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context subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Historical_context-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Origins_of_the_law_degree" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origins_of_the_law_degree"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Origins of the law degree </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origins_of_the_law_degree-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_of_legal_training_in_England" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_legal_training_in_England"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 History of legal training in England </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_of_legal_training_in_England-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legal_training_in_colonial_North_America_and_19th-century_United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legal_training_in_colonial_North_America_and_19th-century_United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Legal training in colonial North America and 19th-century United States </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legal_training_in_colonial_North_America_and_19th-century_United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Revolutionary_approach:_scientific_study_of_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Revolutionary_approach:_scientific_study_of_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.1 Revolutionary approach: scientific study of law </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Revolutionary_approach:_scientific_study_of_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Creation_of_the_JD_and_major_common_law_approaches_to_legal_education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Creation_of_the_JD_and_major_common_law_approaches_to_legal_education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Creation of the JD and major common law approaches to legal education </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Creation_of_the_JD_and_major_common_law_approaches_to_legal_education-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Creation of the JD and major common law approaches to legal education subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Creation_of_the_JD_and_major_common_law_approaches_to_legal_education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Legal_education_in_the_United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legal_education_in_the_United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Legal education in the United States </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legal_education_in_the_United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Creation_of_the_Juris_Doctor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Creation_of_the_Juris_Doctor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.1 Creation of the Juris Doctor </div> </a> <ul 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id="toc-Hong_Kong" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hong_Kong"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.3.1 Hong Kong </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hong_Kong-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Italy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Italy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.4 Italy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Italy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.5 Japan </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philippines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philippines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.6 Philippines </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philippines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Singapore" 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id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Juris Doctor</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 18 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-18" aria-hidden="true" > 18 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%83%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%87_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86" title="دكتوراه في القانون – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="دكتوراه في القانون" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juris_Doctor" title="Juris Doctor – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Juris Doctor" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juris_Doctor" title="Juris Doctor – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Juris Doctor" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juris_Doctor" title="Juris Doctor – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Juris Doctor" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juris_doctor" title="Juris doctor – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Juris doctor" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%D8%AF%DB%8C" title="جی‌دی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جی‌دی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juris_Doctor" title="Juris Doctor – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Juris Doctor" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B2%95%EB%AC%B4%EB%B0%95%EC%82%AC" title="법무박사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="법무박사" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juris_Doctor" title="Juris Doctor – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Juris Doctor" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juris_Doctor" title="Juris Doctor – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Juris Doctor" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E5%8B%99%E5%8D%9A%E5%A3%AB%EF%BC%88%E5%B0%82%E9%96%80%E8%81%B7%EF%BC%89" title="法務博士（専門職） – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="法務博士（専門職）" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juristutdannelse_i_USA" title="Juristutdannelse i USA – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Juristutdannelse i USA" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juris_doctor" title="Juris doctor – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Juris doctor" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80_%D1%8E%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B8" title="Доктор юриспруденции – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Доктор юриспруденции" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juris_Doctor" title="Juris Doctor – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Juris Doctor" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juristexamen_(USA)" title="Juristexamen (USA) – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Juristexamen (USA)" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juris_Doctor" title="Juris Doctor – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Juris Doctor" 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/CLS_diploma.jpg/292px-CLS_diploma.jpg" decoding="async" width="292" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/CLS_diploma.jpg/438px-CLS_diploma.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/CLS_diploma.jpg/584px-CLS_diploma.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1444" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Juris Doctor diploma conferred by <a href="/wiki/Columbia_Law_School" title="Columbia Law School">Columbia Law School</a></figcaption></figure> A Juris Doctor, Doctor of Jurisprudence,<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> or Doctor of Law<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> (JD) is a graduate-entry <a href="/wiki/Professional_degree" title="Professional degree">professional degree</a> that primarily prepares individuals to practice <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">the Philippines</a>, it is the only qualifying law degree. Other jurisdictions, such as <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>, offer both the postgraduate JD degree as well as the undergraduate <a href="/wiki/LLB" class="mw-redirect" title="LLB">LLB</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Civil_Law" title="Bachelor of Civil Law">BCL</a>, or other qualifying law degree depending on the requirements of the jurisdiction where the person will practice law. Originating in the United States in 1902, the JD is the most frequently awarded degree in law. The degree generally requires three years of full-time study to complete and is conferred upon students who have successfully completed coursework and practical training in legal studies. The JD curriculum typically includes fundamental legal subjects such as constitutional law, civil procedure, criminal law, contracts, property, and torts, along with opportunities for specialization in areas like international law, corporate law, or public policy. Upon receiving a JD, graduates must pass a bar examination to be licensed to practice law. The <a href="/wiki/American_Bar_Association" title="American Bar Association">American Bar Association</a> does not allow an accredited JD degree to be issued in less than two years of law school studies.<a href="#cite_note-uwsl2008-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-russo2004-4">[4]</a> In the United States, the JD has the academic standing of a <a href="/wiki/Professional_doctorate" class="mw-redirect" title="Professional doctorate">professional doctorate</a> (in contrast to a <a href="/wiki/Research_doctorate" class="mw-redirect" title="Research doctorate">research doctorate</a>),<a href="#cite_note-nsf2006-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-sdcba1969-6">[6]</a> and is described as a "doctor's degree – professional practice" by the United States Department of Education's <a href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Education_Statistics" title="National Center for Education Statistics">National Center for Education Statistics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> In Australia, South Korea, and Hong Kong, it has the academic standing of a <a href="/wiki/Master%27s_degree" title="Master's degree">master's degree</a>,<a href="#cite_note-AQF_titles-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> while in Canada, it is considered a second-entry <a href="/wiki/Bachelor%27s_degree" title="Bachelor's degree">bachelor's degree</a>.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Canadian_Framework-12">[12]</a> To be fully authorized to practice law in the courts of a given state in the United States, the majority of individuals holding a JD degree must pass a <a href="/wiki/Multistate_Performance_Test" class="mw-redirect" title="Multistate Performance Test">bar examination</a>,<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> except from the state of Wisconsin.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Patent_and_Trademark_Office" title="United States Patent and Trademark Office">United States Patent and Trademark Office</a> also involves a specialized "<a href="/wiki/USPTO_registration_examination" title="USPTO registration examination">Patent Bar</a>" which requires applicants to hold a bachelor's degree or the equivalent in certain scientific or engineering fields alongside their Juris Doctor degree in order to practice in patent cases —prosecuting patent applications — before it.<a href="#cite_note-uspto-19">[19]</a> This additional requirement does not apply to the litigation of patent-related matters in state and federal courts. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology_and_abbreviations">Etymology and abbreviations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Juris_Doctor&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology and abbreviations">edit</a>]</div> In the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, the professional doctorate in law may be conferred in Latin or in English as Juris Doctor (sometimes shown on <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> diplomas in the <a href="/wiki/Accusative" class="mw-redirect" title="Accusative">accusative</a> form Juris Doctorem) and at some law schools Doctor of Law (JD),<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> or Doctor of Jurisprudence (also abbreviated JD).<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> "Juris Doctor" literally means "teacher of law", while the Latin for "Doctor of Jurisprudence" – Jurisprudentiae Doctor – literally means "teacher of legal knowledge". The JD is not to be confused with Doctor of the Science of Law (JSD), <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Juridical_Science" title="Doctor of Juridical Science">Doctor of Juridical Science</a> (Scientiae Juridicae Doctor or “SJD”, Doctor of Laws or <a href="/wiki/Legum_Doctor" title="Legum Doctor">Legum Doctor</a> (LL.D). The JSD and SJD both require students to hold a J.D. and an <a href="/wiki/LL.M" class="mw-redirect" title="LL.M">LL.M</a>; the JSD is for those wanting to pursue an academic career in the U.S.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> while the SJD is typically for students who are pursuing careers as professors of law at foreign universities.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> The JSD, SJD, and LL.D. degrees are equivalent to Ph.D. degrees in the law. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_context">Historical context</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Juris_Doctor&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Historical context">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origins_of_the_law_degree">Origins of the law degree</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Juris_Doctor&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Origins of the law degree">edit</a>]</div> The first university in Europe, the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Bologna" title="University of Bologna">University of Bologna</a>, was founded as a school of law by four famous legal scholars in the 11th century who were students of the <a href="/wiki/Glossator" title="Glossator">glossator</a> school in that city. This served as the model for other law schools of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, and other early universities such as the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Padua" title="University of Padua">University of Padua</a>.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> The first <a href="/wiki/Academic_degree" title="Academic degree">academic degrees</a> may<a href="#cite_note-27">[a]</a> have been doctorates in civil law (doctores legum) followed by canon law (doctores decretorum); these were not professional degrees but rather indicated that their holders had been approved to teach at the universities. While Bologna granted only doctorates, preparatory degrees (bachelor's and licences) were introduced in Paris and then in the English universities.<a href="#cite_note-Lexikon_des_Mittelalters:_Licentia-28">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lexikon_des_Mittelalters:_Doctor,_doctoratus-29">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-Herbermann-etal-1915-31">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History_of_legal_training_in_England">History of legal training in England</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Juris_Doctor&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: History of legal training in England">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:London-Inns-of-Court.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/London-Inns-of-Court.JPG/250px-London-Inns-of-Court.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/London-Inns-of-Court.JPG/330px-London-Inns-of-Court.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/London-Inns-of-Court.JPG/500px-London-Inns-of-Court.JPG 2x" data-file-width="701" data-file-height="541" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Inns_of_Court" title="Inns of Court">Inns of Court</a> of London served as a professional school for lawyers in England</figcaption></figure> The nature of the JD can be better understood by a review of the context of the history of legal education in England. The teaching of law at Cambridge and Oxford Universities was mainly for philosophical or scholarly purposes and not meant to prepare one to practice law.<a href="#cite_note-Stein-1981-32">[31]</a>: 434, 435  The universities only taught civil and canon law (used in a very few jurisdictions, such as the courts of admiralty and church courts) but not the <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> that applied in most jurisdictions. Professional training for practicing common law in England was undertaken at the <a href="/wiki/Inns_of_Court" title="Inns of Court">Inns of Court</a>, but over time the training functions of the Inns lessened considerably and apprenticeships with individual practitioners arose as the prominent medium of preparation.