CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>United States Public Health Service - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"40c9b7fd-5a33-4564-8f52-7f4db50aefdd","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"United_States_Public_Health_Service","wgTitle":"United States Public Health Service","wgCurRevisionId":1275634919,"wgRevisionId":1275634919,"wgArticleId":224130,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Articles with short description","Short description matches Wikidata","Use American English from July 2022","All Wikipedia articles written in American English","Use mdy dates from July 2022","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from June 2024","Source attribution","Commons category link from Wikidata","Articles with Project Gutenberg links","Articles with Internet Archive links", "Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the United States Department of Health and Human Services","United States Public Health Service","History of medicine in the United States"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"United_States_Public_Health_Service","wgRelevantArticleId":224130,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":40000,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition": "interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q476322","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","ext.tmh.player.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready", "ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","ext.tmh.player","mediawiki.page.media","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.tmh.player.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.16"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/United_States_Public_Health_Service_%28seal%29.svg/1200px-United_States_Public_Health_Service_%28seal%29.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1171"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/United_States_Public_Health_Service_%28seal%29.svg/800px-United_States_Public_Health_Service_%28seal%29.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="780"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/United_States_Public_Health_Service_%28seal%29.svg/640px-United_States_Public_Health_Service_%28seal%29.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="624"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="United States Public Health Service - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_Public_Health_Service&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-United_States_Public_Health_Service rootpage-United_States_Public_Health_Service skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" title="Main menu" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li><li id="n-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages"><span>Special pages</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=United+States+Public+Health+Service" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=United+States+Public+Health+Service" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=United+States+Public+Health+Service" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=United+States+Public+Health+Service" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Organization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Organization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span><span>Organization</span></span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Organization-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle <span>Organization</span> subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Organization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-United_States_Public_Health_Service_Commissioned_Corps" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States_Public_Health_Service_Commissioned_Corps"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States_Public_Health_Service_Commissioned_Corps-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Marine_Hospital_Service" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marine_Hospital_Service"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Marine Hospital Service</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marine_Hospital_Service-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development_as_the_Public_Health_Service" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development_as_the_Public_Health_Service"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Development as the Public Health Service</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development_as_the_Public_Health_Service-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mid-20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mid-20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Mid-20th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mid-20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reorganization_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reorganization_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Reorganization era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reorganization_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Modern period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Late_20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.1</span> <span>Late 20th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-21st_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#21st_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.2</span> <span>21st century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-21st_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Activities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Activities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Activities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Activities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Controversies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Controversies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Controversies</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Controversies-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Controversies subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Controversies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tuskegee_Study_of_Untreated_Syphilis_in_the_Negro_Male" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tuskegee_Study_of_Untreated_Syphilis_in_the_Negro_Male"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span><i>Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tuskegee_Study_of_Untreated_Syphilis_in_the_Negro_Male-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syphilis_studies_in_Guatemala" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syphilis_studies_in_Guatemala"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Syphilis studies in Guatemala</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syphilis_studies_in_Guatemala-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">United States Public Health Service</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 13 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-13" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">13 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D8%AF%D9%85%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D8%AD%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A9_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D8%A9" title="خدمة الصحة العامة بالولايات المتحدة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="خدمة الصحة العامة بالولايات المتحدة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service" title="United States Public Health Service – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="United States Public Health Service" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D8%AF%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A8%D9%87%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B4%D8%AA_%D8%B9%D9%85%D9%88%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%A2%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7" title="خدمات بهداشت عمومی ایالات متحده آمریکا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="خدمات بهداشت عمومی ایالات متحده آمریکا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_de_sant%C3%A9_publique_des_%C3%89tats-Unis" title="Service de santé publique des États-Unis – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Service de santé publique des États-Unis" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AF%B8%EA%B5%AD_%EA%B3%B5%EC%A4%91%EB%B3%B4%EA%B1%B4%EC%84%9C%EB%B9%84%EC%8A%A4" title="미국 공중보건서비스 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="미국 공중보건서비스" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinas_Kesehatan_Masyarakat_Amerika_Serikat" title="Dinas Kesehatan Masyarakat Amerika Serikat – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Dinas Kesehatan Masyarakat Amerika Serikat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service" title="United States Public Health Service – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="United States Public Health Service" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%A8%E1%83%A8-%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%AF%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%AA%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%90%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="აშშ-ის ჯანდაცვის სააგენტოები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="აშშ-ის ჯანდაცვის სააგენტოები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%A1%E3%83%AA%E3%82%AB%E5%85%AC%E8%A1%86%E8%A1%9B%E7%94%9F%E5%B1%80" title="アメリカ公衆衛生局 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アメリカ公衆衛生局" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Public_Health_Service" title="U.S. Public Health Service – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="U.S. Public Health Service" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%B6%D0%B1%D0%B0_%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%89%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B7%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BE%D1%85%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%A1%D0%A8%D0%90" title="Служба общественного здравоохранения США – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Служба общественного здравоохранения США" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%87%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%99%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%94_%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%A2%E0%B7%8F_%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%9E%E0%B6%9B%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA_%E0%B6%86%E0%B6%BA%E0%B6%AD%E0%B6%B1%E0%B6%BA" title="ඇමෙරිකානු ප්‍රජා සෞඛ්‍ය ආයතනය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ඇමෙරිකානු ප්‍රජා සෞඛ්‍ය ආයතනය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B%E5%85%AC%E5%85%B1%E8%A1%9B%E7%94%9F%E5%B1%80" title="美國公共衛生局 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="美國公共衛生局" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q476322#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:United_States_Public_Health_Service" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_Public_Health_Service&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_Public_Health_Service&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_Public_Health_Service&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_Public_Health_Service&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/United_States_Public_Health_Service" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/United_States_Public_Health_Service" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_Public_Health_Service&oldid=1275634919" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_Public_Health_Service&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=United_States_Public_Health_Service&id=1275634919&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FUnited_States_Public_Health_Service"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FUnited_States_Public_Health_Service"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=United_States_Public_Health_Service&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_Public_Health_Service&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:United_States_Public_Health_Service" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q476322" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Division of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services concerned with public health</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title" style="font-size: 125%;">United States Public Health Service</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:United_States_Public_Health_Service_(seal).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/United_States_Public_Health_Service_%28seal%29.svg/150px-United_States_Public_Health_Service_%28seal%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/United_States_Public_Health_Service_%28seal%29.svg/225px-United_States_Public_Health_Service_%28seal%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/United_States_Public_Health_Service_%28seal%29.svg/300px-United_States_Public_Health_Service_%28seal%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="327" data-file-height="319" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Logo of the United States<br />Public Health Service</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_United_States_Public_Health_Service.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_the_United_States_Public_Health_Service.svg/150px-Flag_of_the_United_States_Public_Health_Service.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="79" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_the_United_States_Public_Health_Service.svg/225px-Flag_of_the_United_States_Public_Health_Service.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_the_United_States_Public_Health_Service.svg/300px-Flag_of_the_United_States_Public_Health_Service.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="760" data-file-height="400" /></a></span><br />Flag of the U.S. Public Health Service</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef">Agency overview</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Formed</th><td class="infobox-data">1798<span class="noprint">; 227 years ago</span><span style="display:none"> (<span class="bday dtstart published updated">1798</span>)</span><br />(reorganized/renamed: 1871/1902/1912)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Jurisdiction</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">Federal government of the United States</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Headquarters</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Hubert_H._Humphrey_Building" title="Hubert H. Humphrey Building">Hubert H. Humphrey Building</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Agency executive</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li style="text-indent: -1em; padding-left: 1em;">Leith J. States (acting), <a href="/wiki/Assistant_Secretary_for_Health" title="Assistant Secretary for Health">Assistant Secretary for Health</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Parent agency</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services" class="mw-redirect" title="Department of Health and Human Services">Department of Health and Human Services</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Website</th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.hhs.gov/ash">https://www.hhs.gov/ash</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">"Public Health Service March"<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="135" data-mwtitle=""Public_Health_Service_March",_performed_by_the_United_States_Coast_Guard_Band.oga" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b4/%22Public_Health_Service_March%22%2C_performed_by_the_United_States_Coast_Guard_Band.oga/%22Public_Health_Service_March%22%2C_performed_by_the_United_States_Coast_Guard_Band.oga.