">Smoke damper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoke_exhaust_ductwork" title="Smoke exhaust ductwork">Smoke exhaust ductwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_expansion_valve" title="Thermal expansion valve">Thermal expansion valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_wheel" title="Thermal wheel">Thermal wheel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermostatic_radiator_valve" title="Thermostatic radiator valve">Thermostatic radiator valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trickle_vent" title="Trickle vent">Trickle vent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trombe_wall" title="Trombe wall">Trombe wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TurboSwing" title="TurboSwing">TurboSwing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turning_vanes_(HVAC)" title="Turning vanes (HVAC)">Turning vanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultra-low_particulate_air" title="Ultra-low particulate air">Ultra-low particulate air</a> (ULPA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whole-house_fan" title="Whole-house fan">Whole-house fan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windcatcher" title="Windcatcher">Windcatcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood-burning_stove" title="Wood-burning stove">Wood-burning stove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zone_valve" title="Zone valve">Zone valve</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Measurement<br />and control</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align: middle;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_flow_meter" title="Air flow meter">Air flow meter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquastat" title="Aquastat">Aquastat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BACnet" title="BACnet">BACnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blower_door" title="Blower door">Blower door</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building_automation" title="Building automation">Building automation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_sensor" title="Carbon dioxide sensor">Carbon dioxide sensor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clean_air_delivery_rate" title="Clean air delivery rate">Clean air delivery rate</a> (CADR)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Control_valve" title="Control valve">Control valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_detector" title="Gas detector">Gas detector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_energy_monitor" title="Home energy monitor">Home energy monitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humidistat" title="Humidistat">Humidistat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HVAC_control_system" title="HVAC control system">HVAC control system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrared_thermometer" title="Infrared thermometer">Infrared thermometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligent_buildings" class="mw-redirect" title="Intelligent buildings">Intelligent buildings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LonWorks" title="LonWorks">LonWorks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_efficiency_reporting_value" title="Minimum efficiency reporting value">Minimum efficiency reporting value</a> (MERV)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normal_temperature_and_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Normal temperature and pressure">Normal temperature and pressure</a> (NTP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/OpenTherm" title="OpenTherm">OpenTherm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmable_communicating_thermostat" title="Programmable communicating thermostat">Programmable communicating thermostat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmable_thermostat" title="Programmable thermostat">Programmable thermostat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychrometrics" title="Psychrometrics">Psychrometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Room_temperature" title="Room temperature">Room temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smart_thermostat" title="Smart thermostat">Smart thermostat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_temperature_and_pressure" title="Standard temperature and pressure">Standard temperature and pressure</a> (STP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermographic_camera" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermographic camera">Thermographic camera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermostat" title="Thermostat">Thermostat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermostatic_radiator_valve" title="Thermostatic radiator valve">Thermostatic radiator valve</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Professions,<br />trades,<br />and services</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align: middle;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architectural_acoustics" title="Architectural acoustics">Architectural acoustics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architectural_engineering" title="Architectural engineering">Architectural engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architectural_technologist" title="Architectural technologist">Architectural technologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building_services_engineering" title="Building services engineering">Building services engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building_information_modeling" title="Building information modeling">Building information modeling</a> (BIM)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_energy_retrofit" title="Deep energy retrofit">Deep energy retrofit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duct_cleaning" class="mw-redirect" title="Duct cleaning">Duct cleaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duct_leakage_testing" title="Duct leakage testing">Duct leakage testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_engineering" title="Environmental engineering">Environmental engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydronic_balancing" title="Hydronic balancing">Hydronic balancing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitchen_exhaust_cleaning" title="Kitchen exhaust cleaning">Kitchen exhaust cleaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_engineering" title="Mechanical engineering">Mechanical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical,_electrical,_and_plumbing" title="Mechanical, electrical, and plumbing">Mechanical, electrical, and plumbing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mold_growth,_assessment,_and_remediation" class="mw-redirect" title="Mold growth, assessment, and remediation">Mold growth, assessment, and remediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refrigerant_reclamation" title="Refrigerant reclamation">Refrigerant reclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testing,_adjusting,_balancing" title="Testing, adjusting, balancing">Testing, adjusting, balancing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Industry <br />organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align: middle;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_Conditioning,_Heating_and_Refrigeration_Institute" title="Air Conditioning, Heating and Refrigeration Institute">AHRI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_Movement_and_Control_Association" title="Air Movement and Control Association">AMCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASHRAE" title="ASHRAE">ASHRAE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASTM_International" title="ASTM International">ASTM International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building_Research_Establishment" title="Building Research Establishment">BRE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BSRIA" title="BSRIA">BSRIA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chartered_Institution_of_Building_Services_Engineers" title="Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers">CIBSE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Refrigeration" title="Institute of Refrigeration">Institute of Refrigeration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Institute_of_Refrigeration" title="International Institute of Refrigeration">IIR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leadership_in_Energy_and_Environmental_Design" class="mw-redirect" title="Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design">LEED</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheet_Metal_and_Air_Conditioning_Contractors%27_National_Association" title="Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors' National Association">SMACNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniform_Mechanical_Code" title="Uniform Mechanical Code">UMC</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Health and safety</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align: middle;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indoor_air_quality" title="Indoor air quality">Indoor air quality</a> (IAQ)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_smoking" title="Passive 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