<a href="#cite_note-Stein-1981-32">[31]</a>: 434, 436  However, because of the lack of standardization of study, and of objective standards for appraisal of these apprenticeships, the role of universities became subsequently important for the education of lawyers in the English-speaking world.<a href="#cite_note-Stein-1981-32">[31]</a>: 436  In England in 1292 when <a href="/wiki/Edward_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward I">Edward I</a> first requested that lawyers be trained, students merely sat in the courts and observed, but over time the students would hire professionals to lecture them in their residences, which led to the institution of the <a href="/wiki/Inns_of_Court" title="Inns of Court">Inns of Court</a> system.<a href="#cite_note-Stein-1981-32">[31]</a>: 430  The original method of education at the Inns of Court was a mix of <a href="/wiki/Moot_court" title="Moot court">moot court</a>-like practice and lecture, as well as court proceedings observation.<a href="#cite_note-Stein-1981-32">[31]</a>: 431  By the fifteenth century, the Inns functioned like a university, akin to the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">University of Oxford</a> and the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a>, though very specialized in purpose.<a href="#cite_note-Stein-1981-32">[31]</a>: 432  With the frequent absence of parties to suits during the <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a>, the importance of the lawyer role grew tremendously, and the demand for lawyers grew.<a href="#cite_note-Stein-1981-32">[31]</a>: 433  Traditionally <a href="/wiki/Oxford_and_Cambridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxford and Cambridge">Oxford and Cambridge</a> did not see <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> as worthy of academic study, and included coursework in law only in the context of <a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">canon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">civil law</a> (the two "laws" in the original Bachelor of Laws, which thus became the <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Civil_Law" title="Bachelor of Civil Law">Bachelor of Civil Law</a> when the study of canon law was barred after the Reformation) and for the purpose of the study of philosophy or history only. As a consequence of the need for <a href="/wiki/Practical_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Practical education">practical education</a> in law, the apprenticeship program for <a href="/wiki/Solicitor" title="Solicitor">solicitors</a> emerged, structured and governed by the same rules as the apprenticeship programs for the trades.<a href="#cite_note-Stein-1981-32">[31]</a>: 434  The training of solicitors by a five-year apprenticeship was formally established by the Attorneys and Solicitors Act 1728.<a href="#cite_note-Stein-1981-32">[31]</a>: 435  <a href="/wiki/William_Blackstone" title="William Blackstone">William Blackstone</a> became the first lecturer in <a href="/wiki/English_common_law" class="mw-redirect" title="English common law">English common law</a> at the University of Oxford in 1753, but the university did not establish the program for the purpose of professional study, and the lectures were very philosophical and theoretical in nature.<a href="#cite_note-Stein-1981-32">[31]</a>: 435  Blackstone insisted that the study of law should be university based, where concentration on foundational principles can be had, instead of concentration on detail and procedure provided by apprenticeship and the <a href="/wiki/Inns_of_Court" title="Inns of Court">Inns of Court</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Moline-2003-33">[32]</a>: 775, 793  The 1728 act was amended in 1821 to reduce the period of the required apprenticeship to three years for graduates in either law or arts from Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin, as "the admission of such graduates should be facilitated, in consideration of the learning and abilities requisite for taking such degree".<a href="#cite_note-34">[33]</a> This was extended in 1837 to cover the newly established universities of Durham and London,<a href="#cite_note-35">[34]</a> and again in 1851 to include the new <a href="/wiki/Queen%27s_University_of_Ireland" title="Queen's University of Ireland">Queen's University of Ireland</a>.<a href="#cite_note-36">[35]</a> The Inns of Court continued but became less effective, and admission to the bar still did not require any significant educational activity or examination. In 1846, Parliament examined the education and training of prospective <a href="/wiki/Barristers" class="mw-redirect" title="Barristers">barristers</a> and found the system to be inferior to that of Europe and the United States, as Britain did not regulate the admission of barristers.<a href="#cite_note-Stein-1981-32">[31]</a>: 436  Therefore, formal schools of law were called for but were not finally established until later in the century, and even then the bar did not consider a university degree in admission decisions.<a href="#cite_note-Stein-1981-32">[31]</a>: 436  Until the mid nineteenth century, most law degrees in England (the BCL at Oxford and Durham, and the LLB at London)<a href="#cite_note-37">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[38]</a> were postgraduate degrees, taken after an initial degree in arts. The Cambridge degree, variously referred to as a BCL, BL or LLB, was an exception: it took six years from matriculation to complete, but only three of these had to be in residence, and the BA was not required (although those not holding a BA had to produce a certificate to prove they had not only been in residence but had actually attended lectures for at least three terms).<a href="#cite_note-40">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[40]</a> These degrees specialized in Roman civil law rather than in English common law, the latter being the domain of the Inns of Court, and thus they were more theoretical than practically useful.<a href="#cite_note-42">[41]</a> Cambridge reestablished its LLB degree in 1858 as an undergraduate course alongside the BA,<a href="#cite_note-LL_Cantab-43">[42]</a> and the London LLB, which had previously required a minimum of one year after the BA, become an undergraduate degree in 1866.<a href="#cite_note-LLB_Lond-44">[43]</a> The older nomenclature continues to be used for the BCL at Oxford today, which is a master's level program, while Cambridge moved its LLB back to being a postgraduate degree in 1922 but only renamed it as the LLM in 1982.<a href="#cite_note-45">[44]</a> Between the 1960s and the 1990s, law schools in England took on a more central role in the preparation of lawyers and consequently improved their coverage of advanced legal topics to become more professionally relevant. Over the same period, American law schools became more scholarly and less professionally oriented, so that in 1996 Langbein could write: "That contrast between English law schools as temples of scholarship and American law schools as training centers for the profession no longer bears the remotest relation to reality".<a href="#cite_note-Langbein1996-46">[45]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legal_training_in_colonial_North_America_and_19th-century_United_States">Legal training in colonial North America and 19th-century United States</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Juris_Doctor&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Legal training in colonial North America and 19th-century United States">edit</a>]</div> Initially there was much resistance to lawyers in colonial North America because of the role they had played in hierarchical England, but slowly the colonial governments started using the services of professionals trained in the Inns of Court in London, and by the end of the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> there was a functional bar in each state.<a href="#cite_note-Moline-2003-33">[32]</a>: 775  Due to an initial distrust of a profession open only to the elite in England, as institutions for training developed in what would become the United States they emerged as quite different from those in England.<a href="#cite_note-Stein-1981-32">[31]</a>: 429  Initially in the United States the legal professionals were trained and imported from England.<a href="#cite_note-Stein-1981-32">[31]</a>: 438  A formal apprenticeship or clerkship program was established first in New York in 1730 — at that time a seven-year clerkship was required, and in 1756 a four-year college degree was required in addition to five years of clerking and an examination.<a href="#cite_note-Stein-1981-32">[31]</a>: 439  Later the requirements were reduced to require only two years of college education.<a href="#cite_note-Stein-1981-32">[31]</a>: 439  But a system like the Inns did not develop, and a college education was not required in England until the 19th century, so this system was unique. The clerkship program required much individual study and the mentoring lawyer was expected to carefully select materials for study and guide the clerk in his study of the law and ensure that it was being absorbed.<a href="#cite_note-Moline-2003-33">[32]</a>: 781  The student was supposed to compile his notes of his reading of the law into a "<a href="/wiki/Commonplace_book" title="Commonplace book">commonplace book</a>", which he would try to memorize.<a href="#cite_note-Moline-2003-33">[32]</a>: 782  Although those were the ideals, in reality the clerks were often overworked and rarely were able to study the law individually as expected. They were often employed to tedious tasks, such as making handwritten copies of documents. Finding sufficient legal texts was also a seriously debilitating issue, and there was no standardization in the books assigned to the clerk trainees because they were assigned by their mentor, whose opinion of the law may have differed greatly from his peers.<a href="#cite_note-Moline-2003-33">[32]</a>: 782, 783  It was said by one famous attorney in the United States, <a href="/wiki/William_Livingston" title="William Livingston">William Livingston</a>, in 1745 in a New York newspaper that the clerkship program was severely flawed, and that most mentors <dl><dd>"have no manner of concern for their clerk's future welfare ... [T]is a monstrous absurdity to suppose, that the law is to be learnt by a perpetual copying of precedents".<a href="#cite_note-Moline-2003-33">[32]</a>: 782 </dd></dl> There were some few mentors that were dedicated to the service, and because of their rarity, they became so sought-after that the first law schools evolved from the offices of some of these attorneys, who took on many clerks and began to spend more time training than practicing law.<a href="#cite_note-Moline-2003-33">[32]</a>: 782  <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tapping_Reeve.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/Tapping_Reeve.jpg" decoding="async" width="158" height="200" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="158" data-file-height="200" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Tapping_Reeve" title="Tapping Reeve">Tapping Reeve</a>, founder of the first law school in North America, the <a href="/wiki/Litchfield_Law_School" title="Litchfield Law School">Litchfield Law School</a>, in 1773</figcaption></figure> In time, the apprenticeship program was not considered sufficient to produce lawyers fully capable of serving their clients' needs.<a href="#cite_note-Sonsteng-2007-47">[46]</a>: 13  The apprenticeship programs often employed the trainee with menial tasks, and while they were well trained in the day-to-day operations of a law office, they were generally unprepared practitioners or legal reasoners.<a href="#cite_note-Stein-1981-32">[31]</a> The establishment of formal faculties of law in United States universities did not occur until the latter part of the 18th century.<a href="#cite_note-Stein-1981-32">[31]</a>: 442  With the beginning of the American Revolution, the supply of lawyers from Britain ended. The first law degree granted by a United States university was a Bachelor of Law in 1793 by the <a href="/wiki/College_of_William_and_Mary" class="mw-redirect" title="College of William and Mary">College of William and Mary</a>, which was abbreviated L.B.; Harvard was the first university to use the LLB abbreviation in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-Kirkwood-Owens-c2012-48">[47]</a> The first university law programs in the United States, such as that of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Maryland_School_of_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Maryland School of Law">University of Maryland</a> established in 1812, included much theoretical and philosophical study, including works such as the Bible, <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca</a>, Aristotle, Adam Smith, <a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grotius" class="mw-redirect" title="Grotius">Grotius</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Moline-2003-33">[32]</a>: 794  It has been said that the early university law schools of the early 19th century seemed to be preparing students for careers as <a href="/wiki/Politician" title="Politician">statesmen</a> rather than as lawyers.<a href="#cite_note-Moline-2003-33">[32]</a>: 795  At the LLB programs in the early 1900s at <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford University</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yale" class="mw-redirect" title="Yale">Yale</a> continued to include "cultural study", which included courses in languages, mathematics and economics.<a href="#cite_note-Kirkwood-Owens-c2012-48">[47]</a>: 19  An LLB, or a Bachelor of Laws, recognized that a prior bachelor's degree was not required to earn an LLB. In the 1850s there were many proprietary schools which originated from a practitioner taking on multiple apprentices and establishing a school and which provided a practical legal education, as opposed to the one offered in the universities which offered an education in the theory, history and philosophy of law.<a href="#cite_note-Sonsteng-2007-47">[46]</a>: 15  The universities assumed that the acquisition of skills would happen in practice, while the proprietary schools concentrated on the practical skills during education.<a href="#cite_note-Sonsteng-2007-47">[46]</a>: 15  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Revolutionary_approach:_scientific_study_of_law">Revolutionary approach: scientific study of law</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Juris_Doctor&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Revolutionary approach: scientific study of law">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Joseph_Story.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Joseph_Story.jpg/220px-Joseph_Story.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="262" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Joseph_Story.jpg/330px-Joseph_Story.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Joseph_Story.jpg 2x" data-file-width="414" data-file-height="493" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Story" title="Joseph Story">Joseph Story</a>, United States Supreme Court Justice, lecturer of law at Harvard and proponent of the "scientific study of law"</figcaption></figure> In part to compete with the small professional law schools, there began a great change in United States university legal education. For a short time beginning in 1826 Yale began to offer a complete "practitioners' course" which lasted two years and included practical courses, such as pleading drafting.<a href="#cite_note-Moline-2003-33">[32]</a>: 798  United States Supreme Court justice <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Story" title="Joseph Story">Joseph Story</a> started the spirit of change in legal education at Harvard, when he advocated a more "scientific study" of the law in the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-Moline-2003-33">[32]</a>: 800  At the time he was a lecturer at Harvard. Therefore, at Harvard the education was much of a trade school type of approach to legal education, contrary to the more liberal arts education advocated by Blackstone at Oxford and Jefferson at William and Mary.<a href="#cite_note-Moline-2003-33">[32]</a>: 801  Nonetheless, there continued to be debate among educators over whether legal education should be more vocational, as at the private law schools, or through a rigorous scientific method, such as that developed by Story and <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus_Langdell" title="Christopher Columbus Langdell">Langdell</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Stein-1981-32">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[b]</a> In the words of Dorsey Ellis, "<a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus_Langdell" title="Christopher Columbus Langdell">Langdell</a> viewed law as a science and the law library as the laboratory, with the cases providing the basis for learning those 'principles or doctrines' of which law, considered as a science, consists.'"