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/%22Public_Health_Service_March%22%2C_performed_by_the_United_States_Coast_Guard_Band.oga" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3A%22Public_Health_Service_March%22%2C_performed_by_the_United_States_Coast_Guard_Band.oga&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></span></span></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>United States Public Health Service</b> (<b>USPHS</b> or <b>PHS</b>) is a collection of agencies of the <a href="/wiki/Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services" class="mw-redirect" title="Department of Health and Human Services">Department of Health and Human Services</a> concerned with <a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">public health</a>, containing nine out of the department's twelve operating divisions. The <a href="/wiki/Assistant_Secretary_for_Health" title="Assistant Secretary for Health">Assistant Secretary for Health</a> oversees the PHS. The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service_Commissioned_Corps" title="United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps">Public Health Service Commissioned Corps</a> (PHSCC) is the federal uniformed service of the PHS, and is one of the eight <a href="/wiki/Uniformed_services_of_the_United_States" title="Uniformed services of the United States">uniformed services of the United States</a>. </p><p>PHS had its origins in <a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._Marine_Hospitals" title="List of U.S. Marine Hospitals">the system of marine hospitals</a> that originated in 1798. In 1871 these were consolidated into the <a href="/wiki/Marine_Hospital_Service" title="Marine Hospital Service">Marine Hospital Service</a>, and shortly afterwards the position of <a href="/wiki/Surgeon_General_of_the_United_States" title="Surgeon General of the United States">Surgeon General</a> and the PHSCC were established. As the system's scope grew to include quarantine authority and research, it was renamed the Public Health Service in 1912. </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service_reorganizations_of_1966%E2%80%931973" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Public Health Service reorganizations of 1966–1973">series of reorganizations in 1966–1973</a> began a shift where PHS' divisions were promoted into departmental operating agencies. PHS was established as a thin layer of hierarchy above them rather than an operating agency in its own right. </p><p>In 1995, PHS agencies were shifted to report directly to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Health_and_Human_Services" title="United States Secretary of Health and Human Services">Secretary of Health and Human Services</a> rather the Assistant Secretary for Health, eliminating PHS as an administrative level in the organizational hierarchy. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Organization"><span id="Agencies">Organization</span></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_Public_Health_Service&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Organization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ten of the thirteen operating agencies within the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) are designated as part of the Public Health Service:<sup id="cite_ref-Redhead_2015_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Redhead_2015-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-U.S._Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services_2008_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-U.S._Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services_2008-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health" title="National Institutes of Health">National Institutes of Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_Resources_and_Services_Administration" title="Health Resources and Services Administration">Health Resources and Services Administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agency_for_Toxic_Substances_and_Disease_Registry" title="Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry">Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Health_Service" title="Indian Health Service">Indian Health Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agency_for_Healthcare_Research_and_Quality" title="Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality">Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_Abuse_and_Mental_Health_Services_Administration" title="Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration">Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administration_for_Strategic_Preparedness_and_Response" title="Administration for Strategic Preparedness and Response">Administration for Strategic Preparedness and Response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_Research_Projects_Agency_for_Health" title="Advanced Research Projects Agency for Health">Advanced Research Projects Agency for Health</a></li></ul> <p>The other three agencies are the <a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Medicare_and_Medicaid_Services" class="mw-redirect" title="Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services">Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services</a>, <a href="/wiki/Administration_for_Children_and_Families" title="Administration for Children and Families">Administration for Children and Families</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Administration_for_Community_Living" title="Administration for Community Living">Administration for Community Living</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Redhead_2015_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Redhead_2015-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-U.S._Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services_2008_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-U.S._Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services_2008-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Public Health Service also encompasses two staff offices:<sup id="cite_ref-Redhead_2015_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Redhead_2015-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-U.S._Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services_2008_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-U.S._Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services_2008-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_Assistant_Secretary_for_Health" title="Office of the Assistant Secretary for Health">Office of the Assistant Secretary for Health</a><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Office_of_Global_Affairs&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Office of Global Affairs (page does not exist)">Office of Global Affairs</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States_Public_Health_Service_Commissioned_Corps">United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_Public_Health_Service&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service_Commissioned_Corps" title="United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps">United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps</a></div> <p>The United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps (PHSCC) employs more than 6,000 uniformed public health professionals for the purpose of delivering public health promotion and <a href="/wiki/Preventive_healthcare" title="Preventive healthcare">disease prevention</a> programs, and advancing public health science. </p><p>The mission of the U.S. Public Health Service Commissioned Corps is to protect, promote, and advance the health and safety of the people of the United States. According to the PHSCC, this mission is achieved through rapid and effective response to public health needs, leadership and excellence in public health practices, and advancement of public health science.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>As one of the United States eight <a href="/wiki/Uniformed_services_of_the_United_States" title="Uniformed services of the United States">uniformed services</a>, the PHS Commissioned Corps fills public health leadership and service roles within <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">federal government</a> agencies and programs. The PHSCC includes officers drawn from many professions, including environmental and occupational health, medicine, nursing, dentistry, pharmacy, psychology, social work, hospital administration, health record administration, nutrition, engineering, science, veterinary, health information technology, and other health-related occupations.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Officers of the Corps wear uniforms similar to those of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">United States Navy</a> with special PHSCC insignia, and the Corps uses the same commissioned officer <a href="/wiki/Military_rank" title="Military rank">ranks</a> as the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">U.S. Navy</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard" title="United States Coast Guard">U.S. Coast Guard</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/NOAA_Commissioned_Officer_Corps" title="NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps">NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps</a> from <a href="/wiki/Ensign_(rank)" title="Ensign (rank)">ensign</a> to <a href="/wiki/Admiral_(United_States)" title="Admiral (United States)">admiral</a>, <a href="/wiki/U.S._uniformed_services_pay_grades" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. uniformed services pay grades">uniformed services pay grades</a> O-1 through O-10 respectively.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Title_5_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 5 of the United States Code">5 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/5/8331">§ 8331</a>, service in the PHSCC after June 30, 1960, is considered military service for retirement purposes. Under <a href="/wiki/Title_42_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 42 of the United States Code">42 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/42/213">§ 213</a>, active service in the PHSCC is considered active military service for the purposes of most veterans' benefits and for antidiscrimination laws.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_Public_Health_Service&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Modern public health began developing in the 19th century, as a response to advances in science that led to the understanding of the source and spread of disease. As the knowledge of contagious diseases increased, means to control them and prevent infection were soon developed. Once it became understood that these strategies would require community-wide participation, disease control began being viewed as a public responsibility. Various organizations and agencies were then created to implement these disease preventing strategies.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the U.S. expanded, the scope of the governmental health agency expanded. Most of the Public health activity in the United States took place at the municipal level before the mid-20th century. There was some activity at the national and state level as well.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marine_Hospital_Service">Marine Hospital Service</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_Public_Health_Service&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Marine Hospital Service"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Marine_Hospital_Service" title="Marine Hospital Service">Marine Hospital Service</a></div> <p>In the administration of the second president of the United States <a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">John Adams</a>, Congress authorized the creation of hospitals for mariners through the 1798 <a href="/wiki/An_Act_for_the_relief_of_sick_and_disabled_seamen" title="An Act for the relief of sick and disabled seamen">Act for the Relief of Sick and Disabled Seamen</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were initially located along the <a href="/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="East Coast of the United States">East Coast</a>, and as the boundaries of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_territorial_acquisitions" class="mw-redirect" title="United States territorial acquisitions">United States expanded</a>, so too were marine hospitals.<sup id="cite_ref-Gostin_2008_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gostin_2008-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Marine Hospital Service was placed under the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Revenue_Cutter_Service" title="United States Revenue Cutter Service">Revenue Marine Service</a> (a forerunner of the present-day <a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard" title="United States Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a>) within the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Treasury" title="United States Department of the Treasury">Department of the Treasury</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-nlm.nih.gov_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nlm.nih.gov-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A reorganization in 1871 converted the loose network of locally controlled marine hospitals into a centrally controlled <a href="/wiki/Marine_Hospital_Service" title="Marine Hospital Service">Marine Hospital Service</a>, with its headquarters in <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a> This reorganization established the Marine Hospital Service as its own bureau within the Department of the Treasury.<sup id="cite_ref-nlm.nih.gov_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nlm.nih.gov-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The position of Supervising Surgeon (later titled the <a href="/wiki/Surgeon_General_of_the_United_States" title="Surgeon General of the United States">Surgeon General</a>) was created to administer the Service, and <a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Woodworth" title="John Maynard Woodworth">John Maynard Woodworth</a> was appointed as the first incumbent in 1871.