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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Criticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evidence_on_the_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evidence_on_the_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Evidence on the effects</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Evidence_on_the_effects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Evidence on the effects subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Evidence_on_the_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Impact_on_wages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impact_on_wages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Impact on wages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Impact_on_wages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impact_on_employment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impact_on_employment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Impact on employment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Impact_on_employment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impact_on_prices" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impact_on_prices"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Impact on prices</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Impact_on_prices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impact_on_quality_of_service_provision" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impact_on_quality_of_service_provision"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Impact on quality of service provision</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Impact_on_quality_of_service_provision-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_safety" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_safety"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Public safety</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_safety-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Labour_mobility" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Labour_mobility"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Labour mobility</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Labour_mobility-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impacts_on_minorities" 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class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="width: 18em;"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Competition_law" title="Competition law">Competition law</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Scale_of_justice_2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Scale_of_justice_2.svg/100px-Scale_of_justice_2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Scale_of_justice_2.svg/150px-Scale_of_justice_2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Scale_of_justice_2.svg/200px-Scale_of_justice_2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="204" data-file-height="208" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#98FB98;"> Basic concepts</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_competition_law" title="History of competition law">History of competition law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">Monopoly</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oligopoly" title="Oligopoly">oligopoly</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coercive_monopoly" title="Coercive monopoly">Coercive monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_monopoly" title="Natural monopoly">Natural monopoly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barriers_to_entry" title="Barriers to entry">Barriers to entry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herfindahl%E2%80%93Hirschman_index" title="Herfindahl–Hirschman index">Herfindahl–Hirschman index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_concentration" title="Market concentration">Market concentration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_power" title="Market power">Market power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_but_significant_and_non-transitory_increase_in_price" title="Small but significant and non-transitory increase in price">SSNIP test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relevant_market" title="Relevant market">Relevant market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merger_control" title="Merger control">Merger control</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#98FB98;"> <a href="/wiki/Anti-competitive_practices" title="Anti-competitive practices">Anti-competitive practices</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monopolization" title="Monopolization">Monopolization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collusion" title="Collusion">Collusion</a> <ul><li>Formation of <a href="/wiki/Cartel" title="Cartel">cartels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price_fixing" title="Price fixing">Price fixing</a> (<a href="/wiki/Price_fixing_cases" class="mw-redirect" title="Price fixing cases">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bid_rigging" title="Bid rigging">Bid rigging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacit_collusion" title="Tacit collusion">Tacit collusion</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Occupational licensing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Product_bundling" title="Product bundling">Product bundling</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tying_(commerce)" title="Tying (commerce)">tying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refusal_to_deal" title="Refusal to deal">Refusal to deal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Group_boycott" title="Group boycott">Group boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essential_facilities_doctrine" title="Essential facilities doctrine">Essential facilities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusive_dealing" title="Exclusive dealing">Exclusive dealing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dividing_territories" title="Dividing territories">Dividing territories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_closure" title="Occupational closure">Occupational closure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predatory_pricing" title="Predatory pricing">Predatory pricing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patent_misuse" title="Patent misuse">Misuse of patents</a> and <a href="/wiki/Copyright_misuse" title="Copyright misuse">copyrights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulatory_capture" title="Regulatory capture">Regulatory capture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rent-seeking" title="Rent-seeking">Rent-seeking</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#98FB98;"> Enforcement authorities and organizations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Competition_Network" title="International Competition Network">International Competition Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_regulator" title="Competition regulator">List of competition regulators</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Competition_law" title="Template:Competition law"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Competition_law" title="Template talk:Competition law"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Competition_law" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Competition law"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Occupational licensing</b>, also called <b>licensure</b>, is a form of <a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">government regulation</a> requiring a <a href="/wiki/License" title="License">license</a> to pursue a particular <a href="/wiki/Profession" title="Profession">profession</a> or <a href="/wiki/Vocation" title="Vocation">vocation</a> for compensation. It is related to <a href="/wiki/Occupational_closure" title="Occupational closure">occupational closure</a>. </p><p>Some claim higher public support<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> for the licensing of professions whose activities could be a health or safety threat to the public, such as practicing medicine, and doctors require occupational licenses in most <a href="/wiki/Developed_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Developed countries">developed countries</a>. However, some <a href="/wiki/Jurisdictions" class="mw-redirect" title="Jurisdictions">jurisdictions</a> also require licenses for a much wider range of professions, such as florists and hairdressers. Some studies find consumers are more responsive to reviews than to occupational licensing status.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Licensing creates a regulatory <a href="/wiki/Barriers_to_entry" title="Barriers to entry">barrier to entry</a> into licensed occupations. Licensing advocates argue that it protects the public interest by keeping incompetent and unscrupulous individuals from working with the public. However, there is little evidence that it affects the overall quality of services provided to customers by members of the regulated occupation.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It can also harm consumers by raising prices and reducing innovation by new market entrants, and may slow overall economic growth.