<a href="#cite_note-51">[49]</a> Nonetheless, into the year 1900, most states did not require a university education (although an apprenticeship was often required) and most practitioners had not attended any law school or college.<a href="#cite_note-Moline-2003-33">[32]</a>: 801  Therefore, the modern legal education system in the United States is a combination of teaching law as a science and a practical skill,<a href="#cite_note-Moline-2003-33">[32]</a>: 802  implementing elements such as clinical training, which has become an essential part of legal education in the United States and in the JD program of study.<a href="#cite_note-Sonsteng-2007-47">[46]</a>: 19  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Creation_of_the_JD_and_major_common_law_approaches_to_legal_education">Creation of the JD and major common law approaches to legal education</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Juris_Doctor&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Creation of the JD and major common law approaches to legal education">edit</a>]</div> The JD originated in the United States during a movement to improve training of the professions. Prior to the origination of the JD, law students began law school either with only a high school diploma, or less than the amount of undergraduate study required to earn a bachelor's degree. The LLB persisted through the middle of the 20th century, which by then turned into a <a href="/wiki/Postgraduate_education" title="Postgraduate education">postgraduate</a> degree requiring the previous completion of a bachelor's degree as a pre-requisite for virtually all students entering law school, it became a bachelor's degree in name only. The didactic approaches that resulted were revolutionary for university education and have slowly been implemented outside the United States, but only recently (since about 1997) and in stages. The degrees which resulted from this new approach, such as the MD and the JD, are just as different from their European counterparts as the educational approaches differ. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legal_education_in_the_United_States">Legal education in the United States</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Juris_Doctor&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Legal education in the United States">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Legal_education_in_the_United_States" title="Legal education in the United States">Legal education in the United States</a></div> Professional doctorates were developed in the United States in the 19th century, the first being the Doctor of Medicine in 1807,<a href="#cite_note-Reed-1921-52">[50]</a>: 162  but at the time, the legal system in the United States was still in development as the educational institutions were developing, and the status of the legal profession was at that time still ambiguous and so the professional law degree took more time to develop. Even when some universities offered training in law, they did not offer a degree.<a href="#cite_note-Reed-1921-52">[50]</a>: 165  Because in the United States there were no Inns of Court, and the English academic degrees did not provide the necessary professional training, the models from England were inapplicable, and the degree program took some time to develop.<a href="#cite_note-Reed-1921-52">[50]</a>: 164  At first the degree took the form of a B.L. (such as at the College of William and Mary), but then Harvard, keen on importing legitimacy through the trappings of Oxford and Cambridge, implemented an LLB degree.<a href="#cite_note-Reed-1921-52">[50]</a>: 167  The decision to award a bachelor's degree for law could be due to the fact that admittance to most nineteenth-century American law schools required only satisfactory completion of high school.<a href="#cite_note-asklib-faq-115308-53">[51]</a> The degree was nevertheless somewhat controversial at the time because it was a professional training without any of the cultural or classical studies required of a degree in England,<a href="#cite_note-Reed-1928-54">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-Reed-1921-52">[50]</a>: 161  where it was necessary to gain a general BA prior to an LLB or BCL until the nineteenth century.<a href="#cite_note-Reed-1928-54">[52]</a>: 78  Thus, even though the name of the English LLB degree was implemented at Harvard, the program in the United States was nonetheless intended as a first degree which, unlike the English B.A., gave practical or professional training in law.<a href="#cite_note-Reed-1921-52">[50]</a>: 169 <a href="#cite_note-Reed-1928-54">[52]</a>: 74  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Creation_of_the_Juris_Doctor">Creation of the Juris Doctor</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Juris_Doctor&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Creation of the Juris Doctor">edit</a>]</div> In the mid-19th century there was much concern about the quality of legal education in the United States. <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus_Langdell" title="Christopher Columbus Langdell">C.C. Langdell</a> served as dean of <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_School" title="Harvard Law School">Harvard Law School</a> from 1870 to 1895, and dedicated his life to reforming <a href="/wiki/Legal_education" title="Legal education">legal education</a> in the United States. The historian Robert Stevens wrote that "it was Langdell's goal to turn the legal profession into a university educated one — and not at the undergraduate level, but through a three-year post baccalaureate degree."<a href="#cite_note-Stevens-1971-55">[53]</a> This graduate level study would allow the intensive legal training that <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus_Langdell" title="Christopher Columbus Langdell">Langdell</a> had developed, known as the <a href="/wiki/Casebook_method" title="Casebook method">case method</a> (a method of studying landmark cases) and the <a href="/wiki/Socratic_method" title="Socratic method">Socratic method</a> (a method of examining students on the reasoning of the court in the cases studied). Therefore, a graduate, high-level law degree was proposed: the Juris Doctor, implementing the case and Socratic methods as its didactic approach.<a href="#cite_note-56">[54]</a> According to professor <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Henry_Beale" title="Joseph Henry Beale">J. H. Beale</a>, an 1882 Harvard Law graduate, one of the main arguments for the change was uniformity. Harvard's four professional schools – theology, law, medicine, and arts and sciences – were all graduate schools, and their degrees were therefore a second degree. Two of them conferred a doctorate and the other two a baccalaureate degree. The change from LLB to JD was intended to end "this discrimination, the practice of conferring what is normally a first degree upon persons who have already their primary degree".<a href="#cite_note-ThayerCastle1902-57">[55]</a> The JD was proposed as the equivalent of the German J.U.D., to reflect the advanced study required to be an effective lawyer. The <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Law_School" title="University of Chicago Law School">University of Chicago Law School</a> was the first to offer the JD in 1902,<a href="#cite_note-Herbermann-etal-1915-31">[30]</a>: 112–117  when it was just one of five law schools that demanded a college degree from its applicants.<a href="#cite_note-asklib-faq-115308-53">[51]</a> While approval was still pending at Harvard, the degree was introduced at many other law schools, including at the law schools at NYU, Berkeley, Michigan, and Stanford. Because of tradition, and concerns about less prominent universities implementing a JD program, prominent eastern law schools like those of Harvard, Yale, and Columbia refused to implement the degree. Harvard, for example, refused to adopt the JD degree, even though it restricted admission to students with college degrees in 1909.<a href="#cite_note-Perry-2012-06-58">[56]</a> Indeed, pressure from eastern law schools led almost every law school (except at the University of Chicago and other law schools in <a href="/wiki/Illinois" title="Illinois">Illinois</a>) to abandon the JD and re‑adopt the LLB as the first law degree by the 1930s.<a href="#cite_note-Perry-2012-06-58">[56]</a>: 21  By 1962, the JD degree was rarely seen outside the Midwest.<a href="#cite_note-Perry-2012-06-58">[56]</a> After the 1930s, the LLB and the JD degrees co‑existed in some American law schools. Some law schools, especially in Illinois and the Midwest, awarded both (like Marquette University, beginning in 1926), conferring JD degrees only to those with a bachelor's degree (as opposed to two or three years of college before law school), and those who met a higher academic standard in undergraduate studies, finishing a thesis in their third year of law school.<a href="#cite_note-Hylton-2012-01-11-59">[57]</a> Because the JD degree was no more advantageous for bar admissions or for employment, the vast majority of Marquette students preferred to seek the LLB degree.<a href="#cite_note-Hylton-2012-01-11-59">[57]</a> As more law students entered law schools with previously awarded bachelor's degree degrees in the 1950s and 1960s, a number of law schools may have introduced the JD to encourage law students to complete their undergraduate degrees.<a href="#cite_note-Hylton-2012-01-11-59">[57]</a> As late as 1961, there were still 15 ABA-accredited law schools in the United States which awarded both LLB and JD degrees. Thirteen of the 15 were located in the Midwest, which may indicate regional variations in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-Hylton-2012-01-11-59">[57]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Juris_Doctor_diploma.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Juris_Doctor_diploma.jpg/220px-Juris_Doctor_diploma.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Juris_Doctor_diploma.jpg/330px-Juris_Doctor_diploma.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Juris_Doctor_diploma.jpg/440px-Juris_Doctor_diploma.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1626" /></a><figcaption>A Juris Doctor conferred by <a href="/wiki/Suffolk_Law_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Suffolk Law School">Suffolk Law School</a>.</figcaption></figure> It was only after 1962 that a new push — this time begun at less-prominent law schools — successfully led to the universal adoption of the JD as the first law degree. The turning point appears to have occurred when the <a href="/wiki/American_Bar_Association" title="American Bar Association">ABA</a> Section of Legal Education and Admissions to the Bar unanimously adopted a resolution recommending to all approved law schools that they give favorable consideration to the conferring of the JD degree as the first professional degree, in 1962 and 1963.<a href="#cite_note-asklib-faq-115308-53">[51]</a> By the 1960s, most law students were college graduates having previously obtained a bachelor's degree, and by the end of that decade, almost all were required to be.<a href="#cite_note-Perry-2012-06-58">[56]</a> Student and alumni support were key in the LLB-to-JD change, and even the most prominent schools were convinced to make the change: Columbia and Harvard in 1969, and Yale (last) in 1971.<a href="#cite_note-Perry-2012-06-58">[56]</a>: 22–23 <a href="#cite_note-asklib-faq-115308-53">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[58]</a> Nonetheless, the LLB at Yale retained the didactical changes of the "practitioners' courses" of 1826, and was very different from the LLB in common law countries, other than Canada.<a href="#cite_note-Moline-2003-33">[32]</a>: 798  Following standard modern academic practice, Harvard Law School refers to its <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Laws" title="Master of Laws">Master of Laws</a> and <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Juridical_Science" title="Doctor of Juridical Science">Doctor of Juridical Science</a> degrees as its graduate level law degrees.<a href="#cite_note-61">[59]</a> Similarly, Columbia refers to the LLM and the JSD as its graduate program.<a href="#cite_note-62">[60]</a> Yale Law School lists its LLM, MSL, JSD, and Ph.D. as constituting graduate programs.<a href="#cite_note-63">[61]</a> A distinction thus remains between professional and graduate law degrees at some universities in the United States. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Major_common_law_approaches">Major common law approaches</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Juris_Doctor&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Major common law approaches">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Legal_education_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Legal education in the United Kingdom">Legal education in the United Kingdom</a></div> The English legal system is the root of the systems of other common-law countries, such as the United States. Originally, common lawyers in England were trained exclusively in the Inns of Court. Even though it took nearly 150 years since common law education began with Blackstone at Oxford for university education to be part of legal training in England and Wales, the LLB eventually became the degree usually taken before becoming a lawyer. In England and Wales the LLB is an undergraduate scholarly program and although it (assuming it is a qualifying law degree) fulfills the academic requirements for becoming a lawyer,<a href="#cite_note-64">[62]</a> further vocational and professional training as either a barrister (the <a href="/wiki/Bar_Professional_Training_Course" title="Bar Professional Training Course">Bar Professional Training Course</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[63]</a> followed by <a href="/wiki/Pupillage" title="Pupillage">pupillage</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[64]</a>) or as a solicitor (the <a href="/wiki/Legal_Practice_Course" title="Legal Practice Course">Legal Practice Course</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[65]</a> followed by a "<a href="/wiki/Training_contract" title="Training contract">period of recognised training</a>"<a href="#cite_note-68">[66]</a>) is required before becoming licensed in that jurisdiction.<a href="#cite_note-Langbein1996-46">[45]</a> The qualifying law degree in most English universities is the LLB although in some, including Oxford and Cambridge, it is the BA in law.<a href="#cite_note-69">[67]</a> Both of these can be taken with "senior status" in two years by those already holding an undergraduate degree in another discipline.<a href="#cite_note-70">[68]</a> A few universities offer "exempting" degrees, usually <a href="/wiki/Integrated_master%27s_degree" class="mw-redirect" title="Integrated master's degree">integrated master's degrees</a> denominated Master in Law (MLaw), that combine the qualifying law degree with the legal practice course or the bar professional training course in a four-year, undergraduate-entry program.<a href="#cite_note-71">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[70]</a> Legal education in Canada has unique variations from other Commonwealth countries. Even though the legal system of Canada is mostly a transplant of the English system (Quebec excepted), the Canadian system is unique in that there are no Inns of Court, the practical training occurs in the office of a barrister and solicitor with law society membership, and, since 1889, a university degree has been a prerequisite to initiating an articling clerkship.<a href="#cite_note-Reed-1921-52">[50]</a>: 27  The education in law schools in Canada was similar to that in the United States at the turn of the 20th century, but with a greater concentration on statutory drafting and interpretation, and elements of a liberal education. The bar associations in Canada were influenced by the changes at Harvard, and were sometimes quicker to nationally implement the changes proposed in the United States, such as requiring previous college education before studying law.<a href="#cite_note-Reed-1928-54">[52]</a>: 390  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_variants_and_curriculum">Modern variants and curriculum</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Juris_Doctor&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Modern variants and curriculum">edit</a>]</div> Legal education is rooted in the history and structure of the legal system of the jurisdiction where the education is given; therefore, law degrees are vastly different from country to country, making comparisons among degrees problematic.