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He moved quickly to reform the system and adopted a <a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">military</a> model for his medical staff; putting his <a href="/wiki/Physician" title="Physician">physicians</a> in uniforms, and instituting examinations for applicants. Woodworth created a cadre of mobile, career service physicians, who could be assigned as needed to the various Marine Hospitals. The commissioned officer corps was formally established by legislation after the fact in 1889, and signed by President <a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Grover Cleveland</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The scope of activities of the Marine Hospital Service began to expand well beyond the care of merchant seamen in the closing decades of the nineteenth century, into control of <a href="/wiki/Infectious_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious disease">infectious disease</a>, collection of health statistics, and basic science research. Following cholera epidemics in the US in 1873, the <a href="/wiki/National_Quarantine_Act_of_1878" title="National Quarantine Act of 1878">National Quarantine Act of 1878</a> vested quarantine authority to the Marine Hospital Service. Under the <a href="/wiki/Public_Health_Act_of_1879" title="Public Health Act of 1879">Public Health Act of 1879</a>, this authority was temporarily shared with the U.S. Army and Navy through the <a href="/wiki/National_Board_of_Health" title="National Board of Health">National Board of Health</a>, until 1883.<sup id="cite_ref-Smillie2_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smillie2-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Given the prevalence of infectious disease among immigrants arriving from famine and war areas of Europe, the Marine Hospital Service was assigned to medically inspect immigrants at such sites as <a href="/wiki/Ellis_Island" title="Ellis Island">Ellis Island</a> in <a href="/wiki/New_York_Harbor" title="New York Harbor">New York Harbor</a>. In 1878, an act of Congress enabled the Marine Hospital Service to collect data on communicable diseases and perform <a href="/wiki/Public_health_surveillance" title="Public health surveillance">surveillance</a> of the incidence and distribution of diseases; these programs would eventually become the <a href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Health_Statistics" title="National Center for Health Statistics">National Center for Health Statistics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1887, the Hygienic Laboratory, the predecessor of the <a href="/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health" title="National Institutes of Health">National Institutes of Health</a>, began as a single-room laboratory for bacteriological investigation at the <a href="/wiki/Bayley_Seton_Hospital" title="Bayley Seton Hospital">Staten Island Marine Hospital</a>, and moved to Washington, D.C. in 1891. </p><p>In 1899, internal divisions were formed for the first time, specifically the Divisions of Marine Hospitals, Domestic Quarantine, Foreign Quarantine, Sanitary Reports and Statistics, Scientific Research, and Personnel and Accounts. These original divisions would remain through 1943, although there were minor name changes throughout this time, and a few new divisions would be created.<sup id="cite_ref-National_Archives_2016a_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-National_Archives_2016a-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Development_as_the_Public_Health_Service">Development as the Public Health Service</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_Public_Health_Service&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Development as the Public Health Service"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marine_Hospital_(NYPL_b15279351-104767).tiff" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Marine_Hospital_%28NYPL_b15279351-104767%29.tiff/lossless-page1-220px-Marine_Hospital_%28NYPL_b15279351-104767%29.tiff.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Marine_Hospital_%28NYPL_b15279351-104767%29.tiff/lossless-page1-330px-Marine_Hospital_%28NYPL_b15279351-104767%29.tiff.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Marine_Hospital_%28NYPL_b15279351-104767%29.tiff/lossless-page1-440px-Marine_Hospital_%28NYPL_b15279351-104767%29.tiff.png 2x" data-file-width="2200" data-file-height="1362" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Bayley_Seton_Hospital" title="Bayley Seton Hospital">Staten Island PHS Hospital</a> is an example of the large hospital buildings constructed by PHS in the early 20th century. It was built adjacent to the smaller 19th-century hospital.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Because the Service took on broader responsibilities, in 1902 it was renamed as the Public Health and Marine Hospital Service. In 1912, under new authorizing legislation, it was established as the Public Health Service (PHS) to express the enlarged scope of its work. </p><p>The 1912 PHS law (<a href="/wiki/Act_of_Congress#Public_law,_private_law,_designation" title="Act of Congress"><abbr title="Public Law">Pub. L.</abbr></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uslaw.link/citation/us-law/public/62/265">62–265</a>) expanded the agency's mission from communicable to include <a href="/wiki/Non-communicable_disease" title="Non-communicable disease">non-communicable diseases</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rogers_2013_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rogers_2013-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1913, the former <a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Hospital_(Cincinnati)" title="United States Marine Hospital (Cincinnati)">Cincinnati Marine Hospital</a> building was reopened as a Field Investigation Station for water pollution research. This was the beginning of the PHS <a href="/wiki/Environmental_Health_Divisions" title="Environmental Health Divisions">Environmental Health Divisions</a>, a precursor to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="United States Environmental Protection Agency">Environmental Protection Agency</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rogers_2013_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rogers_2013-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1914, the <a href="/wiki/Division_of_Industrial_Hygiene" title="Division of Industrial Hygiene">Office of Industrial Hygiene and Sanitation</a>, the direct predecessor of the <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Health" title="National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health">National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health</a>, was founded at the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Hospital_(Pittsburgh)" title="United States Marine Hospital (Pittsburgh)">Pittsburgh Marine Hospital</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Doyle_1977_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doyle_1977-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both of these offices were within the Division of Scientific Research. </p><p>The Division of Venereal Diseases was established in 1918, and the Narcotics Division in 1929 (it eventually became the <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Mental_Health" title="National Institute of Mental Health">National Institute of Mental Health</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-National_Archives_2016a_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-National_Archives_2016a-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1930, the Hygienic Laboratory was redesignated as the (singular) <a href="/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health" title="National Institutes of Health">National Institute of Health</a> (NIH) by the <a href="/wiki/Ransdell_Act" title="Ransdell Act">Ransdell Act</a>; in 1937, it absorbed the rest of the Division of Scientific Research, of which it was formerly part, and in 1938 it moved to <a href="/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health_campus" title="National Institutes of Health campus">its current campus</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bethesda,_Maryland" title="Bethesda, Maryland">Bethesda, Maryland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-National_Archives_2016a_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-National_Archives_2016a-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Doyle_1977_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doyle_1977-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NIH_Almanac_2011_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NIH_Almanac_2011-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1939, PHS as a whole was transferred from the Department of the Treasury into the new <a href="/wiki/Federal_Security_Agency" title="Federal Security Agency">Federal Security Agency</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1942, the Office of Malaria Control in War Areas was created, which in 1946 became the Communicable Disease Center, which would eventually become the <a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Beginning in the late 1920s and continuing through the <a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a> era, a significant building campaign upgraded several marine hospitals into large, monumental buildings, in contrast with the smaller buildings common for the 19th-century buildings.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> PHS's headquarters were in the <a href="/wiki/Butler_Building" title="Butler Building">Butler Building</a>, a converted mansion across the street from the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Capitol" title="United States Capitol">United States Capitol</a>, from 1891 until April 1929. It expanded into office space in <a href="/wiki/Temporary_buildings_of_the_National_Mall" title="Temporary buildings of the National Mall">Temporary Building C</a> on the <a href="/wiki/National_Mall" title="National Mall">National Mall</a> in July 1920, which became its temporary headquarters after the Butler Building was closed for demolition. In May 1933, the new <a href="/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service_Building" title="United States Public Health Service Building">Public Health Service Building</a> opened on the <a href="/wiki/National_Mall" title="National Mall">National Mall</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams_1951_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams_1951-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mid-20th_century">Mid-20th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_Public_Health_Service&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Mid-20th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:National_Institutes_of_Health_Campus_(29791758961).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/National_Institutes_of_Health_Campus_%2829791758961%29.jpg/220px-National_Institutes_of_Health_Campus_%2829791758961%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/National_Institutes_of_Health_Campus_%2829791758961%29.jpg/330px-National_Institutes_of_Health_Campus_%2829791758961%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/National_Institutes_of_Health_Campus_%2829791758961%29.jpg/440px-National_Institutes_of_Health_Campus_%2829791758961%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3491" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health_campus" title="National Institutes of Health campus">National Institutes of Health campus</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bethesda,_Maryland" title="Bethesda, Maryland">Bethesda, Maryland</a> in 1949</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Taft_Laboratory_Cincinnati_1957.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Taft_Laboratory_Cincinnati_1957.tif/lossy-page1-220px-Taft_Laboratory_Cincinnati_1957.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Taft_Laboratory_Cincinnati_1957.tif/lossy-page1-330px-Taft_Laboratory_Cincinnati_1957.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Taft_Laboratory_Cincinnati_1957.tif/lossy-page1-440px-Taft_Laboratory_Cincinnati_1957.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5155" data-file-height="3806" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Environmental_Health_Divisions" title="Environmental Health Divisions">Environmental Health Divisions</a>' Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center in <a href="/wiki/Cincinnati" title="Cincinnati">Cincinnati</a> in 1957</figcaption></figure><p>By 1943, PHS contained eight administrative divisions, plus the <a href="/wiki/National_Cancer_Institute" title="National Cancer Institute">National Cancer Institute</a>, <a href="/wiki/St._Elizabeths_Hospital" title="St. Elizabeths Hospital">St. Elizabeths Hospital</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Hospital" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedmen's Hospital">Freedmen's Hospital</a> under the direct supervision of the <a href="/wiki/Surgeon_General_of_the_United_States" title="Surgeon General of the United States">Surgeon General</a>. These divisions often had overlapping scopes, which was seen as administratively unwieldy. Additionally, some of these had been created and specified through several pieces of legislation that were inconsistent in their scope, while some had been created internally by PHS or delegated from the parent Federal Security Agency.<sup id="cite_ref-United_States_Senate_1943_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-United_States_Senate_1943-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1943, PHS's divisions were collected into three operating agencies by law (57 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large" title="United States Statutes at Large">Stat.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://legislink.org/us/stat-57-587">587</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-United_States_Senate_1943_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-United_States_Senate_1943-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_State_Services" title="Bureau of State Services">Bureau of State Services</a> administered cooperative services to <a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">U.S. states</a> through technical and financial assistance, the <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Medical_Services" title="Bureau of Medical Services">Bureau of Medical Services</a> provided direct patient care through hospitals and clinics as well as foreign quarantine facilities, and the National Institute of Health remained independent to perform laboratory research activities.