<sup id="cite_ref-onpoint_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-onpoint-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some occupational licensing can violate <a href="/wiki/Competition_law" title="Competition law">competition law</a> due to <a href="/wiki/Anti-competitive_practices" title="Anti-competitive practices">anti-competitive practices</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Alternatives to individual licensing include only requiring that at least one person on a premises be licensed to oversee unlicensed practitioners, permitting of the business overall, random health and safety inspections, general <a href="/wiki/Consumer_protection" title="Consumer protection">consumer protection</a> laws, and <a href="/wiki/Deregulation" title="Deregulation">deregulation</a> in favor of voluntary <a href="/wiki/Professional_certification" title="Professional certification">professional certification</a> schemes or <a href="/wiki/Free_market" title="Free market">free market</a> mechanisms such as <a href="/wiki/Customer_review" title="Customer review">customer review</a> sites. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Occupational_licensing&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Traditionally, occupations in the <a href="/wiki/Crafts" class="mw-redirect" title="Crafts">crafts</a> professions and in the liberal professions organize their respective industries in guilds and chambers in European countries like Germany and Austria. One of the most important changes in licensing has been the 2004 reform in Germany, where workers in 53 of 94 crafts professions were not required to be licensed anymore in order to start a business.<sup id="cite_ref-:0a_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0a-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2020, 12 of these deregulated professions reinstated the licensing requirement. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Title_Page_of_the_Medical_Register_Wellcome_L0040962.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Title_Page_of_the_Medical_Register_Wellcome_L0040962.jpg/200px-Title_Page_of_the_Medical_Register_Wellcome_L0040962.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="290" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Title_Page_of_the_Medical_Register_Wellcome_L0040962.jpg/300px-Title_Page_of_the_Medical_Register_Wellcome_L0040962.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Title_Page_of_the_Medical_Register_Wellcome_L0040962.jpg/400px-Title_Page_of_the_Medical_Register_Wellcome_L0040962.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2672" data-file-height="3878" /></a><figcaption>In the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Medical_Act_1858" title="Medical Act 1858">Medical Act 1858</a> established the first countrywide licensing body for doctors.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Occupational_licensing&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the United States and Canada, licensing (the term <b>registration</b> is sometimes used) is usually required by law to work in a particular <a href="/wiki/Profession" title="Profession">profession</a> or to obtain a privilege such as to drive a car or truck. Many other privileges and professions require a license, generally from the <a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">state</a> or <a href="/wiki/Province" title="Province">provincial</a> government, in order to ensure that the public will not be harmed by the incompetence of the practitioners, and to limit supply to incumbent practitioners and thus increase wages.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Examples of professions that require licensure in some jurisdictions include: <a href="/wiki/Actuary" title="Actuary">actuary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Architect" title="Architect">architect</a>, <a href="/wiki/Certified_public_accountant" class="mw-redirect" title="Certified public accountant">certified public accountant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electrician" title="Electrician">electrician</a>, <a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/General_contractor" title="General contractor">general contractors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Financial_analyst" title="Financial analyst">financial analyst</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geologist" title="Geologist">geologists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hedge_fund" title="Hedge fund">hedge fund</a> manager, <a href="/wiki/Insurance_agent" class="mw-redirect" title="Insurance agent">insurance agent</a>, <a href="/wiki/Interior_design" title="Interior design">interior design</a>, <a href="/wiki/Investment_banker" class="mw-redirect" title="Investment banker">investment banker</a>, <a href="/wiki/Licensed_professional_counselor" title="Licensed professional counselor">licensed professional counselor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nurse" class="mw-redirect" title="Nurse">nurse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physical_therapist" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical therapist">physical therapist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plumber" title="Plumber">plumber</a>, <a href="/wiki/Private_investigator" title="Private investigator">private investigator</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychologist" title="Psychologist">psychologist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Landscape_architect" title="Landscape architect">landscape architect</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lawyer" title="Lawyer">lawyer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nutritionist" title="Nutritionist">nutritionist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physician" title="Physician">physician</a>, <a href="/wiki/Real_estate_broker" class="mw-redirect" title="Real estate broker">real estate broker</a>, <a href="/wiki/Speech-language_pathologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Speech-language pathologist">speech-language pathologist</a>, <a href="/wiki/School_counselor" title="School counselor">school counselor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_worker" class="mw-redirect" title="Social worker">social worker</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stockbroker" title="Stockbroker">stockbroker</a>, <a href="/wiki/Surveyor" class="mw-redirect" title="Surveyor">surveyor</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Teacher" title="Teacher">teacher</a>. </p><p>Licensure is similar to <a href="/wiki/Professional_certification" title="Professional certification">professional certification</a>, and sometimes synonymous (such as in the case with teacher licensure/certification); however, certification is an employment qualification and not a legal requirement for practicing a profession. In many cases, an individual must complete certain steps, such as training, acquiring an <a href="/wiki/Academic_degree" title="Academic degree">academic degree</a> in a particular area of study, and/or passing an <a href="/wiki/Exam" title="Exam">exam</a>, before becoming eligible to receive their license. There are various resources available to assist professionals with the completion of these steps. Professional associations are often a tremendous resource to individuals looking to obtain a special level of certification or licensure. Upon the successful attainment of a license, individuals append an acronym to their name, such as CPA (<a href="/wiki/Certified_Public_Accountant" title="Certified Public Accountant">Certified Public Accountant</a>) or LPD and PI (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Private_Detective_and_Investigator&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Private Detective and Investigator (page does not exist)">Private Detective and Investigator</a>) PE (<a href="/wiki/Professional_Engineer" class="mw-redirect" title="Professional Engineer">Professional Engineer</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="License_renewal">License renewal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Occupational_licensing&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: License renewal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In places, licensure may still be a lifelong privilege, but increasingly nowadays, it requires periodic review by peers and renewal. It is very common for license renewal to depend, at least in part, on <a href="/wiki/Academia" class="mw-redirect" title="Academia">academia</a>. In the United Kingdom such regular upgrading of skills is often termed continuous <a href="/wiki/Professional_development" title="Professional development">professional development</a>, or CPD. In many professions this is fast becoming a standard, mandatory and annual requirement. For example, in the US, educators are subject to state re-certification requirements in order to continue teaching.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/No_Child_Left_Behind_Act" title="No Child Left Behind Act">No Child Left Behind Act</a> of 2001, enacted to improve performance in US schools, has led to an intensification of license requirements for both beginning and experienced educators.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the case of <a href="/wiki/UK" class="mw-redirect" title="UK">UK</a> <a href="/wiki/Physician" title="Physician">medical practitioners</a>, the government has recently proposed that they should all be legally required to produce formal proof, every five years, that they are upgrading their standard of practise.