<a href="#cite_note-73">[71]</a> This has proven true in the context of the various forms of the JD which have been implemented around the world.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] <dl><dd><dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <caption>Comparisons of J.D. variants<a href="#cite_note-74">[c]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr style="vertical-align:bottom;"> <th>Jurisdiction </th> <th>Duration (years) </th> <th>Different curriculum from LL.B. in jurisdiction </th> <th>Further vocational training required for license </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th>Australia </th> <td>3</td> <td>No</td> <td>Yes </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th>Canada </th> <td>3</td> <td>No</td> <td>Yes </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th>Hong Kong </th> <td>2–3</td> <td>No</td> <td>Yes </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th>Italy </th> <td>5</td> <td>Integrated</td> <td>Yes </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th>Japan </th> <td>2–3</td> <td>Yes</td> <td>Yes </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th>Philippines </th> <td>4</td> <td>Varies</td> <td>No<a href="#cite_note-75">[d]</a> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th>Singapore </th> <td>3</td> <td>No</td> <td>Yes<a href="#cite_note-SMU-c2014-76">[72]</a> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th>United States </th> <td>3</td> <td>No</td> <td>No, except Delaware<a href="#cite_note-77">[73]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Types_and_characteristics">Types and characteristics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Juris_Doctor&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Types and characteristics">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Standard_Juris_Doctor_curriculum">Standard Juris Doctor curriculum</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Juris_Doctor&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Standard Juris Doctor curriculum">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Law_school_in_the_United_States#Curriculum" title="Law school in the United States">Law school in the United States § Curriculum</a></div> As stated by Hall and Langdell, who were involved in the creation of the JD, the JD is a professional degree like the <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Medicine" title="Doctor of Medicine">MD</a>, intended to prepare practitioners through a <a href="#Revolutionary_approach:_scientific_study_of_law">scientific approach</a> of analysing and teaching the law through logic and adversarial analysis (such as the <a href="/wiki/Casebook_method" title="Casebook method">casebook</a> and <a href="/wiki/Socratic_method#Law_schools" title="Socratic method">Socratic</a> methods).<a href="#cite_note-78">[74]</a> This system of curriculum has existed in the United States for over 100 years. The JD program generally requires a bachelor's degree for entry, though this requirement is sometimes waived.<a href="#cite_note-79">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[77]</a> As a study of the substantive law and its professional applications, the JD curriculum has not changed substantially since its creation. As a professional degree, JD programs typically allow practitioners. It requires at least three academic years of full-time study. While the JD is a doctoral degree in the US, lawyers usually use the suffix "<a href="/wiki/Esquire" title="Esquire">Esq.</a>" as opposed to the prefix "Dr.", and that only in a professional context, when needed to alert others that they are a biased party – acting as an agent for their client.<a href="#cite_note-Perry-2012-06-58">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Replacement_for_the_LLB">Replacement for the LLB</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Juris_Doctor&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Replacement for the LLB">edit</a>]</div> An initial attempt to rename the LLB to the JD in the US in the early 20th century started with a petition at Harvard in 1902. This was rejected, but the idea took hold at the new law school established at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a> and other universities. By 1925, 80% of US law schools awarded the JD to students who had entered the program with an undergraduate degree, while granting undergraduate entrants the LLB. The change was initially rejected by the leading law schools of the time Harvard, Yale and Columbia. By the late 1920s, schools were moving away from the JD and once again granting only the LLB, with only law schools in Illinois holding out. This changed in the 1960s, by which time almost all law school entrants were graduates. The JD was reintroduced in 1962 and by 1971 had replaced the LLB, with many schools offering a JD as a replacement to their LLB alumni.<a href="#cite_note-Perry-2012-06-58">[56]</a> Canadian and Australian universities have had graduate-entry law programs that are very similar to the JD programs in the United States, but typically called the LLB. Some students at these universities advocated for the renaming of the graduate-entry LLB to the JD to recognise the graduate characteristics of the program and to obtain a so-called doctoral-level qualification.<a href="#cite_note-Belford-2009-82">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Descriptions_of_the_JD_outside_the_United_States">Descriptions of the JD outside the United States</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Juris_Doctor&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Descriptions of the JD outside the United States">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Legal_education" title="Legal education">Legal education</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Australia">Australia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Juris_Doctor&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Australia">edit</a>]</div> The traditional law degree in Australia is the undergraduate Bachelor of Laws (<a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Laws#Australia" title="Bachelor of Laws">LLB</a>). Beginning in the 2010s, many Australian universities now offer JD programs, including the country's best ranked universities (e.g. the <a href="/wiki/University_of_New_South_Wales" title="University of New South Wales">University of New South Wales</a>,<a href="#cite_note-83">[79]</a> the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Sydney" title="University of Sydney">University of Sydney</a>,<a href="#cite_note-84">[80]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Australian_National_University" title="Australian National University">Australian National University</a>,<a href="#cite_note-85">[81]</a> the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Melbourne" title="University of Melbourne">University of Melbourne</a>,<a href="#cite_note-86">[82]</a> <a href="/wiki/Monash_University" title="Monash University">Monash University</a>,<a href="#cite_note-87">[83]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_Sydney_University" title="Western Sydney University">Western Sydney University</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[84]</a>). Generally, universities that offer the JD also offer the LLB, although at some universities, only the graduate-entry JD is offered. The University of Melbourne, for example, has phased out its undergraduate LLB program for a graduate JD one.<a href="#cite_note-89">[85]</a> An Australian Juris Doctor consists of three years of full-time study, or the equivalent. The course varies across different universities, though all are obliged to teach the <a href="/wiki/Priestley_11" title="Priestley 11">Priestley 11</a> subjects per the requirements of state admissions boards in Australia.<a href="#cite_note-90">[86]</a> JDs are considered equivalent to LLBs, and graduates must meet the same requirements to qualify, including undergoing a practical training. On the <a href="/wiki/Australian_Qualifications_Framework" title="Australian Qualifications Framework">Australian Qualifications Framework</a>, the Juris Doctor is classified as a "masters degree (extended)", with an exception having been granted to use the term "doctor" in the title (other such exceptions include Doctor of Medicine, Doctor of Dentistry and Doctor of Veterinary Medicine). It may not be described as a doctoral degree and holders may not use the title "doctor".<a href="#cite_note-AQF_titles-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-AQF_addendum-91">[87]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Canada">Canada</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Juris_Doctor&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Canada">edit</a>]</div> The JD degree is the dominant common-law law degree in Canada, having replaced many of the nation's former LLB programs. Unlike other jurisdictions, the Canadian LLB was historically typically second-entry undergraduate degree that required the prior completion of another undergraduate degree.<a href="#cite_note-allard.ubc.ca-92">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[89]</a> The <a href="/wiki/University_of_Toronto_Faculty_of_Law" title="University of Toronto Faculty of Law">University of Toronto</a> became the first law school to rename its law degree in 2001. As with the second-entry LLB, in order to be admitted to a Juris Doctor program, applicants must have completed a minimum of two or three years of study toward a bachelor's degree and scored well on the North American <a href="/wiki/Law_School_Admission_Test" title="Law School Admission Test">Law School Admission Test</a>.<a href="#cite_note-94">[90]</a> Notwithstanding the formal requirements, nearly all successful applicants have completed undergraduate degrees before admission to a JD program.<a href="#cite_note-95">[91]</a> The JD in Canada is considered to be a bachelor's degree qualification.<a href="#cite_note-Canadian_Framework-12">[12]</a> All Canadian Juris Doctor programs consist of three years and have similar content in their mandatory first year courses, including public law, property law, tort law, contract law, criminal law and legal research and writing.<a href="#cite_note-96">[92]</a> Beyond first year and other courses required for graduation, course selection is elective with various concentrations such as commercial and corporate law, taxation, international law, natural resources law, real estate transactions, employment law, criminal law and Aboriginal law.<a href="#cite_note-97">[93]</a> After graduation from an accredited law school, each province's or territory's law society requires completion of a bar admission course or examination and a period of supervised articling prior to independent practice.<a href="#cite_note-98">[94]</a> United States jurisdictions other than New York and Massachusetts do not recognize Canadian Juris Doctor degrees automatically.<a href="#cite_note-99">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[97]</a> Likewise, United States JD graduates are not automatically recognized in Canadian jurisdictions such as Ontario.<a href="#cite_note-102">[98]</a> To prepare graduates to practise in jurisdictions on both sides of the border, some pairs of law schools have developed joint Canadian-American JD programs. As of 2018, these include a three-year program conducted concurrently at the University of Windsor and the University of Detroit Mercy,<a href="#cite_note-103">[99]</a> as well as a four-year program with the University of Ottawa and either Michigan State University or American University in which students spend two years studying on each side of the border.<a href="#cite_note-104">[100]</a> Previously, New York University (NYU) Law School and Osgoode Hall Law School offered a similar program, but this has since been terminated.<a href="#cite_note-105">[101]</a> Two notable exceptions are <a href="/wiki/Universit%C3%A9_de_Montr%C3%A9al" title="Université de Montréal">Université de Montréal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Universit%C3%A9_de_Sherbrooke" title="Université de Sherbrooke">Université de Sherbrooke</a>, which both offer a one-year JD program aimed at <a href="/wiki/Quebec_civil_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Quebec civil law">Quebec civil law</a> graduates in order to practice law either elsewhere in Canada or in the state of New York.<a href="#cite_note-106">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-107">[103]</a> <a href="/wiki/York_University" title="York University">York University</a> offered the degree of Doctor of Jurisprudence (D.Jur.) as a research degree until 2002, when the name of the program was changed to Ph.D. in law.<a href="#cite_note-108">[104]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="China">China</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Juris_Doctor&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: China">edit</a>]</div> The primary law degree in the People's Republic of China is the undergraduate Bachelor of Laws. The Juris Magister is the graduate-level professional law degree in China, which is regarded as the counterpart of a Juris Doctor.<a href="#cite_note-109">[105]</a> In fall 2008, the Shenzhen graduate campus of Peking University started the School of Transnational Law, which offers a United States-style education and awards a Chinese Juris Doctor degree.<a href="#cite_note-110">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Hong_Kong">Hong Kong</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Juris_Doctor&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Hong Kong">edit</a>]</div> The JD degree is currently offered at the <a href="/wiki/The_Chinese_University_of_Hong_Kong" class="mw-redirect" title="The Chinese University of Hong Kong">Chinese University of Hong Kong</a>,<a href="#cite_note-111">[107]</a> <a href="/wiki/The_University_of_Hong_Kong" class="mw-redirect" title="The University of Hong Kong">The University of Hong Kong</a>,<a href="#cite_note-112">[108]</a> and <a href="/wiki/City_University_of_Hong_Kong" title="City University of Hong Kong">City University of Hong Kong</a>. The JD in Hong Kong is almost identical to the LLB, and is reserved for graduates of non-law disciplines. However, the JD requires a thesis or dissertation.<a href="#cite_note-113">[109]</a> The JD in Hong Kong is a 2-year program, including study during the summer term, but can be extended to three years with summer vacations.<a href="#cite_note-114">[110]</a> The JD is considered a master's degree by universities and the Hong Kong Qualification Framework.<a href="#cite_note-115">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[112]</a> Neither the LLB nor the JD provides the education sufficient for a license to practice. Graduates of both are also required to undertake the <a href="/wiki/Postgraduate_Certificate_in_Laws" title="Postgraduate Certificate in Laws">PCLL</a> course and a solicitor traineeship or barrister pupillage.<a href="#cite_note-117">[113]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Italy">Italy</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Juris_Doctor&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Italy">edit</a>]</div> In <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>, only one program gives access to traditional legal professions such as lawyer, magistrate or public notary, and that is the Laurea Magistrale in Giurisprudenza.<a href="#cite_note-Degree_Programmes_-_School_of_Law-118">[114]</a> Legal studies have a long history in Italy, with the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Bologna" title="University of Bologna">University of Bologna</a> being the main Italian center for studies of both <a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">canon law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">civil law</a> in the 12th and 13th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-119">[115]</a> The laurea magistrale in giurisprudenza is a five-year academic program, deemed a master's-level degree under the <a href="/wiki/Bologna_Process" title="Bologna Process">Bologna process</a>,<a href="#cite_note-120">[116]</a> that can be entered into with a <a href="/wiki/High_school_diploma" title="High school diploma">high school diploma</a>. The program comprises universities classes in legal theory and legal subjects, excluding practical courses, and is concluded with a thesis (<a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>: tesi di laurea) to be defended before an academic commission.<a href="#cite_note-Degree_Programmes_-_School_of_Law-118">[114]</a> In a novel approach, a few universities are trialing a 3+2 model, which initially offers a bachelor's degree in law, followed by the option to undertake an additional two years to earn the Italian Juris Doctor.