<sup id="cite_ref-United_States_Senate_1943_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-United_States_Senate_1943-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-National_Archives_2016a_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-National_Archives_2016a-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, all of the laws affecting the functions of the public health agencies were consolidated for the first time in the <a href="/wiki/Public_Health_Service_Act" title="Public Health Service Act">Public Health Service Act of 1944</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-nlm.nih.gov_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nlm.nih.gov-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The mid-20th century was a time of expansion for both NIH and the PHS environmental health programs. In 1948, NIH's name was changed to the plural National Institutes of Health, and by the end of 1950 six new institutes had been created within it.<sup id="cite_ref-NIH_Almanac_2011_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NIH_Almanac_2011-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The environmental health programs expanded from water pollution into air, industrial, and chemical pollution and radiological health research during and after World War II,<sup id="cite_ref-Williams_1951_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams_1951-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in 1954 they moved across town from the former Cincinnati Marine Hospital to the newly constructed Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center.<sup id="cite_ref-Rogers_2013_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rogers_2013-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, the period was one of decline for the marine hospital system. In 1943, the hospital system had reached its peak of 30 hospitals.<sup id="cite_ref-U.S._House_of_Representatives_1965_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-U.S._House_of_Representatives_1965-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During 1944–1953, a wave of closings eliminated nine of the ten Marine Hospitals that had not been upgraded since the 1920s, as well as three newer general hospitals and the tuberculosis sanatorium at <a href="/wiki/Fort_Stanton" title="Fort Stanton">Fort Stanton</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-SNAC_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SNAC-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, PHS funded construction of hospitals by the states through the 1946 <a href="/wiki/Hill%E2%80%93Burton_Act" title="Hill–Burton Act">Hill–Burton Act</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1953 the Federal Security Agency was abolished and most of its functions, including the PHS, were transferred to the newly formed <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services" title="United States Department of Health and Human Services">Department of Health, Education and Welfare</a>. In 1955 the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Health_Service" title="Indian Health Service">Division of Indian Health</a> was established upon transfer of these functions from the <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Indian_Affairs" title="Bureau of Indian Affairs">Bureau of Indian Affairs</a> in the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Department_of_the_Interior" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Department of the Interior">Department of the Interior</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reorganization_era">Reorganization era</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_Public_Health_Service&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Reorganization era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/U.S._Public_Health_Service_reorganizations_of_1966%E2%80%931973" title="U.S. Public Health Service reorganizations of 1966–1973">U.S. Public Health Service reorganizations of 1966–1973</a></div> <p>Between 1966 and 1973, a series of reorganizations and realignments led to the end of the bureau structure.<sup id="cite_ref-National_Archives_2016a_14-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-National_Archives_2016a-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-National_Archives_2016b_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-National_Archives_2016b-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The reorganization by 1968 replaced PHS's old bureau structure with two new operating agencies: the Health Services and Mental Health Administration (HSMHA) and the Consumer Protection and Environmental Health Service (CPEHS), with NIH remaining independent and less affected by the organization. In 1968, the position of <a href="/wiki/Assistant_Secretary_for_Health" title="Assistant Secretary for Health">Assistant Secretary for Health</a> was created, supplanting the <a href="/wiki/Surgeon_General_of_the_United_States" title="Surgeon General of the United States">Surgeon General</a> as the top leader of the Public Health Service, although the Surgeon General was retained in a subordinate role.<sup id="cite_ref-Landman_2019_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Landman_2019-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also in 1968, the <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a>, which traced its origins to 1862, became part of the PHS.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The goal of the reorganizations was to coordinate the previously fragmented divisions to provide a holistic approach to large, overarching problems. </p><p>Additionally, a second wave of hospital closings during 1965–1970 closed the three remaining general hospitals at inland locations along the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi River</a> and <a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes" title="Great Lakes">Great Lakes</a>, as well as the 19th-century Savannah hospital. In addition, <a href="/wiki/St._Elizabeths_Hospital" title="St. Elizabeths Hospital">St. Elizabeths Hospital</a> and the psychiatric hospitals at <a href="/wiki/Federal_Medical_Center,_Lexington" title="Federal Medical Center, Lexington">Lexington</a> and <a href="/wiki/Federal_Medical_Center,_Fort_Worth" title="Federal Medical Center, Fort Worth">Fort Worth</a> were transferred to other agencies, and the <a href="/wiki/Galveston,_Texas" title="Galveston, Texas">Galveston</a> hospital was replaced with one acquired by PHS in nearby <a href="/wiki/Nassau_Bay,_Texas" title="Nassau Bay, Texas">Nassau Bay</a>. This left eight general hospitals plus the <a href="/wiki/Carville_Historic_District" title="Carville Historic District">National Leprosarium</a> in the system.<sup id="cite_ref-U.S._House_of_Representatives_1965_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-U.S._House_of_Representatives_1965-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SNAC_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SNAC-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The new agencies came to be seen as unwieldy and bureaucratic, and they would turn out to be short-lived. CPEHS was broken up in 1970, as much of it was transferred out of PHS to form the core of the new <a href="/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="United States Environmental Protection Agency">Environmental Protection Agency</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-National_Archives_2016b_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-National_Archives_2016b-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around the same time, the <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Health" title="National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health">National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health</a> was created out of the former Division of Industrial Hygiene by the <a href="/wiki/Occupational_Safety_and_Health_Act_(United_States)" title="Occupational Safety and Health Act (United States)">Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> HSMHA was broken up into four successor agencies in 1973. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_period">Modern period</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_Public_Health_Service&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Modern period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Late_20th_century">Late 20th century</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_Public_Health_Service&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Late 20th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since 1973, PHS has encompassed between six and ten operating agencies anchored by NIH, FDA, and CDC. The organizational changes in the 20th century after 1973 have been: </p> <ul><li>Creation of the <a href="/wiki/Agency_for_Toxic_Substances_and_Disease_Registry" title="Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry">Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry</a> in 1980<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Merging of the Health Resources Administration and Health Services Administration into the <a href="/wiki/Health_Resources_and_Services_Administration" title="Health Resources and Services Administration">Health Resources and Services Administration</a> (HRSA) in 1982<sup id="cite_ref-National_Archives_2016b_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-National_Archives_2016b-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Indian_Health_Service" title="Indian Health Service">Indian Health Service</a> being split from HRSA in 1988<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Agency_for_Healthcare_Research_and_Quality" title="Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality">Agency for Health Care Policy and Research</a> being split from the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_Assistant_Secretary_for_Health" title="Office of the Assistant Secretary for Health">Office of the Assistant Secretary for Health</a> in 1989<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Breakup of the Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration in 1992, with its research functions returning to the National Institutes of Health, and its services components becoming the <a href="/wiki/Substance_Abuse_and_Mental_Health_Services_Administration" title="Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration">Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration</a><sup id="cite_ref-ADAMHArecord_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ADAMHArecord-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The PHS hospital system had been the target of efforts to close the entire system since the mid-1970s.<sup id="cite_ref-Driscoll_1986_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Driscoll_1986-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the result of pressure from the <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Presidency of Ronald Reagan">Reagan administration</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Driscoll_1986_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Driscoll_1986-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the PHS hospital system was abolished in 1981, with the last eight hospitals transferred to other organizations:<sup id="cite_ref-Driscoll_1986_45-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Driscoll_1986-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SNAC_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SNAC-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> five to non-governmental entities, two to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">Department of Defense</a>, and one to the State of <a href="/wiki/Louisiana" title="Louisiana">Louisiana</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Driscoll_1986_45-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Driscoll_1986-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SNAC_32-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SNAC-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> PHS would however continue to operate the <a href="/wiki/Carville_Historic_District" title="Carville Historic District">National Leprosarium</a> until 1999.<sup id="cite_ref-History2_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-History2-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1995, supervision of the agencies within PHS was shifted from the Assistant Secretary for Health to report directly to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Health_and_Human_Services" title="United States Secretary of Health and Human Services">Secretary of Health and Human Services</a>, eliminating PHS as an administrative level in the organizational hierarchy, although the agencies and offices are still legally designated as part of PHS.<sup id="cite_ref-Landman_2019_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Landman_2019-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="21st_century">21st century</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_Public_Health_Service&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: 21st century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Office_of_Global_Affairs&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Office of Global Affairs (page does not exist)">Office of Global Affairs</a> was formed from two components within the Office of the Secretary and Office of the Assistant Secretary for Health in 2002.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Office of Public Health Emergency Preparedness was created in 2002, which in 2022 became the <a href="/wiki/Administration_for_Strategic_Preparedness_and_Response" title="Administration for Strategic Preparedness and Response">Administration for Strategic Preparedness and Response</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Advanced_Research_Projects_Agency_for_Health" title="Advanced Research Projects Agency for Health">Advanced Research Projects Agency for Health</a> was created by the <a href="/wiki/Consolidated_Appropriations_Act,_2022" title="Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2022">Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2022</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Activities">Activities</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_Public_Health_Service&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Activities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Public health worker <a href="/wiki/Sara_Josephine_Baker" title="Sara Josephine Baker">Sara Josephine Baker</a>, M.D. established many programs to help the poor in New York City keep their infants healthy, leading teams of nurses into the crowded neighborhoods of <a href="/wiki/Hell%27s_Kitchen,_Manhattan" title="Hell's Kitchen, Manhattan">Hell's Kitchen</a> and teaching mothers how to dress, feed, and bathe their babies. Another key pioneer of public health in the U.S. was <a href="/wiki/Lillian_Wald" title="Lillian Wald">Lillian Wald</a>, who founded the <a href="/wiki/Henry_Street_Settlement" title="Henry Street Settlement">Henry Street Settlement</a> house in New York. The <a href="/wiki/Visiting_Nurse_Service_of_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="Visiting Nurse Service of New York">Visiting Nurse Service of New York</a> was a significant organization for bringing health care to the urban poor. </p><p>In the area of environmental protection and public health, a Public Health Service 1969 community water survey that looked at more than a thousand drinking water systems across the United States drew two important conclusions that supported a growing demand for stronger protections that were adopted in the 1974 <a href="/wiki/Safe_Drinking_Water_Act" title="Safe Drinking Water Act">Safe Drinking Water Act</a>. The survey concluded, first, that the state supervision programs were very uneven and often lax, and, second, that the bacteriological quality of the water, particularly among small systems, was of concern.