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This tightening of the <a href="/wiki/UK" class="mw-redirect" title="UK">UK</a> medical licensing system has largely been a response to public and government unease about a series of recent and well-publicised cases of alleged medical incompetence, including the <a href="/wiki/Harold_Shipman" title="Harold Shipman">Harold Shipman</a> case, the <a href="/wiki/Alder_Hey_organs_scandal" title="Alder Hey organs scandal">Alder Hey organs scandal</a><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and those involving <a href="/wiki/David_Southall" title="David Southall">David Southall</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rodney_Ledward" title="Rodney Ledward">Rodney Ledward</a><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Richard Neale.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such cases of <a href="/wiki/Medical_malpractice" title="Medical malpractice">medical malpractice</a> in the 1990s are widely considered to have inspired the government to tighten professional control of <a href="/wiki/Medical_practitioner" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical practitioner">medical practitioners</a> and monitor the quality of their practice for their entire working life. One qualification for life is no longer deemed sufficient.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consequently, medical licenses can now be withdrawn when evidence of serious malpractice emerges. Currently, though such reviews of CPD are entirely voluntary, some form of professional development is already strongly encouraged within the medical profession.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economic_theory">Economic theory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Occupational_licensing&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Economic theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One simple theory of occupational licensing envisions a costless supply of <a href="/wiki/Unbiased" class="mw-redirect" title="Unbiased">unbiased</a>, capable <a href="/wiki/Gatekeepers" class="mw-redirect" title="Gatekeepers">gatekeepers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Enforcement" title="Enforcement">enforcers</a>. The gatekeepers screen entrants to the occupation, barring those whose skills or character suggest a tendency toward low-quality output. The enforcers monitor <a href="/wiki/Incumbents" class="mw-redirect" title="Incumbents">incumbents</a> and discipline those whose performance is below standard with punishments that may include revocation of the license needed to practise. Assuming that entry and performance are controlled in these ways, the quality of service in the profession will almost automatically be maintained at or above standards that are set by the gatekeeper to the <a href="/wiki/Profession" title="Profession">profession</a>. Within this approach, only those who have the funds to invest in <a href="/wiki/Training" title="Training">training</a> and the ability to do the work are able to enter the occupation. </p><p>Introducing <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a> to this otherwise mechanical model by noting that a key discipline on incumbents—the threat of revoking one's license—may not mean much if incumbents can easily re-enter the profession, such as by moving to a new firm, or by shifting to an alternative occupation with little loss of income. Since grandfathering (i.e., allowing current workers to bypass the new requirements) is the norm when occupations seek to become <a href="/wiki/Licensed" class="mw-redirect" title="Licensed">licensed</a>, incumbent workers are usually supportive of the <a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">regulation</a> process. In the absence of grandfathering, lower-skilled workers in the occupation may have to seek alternative employment. For example, if sales skills are the key to both providing licensed sales of <a href="/wiki/Heart_monitors" class="mw-redirect" title="Heart monitors">heart monitors</a> and the non-licensed selling of <a href="/wiki/Shoes" class="mw-redirect" title="Shoes">shoes</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cars" class="mw-redirect" title="Cars">cars</a>, then individuals may shift between these lines of work with little loss of income. </p><p>Under these circumstances, meaningful <a href="/wiki/Discipline" title="Discipline">discipline</a> for license holders may require deliberate steps to ensure that loss of license entails significant financial loss. Such additional steps could include the imposition of fines, improved screening to prevent expelled practitioners from re-entering the occupation, or requiring all incumbents to put up capital that would be <a href="/wiki/Forfeiture_(law)" title="Forfeiture (law)">forfeited</a> upon loss of the license. To offset the possibility that incumbents could shift to other occupations with little loss of income, entry requirements could be tightened to limit supply and create monopoly <a href="/wiki/Economic_rent" title="Economic rent">rents</a> within the licensed occupation (<a href="/wiki/Rent-seeking" title="Rent-seeking">rent-seeking</a>). The threat of losing these <a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">monopoly</a> rents could, in principle, give <a href="/wiki/Incentives" class="mw-redirect" title="Incentives">incentives</a> to incumbents to maintain <a href="/wiki/Quality_standards" class="mw-redirect" title="Quality standards">quality standards</a>. This may also result in some increases in human <a href="/wiki/Capital_investments" class="mw-redirect" title="Capital investments">capital investments</a> in order to attain additional requirements. The rents could also motivate potential entrants to invest in high levels of training in order to gain admittance. This suggests that licensing can raise quality within an industry by restricting supply, raising labor wages, and raising output prices. Increasing prices may signal either enhanced quality due to perceived or actual skill enhancements or restrictions on the supply of regulated workers. </p><p>State-regulated occupations can use <a href="/wiki/Political_institutions" class="mw-redirect" title="Political institutions">political institutions</a> to restrict supply and raise the wages of licensed practitioners. There is assumed to be a once-and-for-all income gain that accrues to current members of the occupation who are "grandfathered" in, and do not have to meet the newly established standard. Generally, workers who are "grandfathered" are not required to ever meet the standards of the new entrants. Individuals who attempt to enter the occupation in the future will need to balance the economic rents of the field's increased monopoly power against the greater difficulty of meeting the entrance requirements. </p><p>Once an occupation is regulated, members of that occupation in a geographic or political <a href="/wiki/Jurisdiction" title="Jurisdiction">jurisdiction</a> can implement tougher <a href="/wiki/Statutes" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutes">statutes</a> or examination pass rates and may gain relative to those who have easier requirements by further restricting the supply of labor and obtaining economic rents for incumbents (<a href="/wiki/Credentialism_and_educational_inflation" class="mw-redirect" title="Credentialism and educational inflation">credentialism and educational inflation</a>). Restrictions would include raising the pass rate on licensing exams, imposing higher general and specific requirements, and implementing tougher residency requirements that limit new arrivals in the area from qualifying for a license. Moreover, individuals who have finished schooling in the occupation may decide not to go to a particular political jurisdiction where the pass rate is low because both the economic and shame costs may be high. </p><p>Conversely, efforts can be made at interstate reciprocity, so that a license or a certification earned in one <a href="/wiki/Federated_state" title="Federated state">federated state or province</a> qualifies the holder to practice in any of the other states or provinces of the <a href="/wiki/Federation" title="Federation">federation</a>, which can lower the overall cost and burden of adequately staffing the profession in all regions. For example, high demand and low supply for <a href="/wiki/Nursing" title="Nursing">nurses</a> or for <a href="/wiki/Teacher" title="Teacher">teachers</a>, in any particular region, can be alleviated if the <a href="/wiki/Red_tape" title="Red tape">red tape</a> is reduced, as long as that reduction does not truly harm competence and preparedness.<sup id="cite_ref-Johnson_Kleiner_1_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johnson_Kleiner_1-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The effect of not reducing that administrative burden has been measured by a 2017 analysis that found that occupational licensing in different American states reduced between-state migration of individuals in professions with divergent licensing by 36 percent relative to members of other occupations, while workers in nationally licensed occupations showed no evidence of reduced interstate migration.