<a href="#cite_note-121">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[118]</a> Italian graduates in law are awarded the title of Doctor of Law (<a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>: Dottore Magistrale in Giurisprudenza, commonly known as Dottore in legge), in keeping with standard Italian practice of awarding the title of <a href="/wiki/Doctor_(title)" title="Doctor (title)">doctor</a> to university graduates. Holders of the Laurea Magistrale in Giurisprudenza are eligible to register with an Italian bar association, which is a prerequisite for the mandatory eighteen-month apprenticeship under a practicing attorney-at-law before taking the bar examination.<a href="#cite_note-123">[119]</a> Alternatively, graduates may opt for two additional years of study at the Scuole di Specializzazione per le Professioni Legali (Specialization Schools for the Legal Profession), leading to a Diploma di Specializzazione per le Professioni Legali (Specialization Diploma for the Legal Profession), akin to a master's degree.<a href="#cite_note-124">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-125">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-126">[122]</a> Possession of the Laurea Magistrale in Giurisprudenza also qualifies individuals to partake in the competitive public examination, administered by the Ministry of Justice, for entry into the <a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Italy#Ordinary_magistracy" title="Judiciary of Italy">ordinary magistracy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-127">[123]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Japan">Japan</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Juris_Doctor&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Japan">edit</a>]</div> In <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> the JD is known as Homu Hakushi (法務博士, hōmu hakushi).<a href="#cite_note-128">[124]</a> The program generally lasts three years. Two-year JD programs for applicants with legal knowledge (mainly undergraduate level law degree holders) are also offered. This curriculum is professionally oriented,<a href="#cite_note-129">[125]</a> but does not provide the education sufficient for a license to practice as an <a href="/wiki/Attorneys_in_Japan" title="Attorneys in Japan">attorney in Japan</a>. All candidates for licensing must undertake a 12-month practical training by the Legal Training and Research Institute after passing the bar examination.<a href="#cite_note-130">[126]</a> Similarly to the United States, the Juris Doctor is classed as a professional degree (専門職, senmonshoku) in Japan, which is separate from the academic class of postgraduate master's degrees and doctorates.<a href="#cite_note-131">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-132">[128]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Philippines">Philippines</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Juris_Doctor&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Philippines">edit</a>]</div> In the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>, the Juris Doctor (JD) has replaced the <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Laws" title="Bachelor of Laws">LLB</a> as the universal academic degree for law graduates. This transition was formalized by the <a href="/wiki/Legal_Education_Board" title="Legal Education Board">Legal Education Board</a> (LEB) through Legal Education Board Memorandum Order No. 19, s. 2018, which mandated the adoption of the JD as the standard law degree in the country.<a href="#cite_note-Philippines-133">[129]</a> The JD program spans four years and includes all subjects required for the <a href="/wiki/Philippine_Bar_Examination" class="mw-redirect" title="Philippine Bar Examination">Philippine Bar Examination</a>. In 2021, the LEB issued Legal Education Board Memorandum Order No. 24, s. 2021, which adopted a Revised Model Law Curriculum (RMLC) to standardize legal education across all institutions.<a href="#cite_note-134">[130]</a> For a brief period in 2024, the LEB introduced the Master of Legal Studies-Juris Doctor (MLS-JD) program, which allowed students with an MLS degree to complete a JD in a shorter period. However, this program was later discontinued following concerns about its compliance with legal education standards and the integrity of the JD as a professional law degree.<a href="#cite_note-135">[131]</a> In 2019, the LEB issued Legal Education Board Resolution No. 2019-406, declaring that basic law degrees, whether LLB or JD, should be considered equivalent to <a href="/wiki/Doctorate" title="Doctorate">doctoral degrees</a> in other non-law disciplines for purposes of appointment, employment, ranking, and compensation.<a href="#cite_note-136">[132]</a> However, the <a href="/wiki/Commission_on_Higher_Education" title="Commission on Higher Education">Commission on Higher Education</a>, which has legal responsibility for establishing equivalency, stated that it had serious concerns with this declaration and has ruled that JDs are not equivalent to doctorates.<a href="#cite_note-Philippines-133">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-137">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-138">[134]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Singapore">Singapore</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Juris_Doctor&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Singapore">edit</a>]</div> The degree of Doctor of Jurisprudence is offered at all three law schools in Singapore, which also offer LLB degrees. It is a qualifying law degree for the purposes of admission to the legal profession in Singapore.<a href="#cite_note-SMU-c2014-76">[72]</a> A graduate of these programmes is a "qualified person" under Singapore's legislation governing entry to the legal profession, and is eligible for admission to the Singapore Bar.<a href="#cite_note-139">[135]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Juris_Doctor&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: United Kingdom">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Quality_Assurance_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Quality Assurance Agency">Quality Assurance Agency</a> consulted in 2014 on the inclusion of "Juris Doctor" in the U.K. Framework for Higher Education Qualifications as an exception to the rule that "doctor" should only be used by doctoral degrees. It was proposed that the Juris Doctor would be an award at bachelor level, and would not confer the right to use the title "doctor".<a href="#cite_note-140">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-141">[137]</a> This was not incorporated into the final framework published in 2014.<a href="#cite_note-142">[138]</a> The only JD degree currently awarded by a U.K. university is at <a href="/wiki/Queen%27s_University_Belfast" title="Queen's University Belfast">Queen's University Belfast</a>. The 3–4 year degree is specified a <a href="/wiki/Professional_doctorate" class="mw-redirect" title="Professional doctorate">professional doctorate</a> at the doctoral qualifications level, sitting above the LLM. It includes a 30,000-word dissertation.<a href="#cite_note-143">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[140]</a> Joint LLB/JD courses for a small number of students are offered by <a href="/wiki/University_College_London" title="University College London">University College London</a>, <a href="/wiki/King%27s_College_London" title="King's College London">King's College London</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/London_School_of_Economics" title="London School of Economics">London School of Economics</a> in collaboration with <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a>. King's also offers a joint LLB/JD with <a href="/wiki/Georgetown_University" title="Georgetown University">Georgetown University</a>.<a href="#cite_note-145">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-kcl-146">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-147">[143]</a> King's College London and the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Exeter" title="University of Exeter">University of Exeter</a> offer joint LLB/JD degrees with the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_University_of_Hong_Kong" title="Chinese University of Hong Kong">Chinese University of Hong Kong</a>, with two years in the UK followed by two years in Hong Kong.<a href="#cite_note-kcl-146">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-148">[144]</a> <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_School" title="Harvard Law School">Harvard Law School</a> and the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a> offer a JD/LLM Joint Degree Program enabling Harvard JD candidates to earn a Cambridge LLM and a Harvard JD in 3.5 years.<a href="#cite_note-149">[145]</a> The <a href="/wiki/University_of_Southampton" title="University of Southampton">University of Southampton</a> offers a two-year graduate-entry LLB described as a "JD pathway" degree.<a href="#cite_note-150">[146]</a> The <a href="/wiki/University_of_Surrey" title="University of Surrey">University of Surrey</a> previously offered a course similar to Southampton's.<a href="#cite_note-151">[147]</a> The <a href="/wiki/University_of_York" title="University of York">University of York</a> offers a three-year so-called "LLM Law (Juris Doctor)" degree.<a href="#cite_note-152">[148]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_academia">In academia</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Juris_Doctor&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: In academia">edit</a>]</div> In the United States, the Juris Doctor is the degree that prepares the recipient to enter the law profession (as do the <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Medicine" title="Doctor of Medicine">M.D.</a> or <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Osteopathic_Medicine" title="Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine">D.O.</a> in the medical profession and the <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Dental_Surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctor of Dental Surgery">D.D.S</a> or D.M.D. in the dental profession). While the J.D. is the sole degree necessary to become a professor of law or to obtain a license to practice law, it (like the M.D., D.O, D.D.S, or D.M.D.) is not a "research degree".<a href="#cite_note-153">[149]</a> Research degrees in the study of law include the <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Laws" title="Master of Laws">Master of Laws</a> (LL.M.), which ordinarily requires the J.D. as a prerequisite,<a href="#cite_note-law.yale.edu-154">[150]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Juridical_Science" title="Doctor of Juridical Science">Doctor of Juridical Science</a> (S.J.D./J.S.D.), which ordinarily requires the LL.M. as a prerequisite.<a href="#cite_note-law.yale.edu-154">[150]</a> However, the <a href="/wiki/American_Bar_Association" title="American Bar Association">American Bar Association</a>, which accredits US law schools, has issued a Council Statement stating:<a href="#cite_note-155">[151]</a> <blockquote>WHEREAS, the acquisition of a Doctor of Jurisprudence degree requires from 84 to 90 semester hours of post baccalaureate study and the Doctor of Philosophy degree usually requires 60 semester hours of post baccalaureate study along with the writing of a dissertation, the two degrees shall be considered as equivalent degrees for educational employment purposes.<a href="#cite_note-156">[152]</a></blockquote> Accordingly, while most law professors are required to conduct original writing and research in order to be awarded tenure, the majority have a J.D. as their highest degree and are qualified to teach and supervise LL.M. and J.S.D candidates. However, research in 2015 showed an increasing trend toward hiring professors with both a J.D. and Ph.D. in a field that confers Ph.D. degrees, particularly at more highly ranked schools.<a href="#cite_note-157">[153]</a> Professor Kenneth K. Mwenda criticized the council's statement, pointing out that it compares the J.D. only to the taught component of the Ph.D. degree in the United States, ignoring the research and dissertation components.<a href="#cite_note-158">[154]</a> The United States <a href="/wiki/Department_of_Education" class="mw-redirect" title="Department of Education">Department of Education</a> Center for Education Statistics classifies the J.D. and other professional doctorates as "doctor's degree-professional practice." It classifies the Ph.D. and other research doctorates as "doctor's degree-research/scholarship."<a href="#cite_note-159">[155]</a> Among legal degrees, it accords the latter status only to the Doctor of Juridical Science degree. In Europe, the <a href="/wiki/European_Research_Council" title="European Research Council">European Research Council</a> follows a similar policy, stating that a professional degree carrying the title "doctor" is not considered equivalent to a research degree, such as a Ph.D.<a href="#cite_note-160">[156]</a> The Dutch and Portuguese <a href="/wiki/National_Academic_Recognition_Information_Centre" title="National Academic Recognition Information Centre">National Academic Recognition Information Centres</a> both classify the JD granted in the United States (along with other professional doctorate degrees) as equivalent to a master's degree,<a href="#cite_note-161">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-162">[158]</a> while the National Qualifications Authority of Ireland states with respect to United States practice that: "The '... professional degree' is a first degree, not a graduate degree, even though it incorporates the word 'doctor' in the title"<a href="#cite_note-163">[159]</a> <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth</a> countries also often consider the JD granted in the United States equivalent to a bachelor's degree,<a href="#cite_note-164">[160]</a> even though the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Citizenship_and_Immigration_Services" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services">United States Citizenship and Immigration Services</a> has advised that "while neither degree is likely equivalent to a Ph.D., a JD, or MD degree would be considered to be equivalent to, if not higher than, a masters degree".<a href="#cite_note-165">[161]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Use_of_the_title_"doctor"">Use of the title "doctor"</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Juris_Doctor&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Use of the title "doctor"">edit</a>]</div> Since at least the 1920s, it has been contrary to custom in the United States to address holders of the JD as "doctor".<a href="#cite_note-166">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-167">[163]</a> In the late 1960s, the rising number of American law schools awarding JDs led to debate over whether lawyers could ethically use the title "doctor". Initial informal ethics opinions, based on the Canons of Professional Ethics then in force, came down against this.<a href="#cite_note-168">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-169">[165]</a> These were then reinforced with an ABA ethics opinion that maintained the ban on using the title in legal practice (except when dealing with countries where the use of "doctor" by lawyers was standard practice) but allowed the use of the title in academia "if the school of graduation thinks of the JD degree as a doctor's degree".<a href="#cite_note-170">[166]</a> The opinion generated much debate.<a href="#cite_note-171">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-172">[168]</a> The introduction of the 1969 Code of Professional Responsibility settled the question in favour of allowing the use of the title in states where the code was adopted.<a href="#cite_note-173">[169]</a> There was some dispute over whether only the Ph.D.-level <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Juridical_Science" title="Doctor of Juridical Science">Doctor of Juridical Science</a> grant the title,<a href="#cite_note-174">[170]</a> but ethics opinions have read the Code as allowing JD-holders to be called 'doctor', while acknowledging that the older Canons did not.<a href="#cite_note-175">[171]</a> As not all state bars adopted the new code, and some omitted the clause permitting the use of the title, confusion over whether lawyers could ethically use the title "doctor" continued.<a href="#cite_note-176">[172]</a> While many state bars now allow the use of the title, some prohibit its use where there is any chance of confusing the public about a lawyer's actual qualifications (e.g. if the public might believe the lawyer is a doctor of medicine).