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 1963 <a href="/wiki/Clean_Air_Act_(United_States)" title="Clean Air Act (United States)">Clean Air Act</a> gave the Public Health Service in the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare the authority to take abatement action against industries if it could be demonstrated that they were polluting across state lines, or if a governor requested. Some of these actions involved the Ohio River Valley, New York, and New Jersey. The service also began monitoring air pollution. the 1967 Clean Air Act redirected attention to larger air quality control regions.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Controversies">Controversies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_Public_Health_Service&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Controversies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tuskegee_Study_of_Untreated_Syphilis_in_the_Negro_Male"><i>Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_Public_Health_Service&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_syphilis_experiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuskegee syphilis experiment">Tuskegee syphilis experiment</a></div> <p>In 1932, the Public Health Service, working with the <a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_University" title="Tuskegee University">Tuskegee Institute</a> in Tuskegee, Alabama, began a study to record the natural history of <a href="/wiki/Syphilis" title="Syphilis">syphilis</a> in hopes of justifying treatment programs for blacks. It was titled the <i>Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male</i>. </p><p>The study initially involved 600 black men—399 with syphilis, 201 who did not have the disease. The study was conducted without the benefit of patients' informed consent. Researchers told the men they were being treated for "bad blood", a local term referring to several ailments, including syphilis, anemia, and fatigue. In truth, they did not receive the proper treatment needed to cure their illness. In exchange for taking part in the study, the men received free medical exams, free meals, and burial insurance. Although originally projected to last six months, the study actually went on for 40 years. <a href="/wiki/Penicillin" title="Penicillin">Penicillin</a>—which can be used to treat syphilis—was discovered in the 1940s. However, the study continued and treatment was never given to the subjects. Because of this, it has been called "arguably the most 'infamous' biomedical research study in U.S. history".<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Syphilis_studies_in_Guatemala">Syphilis studies in Guatemala</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_Public_Health_Service&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Syphilis studies in Guatemala"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A USPHS physician who took part in the 1932–1972 Tuskegee program, <a href="/wiki/John_Charles_Cutler" title="John Charles Cutler">John Charles Cutler</a>, was in charge of the U.S. government's <a href="/wiki/Syphilis_experiments_in_Guatemala" class="mw-redirect" title="Syphilis experiments in Guatemala">syphilis experiments in Guatemala</a>, in which in the Central American <a href="/wiki/Guatemala" title="Guatemala">Republic of Guatemala</a>, Guatemalan prisoners, soldiers, orphaned children, and others were deliberately infected with syphilis and other sexually-transmitted diseases from 1946 to 1948, in order to scientifically study the disease, in a project funded by a grant from the <a href="/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health" title="National Institutes of Health">National Institutes of Health</a> of the United States in <a href="/wiki/Bethesda,_Maryland" title="Bethesda, Maryland">Bethesda, Maryland</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State" title="United States Secretary of State">Secretary of State</a> <a href="/wiki/Hillary_Clinton" title="Hillary Clinton">Hillary Clinton</a> apologized to the Republic of Guatemala for this program in 2010, in light of the serious ethical lapses in moral judgement which occurred.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_Public_Health_Service&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/12px-WHO_Rod.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/18px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/24px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="107" data-file-height="250" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Medicine" title="Portal:Medicine">Medicine portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cadet_Nurse_Corps" title="Cadet Nurse Corps">Cadet Nurse Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commissioned_Officers_Association_of_the_U.S._Public_Health_Service" title="Commissioned Officers Association of the U.S. Public Health Service">Commissioned Officers Association of the U.S. Public Health Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_belief_model" title="Health belief model">Health belief model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_experimentation_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Human experimentation in the United States">Human experimentation in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucy_Minnigerode" title="Lucy Minnigerode">Lucy Minnigerode</a>, first superintendent of the U. S. Public Health Service Nursing Corps</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narcotic_Farms_Act_of_1929" title="Narcotic Farms Act of 1929">Narcotic Farms Act of 1929</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Health_Service_Act" title="Public Health Service Act">Public Health Service Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Title_42_appointment" title="Title 42 appointment">Title 42 appointment</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_Public_Health_Service&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Public Domain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /></span></span> This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usphs.gov/html/history.html">History of the Commissioned Corps, PHS</a> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFKing_III" class="citation web cs1">King III G. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dcp.psc.gov/OSG/ensemble/listen-march-lyrics.aspx">"Public Health Service March Lyrics"</a>. <i>Commissioned Corps of the U.S. Public Health Service</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 26,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Commissioned+Corps+of+the+U.S.+Public+Health+Service&rft.atitle=Public+Health+Service+March+Lyrics&rft.aulast=King+III&rft.aufirst=G&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdcp.psc.gov%2FOSG%2Fensemble%2Flisten-march-lyrics.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Redhead_2015-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Redhead_2015_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Redhead_2015_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Redhead_2015_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRedheadDabrowska2015" class="citation web cs1">Redhead CS, Dabrowska A (October 13, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R43304.pdf">"Public Health Service Agencies: Overview and Funding (FY2010–FY2016)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/U.S._Congressional_Research_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Congressional Research Service">U.S. Congressional Research Service</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 16,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=U.S.+Congressional+Research+Service&rft.atitle=Public+Health+Service+Agencies%3A+Overview+and+Funding+%28FY2010%E2%80%93FY2016%29&rft.date=2015-10-13&rft.aulast=Redhead&rft.aufirst=CS&rft.au=Dabrowska%2C+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffas.org%2Fsgp%2Fcrs%2Fmisc%2FR43304.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-U.S._Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services_2008-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-U.S._Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services_2008_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-U.S._Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services_2008_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-U.S._Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services_2008_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hhs.gov/about/agencies/orgchart/index.html?language=en">"HHS Organization Chart"</a>. <i>U.S. Department of Health and Human Services</i>. October 24, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 17,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=U.S.+Department+of+Health+and+Human+Services&rft.atitle=HHS+Organization+Chart&rft.date=2008-10-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hhs.gov%2Fabout%2Fagencies%2Forgchart%2Findex.html%3Flanguage%3Den&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hhs.gov/ash/public-health-offices/index.html">"Public Health Offices"</a>. <i>U.S. Department of Health and Human Services</i>. March 21, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 17,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=U.S.+Department+of+Health+and+Human+Services&rft.atitle=Public+Health+Offices&rft.date=2016-03-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hhs.gov%2Fash%2Fpublic-health-offices%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/USCODE-2010-title42/pdf/USCODE-2010-title42-chap6A-subchapI-partA-sec212b.pdf">"Title 42 – The Public Health and Welfare"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. US Government Printing Office.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Title+42+%E2%80%93+The+Public+Health+and+Welfare&rft.pub=US+Government+Printing+Office&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gpo.gov%2Ffdsys%2Fpkg%2FUSCODE-2010-title42%2Fpdf%2FUSCODE-2010-title42-chap6A-subchapI-partA-sec212b.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInstitute_of_Medicine_(US)_Committee_for_the_Study_of_the_Future_of_Public_Health1988" class="citation book cs1">Institute of Medicine (US) Committee for the Study of the Future of Public Health (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK218224/"><i>A History of the Public Health System</i></a>. National Academies Press (US).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Public+Health+System&rft.pub=National+Academies+Press+%28US%29&rft.date=1988&rft.au=Institute+of+Medicine+%28US%29+Committee+for+the+Study+of+the+Future+of+Public+Health&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2FNBK218224%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuffy1992" class="citation book cs1">Duffy J (1992). <i>The sanitarians: a history of American public health</i>. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-06276-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-252-06276-6"><bdi>978-0-252-06276-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+sanitarians%3A+a+history+of+American+public+health&rft.place=Urbana&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-252-06276-6&rft.aulast=Duffy&rft.aufirst=J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUngar2011" class="citation web cs1">Ungar R (January 17, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/rickungar/2011/01/17/congress-passes-socialized-medicine-and-mandates-health-insurance-in-1798/">"Congress Passes Socialized Medicine and Mandates Health Insurance – In 1798"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Forbes" title="Forbes">Forbes</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 25,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Forbes&rft.atitle=Congress+Passes+Socialized+Medicine+and+Mandates+Health+Insurance+%E2%80%93+In+1798&rft.date=2011-01-17&rft.aulast=Ungar&rft.aufirst=R&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.forbes.com%2Fsites%2Frickungar%2F2011%2F01%2F17%2Fcongress-passes-socialized-medicine-and-mandates-health-insurance-in-1798%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gostin_2008-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gostin_2008_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGostin2008" class="citation book cs1">Gostin LO (2008). "Box 8: The Federal Presence in Public Health". <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/publich_gos_2008_00_0323"><i>Public Health Law: Power, Duty, Restraint, Revised and Expanded</i></a></span> (2nd ed.). University of California Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/publich_gos_2008_00_0323/page/156">156</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520253766" title="Special:BookSources/978-0520253766"><bdi>978-0520253766</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 8,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Box+8%3A+The+Federal+Presence+in+Public+Health&rft.btitle=Public+Health+Law%3A+Power%2C+Duty%2C+Restraint%2C+Revised+and+Expanded&rft.pages=156&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0520253766&rft.aulast=Gostin&rft.aufirst=LO&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpublich_gos_2008_00_0323&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nlm.nih.gov-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nlm.nih.gov_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nlm.nih.gov_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nlm.nih.gov_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/phs_history/intro.html">"Images From the History of the Public Health Service: Introduction"</a>. <i>nlm.nih.gov</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 3,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=nlm.nih.gov&rft.atitle=Images+From+the+History+of+the+Public+Health+Service%3A+Introduction&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nlm.nih.gov%2Fexhibition%2Fphs_history%2Fintro.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristopher2007" class="citation web cs1">Christopher D (October 5, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.discovermagazine.com/health/20-things-you-didnt-know-about-the-surgeon-general">"20 Things You Didn't Know About... The Surgeon General"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Discover_(magazine)" title="Discover (magazine)">Discover</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 25,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=20+Things+You+Didn%27t+Know+About...