<sup id="cite_ref-Johnson_Kleiner_1_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johnson_Kleiner_1-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2020 follow up study by the same authors found that "the magnitude of the effect can only account for a small part of the overall decline in [interstate migration] seen in recent decades."<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Occupational_licensing&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:22em; ; color: #202122;background-color: #c6dbf7;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>"People of the same trade seldom meet together, even for merriment and diversion, but the conversation ends in a conspiracy against the public, or in some contrivance to raise prices." </p> </blockquote> <p style="padding-bottom: 0;"><cite class="right-aligned" style=""><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Wealth_of_Nations" title="The Wealth of Nations">The Wealth of Nations</a></cite></p> </div> <p>Historically, in the <a href="/wiki/Professionalization" title="Professionalization">professionalization</a> process by which trades have transformed themselves into true professions, licensing fast became the method of choice in obtaining the <a href="/wiki/Occupational_closure" title="Occupational closure">occupational closure</a> required by barring competition from entry to the rites and privileges of a professional group. This was initially the preferred route of regulation whether for physicians, lawyers, the clergy, accountants, bankers, scientists or architects. However, licensing has given way to membership of professional bodies, as a means of excluding competition.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Licensure restricts entry into professional careers in <a href="/wiki/Physician" title="Physician">medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nursing" title="Nursing">nursing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lawyer" title="Lawyer">law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Business" title="Business">business</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pharmacy" title="Pharmacy">pharmacy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_worker" class="mw-redirect" title="Social worker">social work</a>, <a href="/wiki/Teaching" title="Teaching">teaching</a>, <a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Surveying" title="Surveying">surveying</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Architect" title="Architect">architecture</a>. Advocates claim that licensure protects the consumer<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> through the application of professional, educational and/or ethical standards of practice. Economist <a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Milton Friedman</a> opposed this practice, believing that licensure effectively raises professional salary by placing limits on the <a href="/wiki/Supply_(economics)" title="Supply (economics)">supply</a> of specific occupations. "It is hard to regard altruistic concern for their customers as the primary motive behind their determined efforts to get legal power to decide who may be a plumber."<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Restricting entry by licensing is arguably a convenient and effective method of maintaining the high standards, high status and elite privileges of a profession<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> as well as acting to eliminate competition from those who provide a cheaper but (allegedly) sub-standard service. Organizations such as the American Medical Association were explicitly set up to restrict the number of practitioners. However, libertarians like <a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Milton Friedman</a> have argued that this process is counterproductive as it seriously restricts the number of active professionals working in society and thus unnecessarily inhibits the working of a <a href="/wiki/Free_enterprise" class="mw-redirect" title="Free enterprise">free enterprise</a> economy.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2011 U.S. study estimated that occupational licenses result in 2.8 million fewer jobs, and cost the economy $203 billion per year.<sup id="cite_ref-atlantic_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlantic-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The number of jobs requiring a professional licensed represents an increasing fraction of the workforce, from 5% in 1950 to 22% in 2010s.<sup id="cite_ref-onpoint_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-onpoint-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Critics say that low-income consumers, who pay higher prices than required for the level of quality they might require, and low-income job seekers, are disproportionately affected.<sup id="cite_ref-kleiner_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kleiner-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the United States, critics have pointed out that (as of 2018) only 60 professions are licensed by all 50 states, but about 1100 by at least one state, including tour guides, bartenders, and interior designers.<sup id="cite_ref-onpoint_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-onpoint-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If many professions are functioning satisfactorily unlicensed in the majority of states, this implies to critics that the licensing is unnecessary for consumer protection.<sup id="cite_ref-onpoint_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-onpoint-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The administrations of both <a href="/wiki/President_Obama" class="mw-redirect" title="President Obama">President Obama</a><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/President_Trump" class="mw-redirect" title="President Trump">President Trump</a> have tried to pressure state and local authorities to reduce overly burdensome licensing requirements.<sup id="cite_ref-atlantic_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlantic-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Excessive requirements include requiring hair braiders to have a full cosmetology license and learn about many unrelated tasks,<sup id="cite_ref-onpoint_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-onpoint-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and requiring casket salespersons to be full licensed funeral directors.<sup id="cite_ref-atlantic_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlantic-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evidence_on_the_effects">Evidence on the effects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Occupational_licensing&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Evidence on the effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It is well understood that occupational licensing can serve as a barrier to occupational entry resulting in reduced <a href="/wiki/Employment" title="Employment">employment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">monopoly</a> rents for workers in the occupation, and higher prices for consumers.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Impact_on_wages">Impact on wages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Occupational_licensing&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Impact on wages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Morris_Kleiner" title="Morris Kleiner">Kleiner</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alan_Krueger" title="Alan Krueger">Krueger</a> (2010 and 2013)<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> show that after controlling for education, labor market experience, occupation, and other controls, licensing is associated with a 15 to 18 percent wage premium in the labor market. This estimate may partially reflect a premium for higher unmeasured human capital, but it is also consistent and likely in large part due to rents. </p><p>A 2016 paper studying occupational licensing in the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> estimated a wage premium of 4%, with significant variation across professions. <sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A study from the <a href="/wiki/Mercatus_Center" title="Mercatus Center">Mercatus Center</a> showed that occupational licensing can lead to greater income inequality, with each step needed to open a business leading to an additional 1.4% of <a href="/wiki/National_income" class="mw-redirect" title="National income">national income</a> going to the top 10% of earners.<sup id="cite_ref-RegBlog_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RegBlog-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mercatus_Center_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mercatus_Center-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2019 <a href="/wiki/National_Bureau_of_Economic_Research" title="National Bureau of Economic Research">National Bureau of Economic Research</a> paper found that occupational licensing contributed to an average welfare loss of 12 percent.