<a href="#cite_note-177">[173]</a> There has been discussion on whether it is permissible in some other limited instances. For example, in June 2006, the <a href="/wiki/Florida_Bar_Association" class="mw-redirect" title="Florida Bar Association">Florida Bar</a> Board of Governors ruled that a lawyer could refer to himself as a "doctor en leyes" (doctor in laws) in a Spanish-language advertisement, reversing an earlier decision.<a href="#cite_note-178">[174]</a> The decision was reversed again the following month, when the board voted to only allow the use of untranslated names of degrees.<a href="#cite_note-179">[175]</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal" title="The Wall Street Journal">The Wall Street Journal</a> notes specifically in its stylebook that "Lawyers, despite their JD degrees, aren't called doctor."<a href="#cite_note-180">[176]</a> Many other newspapers reserve the title for physicians only<a href="#cite_note-181">[177]</a> or do not use titles at all.<a href="#cite_note-182">[178]</a> In 2011, <a href="/wiki/Mother_Jones_(magazine)" title="Mother Jones (magazine)">Mother Jones</a> published an article claiming that <a href="/wiki/Michele_Bachmann" title="Michele Bachmann">Michele Bachmann</a> was misrepresenting her qualifications by using the "bogus" title "Dr." based on her JD. They later amended the article to note that the use of the title by lawyers "is a (begrudgingly) accepted practice in some states and not in others", although they maintained that it was rarely used as it "suggests that you're a medical doctor or a Ph.D. – and therefore conveys a false level of expertise."<a href="#cite_note-183">[179]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Juris_Doctor&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Civil_Law" title="Bachelor of Civil Law">Bachelor of Civil Law</a> (B.C.L., LL.B., or LL.L.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Laws" title="Bachelor of Laws">Bachelor of Laws</a> (LL.B.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Canon_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctor of Canon Law">Doctor of Canon Law</a> (J.C.D.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Juridical_Science" title="Doctor of Juridical Science">Doctor of Juridical Science</a> (J.S.D. or S.J.D.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctor of Laws">Doctor of Laws</a> (LL.D.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_of_Laws" title="Master of Laws">Master of Laws</a> (LL.M.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_education" title="Legal education">Legal education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Admission_to_practice_law" title="Admission to practice law">Admission to practice law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accelerated_JD_program" title="Accelerated JD program">Accelerated JD program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_degree" title="Law degree">Law degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_school_in_the_United_States" title="Law school in the United States">Law school in the United States</a> – describes general characteristics of the J.D. curriculum in the United States</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawyer" title="Lawyer">Lawyer</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Juris_Doctor&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> Some sources have the first doctorates in theology at Paris being awarded prior to the doctorates in law at Bologna.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> For detailed discussions of the development of <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus_Langdell" title="Christopher Columbus Langdell">C.C. Langdell's</a> method, see la Piana (1994)<a href="#cite_note-la-Piana-1994-49">[48]</a> and Stein (1981)<a href="#cite_note-Stein-1981-32">[31]</a>: 449–450  </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> Citations for verification of the data in this table can be found in the subsequent paragraphs of this section. </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> Juris Doctor degree qualifies one to sit for the bar examinations. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Juris_Doctor&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://law.stanford.edu/office-of-student-affairs/the-doctor-of-jurisprudence-jd-degree/">"The Doctor of Jurisprudence (JD) Degree"</a>. Stanford Law School. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220706191250/https://law.stanford.edu/office-of-student-affairs/the-doctor-of-jurisprudence-jd-degree/">Archived</a> from the original on 6 July 2022. Retrieved 9 April 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Stanford+Law+School&rft.atitle=The+Doctor+of+Jurisprudence+%28JD%29+Degree&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flaw.stanford.edu%2Foffice-of-student-affairs%2Fthe-doctor-of-jurisprudence-jd-degree%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://graduateannouncements.uchicago.edu/graduate/lawschool/">"The Law School > Academic Catalog | The University of Chicago"</a>. Graduate Announcements, The University of Chicago. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230615201522/http://graduateannouncements.uchicago.edu/graduate/lawschool/">Archived</a> from the original on 15 June 2023. 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Retrieved 13 February 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Doctor+of+Jurisprudence&rft.pub=Stanford+University&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.stanford.edu%2Fdept%2Fregistrar%2Fbulletin0910%2F4928.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lsac.org/choosing-law-school/find-law-school/llm-and-other-law-programs-us-canada/cornell-law-school">"The Law School Admission Council"</a>. www.lsac.org. 2025. 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London, UK: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-54113-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-54113-8"><bdi>978-0-521-54113-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230409145105/https://books.google.com/books?id=5Z1VBEbF0HAC&q=bologna+doctor+title&pg=RA1-PA399">Archived</a> from the original on 9 April 2023. 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Retrieved 17 April 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=MLaw&rft.pub=Northumbria+University&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.northumbria.ac.uk%2Fstudy-at-northumbria%2Fcourses%2Fm-law-exempting-ft-uufmay1%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> See, Langbein (1996). </li> <li id="cite_note-SMU-c2014-76">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SMU-c2014_76-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SMU-c2014_76-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140222174938/http://www.mlaw.gov.sg/practising-as-a-lawyer/unis/is-the-juris-doctor-degree-offered-by-the-singapore-management-university-smu-an-approved-degree.html">"Is the Juris Doctor degree offered by the Singapore Management University (SMU) an approved degree?"</a>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stl.szpku.edu.cn/upFile/20106/20106101133125.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 7 July 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Circular+authorizing+Peking+University+to+offer+the+international+Fa+Lv+Shuo+Shi+on+a+trial+basis&rft.pub=Academic+Degree+Commission+of+the+State+Council+of+the+People%27s+Republic+of+China&rft.date=2007-08-27&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.stl.szpku.edu.cn%2FupFile%2F20106%2F20106101133125.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131226060725/http://www.law.cuhk.edu.hk/programmes/juris-doctor.php">"Juris Doctor"</a>. Academic programmes. <a href="/wiki/The_Chinese_University_of_Hong_Kong" class="mw-redirect" title="The Chinese University of Hong Kong">The Chinese University of Hong Kong</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.law.cuhk.edu.hk/programmes/juris-doctor.php">the original</a> on 26 December 2013. 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Retrieved 15 December 2008;</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Juris+Doctor+%28J.D.%29+overview&rft.pub=The+University+of+Hong+Kong&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hku.hk%2Flaw%2Fjd%2Fjd_overview.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080703110734/http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/law/prospectiveStudents/jd01.html">"JD programme structure"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Chinese_University_of_Hong_Kong" class="mw-redirect" title="The Chinese University of Hong Kong">The Chinese University of Hong Kong</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/law/prospectiveStudents/jd01.html">the original</a> on 3 July 2008. Retrieved 29 June 2008;</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=JD+programme+structure&rft.pub=The+Chinese+University+of+Hong+Kong&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cuhk.edu.hk%2Flaw%2FprospectiveStudents%2Fjd01.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080413234653/http://www.cityu.edu.hk/slw/english/programmes/courses/jd_faq.htm">"Juris Doctor"</a>. Academic Programmes. <a href="/wiki/City_University_of_Hong_Kong" title="City University of Hong Kong">City University of Hong Kong</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cityu.edu.hk/slw/english/programmes/courses/jd_faq.htm">the original</a> on 13 April 2008. Retrieved 29 June 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Juris+Doctor&rft.series=Academic+Programmes&rft.pub=City+University+of+Hong+Kong&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cityu.edu.hk%2Fslw%2Fenglish%2Fprogrammes%2Fcourses%2Fjd_faq.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081202084116/http://www.hku.hk/law/jd/jd_overview.html">"Juris Doctor (JD) overview"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_University_of_Hong_Kong" class="mw-redirect" title="The University of Hong Kong">The University of Hong Kong</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hku.hk/law/jd/jd_overview.html">the original</a> on 2 December 2008. Retrieved 15 December 2008;</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Juris+Doctor+%28JD%29+overview&rft.pub=The+University+of+Hong+Kong&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hku.hk%2Flaw%2Fjd%2Fjd_overview.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080610105524/http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/law/prospectiveStudents/jd03.html">"The Juris Doctor (J.D.) programme"</a>. Courses and Recommended Sequences. <a href="/wiki/The_Chinese_University_of_Hong_Kong" class="mw-redirect" title="The Chinese University of Hong Kong">The Chinese University of Hong Kong</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/law/prospectiveStudents/jd03.html">the original</a> on 10 June 2008. Retrieved 29 June 2008;</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Juris+Doctor+%28J.D.%29+programme&rft.series=Courses+and+Recommended+Sequences&rft.pub=The+Chinese+University+of+Hong+Kong&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cuhk.edu.hk%2Flaw%2FprospectiveStudents%2Fjd03.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071224190014/http://www.cityu.edu.hk/slw/english/programmes/courses/jd.htm">"Juris Doctor"</a>. Academic Programmes. <a href="/wiki/City_University_of_Hong_Kong" title="City University of Hong Kong">City University of Hong Kong</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cityu.edu.hk/slw/english/programmes/courses/jd.htm">the original</a> on 24 December 2007. Retrieved 29 June 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Juris+Doctor&rft.series=Academic+Programmes&rft.pub=City+University+of+Hong+Kong&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cityu.edu.hk%2Fslw%2Fenglish%2Fprogrammes%2Fcourses%2Fjd.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> The <a href="/wiki/City_University_of_Hong_Kong" title="City University of Hong Kong">City University of Hong Kong</a> website says at the top of the webpage that it is a 2 year program, but later on the same page and on other pages in the site, states that "normally, full-time J.D. students can complete the programme in 3 years." </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.law.cuhk.edu.hk/en/study/jd_programme-faq.php">"Juris Doctor (J.D.)"</a>. CUHK Law. FAQ. <a href="/wiki/Chinese_University_of_Hong_Kong" title="Chinese University of Hong Kong">Chinese University of Hong Kong</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160910215151/http://www.law.cuhk.edu.hk/en/study/jd_programme-faq.php">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2016. Retrieved 16 September 2016. <q>Is the J.D. programme a doctoral or a master's degree? The J.D. programme is formally classified as a taught master's degree programme and it is not customary for J.D. graduates to use the title "Doctor".</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CUHK+Law&rft.atitle=Juris+Doctor+%28J.D.%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.cuhk.edu.hk%2Fen%2Fstudy%2Fjd_programme-faq.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160921183642/http://www4.hku.hk/pubunit/calendar/2016-2017/a/c/32-2016-2017/393-masters-degrees">"Masters degrees"</a>. Calendar. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Hong_Kong" title="University of Hong Kong">University of Hong Kong</a>. 2016–2017. 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Retrieved 16 September 2016. <q>Although the award has the word 'doctor' in its title, this is a traditional usage and it is not generally regarded as equivalent to the Ph.D. degree or other doctoral awards.     It is a first law degree for students who are already graduates in a non-law discipline.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Juris+Doctor+%28JD%29+%E2%80%93+Information+for+entrants+to+be+admitted+in+2013%E2%80%932014+and+thereafter&rft.pub=City+University+of+Hong+Kong&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww6.cityu.edu.hk%2Fslw%2Facademic%2Fpostgraduate.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hkqf.gov.hk/filemanager/en/content_16/HKQF_ATS_E_2012_10.pdf">"Award Titles Scheme"</a> (PDF). Special Administrative Region. Qualifications Framework. Government of the Hong Kong. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220407002330/https://www.hkqf.gov.hk/filemanager/en/content_16/HKQF_ATS_E_2012_10.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 7 April 2022. Retrieved 16 September 2016. <q>8. Providers may continue to adopt titles traditionally used for degree and sub-degree qualifications in the mainstream education; i.e.       Associate at Level 4       Bachelor at Level 5       Master at Level 6       Doctor at Level 7 9. The following qualifications currently offered by the university sector are recognised globally. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.qaa.ac.uk/en/AboutUs/Documents/QAA%20Board%20Meeting%20-%20October%202014/QAA-Board-FHEQ-Part-A-Quality-Code-October-2014.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 10 January 2017. <q>Comment [s4]: Footnote as follows will need to be added depending on decision re. the J.D.: • the award of a Juris Doctor is an exception to the principle that the title 'doctor' should only be used for qualifications meeting the qualification descriptor for FHEQ level 8 / SCQF level 12 on the FQHEIS in full • the Juris Doctor is not a doctoral qualification at level 8 of the FHEQ / SQCF level 12 but at level 6 of the FHEQ / SCQF level 10 on the FQHEIS (with some modules at level 7 of the FHEQ / SCQF level 11 on the FQHEIS) • holders of the qualification are not entitled to use the title 'Dr.'</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=U.K.+Quality+Code+for+Higher+Education&rft.series=The+frameworks+for+higher+education+qualifications+of+U.K.+degree-awarding+bodies&rft.pages=34%2C+35&rft.edition=Post+consultation+draft+%28v.+4%29&rft.pub=QAA&rft.date=2014-08&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.qaa.ac.uk%2Fen%2FAboutUs%2FDocuments%2FQAA%2520Board%2520Meeting%2520-%2520October%25202014%2FQAA-Board-FHEQ-Part-A-Quality-Code-October-2014.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170110104549/https://www.ulster.ac.uk/academicoffice/download/TLC/18June2014/12-UKFrameworks.pdf">"Part A: Setting and maintaining academic standards, the U.K. frameworks for higher education qualifications"</a> (PDF). 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Retrieved 8 December 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Consultation+on+the+U.K.+Quality+Code+for+Higher+Education&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=University+of+Ulster&rft.date=2014-06-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ulster.ac.uk%2Facademicoffice%2Fdownload%2FTLC%2F18June2014%2F12-UKFrameworks.