+The+Surgeon+General&rft.pub=Discover&rft.date=2007-10-05&rft.aulast=Christopher&rft.aufirst=D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.discovermagazine.com%2Fhealth%2F20-things-you-didnt-know-about-the-surgeon-general&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Smillie2-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Smillie2_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmillie1943" class="citation journal cs1">Smillie WG (August 1943). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1527526">"The National Board of Health 1879-1883"</a>. <i>American Journal of Public Health and the Nation's Health</i>. <b>33</b> (8): <span class="nowrap">925–</span>930. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2105%2Fajph.33.8.925">10.2105/ajph.33.8.925</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1527526">1527526</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18015860">18015860</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Public+Health+and+the+Nation%27s+Health&rft.atitle=The+National+Board+of+Health+1879-1883&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E925-%3C%2Fspan%3E930&rft.date=1943-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1527526%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18015860&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2105%2Fajph.33.8.925&rft.aulast=Smillie&rft.aufirst=WG&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1527526&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">"Federal Health Data Sources". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK234719/"><i>Toward a National Health Care Survey: A Data System for the 21st Century</i></a>. National Research Council. 1992. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17226%2F1941">10.17226/1941</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-04692-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-309-04692-3"><bdi>978-0-309-04692-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25121299">25121299</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Federal+Health+Data+Sources&rft.btitle=Toward+a+National+Health+Care+Survey%3A+A+Data+System+for+the+21st+Century&rft.pub=National+Research+Council&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25121299&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17226%2F1941&rft.isbn=978-0-309-04692-3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2FNBK234719%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-National_Archives_2016a-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-National_Archives_2016a_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-National_Archives_2016a_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-National_Archives_2016a_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-National_Archives_2016a_14-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-National_Archives_2016a_14-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/090.html">"Records of the Public Health Service [PHS], 1912–1968"</a>. <i>National Archives</i>. August 15, 2016. Sections 90.3, 90.7, 90.8<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 28,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Archives&rft.atitle=Records+of+the+Public+Health+Service+%5BPHS%5D%2C+1912%E2%80%931968&rft.pages=Sections+90.3%2C+90.7%2C+90.8&rft.date=2016-08-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.gov%2Fresearch%2Fguide-fed-records%2Fgroups%2F090.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~nyrichmo/history.shtml">"Top 100 Historical Events in Staten Island, Richmond County, NY"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Staten_Island_Advance" title="Staten Island Advance">Staten Island Advance</a></i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1">"Clifton Hospital's Former Staff Holds Dinner for 10th Reunion Recalling Times at Public Health". <i><a href="/wiki/Staten_Island_Advance" title="Staten Island Advance">Staten Island Advance</a></i>. October 20, 1991.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Staten+Island+Advance&rft.atitle=Clifton+Hospital%27s+Former+Staff+Holds+Dinner+for+10th+Reunion+Recalling+Times+at+Public+Health&rft.date=1991-10-20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rogers_2013-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rogers_2013_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rogers_2013_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rogers_2013_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRogersSymonsSorg2013" class="citation journal cs1">Rogers JR, Symons JM, Sorg TJ (May 28, 2013). "The History of Environmental Research in Cincinnati, Ohio: From the U.S. Public Health Service to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency". <i>World Environmental and Water Resources Congress 2013</i>. American Society of Civil Engineers: <span class="nowrap">33–</span>37. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1061%2F9780784412947.004">10.1061/9780784412947.004</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7844-1294-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7844-1294-7"><bdi>978-0-7844-1294-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=World+Environmental+and+Water+Resources+Congress+2013&rft.atitle=The+History+of+Environmental+Research+in+Cincinnati%2C+Ohio%3A+From+the+U.S.+Public+Health+Service+to+the+U.S.+Environmental+Protection+Agency&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E33-%3C%2Fspan%3E37&rft.date=2013-05-28&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1061%2F9780784412947.004&rft.isbn=978-0-7844-1294-7&rft.aulast=Rogers&rft.aufirst=JR&rft.au=Symons%2C+JM&rft.au=Sorg%2C+TJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFurman1973" class="citation book cs1">Furman B (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ern1MvGtMrgC&pg=PA295"><i>A Profile of the United States Public Health Service, 1798–1948</i></a>. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. pp. <span class="nowrap">295–</span>298.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Profile+of+the+United+States+Public+Health+Service%2C+1798%E2%80%931948&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E295-%3C%2Fspan%3E298&rft.pub=U.S.+Department+of+Health%2C+Education%2C+and+Welfare&rft.date=1973&rft.aulast=Furman&rft.aufirst=B&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DErn1MvGtMrgC%26pg%3DPA295&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPURL.cgi?Dockey=91022SRK.TXT">"Andrew W. Breidenbach Environmental Research Center"</a>. <i>U.S. Environmental Protection Agency</i>. April 1, 1990. pp. <span class="nowrap">2–</span>3. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210421194512/https://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPURL.cgi?Dockey=91022SRK.TXT">Archived</a> from the original on April 21, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 23,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=U.S.+Environmental+Protection+Agency&rft.atitle=Andrew+W.+Breidenbach+Environmental+Research+Center&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2-%3C%2Fspan%3E3&rft.date=1990-04-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnepis.epa.gov%2FExe%2FZyPURL.cgi%3FDockey%3D91022SRK.TXT&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Doyle_1977-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Doyle_1977_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doyle_1977_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoyle1977" class="citation web cs1">Doyle HN (1977). <a class="external text" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Federal_Industrial_Hygiene_Agency.pdf">"The federal industrial hygiene agency: a history of the Division of Occupational Health, United States Public Health Service"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211013081215/https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Federal_Industrial_Hygiene_Agency.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on October 13, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 3,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Conference+of+Governmental+Industrial+Hygienists&rft.atitle=The+federal+industrial+hygiene+agency%3A+a+history+of+the+Division+of+Occupational+Health%2C+United+States+Public+Health+Service&rft.date=1977&rft.aulast=Doyle&rft.aufirst=HN&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3AThe_Federal_Industrial_Hygiene_Agency.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-aERAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA153"><i>The President's Report on Occupational Safety and Health</i></a>. Commerce Clearing House. 1972. pp. <span class="nowrap">153–</span>154.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+President%27s+Report+on+Occupational+Safety+and+Health&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E153-%3C%2Fspan%3E154&rft.pub=Commerce+Clearing+House&rft.date=1972&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-aERAQAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA153&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NIH_Almanac_2011-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NIH_Almanac_2011_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NIH_Almanac_2011_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nih.gov/about-nih/what-we-do/nih-almanac/chronology-events">"The NIH Almanac: Chronology of Events"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 13,</span> 2025</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+NIH+Almanac%3A+Chronology+of+Events&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nih.gov%2Fabout-nih%2Fwhat-we-do%2Fnih-almanac%2Fchronology-events&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/209555">"Message to Congress on the Reorganization Act"</a>. <i>The American Presidency Project</i>. April 25, 1939<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 23,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+American+Presidency+Project&rft.atitle=Message+to+Congress+on+the+Reorganization+Act&rft.date=1939-04-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.presidency.ucsb.edu%2Fnode%2F209555&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/about/history/index.html">"Our History – Our Story | About | CDC"</a>. <i>cdc.gov</i>. August 5, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 5,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=cdc.gov&rft.atitle=Our+History+%E2%80%93+Our+Story+%7C+About+%7C+CDC&rft.date=2021-08-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fabout%2Fhistory%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurke2015" class="citation web cs1">Burke ES (May 22, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nola.gov/getattachment//HDLC/Calendar/Agendas/New-Orleans-Agendas/Commission/2015-(1)/6-11-2015-1-00-39-AM/Designation-Report-210-State-Street.pdf">"Designation Report: 210 State Street"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>City of New Orleans</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 20,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=City+of+New+Orleans&rft.atitle=Designation+Report%3A+210+State+Street&rft.date=2015-05-22&rft.aulast=Burke&rft.aufirst=ES&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nola.gov%2Fgetattachment%2F%2FHDLC%2FCalendar%2FAgendas%2FNew-Orleans-Agendas%2FCommission%2F2015-%281%29%2F6-11-2015-1-00-39-AM%2FDesignation-Report-210-State-Street.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Williams_1951-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Williams_1951_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Williams_1951_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams1951" class="citation book cs1">Williams RC (1951). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/unitedstatespubl00will/page/520"><i>The United States Public Health Service, 1798–1950</i></a>. Commissioned Officers Association of the United States Public Health Service. pp. 327, <span class="nowrap">520–</span>521.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+United+States+Public+Health+Service%2C+1798%E2%80%931950&rft.pages=327%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E520-%3C%2Fspan%3E521&rft.pub=Commissioned+Officers+Association+of+the+United+States+Public+Health+Service&rft.date=1951&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=RC&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Funitedstatespubl00will%2Fpage%2F520&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-United_States_Senate_1943-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-United_States_Senate_1943_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-United_States_Senate_1943_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-United_States_Senate_1943_27-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/reorganizationfu00unit/page/4">"Reorganization and functions of the Public Health Service"</a>. United States Senate. 1943. pp. <span class="nowrap">4–</span>6. <a class="external text" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Reorganization_and_functions_of_the_Public_Health_Service_..._Report._-To_accompany_S._400-_(IA_reorganizationfu00unit).pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on September 9, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 15,</span> 2020</span> – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Reorganization+and+functions+of+the+Public+Health+Service&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E4-%3C%2Fspan%3E6&rft.pub=United+States+Senate&rft.date=1943&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Freorganizationfu00unit%2Fpage%2F4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/executivereferen1957unit"><i>Executive Reference Book (Public Health Service Portion)</i></a>. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. 1957.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Executive+Reference+Book+%28Public+Health+Service+Portion%29&rft.pub=U.S.+Department+of+Health%2C+Education%2C+and+Welfare&rft.date=1957&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fexecutivereferen1957unit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalsh1964" class="citation journal cs1">Walsh J (July 1964). "Environmental Health: Taft Center in Cincinnati Has Been the PHS Mainstay in Pollution Research". <i>Science</i>. <b>145</b> (3627): <span class="nowrap">31–</span>33. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1964Sci...145...31W">1964Sci...145...31W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.145.3627.31">10.1126/science.145.3627.31</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14162688">14162688</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Environmental+Health%3A+Taft+Center+in+Cincinnati+Has+Been+the+PHS+Mainstay+in+Pollution+Research&rft.volume=145&rft.issue=3627&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E31-%3C%2Fspan%3E33&rft.date=1964-07&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14162688&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.145.3627.31&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1964Sci...145...31W&rft.aulast=Walsh&rft.aufirst=J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2024349">"LABORATORY research, field investigation, and training program of the Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center at Cincinnati, Ohio"</a>. <i>Public Health Reports</i>. <b>69</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">507–</span>512. May 1954. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2024349">2024349</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13167275">13167275</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Public+Health+Reports&rft.atitle=LABORATORY+research%2C+field+investigation%2C+and+training+program+of+the+Robert+A.+Taft+Sanitary+Engineering+Center+at+Cincinnati%2C+Ohio&rft.volume=69&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E507-%3C%2Fspan%3E512&rft.date=1954-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2024349%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F13167275&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2024349&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-U.S._House_of_Representatives_1965-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-U.S._House_of_Representatives_1965_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-U.S._House_of_Representatives_1965_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aQG6xwEACAAJ&pg=PA3"><i>Public Health Service Hospital Closings</i></a>. U.S. House of Representatives. 1965. p. 3.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Public+Health+Service+Hospital+Closings&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=U.S.+House+of+Representatives&rft.date=1965&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaQG6xwEACAAJ%26pg%3DPA3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SNAC-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SNAC_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SNAC_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SNAC_32-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SNAC_32-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w61p43pr">"United States. Public Health Service. Division of Hospitals"</a>. <i>SNAC</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 31,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=SNAC&rft.atitle=United+States.+Public+Health+Service.+Division+of+Hospitals&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsnaccooperative.org%2Fark%3A%2F99166%2Fw61p43pr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/executivereferen1957unit/page/4"><i>Executive Reference Book (Public Health Service Portion)</i></a>. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. 1957. pp. <span class="nowrap">4–</span>19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Executive+Reference+Book+%28Public+Health+Service+Portion%29&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E4-%3C%2Fspan%3E19&rft.pub=U.S.+Department+of+Health%2C+Education%2C+and+Welfare&rft.date=1957&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fexecutivereferen1957unit%2Fpage%2F4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/if_you_knew/ifyouknew_09.html">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"If You Knew the Conditions..." Health Care to Native Americans: Indian Health Service Today"</a>. <i>nlm.nih.gov</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 23,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=nlm.nih.gov&rft.atitle=%22If+You+Knew+the+Conditions...%22+Health+Care+to+Native+Americans%3A+Indian+Health+Service+Today&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nlm.nih.gov%2Fexhibition%2Fif_you_knew%2Fifyouknew_09.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-National_Archives_2016b-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-National_Archives_2016b_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-National_Archives_2016b_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-National_Archives_2016b_35-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/512.html">"Records of the Health Resources and Services Administration [HRSA]"</a>. <i>National Archives</i>. August 15, 2016. Section 512.2<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 28,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Archives&rft.atitle=Records+of+the+Health+Resources+and+Services+Administration+%5BHRSA%5D&rft.pages=Section+512.2&rft.date=2016-08-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.gov%2Fresearch%2Fguide-fed-records%2Fgroups%2F512.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Landman_2019-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Landman_2019_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Landman_2019_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLandman2019" class="citation web cs1">Landman K (June 24, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://undark.org/2019/06/24/public-health-service-commissioned-corps/">"For America's Public Health Officers, Questions of Duty and Purpose"</a>. <i>Undark Magazine</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 11,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Undark+Magazine&rft.atitle=For+America%27s+Public+Health+Officers%2C+Questions+of+Duty+and+Purpose&rft.date=2019-06-24&rft.aulast=Landman&rft.aufirst=K&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fundark.org%2F2019%2F06%2F24%2Fpublic-health-service-commissioned-corps%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOffice_of_the_Commissioner" class="citation web cs1">Office of the Commissioner. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fda.gov/AboutFDA/History/FOrgsHistory/EvolvingPowers/ucm124403.htm">"FDA's Evolving Regulatory Powers – FDA's Origin"</a>. <i>fda.gov</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 23,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=fda.gov&rft.atitle=FDA%27s+Evolving+Regulatory+Powers+%E2%80%93+FDA%27s+Origin&rft.au=Office+of+the+Commissioner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fda.gov%2FAboutFDA%2FHistory%2FFOrgsHistory%2FEvolvingPowers%2Fucm124403.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vZ8Vp55YEtcC&pg=PA4"><i>Public Health Service Hospital Closings</i></a>. U.S. House of Representatives. 1972. pp. 4, 10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Public+Health+Service+Hospital+Closings&rft.pages=4%2C+10&rft.pub=U.S.+House+of+Representatives&rft.date=1972&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvZ8Vp55YEtcC%26pg%3DPA4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/412.html">"Records of the Environmental Protection Agency [EPA]"</a>. <i>National Archives</i>. August 15, 2016. Section 412.2<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 28,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Archives&rft.atitle=Records+of+the+Environmental+Protection+Agency+%5BEPA%5D&rft.pages=Section+412.2&rft.date=2016-08-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.gov%2Fresearch%2Fguide-fed-records%2Fgroups%2F412.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSnyder1998" class="citation web cs1">Snyder LP (1998). <a class="external text" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:NIOSH_-_A_Brief_History.pdf">"The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 1971–1996: A Brief History"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 5,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+National+Institute+for+Occupational+Safety+and+Health%2C+1971%E2%80%931996%3A+A+Brief+History&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Snyder&rft.aufirst=LP&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3ANIOSH_-_A_Brief_History.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/about/congress.html">"Background and Congressional Mandates"</a>. <i>ATSDR</i>. December 11, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 29,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ATSDR&rft.atitle=Background+and+Congressional+Mandates&rft.date=2018-12-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.atsdr.cdc.gov%2Fabout%2Fcongress.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/513.html">"Records of the Indian Health Service"</a>. <i>National Archives</i>. August 15, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 29,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Archives&rft.atitle=Records+of+the+Indian+Health+Service&rft.date=2016-08-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.gov%2Fresearch%2Fguide-fed-records%2Fgroups%2F513.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/510.html">"Records of the Agency for Health Care Policy and Research"</a>. <i>National Archives</i>. August 15, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 29,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Archives&rft.atitle=Records+of+the+Agency+for+Health+Care+Policy+and+Research&rft.date=2016-08-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.gov%2Fresearch%2Fguide-fed-records%2Fgroups%2F510.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ADAMHArecord-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ADAMHArecord_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/511.html">"Records of the Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration [ADAMHA] (Record Group 511), 1929–93"</a>. <i>National Archives</i>. <a href="/wiki/National_Archives_and_Records_Administration" title="National Archives and Records Administration">U.S. National Archives and Records Administration</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 18,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Archives&rft.atitle=Records+of+the+Alcohol%2C+Drug+Abuse%2C+and+Mental+Health+Administration+%5BADAMHA%5D+%28Record+Group+511%29%2C+1929%E2%80%9393&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.gov%2Fresearch%2Fguide-fed-records%2Fgroups%2F511.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Driscoll_1986-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Driscoll_1986_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Driscoll_1986_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Driscoll_1986_45-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Driscoll_1986_45-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDriscoll1986" class="citation journal cs1">Driscoll RS (February 1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmilmed%2F151.2.128">"What happened to the U.S. Public Health Service Hospital?"</a>. <i>Military Medicine</i>. <b>151</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">128–</span>129. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmilmed%2F151.2.128">10.1093/milmed/151.2.128</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3083292">3083292</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Military+Medicine&rft.atitle=What+happened+to+the+U.S.+Public+Health+Service+Hospital%3F&rft.volume=151&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E128-%3C%2Fspan%3E129&rft.date=1986-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fmilmed%2F151.2.128&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F3083292&rft.aulast=Driscoll&rft.aufirst=RS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fmilmed%252F151.2.128&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerbers1981" class="citation news cs1">Herbers J (October 27, 1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1981/10/27/us/us-seamen-s-hospitals-still-open-in-many-cities.html">"U.S. Seamen's Hospitals Still Open in Many Cities"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 20,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=U.S.+Seamen%27s+Hospitals+Still+Open+in+Many+Cities&rft.date=1981-10-27&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Herbers&rft.aufirst=J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1981%2F10%2F27%2Fus%2Fus-seamen-s-hospitals-still-open-in-many-cities.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-History2-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-History2_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hrsa.gov/hansensdisease/history.html">"History of the National Hansen's Disease (Leprosy) Program"</a>. HHS-Health Resources and Services Administration<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 27,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History+of+the+National+Hansen%27s+Disease+%28Leprosy%29+Program&rft.pub=HHS-Health+Resources+and+Services+Administration&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hrsa.gov%2Fhansensdisease%2Fhistory.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBliss2014" class="citation journal cs1">Bliss KE (January 1, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.csis.org/analysis/global-health-within-domestic-agency">"Global Health within a Domestic Agency: The Transformation of the Office of Global Affairs at HHS"</a>. <i>Center for Strategic & International Studies</i>: <span class="nowrap">3–</span>4<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 1,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Center+for+Strategic+%26+International+Studies&rft.atitle=Global+Health+within+a+Domestic+Agency%3A+The+Transformation+of+the+Office+of+Global+Affairs+at+HHS&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3-%3C%2Fspan%3E4&rft.date=2014-01-01&rft.aulast=Bliss&rft.aufirst=KE&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.csis.org%2Fanalysis%2Fglobal-health-within-domestic-agency&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">EPA Alumni Association: Senior EPA officials discuss early implementation of the Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.epaalumni.org/history/video/interview.cfm?id=13">Video</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.epaalumni.org/userdata/pdf/6014106B36AE81EB.pdf#page=3">Transcript</a> (see p4).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Early Implementation of the Clean Air Act of 1970 in California." EPA Alumni Association. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.epaalumni.org/history/video/interview.cfm?id=38">Video</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.epaalumni.org/userdata/pdf/2B9E3C6816EC9466.pdf#page=1">Transcript</a> (see p1). July 12, 2016.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKatzKegelesKressinGreen2006" class="citation journal cs1">Katz RV, Kegeles SS, Kressin NR, Green BL, Wang MQ, James SA, et al. (November 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1780164">"The Tuskegee Legacy Project: willingness of minorities to participate in biomedical research"</a>. <i>Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved</i>. <b>17</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">698–</span>715. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fhpu.2006.0126">10.1353/hpu.2006.0126</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1780164">1780164</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17242525">17242525</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Health+Care+for+the+Poor+and+Underserved&rft.atitle=The+Tuskegee+Legacy+Project%3A+willingness+of+minorities+to+participate+in+biomedical+research&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E698-%3C%2Fspan%3E715&rft.date=2006-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1780164%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17242525&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fhpu.2006.0126&rft.aulast=Katz&rft.aufirst=RV&rft.au=Kegeles%2C+SS&rft.au=Kressin%2C+NR&rft.au=Green%2C+BL&rft.au=Wang%2C+MQ&rft.au=James%2C+SA&rft.au=Russell%2C+SL&rft.au=Claudio%2C+C&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1780164&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcNeil_Jr2010" class="citation news cs1">McNeil Jr DG (October 1, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/02/health/research/02infect.html?