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Impact_on_employment">Impact on employment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Occupational_licensing&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Impact on employment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Empirical" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical">empirical</a> work on the effects of <a href="/wiki/Licensing" class="mw-redirect" title="Licensing">licensing</a> on employment levels or growth rates, but the existing estimates suggest that they could be large. Kleiner (2006)<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> examined employment growth rates in states and occupations with stronger versus weaker occupational licensing requirements. Specifically, he compares employment growth between 1990 and 2000 of occupations that are licensed in some states to the same occupations that are not licensed in other states. In order to account for differential growth rates between states, he also compared the growth rate of occupations that are either fully licensed or fully unlicensed in both sets of states.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using a "<a href="/wiki/Difference-in-difference" class="mw-redirect" title="Difference-in-difference">difference-in-difference</a>" <a href="/wiki/Regression_analysis" title="Regression analysis">regression analysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kleiner" title="Kleiner">Kleiner</a> found that partially licensed occupations had a 20 percent lower growth rate in states with licensing relative to states without licensing and relative to the difference in growth rates between these sets of states of fully licensed and fully unlicensed occupations. This estimate implies that a licensed occupation that grew at a 10 percent rate between 1990 and 2000 would have grown at a 12 <a href="/wiki/Percent" class="mw-redirect" title="Percent">percent</a> rate if it were unregulated.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For Germany, a study exploits the deregulation of occupational licenses called <a href="/wiki/Meister" title="Meister">Meister</a> for 53 occupations in 2004 as a natural experiment. It finds that this policy change increased the propensity to work as self-employed substantially.<sup id="cite_ref-:0a_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0a-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Impact_on_prices">Impact on prices</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Occupational_licensing&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Impact on prices"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Because it restricts employment, licensing can also lead to higher prices for <a href="/wiki/Service_(business)" title="Service (business)">services</a> faced by <a href="/wiki/Consumers" class="mw-redirect" title="Consumers">consumers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While it is not possible to precisely estimate the effects of substantially reducing occupational licensing at the present time, both theory and the available evidence suggest that such a reduction could translate into significantly higher employment, better job matches, and improved <a href="/wiki/Customer_satisfaction" title="Customer satisfaction">customer satisfaction</a>. Low-income consumers, in particular, would benefit because reduced <a href="/wiki/Barriers_to_entry" title="Barriers to entry">barriers to entry</a> would reduce the prices of services provided.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Impact_on_quality_of_service_provision">Impact on quality of service provision</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Occupational_licensing&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Impact on quality of service provision"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Without doing a detailed analysis at the occupation-by-occupation and state level, <a href="/wiki/Economists" class="mw-redirect" title="Economists">economists</a> cannot say which occupations can be justified based on quality-consideration, though studies have been conducted they have found at least in a number of cases at different stages of licensing reduces employment, but does not result in better services.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, Kleiner and Kudrle (2000)<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> find that occupational licensing of dentists does not lead to improved measured dental outcomes of patients, but is associated with higher prices of certain services, likely because there are fewer dentists.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the case of midwifery, the introduction of occupation licensing led to substantial reductions in maternal mortality.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_safety">Public safety</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Occupational_licensing&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Public safety"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many professions involving risk to the public do not require professional licenses. For example, <a href="/wiki/Chef" title="Chef">chefs</a> are generally unlicensed, though opening a restaurant may require permits, inspection, and employee training or instructional signage. Becoming a <a href="/wiki/Brain_surgeon" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain surgeon">brain surgeon</a> typically only requires a medical license; the substantial additional training and experience required to perform this operation competently is managed by the hospitals who employ the surgeons.<sup id="cite_ref-onpoint_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-onpoint-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Restrictions to employment without licensure can prevent people with criminal records or severe mental health issues from working in occupations that require public trust.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Occupations of or affected by the <a href="/wiki/Gambling" title="Gambling">gambling</a> industry, may be restricted by licensure, such as a <a href="/wiki/Racing_secretary" title="Racing secretary">racing secretary</a> in <a href="/wiki/Horseracing" class="mw-redirect" title="Horseracing">horseracing</a>, or people in the <a href="/wiki/Boxing" title="Boxing">boxing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mixed_martial_arts" title="Mixed martial arts">mixed martial arts</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Professional_wrestling" title="Professional wrestling">professional wrestling</a> industry. People whose occupations put them in physical contact with the public might also be restricted by licensure, including a <a href="/wiki/Barber" title="Barber">barber</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cosmetologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmetologist">cosmetologist</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Massage#Regulations" title="Massage">massage therapist</a>. Occupations that bring a person into the home might also be screened through licensure, including a <a href="/wiki/Chauffeur" title="Chauffeur">chauffeur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Landscape_architect" title="Landscape architect">landscape architect</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Arborist" title="Arborist">arborist</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Labour_mobility">Labour mobility</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Occupational_licensing&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Labour mobility"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Individuals practicing a profession in one jurisdiction where no license is required, or where licensing requirements are more lax, face problems with employment when moving to a jurisdiction with more stringent licensing. This can be particularly burdensome on families where one spouse has no choice with regard to location of work (such as military servicemembers), when the second spouse is in a licensed profession. These problems can be avoided by harmonizing laws across jurisdictions, or with reciprocity agreements where licenses from one jurisdiction are recognized in others.<sup id="cite_ref-onpoint_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-onpoint-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With occupational licensing varying by state, another channel through which licensing can affect employment is through reduced mobility. The patchwork of regulations raises the cost of cross-state mobility for workers in these occupations. This will result in slower adjustment costs to regional economic shocks which can result in higher <a href="/wiki/Unemployment" title="Unemployment">unemployment</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Impacts_on_minorities">Impacts on minorities</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Occupational_licensing&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Impacts on minorities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A 1983 study found that some occupational licensing schemes tended to exclude minorities and disadvantaged populations from entering such trades.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, a more recent study from 2009 found the opposite.