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.qaa.ac.uk/docs/qaa/quality-code/qualifications-frameworks.pdf?sfvrsn=170af781_14">The Frameworks for Higher Education Qualifications of U.K. Degree-Awarding Bodies</a> (PDF) (Report). QAA. 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Retrieved 4 August 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=The+Frameworks+for+Higher+Education+Qualifications+of+U.K.+Degree-Awarding+Bodies&rft.pub=QAA&rft.date=2014-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.qaa.ac.uk%2Fdocs%2Fqaa%2Fquality-code%2Fqualifications-frameworks.pdf%3Fsfvrsn%3D170af781_14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.qub.ac.uk/directorates/AcademicStudentAffairs/AcademicAffairs/ProgrammeSpecifications/2019/pgt/detail/?org=SLAW&plan=LAW-JDR">"Law – J.Dr."</a>. Programme Specifications (2019–2020). 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Retrieved 20 November 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Programme+Specifications+%282019%E2%80%932020%29&rft.pub=Queen%27s+University+Belfast&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.qub.ac.uk%2Fdirectorates%2FAcademicStudentAffairs%2FAcademicAffairs%2FProgrammeSpecifications%2F2019%2Fpgt%2Fdetail%2F%3Forg%3DSLAW%26plan%3DLAW-JDR&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.qub.ac.uk/directorates/AcademicStudentAffairs/AcademicAffairs/GeneralRegulations/StudyRegulations/StudyRegulationsforResearchDegreeProgrammes/">Study regulations for research degree programmes</a> (Report). <a href="/wiki/Queen%27s_University_Belfast" title="Queen's University Belfast">Queen's University Belfast</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160914163730/http://www.qub.ac.uk/directorates/AcademicStudentAffairs/AcademicAffairs/GeneralRegulations/StudyRegulations/StudyRegulationsforResearchDegreeProgrammes/">Archived</a> from the original on 14 September 2016. 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University College London. 14 September 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220830171558/https://www.ucl.ac.uk/laws/study/undergraduate/dual-llbjuris-doctor-jd-columbia-university-new-york">Archived</a> from the original on 30 August 2022. 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King's College London. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220830171559/https://www.kcl.ac.uk/law/undergraduate">Archived</a> from the original on 30 August 2022. Retrieved 30 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Dickson+Poon+School+of+Law&rft.atitle=Undergraduate&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.kcl.ac.uk%2Flaw%2Fundergraduate&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lse.ac.uk/law/study/double-degree">"Double degree programme: Columbia Law School"</a>. London School of Economics. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220830171556/https://www.lse.ac.uk/law/study/double-degree">Archived</a> from the original on 30 August 2022. Retrieved 30 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Double+degree+programme%3A+Columbia+Law+School&rft.pub=London+School+of+Economics&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lse.ac.uk%2Flaw%2Fstudy%2Fdouble-degree&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/undergraduate/courses/law/law_llb_jd/">"Dual LLB / Juris Doctor (JD) with the Chinese University of Hong Kong - 2023 entry"</a>. University of Exeter. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220830170557/https://www.exeter.ac.uk/undergraduate/courses/law/law_llb_jd/">Archived</a> from the original on 30 August 2022. Retrieved 30 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dual+LLB+%2F+Juris+Doctor+%28JD%29+with+the+Chinese+University+of+Hong+Kong+-+2023+entry&rft.pub=University+of+Exeter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.exeter.ac.uk%2Fundergraduate%2Fcourses%2Flaw%2Flaw_llb_jd%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSchool" class="citation web cs1">School, Harvard Law. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hls.harvard.edu/dept/ils/hls-cambridge-joint-degree/">"Harvard Law School and University of Cambridge J.D./LL.M. Joint Degree Program"</a>. Harvard Law School. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220615220322/https://hls.harvard.edu/dept/ils/hls-cambridge-joint-degree/">Archived</a> from the original on 15 June 2022. Retrieved 7 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Law+School&rft.atitle=Harvard+Law+School+and+University+of+Cambridge+J.D.%2FLL.M.+Joint+Degree+Program&rft.aulast=School&rft.aufirst=Harvard+Law&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhls.harvard.edu%2Fdept%2Fils%2Fhls-cambridge-joint-degree%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/courses/law-accelerated-programme-jd-pathway-degree-llb">"Law Accelerated Programme JD Pathway (LLB)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Southampton" title="University of Southampton">University of Southampton</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220830173454/https://www.southampton.ac.uk/courses/law-accelerated-programme-jd-pathway-degree-llb">Archived</a> from the original on 30 August 2022. Retrieved 30 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Law+Accelerated+Programme+JD+Pathway+%28LLB%29&rft.pub=University+of+Southampton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.southampton.ac.uk%2Fcourses%2Flaw-accelerated-programme-jd-pathway-degree-llb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160918010617/http://www.surrey.ac.uk/undergraduate/law-jd-pathway">"Law (J.D. pathway) LL.B. (Hons.)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Surrey" title="University of Surrey">University of Surrey</a>. 2017. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.surrey.ac.uk/undergraduate/law-jd-pathway">the original</a> on 18 September 2016. Retrieved 17 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Law+%28J.D.+pathway%29+LL.B.+%28Hons.%29&rft.pub=University+of+Surrey&rft.date=2017&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.surrey.ac.uk%2Fundergraduate%2Flaw-jd-pathway&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.york.ac.uk/study/postgraduate-taught/courses/llm-law-juris-doctor/">"LL.M. law (Juris Doctor)"</a>. Postgraduate courses. <a href="/wiki/University_of_York" title="University of York">University of York</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220407002328/https://www.york.ac.uk/study/postgraduate-taught/courses/llm-law-juris-doctor/">Archived</a> from the original on 7 April 2022. Retrieved 24 July 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=LL.M.+law+%28Juris+Doctor%29&rft.series=Postgraduate+courses&rft.pub=University+of+York&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.york.ac.uk%2Fstudy%2Fpostgraduate-taught%2Fcourses%2Fllm-law-juris-doctor%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMwendaMuuka2009" class="citation book cs1">Mwenda, Kenneth Kaoma; Muuka, Gerry Nkombo, eds. (2009). "The academic rank of a J.D.". The Challenge of Change in Africa's Higher Education in the 21st Century. Cambria Press. pp. 87–88. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60497-610-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60497-610-6"><bdi>978-1-60497-610-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+academic+rank+of+a+J.D.&rft.btitle=The+Challenge+of+Change+in+Africa%27s+Higher+Education+in+the+21st+Century&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E87-%3C%2Fspan%3E88&rft.pub=Cambria+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-60497-610-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> – see esp. Mwenda's comments on pp. 87–88, in the section labeled "The Academic Rank of a JD" and the quoted material from Pappas immediately preceding it. </li> <li id="cite_note-law.yale.edu-154">^ <a href="#cite_ref-law.yale.edu_154-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-law.yale.edu_154-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.yale.edu/studying-law-yale/degree-programs/graduate-programs/llm-program/llm-admission">"LL.M. admission"</a>. Law.yale.edu. Yale Law School. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170110104317/https://www.law.yale.edu/studying-law-yale/degree-programs/graduate-programs/llm-program/llm-admission">Archived</a> from the original on 10 January 2017. 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Retrieved 17 April 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ABANet.org&rft.atitle=Council+Statements&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.abanet.org%2Flegaled%2Faccreditation%2FCouncil%2520Statements.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.americanbar.org/content/dam/aba/publications/misc/legal_education/Standards/2013_2014_council_statements.pdf">"Archived copy"</a> (PDF). www.americanbar.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220923235252/https://www.americanbar.org/content/dam/aba/publications/misc/legal_education/Standards/2013_2014_council_statements.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 23 September 2022. Retrieved 23 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.americanbar.org&rft.atitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanbar.org%2Fcontent%2Fdam%2Faba%2Fpublications%2Fmisc%2Flegal_education%2FStandards%2F2013_2014_council_statements.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKerr2015" class="citation news cs1">Kerr, Orin (22 October 2015). "The rise of the Ph.D. law professor". <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=The+rise+of+the+Ph.D.+law+professor&rft.date=2015-10-22&rft.aulast=Kerr&rft.aufirst=Orin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMwenda2007" class="citation book cs1">Mwenda, Kenneth K. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jOyVvAPtTcwC&pg=PA21">Comparing American and British Legal Education Systems: Lessons for Commonwealth African Law Schools</a>. Cambria Press. pp. 21–22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-62196-959-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-62196-959-4"><bdi>978-1-62196-959-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Comparing+American+and+British+Legal+Education+Systems%3A+Lessons+for+Commonwealth+African+Law+Schools&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E21-%3C%2Fspan%3E22&rft.pub=Cambria+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-62196-959-4&rft.aulast=Mwenda&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjOyVvAPtTcwC%26pg%3DPA21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nces.ed.gov/ipeds/report-your-data/data-tip-sheet-reporting-graduate-awards">"The Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System"</a>. Nces.ed.gov. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220516000443/https://nces.ed.gov/ipeds/report-your-data/data-tip-sheet-reporting-graduate-awards">Archived</a> from the original on 16 May 2022. Retrieved 5 May 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Integrated+Postsecondary+Education+Data+System&rft.pub=Nces.ed.gov&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnces.ed.gov%2Fipeds%2Freport-your-data%2Fdata-tip-sheet-reporting-graduate-awards&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131106105821/http://erc.europa.eu/sites/default/files/document/file/erc_policy_phd_and_equivalent_degrees.pdf">PhD and Equivalent Doctoral Degrees: The ERC Policy</a> (PDF) (Report). European Research Council. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://erc.europa.eu/sites/default/files/document/file/erc_policy_phd_and_equivalent_degrees.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 6 November 2013. Retrieved 25 May 2013. <q>First-professional degrees will not be considered in themselves as Ph.D.-equivalent, even if recipients carry the title "doctor".</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=PhD+and+Equivalent+Doctoral+Degrees%3A+The+ERC+Policy&rft.pub=European+Research+Council&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ferc.europa.eu%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fdocument%2Ffile%2Ferc_policy_phd_and_equivalent_degrees.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180711103735/http://internacional.ipvc.pt/sites/default/files/Reconhecimento%20de%20qualifica%C3%A7oes_EN.pdf">Recognition of Qualifications</a> (PDF) (Report). NARIC Portugal. p. 49. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://internacional.ipvc.pt/sites/default/files/Reconhecimento%2520de%2520qualifica%25C3%25A7oes_EN.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 11 July 2018. Retrieved 18 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Recognition+of+Qualifications&rft.pages=49&rft.pub=NARIC+Portugal&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Finternacional.ipvc.pt%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2FReconhecimento%252520de%252520qualifica%2525C3%2525A7oes_EN.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230409145311/https://www.nuffic.nl/">The American education system described and compared with the Dutch system</a> (Report). NUFFIC. p. 3. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.epnuffic.nl/en/publications/find-a-publication/education-system-united-states.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 9 April 2023. Retrieved 18 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=The+American+education+system+described+and+compared+with+the+Dutch+system&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=NUFFIC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.epnuffic.nl%2Fen%2Fpublications%2Ffind-a-publication%2Feducation-system-united-states.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170110103934/http://www.eua.be/eua/jsp/en/upload/Review%2520of%2520Professional%2520Doctorates_Ireland2006.1164040107604.pdf">Review of Professional Doctorates</a> (PDF) (Report). Dublin, IE: National Qualifications Authority of Ireland. October 2006. p. 3. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eua.be/eua/jsp/en/upload/Review%2520of%2520Professional%2520Doctorates_Ireland2006.1164040107604.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 10 January 2017. Retrieved 18 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Review+of+Professional+Doctorates&rft.place=Dublin%2C+IE&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=National+Qualifications+Authority+of+Ireland&rft.date=2006-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eua.be%2Feua%2Fjsp%2Fen%2Fupload%2FReview%252520of%252520Professional%252520Doctorates_Ireland2006.1164040107604.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMwenda2007" class="citation book cs1">Mwenda, Kenneth K. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jOyVvAPtTcwC&pg=PA27">Comparing American and British legal education systems: Lessons for Commonwealth African law schools</a>. Cambria Press. p. 27. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-62196-959-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-62196-959-4"><bdi>978-1-62196-959-4</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Comparing+American+and+British+legal+education+systems%3A+Lessons+for+Commonwealth+African+law+schools&rft.pages=27&rft.pub=Cambria+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-62196-959-4&rft.aulast=Mwenda&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjOyVvAPtTcwC%26pg%3DPA27&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAytes2006" class="citation web cs1">Aytes, Michael (2 May 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uscis.gov/sites/default/files/USCIS/Laws/Memoranda/Static_Files_Memoranda/Archives%201998-2008/2006/ac21_050206.pdf">"Chapter 31: H-1B cap exemption for aliens holding a master's or higher degree from a U.S. institution"</a> (PDF). AFM Update. U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services. AD06-24. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170212070205/https://www.uscis.gov/sites/default/files/USCIS/Laws/Memoranda/Static_Files_Memoranda/Archives%201998-2008/2006/ac21_050206.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 12 February 2017. Retrieved 13 February 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Chapter+31%3A+H-1B+cap+exemption+for+aliens+holding+a+master%27s+or+higher+degree+from+a+U.S.+institution&rft.series=AFM+Update&rft.pub=U.S.+Citizenship+and+Immigration+Services&rft.date=2006-05-02&rft.aulast=Aytes&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.uscis.gov%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2FUSCIS%2FLaws%2FMemoranda%2FStatic_Files_Memoranda%2FArchives%25201998-2008%2F2006%2Fac21_050206.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCrabbe1925" class="citation journal cs1">Crabbe, A.L. (March 1925). "Who is a doctor?". Peabody Journal of Education. 2 (5): 268–273. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01619562509534672">10.1080/01619562509534672</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1487677">1487677</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Peabody+Journal+of+Education&rft.atitle=Who+is+a+doctor%3F&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E268-%3C%2Fspan%3E273&rft.date=1925-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F01619562509534672&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1487677%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Crabbe&rft.aufirst=A.L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHickey" class="citation web cs1">Hickey, Robert. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.formsofaddress.info/attorney.html">"How to address an attorney or lawyer in the United States"</a>. Protocol School of Washington. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110509015314/http://www.formsofaddress.info/attorney.html">Archived</a> from the original on 9 May 2011. Retrieved 18 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+to+address+an+attorney+or+lawyer+in+the+United+States&rft.pub=Protocol+School+of+Washington&rft.aulast=Hickey&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.formsofaddress.info%2Fattorney.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation journal cs1">"Summaries of informal opinions of the Standing Committee on Professional Ethics". American Bar Association Journal. 54 (7): 657. July 1968. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25724462">25724462</a>. <q>1001. A lawyer holding a J.D. degree may not ethically use, either orally or in print, the title 'doctor' professionally or socially.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Bar+Association+Journal&rft.atitle=Summaries+of+informal+opinions+of+the+Standing+Committee+on+Professional+Ethics&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=657&rft.date=1968-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25724462%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation journal cs1">"Summaries of informal opinions of the Standing Committee on Professional Ethics". American Bar Association Journal. 55 (6): 589. June 1969. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25724818">25724818</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Bar+Association+Journal&rft.atitle=Summaries+of+informal+opinions+of+the+Standing+Committee+on+Professional+Ethics&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=589&rft.date=1969-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25724818%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBoodellCarsonGatesJoiner1969" class="citation journal cs1">Boodell, Thomas J.; Carson, C.A.; Gates, Benton E.; Joiner, Charles W.; McAlpin, Kirk M.; Myers, Samuel P.; Sperry, Floyd B.; Armstrong, Walter P. 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American Bar Association Journal. 55 (5): 451–453. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25724785">25724785</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Bar+Association+Journal&rft.atitle=Opinions+of+the+Committee+on+Professional+Ethics&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E451-%3C%2Fspan%3E453&rft.date=1969-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25724785%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Boodell&rft.aufirst=Thomas+J.&rft.au=Carson%2C+C.A.&rft.au=Gates%2C+Benton+E.&rft.au=Joiner%2C+Charles+W.&rft.au=McAlpin%2C+Kirk+M.&rft.au=Myers%2C+Samuel+P.&rft.au=Sperry%2C+Floyd+B.&rft.au=Armstrong%2C+Walter+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDavid_Hittner1969" class="citation journal cs1">David Hittner (July 1969). 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American Bar Association Journal. 55 (10): 960–963. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25724927">25724927</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Bar+Association+Journal&rft.atitle=Don%27t+Call+Me+Doctor&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E960-%3C%2Fspan%3E963&rft.date=1969-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25724927%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=William+H.+Shields&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHillsbergMcGiffertHerbertLansdowne1969" class="citation journal cs1">Hillsberg, Richard W.; McGiffert, David E.; Herbert, Williard A.; Lansdowne, Robert J.; Hyatt, Hudson; Chandler, Kent; Pederson, Virgil L.; Bodkin, Henry G.; Marks, Edward; Wasby, Stephen L.; Kandt, William C.; Taylor, Herman E.; Berall, Frank S.; Collins, Hugh B.; Barr, J.E.; Mellor, Phillip; Hittner, David; Turnbull, Frederick W.; Adams, Paul; Widman, Joel L.; Tollett, Kenneth S. (November 1969). "Views of our readers". American Bar Association Journal. Editor's note. 55 (11): 1024. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25724947">25724947</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Bar+Association+Journal&rft.atitle=Views+of+our+readers&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=1024&rft.date=1969-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25724947%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Hillsberg&rft.aufirst=Richard+W.&rft.au=McGiffert%2C+David+E.&rft.au=Herbert%2C+Williard+A.&rft.au=Lansdowne%2C+Robert+J.&rft.au=Hyatt%2C+Hudson&rft.au=Chandler%2C+Kent&rft.au=Pederson%2C+Virgil+L.&rft.au=Bodkin%2C+Henry+G.&rft.au=Marks%2C+Edward&rft.au=Wasby%2C+Stephen+L.&rft.au=Kandt%2C+William+C.&rft.au=Taylor%2C+Herman+E.&rft.au=Berall%2C+Frank+S.&rft.au=Collins%2C+Hugh+B.&rft.au=Barr%2C+J.E.&rft.au=Mellor%2C+Phillip&rft.au=Hittner%2C+David&rft.au=Turnbull%2C+Frederick+W.&rft.au=Adams%2C+Paul&rft.au=Widman%2C+Joel+L.&rft.au=Tollett%2C+Kenneth+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFYuter1971" class="citation journal cs1">Yuter, S.C. (August 1971). "Revisiting the 'doctor' debate". American Bar Association Journal. 57 (8): 790–892. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25725564">25725564</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Bar+Association+Journal&rft.atitle=Revisiting+the+%27doctor%27+debate&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E790-%3C%2Fspan%3E892&rft.date=1971-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25725564%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Yuter&rft.aufirst=S.C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation journal cs1">"Summaries of informal opinions of the Standing Committee on Professional Ethics". American Bar Association Journal. 56 (8): 750. August 1970. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25725213">25725213</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Bar+Association+Journal&rft.atitle=Summaries+of+informal+opinions+of+the+Standing+Committee+on+Professional+Ethics&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=750&rft.date=1970-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25725213%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKathleen_Maher2006" class="citation journal cs1">Kathleen Maher (November 2006). "Lawyers are doctors, too: But there is no clear ethics rule on whether they may say so". American Bar Association Journal. 92 (11): 24. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27846360">27846360</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Bar+Association+Journal&rft.atitle=Lawyers+are+doctors%2C+too%3A+But+there+is+no+clear+ethics+rule+on+whether+they+may+say+so&rft.volume=92&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=24&rft.date=2006-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F27846360%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Kathleen+Maher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFS.A.P.2013" class="citation magazine cs1">S.A.P. (1 March 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.economist.com/blogs/johnson/2013/03/professional-titles">"Trust me, I'm a doctor of law"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Economist" title="The Economist">The Economist</a> (blog). (Samuel) Johnson. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170701141822/http://www.economist.com/blogs/johnson/2013/03/professional-titles">Archived</a> from the original on 1 July 2017. Retrieved 13 July 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=Trust+me%2C+I%27m+a+doctor+of+law&rft.date=2013-03-01&rft.au=S.A.P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fblogs%2Fjohnson%2F2013%2F03%2Fprofessional-titles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBlankenship2006" class="citation news cs1">Blankenship, Gary (1 July 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.floridabar.org/DIVCOM/JN/JNnews01.nsf/Articles/7CA2D2C795627B038525719A0047170E">"Debate over 'doctor of law' title continues"</a>. The Florida Bar News. <a href="/wiki/Florida_Bar_Association" class="mw-redirect" title="Florida Bar Association">Florida Bar Association</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170110104134/https://www.floridabar.org/DIVCOM/JN/JNnews01.nsf/Articles/7CA2D2C795627B038525719A0047170E">Archived</a> from the original on 10 January 2017. Retrieved 18 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Florida+Bar+News&rft.atitle=Debate+over+%27doctor+of+law%27+title+continues&rft.date=2006-07-01&rft.aulast=Blankenship&rft.aufirst=Gary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.floridabar.org%2FDIVCOM%2FJN%2FJNnews01.nsf%2FArticles%2F7CA2D2C795627B038525719A0047170E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBlankenship2006" class="citation news cs1">Blankenship, Gary (15 August 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.floridabar.org/DIVCOM/JN/JNNews01.nsf/Articles/E568F349EA03E82C852571C40052C818">"Bar board settles 'Dr. of Law' debate"</a>. The Florida Bar News. <a href="/wiki/Florida_Bar_Association" class="mw-redirect" title="Florida Bar Association">Florida Bar Association</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170110104034/http://www.floridabar.org/DIVCOM/JN/JNNews01.nsf/Articles/E568F349EA03E82C852571C40052C818">Archived</a> from the original on 10 January 2017. Retrieved 18 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Florida+Bar+News&rft.atitle=Bar+board+settles+%27Dr.+of+Law%27+debate&rft.date=2006-08-15&rft.aulast=Blankenship&rft.aufirst=Gary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.floridabar.org%2FDIVCOM%2FJN%2FJNNews01.nsf%2FArticles%2FE568F349EA03E82C852571C40052C818&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMartin2010" class="citation book cs1">Martin, Paul (15 June 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3mjxg9iNAQUC&pg=PA72">The Wall Street Journal Guide to Business Style and Us</a>. <a href="/wiki/Simon_and_Schuster" class="mw-redirect" title="Simon and Schuster">Simon and Schuster</a>. p. 72. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4391-2269-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4391-2269-3"><bdi>978-1-4391-2269-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230409145147/https://books.google.com/books?id=3mjxg9iNAQUC&pg=PA72">Archived</a> from the original on 9 April 2023. Retrieved 1 November 2020 – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Wall+Street+Journal+Guide+to+Business+Style+and+Us&rft.pages=72&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2010-06-15&rft.isbn=978-1-4391-2269-3&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3mjxg9iNAQUC%26pg%3DPA72&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAbcarian2009" class="citation news cs1">Abcarian, Robin (2 February 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2009-feb-02-na-dr-jill-biden2-story.html">"Hi, I'm Jill. Jill Biden. But please, call me Dr. Biden"</a>. National. <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times" title="Los Angeles Times">Los Angeles Times</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181022133118/http://articles.latimes.com/2009/feb/02/nation/na-dr-jill-biden2">Archived</a> from the original on 22 October 2018. Retrieved 2 May 2017. <q>Newspapers, including <a href="/wiki/The_Los_Angeles_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="The Los Angeles Times">the Times</a>, generally do not use the honorific 'Dr.' unless the person in question has a medical degree.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Los+Angeles+Times&rft.atitle=Hi%2C+I%27m+Jill.+Jill+Biden.+But+please%2C+call+me+Dr.+Biden&rft.date=2009-02-02&rft.aulast=Abcarian&rft.aufirst=Robin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.latimes.com%2Farchives%2Fla-xpm-2009-feb-02-na-dr-jill-biden2-story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/explainer/2000/12/why_doesnt_the_times_call_condi_dr_rice.html">"Why doesn't the Times call Condi 'Dr. Rice'?"</a>. Slate. 27 December 2000. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170124231616/http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/explainer/2000/12/why_doesnt_the_times_call_condi_dr_rice.html">Archived</a> from the original on 24 January 2017. Retrieved 1 May 2017. <q>Most newspapers dispense with such formalities and on second reference call people only by their last names.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Slate&rft.atitle=Why+doesn%27t+the+Times+call+Condi+%27Dr.+Rice%27%3F&rft.date=2000-12-27&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.slate.com%2Farticles%2Fnews_and_politics%2Fexplainer%2F2000%2F12%2Fwhy_doesnt_the_times_call_condi_dr_rice.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMurphy2011" class="citation magazine cs1">Murphy, Tim (18 August 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2011/08/michele-bachmann-not-doctor-phd">"Michele Bachmann is not a doctor"</a>. Mother Jones. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180709094526/https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2011/08/michele-bachmann-not-doctor-phd/">Archived</a> from the original on 9 July 2018. Retrieved 9 July 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mother+Jones&rft.atitle=Michele+Bachmann+is+not+a+doctor&rft.date=2011-08-18&rft.aulast=Murphy&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.motherjones.com%2Fpolitics%2F2011%2F08%2Fmichele-bachmann-not-doctor-phd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuris+Doctor" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Juris_Doctor&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 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of Sciences">Candidate of Sciences</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Postdoctoral</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Higher_doctorate" class="mw-redirect" title="Higher doctorate">Higher doctorate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Sciences" title="Doctor of Sciences">Doctor of Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habilitation" title="Habilitation">Habilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Docent#Northern_Europe" title="Docent">Docent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_tenure" title="Academic tenure">Tenure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fellow" title="Fellow">Fellow</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">No dominant classification</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_certificate" title="Academic certificate">Academic certificate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artist_diploma" title="Artist diploma">Artist diploma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/External_degree" title="External degree">External degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurea" title="Laurea">Laurea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Licentiate_(degree)" title="Licentiate (degree)">Licentiate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_degree" title="Magister degree">Magister degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microdegree" title="Microdegree">Microdegree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_degree" title="Professional degree">Professional degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graduate_diploma" title="Graduate diploma">Graduate diploma</a>/<a href="/wiki/Graduate_certificate" title="Graduate certificate">certificate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Higher_diploma" title="Higher diploma">Higher diploma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specialist_degree" title="Specialist degree">Specialist degree</a>/<a href="/wiki/Education_in_Russia#Traditional_model" title="Education in Russia">diploma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terminal_degree" title="Terminal degree">Terminal degree</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Unearned</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Honorary_degree" title="Honorary degree">Honorary degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ad_eundem_degree" title="Ad eundem degree">Ad eundem degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_of_Arts_(Oxford,_Cambridge_and_Dublin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Master of Arts (Oxford, Cambridge 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