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Alternatives">Alternatives</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Occupational_licensing&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Alternatives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Government_regulation">Government regulation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Occupational_licensing&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Government regulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>To distinguish various forms of regulation, there are three forms of <a href="/wiki/Government_regulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Government regulation">government regulation</a> of occupations: </p> <ul><li><b>Licensing</b>: Licensing refers to situations in which it is unlawful to carry out a specified range of activities for pay without first having obtained a license. This confirms that the license holder meets prescribed standards of competence. Workers who require such licenses to practice include doctors, lawyers, nurses, civil engineers, and surveyors.</li> <li><b>State Certification</b>: is generally necessary in order to obtain a license to practice an occupation. The certification requirements include passing of a standardized, state-administered test and proof of minimum experience working under the supervision of a licensed practitioner. New entrants to the occupation can start working as trainees such as "apprentice electrician". Some workers in an occupation may never get certified and licensed but can continue working under the supervision of a licensed person indefinitely.</li> <li><b>Registration</b>: Registration refers to situations in which one can register one's name and address and qualifications with the appropriate regulatory body. Registration provides a standard for being on the list, but complaints from consumers or improper listing of credentials can result in removal from the list.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Professional_certification">Professional certification</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Occupational_licensing&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Professional certification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In contrast to government regulation, voluntary <a href="/wiki/Professional_certification" title="Professional certification">professional certification</a> can be used to demonstrate competence without the harmful economic effects of legalized occupational barriers. Examples of <a href="/wiki/Professional_association" title="Professional association">professional associations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trade_association" title="Trade association">trade associations</a> that provide voluntary professional certification in various fields include: </p> <ul><li>National Institute for <a href="/wiki/Automotive_Service_Excellence" title="Automotive Service Excellence">Automotive Service Excellence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CompTIA" title="CompTIA">CompTIA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/(ISC)%C2%B2" class="mw-redirect" title="(ISC)²">(ISC)²</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Management_Institute" title="Project Management Institute">Project Management Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Meteorological_Society" title="American Meteorological Society">American Meteorological Society</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="By_country">By country</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Occupational_licensing&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: By country"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="European_Union">European Union</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Occupational_licensing&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: European Union"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Research funded by the European Commission in 2016 estimated that around 22% of workers in the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> were affected by occupational licensing. This varied significantly between member states, with Germany having the highest proportion (33%) affected, and Denmark the lowest (14%). The same paper also found the 'Health and Social Work' sector generally had the most licensing, but in general there was "considerably large variation" in which professions were licensed in different member states.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2005, the EU enacted <a href="/wiki/Directive_2005/36/EC" title="Directive 2005/36/EC">Directive 2005/36/EC</a>, which "enables the free movement of professionals" across Member States, by allowing licensed workers to have their professional qualifications recognised by other countries in the bloc.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/European_Commission" title="European Commission">European Commission</a> records occupational licensing restrictions across the EU on its <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ec.europa.eu/growth/tools-databases/regprof/">Regulated Professions Database</a>. The subsequent 'Proportionality Directive' passed in 2018 requires national governments to assess whether new barriers to practice are proportionate to achieve objectives in the public interest.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Occupational_licensing&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, licensing has been among the fastest-growing <a href="/wiki/Labor_market" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor market">labor market</a> institutions. The figure shows the growth of occupational licensing relative to the decline of <a href="/wiki/Union_membership" class="mw-redirect" title="Union membership">union membership</a> since the 1950s. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Frame"><a href="/wiki/File:Unionization_versus_Licensing_in_the_U.S._Labor_Market_over_Time.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/7/78/Unionization_versus_Licensing_in_the_U.S._Labor_Market_over_Time.jpg" decoding="async" width="298" height="201" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="298" data-file-height="201" /></a><figcaption>Comparison of Unions and Licensing over Time in the United States. (The dashed line shows the value from state estimates of licensing based on the Gallup Survey and PDII Survey results. The <a href="/wiki/Union_membership" class="mw-redirect" title="Union membership">union membership</a> estimates are from the Current Population Survey (CPS)).</figcaption></figure><p> By 2008 occupational licensing in the U.S. had grown to 29 percent of the workforce, up from below five percent in the 1950s.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast, unions represented as much as 33 percent of the U.S. <a href="/wiki/Workforce" title="Workforce">workforce</a> in the 1950s, but declined to less than 12 percent of the U.S. workforce by 2008. </p><p>In April 2019, Arizona became the first US state to recognize out-of-state occupational licenses.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Occupational_licensing&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Employment_protection_legislation" title="Employment protection legislation">Employment protection legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor economics">Labor economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_market_flexibility" title="Labour market flexibility">Labour market flexibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Law and economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loss_aversion" title="Loss aversion">Loss aversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_certification" title="Professional certification">Professional certification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_regulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Professional regulation">Professional regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulatory_capture" title="Regulatory capture">Regulatory capture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulatory_state" title="Regulatory state">Regulatory state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rent-seeking" title="Rent-seeking">Rent-seeking</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Occupational_licensing&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:0-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a 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.cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFFarronatoFradkinLarsenBrynjolfsson2024" class="citation journal cs1">Farronato, Chiara; Fradkin, Andrey; Larsen, Bradley J.; Brynjolfsson, Erik (2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/app.20210716">"Consumer Protection in an Online World: An Analysis of Occupational Licensing"</a>. <i>American Economic Journal: Applied Economics</i>. <b>16</b> (3): 549–579. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1257%2Fapp.20210716">10.1257/app.20210716</a>. <a 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(December 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3386%2Fw24107">"Is Occupational Licensing a Barrier to Interstate Migration?"</a>. <i>NBER Working Paper No. 24107</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3386%2Fw24107">10.3386/w24107</a></span>. <q>Occupational licensure, one of the most significant labor market regulations in the United States, may restrict the interstate movement of workers. We analyze the interstate migration of 22 licensed occupations. Using an empirical strategy that controls for unobservable characteristics that drive long-distance moves, we find that the between-state migration rate for individuals in occupations with state-specific licensing exam requirements is 36 percent lower relative to members of other occupations. Members of licensed occupations with national licensing exams show no evidence of limited interstate migration. The size of this effect varies across occupations and appears to be tied to the state specificity of licensing requirements. We also provide evidence that the adoption of reciprocity agreements, which lower re-licensure costs, increases the interstate migration rate of lawyers. Based on our results, we estimate that the rise in occupational licensing can explain part of the documented decline in interstate migration and job transitions in the United States.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NBER+Working+Paper+No.+24107&rft.atitle=Is+Occupational+Licensing+a+Barrier+to+Interstate+Migration%3F&rft.date=2017-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3386%2Fw24107&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Janna+E.&rft.au=Kleiner%2C+Morris+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3386%252Fw24107&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOccupational+licensing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnsonKleiner2020" class="citation journal cs1">Johnson, Janna E.; Kleiner, Morris M. 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Cambridge, Massachusetts: National Bureau of Economic Research. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3386%2Fw26383">10.3386/w26383</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=A+welfare+analysis+of+occupational+licensing+in+U.S.+states&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=National+Bureau+of+Economic+Research&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3386%2Fw26383&rft.aulast=Kleiner&rft.aufirst=Morris+M.&rft.au=Soltas%2C+Evan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOccupational+licensing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kleiner, Morris M. 2006. <i>Licensing Occupations: Ensuring Quality or Restricting Competition?</i> <a href="/wiki/Kalamazoo" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalamazoo">Kalamazoo</a>, MI: W.E. <a href="/wiki/Upjohn" title="Upjohn">Upjohn</a> Institute for Employment Research. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88099284-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88099284-8">978-0-88099284-8</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The partially licensed occupations he considers are <a href="/wiki/Librarians" class="mw-redirect" title="Librarians">librarians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_therapists" class="mw-redirect" title="Respiratory therapists">respiratory therapists</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dieticians" class="mw-redirect" title="Dieticians">dieticians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nutritionist" title="Nutritionist">nutritionists</a>. The fully licensed occupations are <a href="/wiki/Lawyers" class="mw-redirect" title="Lawyers">lawyers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dentists" class="mw-redirect" title="Dentists">dentists</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cosmetologists" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmetologists">cosmetologists</a>. The fully unlicensed occupations are <a href="/wiki/Economists" class="mw-redirect" title="Economists">economists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computer_programmers" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer programmers">computer programmers</a>, and glaziers.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Note that this estimate only reflects the differential growth rate between licensed and unlicensed occupations, not levels.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Shepard" class="mw-redirect" title="Lawrence Shepard">Shepard, Lawrence</a>. 1978. "Licensing Restrictions and the Cost of Dental Care." <i>Journal of Law and Economics</i> 21(1): 187–201.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bond, Ronald S., John E. Kwoka Jr., John J. Phelan, and Ira Taylor Whitten. 1980. <i>Effects of Restrictions on Advertising and Commercial Practice in the Professions: The Case of Optometry</i>. Washington, DC: Federal Trade Commission, Bureau of Economics.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cox, Carolyn, and Susan Foster. 1990. <i>The Costs and Benefits of Occupational Regulation</i>. Washington, DC: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, Bureau of Economics.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKleinerTodd2009" class="citation book cs1">Kleiner, Morris M.; Todd, Richard M. (2009). "Mortgage Broker Regulations That Matter: Analyzing Earnings, Employment, and Outcomes for Consumers". In Autor, David H. (ed.). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/studieslabormark00auto"><i>Studies of Labor Market Intermediation</i></a></span>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/studieslabormark00auto/page/n191">183</a>–231. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-03288-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-03288-7"><bdi>978-0-226-03288-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mortgage+Broker+Regulations+That+Matter%3A+Analyzing+Earnings%2C+Employment%2C+and+Outcomes+for+Consumers&rft.btitle=Studies+of+Labor+Market+Intermediation&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=183-231&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-226-03288-7&rft.aulast=Kleiner&rft.aufirst=Morris+M.&rft.au=Todd%2C+Richard+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstudieslabormark00auto&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOccupational+licensing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Carl_Shapiro" title="Carl Shapiro">Shapiro, Carl</a>. 1986. "Investment, Moral Hazard, and Occupational Licensing." <i>Review of Economic Studies</i> 53(5): 843–862. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2297722">10.2307/2297722</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cox, Carolyn, and Susan Foster. 1990. <i>The Costs and Benefits of Occupational Regulation</i>. <a href="/wiki/Washington,_DC" class="mw-redirect" title="Washington, DC">Washington, DC</a>: <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">U.S.</a> <a href="/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission" title="Federal Trade Commission">Federal Trade Commission</a>, Bureau of Economics.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kleiner, Morris M. 2013. <i>Stages of Occupational Regulation: Analysis of Case Studies.</i> Kalamazoo, MI: W.E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88099-459-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88099-459-0">978-0-88099-459-0</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kleiner, Morris M., and Robert T. Kudrle. 2000. "Does Regulation Affect Economic Outcomes? The Case of Dentistry." <i>Journal of Law and Economics</i> 43(2): 547–582. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F467465">10.1086/467465</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For additional examples see Carroll and Gaston (1981).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carroll, Sidney L., and Robert J. Gaston. 1981. "Occupational Restrictions and the Quality of Service Received: Some Evidence." <i>Southern Economic Journal</i> 47(4): 959–976. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1058155">10.2307/1058155</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndersonBrownCharlesRees2020" class="citation journal cs1">Anderson, D. Mark; Brown, Ryan; Charles, Kerwin Kofi; Rees, Daniel I. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 1,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+License+to+Braid+Hair%3F+Critics+Say+State+Licensing+Rules+Have+Gone+Too+Far&rft.pub=The+Pew+Charitable+Trusts&rft.date=2015-01-30&rft.au=Jenni+Bergal&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pewtrusts.org%2Fen%2Fresearch-and-analysis%2Fblogs%2Fstateline%2F2015%2F1%2F30%2Fa-license-to-braid-hair-critics-say-state-licensing-rules-have-gone-too-far&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOccupational+licensing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCooper2019" class="citation news cs1">Cooper, Jonathan (April 10, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190411033846/https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/arizona-becomes-1st-to-match-out-of-state-work-licenses/2019/04/10/85363576-5bcf-11e9-98d4-844088d135f2_story.html">"Arizona becomes 1st to match out-of-state work licenses"</a>. <i>The Washington Post</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/arizona-becomes-1st-to-match-out-of-state-work-licenses/2019/04/10/85363576-5bcf-11e9-98d4-844088d135f2_story.html">the original</a> on April 11, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 12,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Arizona+becomes+1st+to+match+out-of-state+work+licenses&rft.date=2019-04-10&rft.aulast=Cooper&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fnational%2Farizona-becomes-1st-to-match-out-of-state-work-licenses%2F2019%2F04%2F10%2F85363576-5bcf-11e9-98d4-844088d135f2_story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOccupational+licensing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://legiscan.com/AZ/bill/HB2569/2019">"Arizona HB2569 | 2019 | Fifty-fourth Legislature 1st Regular"</a>. <i>LegiScan</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 12,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=LegiScan&rft.atitle=Arizona+HB2569+%7C+2019+%7C+Fifty-fourth+Legislature+1st+Regular&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flegiscan.com%2FAZ%2Fbill%2FHB2569%2F2019&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOccupational+licensing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Occupational_licensing&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedman1962" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Friedman, Milton</a> (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.cat-v.org/economics/capitalism-and-freedom/chapter_09">"Occupational Licensure"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Capitalism_and_Freedom" title="Capitalism and Freedom"><i>Capitalism and Freedom</i></a>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226264219" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226264219"><bdi>978-0226264219</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Occupational+Licensure&rft.btitle=Capitalism+and+Freedom&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1962&rft.isbn=978-0226264219&rft.aulast=Friedman&rft.aufirst=Milton&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.cat-v.org%2Feconomics%2Fcapitalism-and-freedom%2Fchapter_09&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOccupational+licensing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKleiner2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Morris_Kleiner" title="Morris Kleiner">Kleiner, Morris M.</a> (2006). "Introduction and Overview". <i>Licensing Occupations: Ensuring Quality or Restricting Competition?</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17848%2F9781429454865">10.17848/9781429454865</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88099-284-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88099-284-8"><bdi>978-0-88099-284-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction+and+Overview&rft.btitle=Licensing+Occupations%3A+Ensuring+Quality+or+Restricting+Competition%3F&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17848%2F9781429454865&rft.isbn=978-0-88099-284-8&rft.aulast=Kleiner&rft.aufirst=Morris+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOccupational+licensing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKleiner2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Morris_Kleiner" title="Morris Kleiner">Kleiner, Morris M.</a> (2013). "Introduction and Overview". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://research.upjohn.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1240&context=up_press"><i>Stages of Occupational Regulation: Analysis of Case Studies</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17848%2F9780880994613">10.17848/9780880994613</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88099-459-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88099-459-0"><bdi>978-0-88099-459-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction+and+Overview&rft.btitle=Stages+of+Occupational+Regulation%3A+Analysis+of+Case+Studies&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17848%2F9780880994613&rft.isbn=978-0-88099-459-0&rft.aulast=Kleiner&rft.aufirst=Morris+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fresearch.upjohn.org%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1240%26context%3Dup_press&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOccupational+licensing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKleiner2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Morris_Kleiner" title="Morris Kleiner">Kleiner, Morris M.</a> (2015). "Anatomy of Occupational Licensing". <i>Guild-Ridden Labor Markets: The Curious Case of Occupational Licensing</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17848%2F9780880995023">10.17848/9780880995023</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88099-501-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88099-501-6"><bdi>978-0-88099-501-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Anatomy+of+Occupational+Licensing&rft.btitle=Guild-Ridden+Labor+Markets%3A+The+Curious+Case+of+Occupational+Licensing&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17848%2F9780880995023&rft.isbn=978-0-88099-501-6&rft.aulast=Kleiner&rft.aufirst=Morris+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOccupational+licensing" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Occupational_licensing&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoung2002" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Young, S. David (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc1/OccupationalLicensing.html">"Occupational Licensing"</a>. <i>The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics</i>. The Library of Economics and Liberty.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Occupational+Licensing&rft.btitle=The+Concise+Encyclopedia+of+Economics&rft.pub=The+Library+of+Economics+and+Liberty&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Young&rft.aufirst=S.+David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.econlib.org%2Flibrary%2FEnc1%2FOccupationalLicensing.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOccupational+licensing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReinhardt2013" class="citation web cs1">Reinhardt, Uwe E. (October 11, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://economix.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/10/11/the-dubious-case-for-professional-licensing/">"The Dubious Case for Professional Licensing"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=The+Dubious+Case+for+Professional+Licensing&rft.date=2013-10-11&rft.aulast=Reinhardt&rft.aufirst=Uwe+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feconomix.blogs.nytimes.com%2F2013%2F10%2F11%2Fthe-dubious-case-for-professional-licensing%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOccupational+licensing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStangler2012" class="citation web cs1">Stangler, Dane (April 2, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.progressivepolicy.org/pressrelease/occupational-licensing-how-a-new-guild-mentality-thwarts-innovation-2/">"Occupational Licensing: How A New Guild Mentality Thwarts Innovation"</a>. Progressive Policy Institute.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Occupational+Licensing%3A+How+A+New+Guild+Mentality+Thwarts+Innovation&rft.pub=Progressive+Policy+Institute&rft.date=2012-04-02&rft.aulast=Stangler&rft.aufirst=Dane&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.progressivepolicy.org%2Fpressrelease%2Foccupational-licensing-how-a-new-guild-mentality-thwarts-innovation-2%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOccupational+licensing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Rugy2014" class="citation web cs1">de Rugy, Veronique (March 25, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mercatus.org/publications/government-spending/occupational-licensing-bad-competition-bad-low-income-workers">"Occupational Licensing: Bad for Competition, Bad for Low-Income Workers"</a>. The Mercatus Center at George Mason University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Occupational+Licensing%3A+Bad+for+Competition%2C+Bad+for+Low-Income+Workers&rft.pub=The+Mercatus+Center+at+George+Mason+University&rft.date=2014-03-25&rft.aulast=de+Rugy&rft.aufirst=Veronique&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mercatus.org%2Fpublications%2Fgovernment-spending%2Foccupational-licensing-bad-competition-bad-low-income-workers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOccupational+licensing" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Occupational_licensing&oldid=1259335947">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Occupational_licensing&oldid=1259335947</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Labour_economics" title="Category:Labour economics">Labour economics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Libertarian_theory" title="Category:Libertarian theory">Libertarian theory</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Licensing" title="Category:Licensing">Licensing</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Anti-competitive_practices" title="Category:Anti-competitive practices">Anti-competitive practices</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_American_English_from_March_2021" title="Category:Use American English from March 2021">Use American English from March 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_Wikipedia_articles_written_in_American_English" title="Category:All Wikipedia articles written in American English">All Wikipedia articles written in American English</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_mdy_dates_from_March_2021" title="Category:Use mdy dates from March 2021">Use mdy dates from March 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_April_2023" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from April 2023">Articles with unsourced statements from April 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_April_2015" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from April 2015">Articles with unsourced statements from April 2015</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 24 November 2024, at 16:39<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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