_r=0">"Syphilis Experiment Is Revealed, Prompting U.S. Apology to Guatemala"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Syphilis+Experiment+Is+Revealed%2C+Prompting+U.S.+Apology+to+Guatemala&rft.date=2010-10-01&rft.aulast=McNeil+Jr&rft.aufirst=DG&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2010%2F10%2F02%2Fhealth%2Fresearch%2F02infect.html%3F_r%3D0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_Public_Health_Service&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlue1917" class="citation journal cs1">Blue R (September 1917). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=edYKAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA255">"Conserving The Nation's Man Power: How The Government Is Sanitating The Civil Zones Around Cantonment Areas. A Nationwide Campaign For Health"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/National_Geographic_Magazine" class="mw-redirect" title="National Geographic Magazine">National Geographic Magazine</a></i>. <b>XXXII</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">255–</span>278.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=National+Geographic+Magazine&rft.atitle=Conserving+The+Nation%27s+Man+Power%3A+How+The+Government+Is+Sanitating+The+Civil+Zones+Around+Cantonment+Areas.+A+Nationwide+Campaign+For+Health&rft.volume=XXXII&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E255-%3C%2Fspan%3E278&rft.date=1917-09&rft.aulast=Blue&rft.aufirst=R&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DedYKAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DRA1-PA255&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHendrick1916" class="citation journal cs1">Hendrick BJ (April 1916). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=09_Sr9emceQC&pg=PA633">"The Mastery of Pellagra: How the Doctors of the United States Public Health Service Have Found a Way of Curing and Preventing It"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/World%27s_Work" class="mw-redirect" title="World's Work">The World's Work: A History of Our Time</a></i>. <b>XXXI</b>: <span class="nowrap">633–</span>639<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 4,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+World%27s+Work%3A+A+History+of+Our+Time&rft.atitle=The+Mastery+of+Pellagra%3A+How+the+Doctors+of+the+United+States+Public+Health+Service+Have+Found+a+Way+of+Curing+and+Preventing+It&rft.volume=XXXI&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E633-%3C%2Fspan%3E639&rft.date=1916-04&rft.aulast=Hendrick&rft.aufirst=BJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D09_Sr9emceQC%26pg%3DPA633&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeupp1914" class="citation journal cs1">Leupp CD (August 1914). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zegeQtMn9JsC&pg=PA426">"Removing The Blinding Curse of the Mountains: How Dr. McMullen, of the Public Health Service Is Organizing ahe War against Trachoma in the Appalachians"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/World%27s_Work" class="mw-redirect" title="World's Work">"The World's Work: A History of Our Time"</a></i>. <b>XLIV</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">426–</span>430<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 4,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%22The+World%27s+Work%3A+A+History+of+Our+Time%22&rft.atitle=Removing+The+Blinding+Curse+of+the+Mountains%3A+How+Dr.+McMullen%2C+of+the+Public+Health+Service+Is+Organizing+ahe+War+against+Trachoma+in+the+Appalachians&rft.volume=XLIV&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E426-%3C%2Fspan%3E430&rft.date=1914-08&rft.aulast=Leupp&rft.aufirst=CD&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzegeQtMn9JsC%26pg%3DPA426&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/annualreportsur06servgoog"><i>Annual Report of the Surgeon General of the Public Health</i></a>. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. 1911.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Annual+Report+of+the+Surgeon+General+of+the+Public+Health&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1911&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fannualreportsur06servgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Public+Health+Service" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li>Selected Years: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/annualreportsur03servgoog">1902</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y8osAAAAYAAJ">1903</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/annualreportsur01servgoog">1904</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/annualreportsur10servgoog">1905</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/annualreportsur02servgoog">1906</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/annualreportsur00servgoog">1907</a>, 1908, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/annualreportsur11servgoog">1909</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=L_UTAAAAIAAJ">1910</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/annualreportsur12servgoog">1911</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_Public_Health_Service&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:United_States_Public_Health_Service" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:United States Public Health Service">United States Public Health Service</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hhs.gov/ash/index.html">Office of the Assistant Secretary for Health</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.federalregister.gov/agencies/public-health-service">Public Health Service</a> in the <i><a href="/wiki/Federal_Register" title="Federal Register">Federal Register</a></i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.surgeongeneral.gov/">Office of the Surgeon General</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/phs/index.html">Office of the Public Health Service Historian</a> (part of the National Institutes for Health)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.blitzkriegbaby.de/">PHS history and WWII women's uniforms in color</a> –  World War II US women's service organizations (WAC, WAVES, ANC, NNC, USMCWR, PHS, SPARS, ARC and WASP)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160919072304/http://www.wnyc.org/shows/vd-radio-project/">The V.D. Radio Project</a> at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wnyc.org/archives">The WNYC Archives</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/32334">Works by United States Public Health Service</a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%22Public+Health+Service%22%29">Works by or about United States Public Health Service</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li></ul> <p><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Public Domain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /></span></span> This article incorporates <a href="/wiki/Copyright_status_of_works_by_the_federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Copyright status of works by the federal government of the United States">public domain material</a> from websites or documents of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services" title="United States Department of Health and Human Services">United States Department of Health and Human Services</a>. </p> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="United_States_Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services477" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:United_States_Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services" title="Template:United States Department of Health and Human Services"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:United_States_Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services" title="Template talk:United States Department of Health and Human Services"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:United_States_Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services" title="Special:EditPage/Template:United States Department of Health and Human Services"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="United_States_Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services477" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services" title="United States Department of Health and Human Services">United States Department of Health and Human Services</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li>Headquarters: <b><a href="/wiki/Hubert_H._Humphrey_Building" title="Hubert H. Humphrey Building">Hubert H. Humphrey Building</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Kennedy_Jr." title="Robert F. Kennedy Jr.">Robert F. Kennedy Jr.</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Health_and_Human_Services" title="United States Secretary of Health and Human Services">Secretary of Health and Human Services</a></li> <li><i>Vacant</i>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Deputy_Secretary_of_Health_and_Human_Services" title="United States Deputy Secretary of Health and Human Services">Deputy Secretary of Health and Human Services</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Secretariat staff offices</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Office of the Secretary of Health and Human Services</li> <li>Office of the Deputy Secretary of Health and Human Services</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_Inspector_General,_U.S._Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services" title="Office of Inspector General, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services">Office of Inspector General</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_National_Coordinator_for_Health_Information_Technology" title="Office of the National Coordinator for Health Information Technology">Office of the National Coordinator for Health Information Technology</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/US_Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services_seal.svg/150px-US_Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services_seal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/US_Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services_seal.svg/225px-US_Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services_seal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/US_Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services_seal.svg/300px-US_Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services_seal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="406" data-file-height="406" /></span></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Public Health Service</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_Assistant_Secretary_for_Health" title="Office of the Assistant Secretary for Health">Office of the Assistant Secretary for Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Surgeon_General_of_the_United_States" title="Surgeon General of the United States">Office of the Surgeon General</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service_Commissioned_Corps" title="United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps">Public Health Service Commissioned Corps</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agency_for_Healthcare_Research_and_Quality" title="Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality">Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agency_for_Toxic_Substances_and_Disease_Registry" title="Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry">Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Injury_Prevention_and_Control" title="National Center for Injury Prevention and Control">National Center for Injury Prevention and Control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Health" title="National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health">National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_Resources_and_Services_Administration" title="Health Resources and Services Administration">Health Resources and Services Administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Health_Service" title="Indian Health Service">Indian Health Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health" title="National Institutes of Health">National Institutes of Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_Abuse_and_Mental_Health_Services_Administration" title="Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration">Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Behavioral_Health_Statistics_and_Quality" class="mw-redirect" title="Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality">Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Human services agencies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administration_for_Children_and_Families" title="Administration for Children and Families">Administration for Children and Families</a> (<a href="/wiki/Administration_for_Native_Americans" title="Administration for Native Americans">Administration for Native Americans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Refugee_Resettlement" title="Office of Refugee Resettlement">Office of Refugee Resettlement</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administration_for_Community_Living" title="Administration for Community Living">Administration for Community Living</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administration_on_Aging" title="Administration on Aging">Administration on Aging</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Medicare_%26_Medicaid_Services" title="Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services">Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Programs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Child_Welfare_Information_Gateway" title="Child Welfare Information Gateway">Child Welfare Information Gateway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Toxicology_Program" title="National Toxicology Program">National Toxicology Program</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Public_health650" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Public_health" title="Template:Public health"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Public_health" title="Template talk:Public health"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Public_health" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Public health"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Public_health650" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auxology" title="Auxology">Auxology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_hazard" title="Biological hazard">Biological hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Medical_Officer" class="mw-redirect" title="Chief Medical Officer">Chief Medical Officer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_competence_in_health_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural competence in health care">Cultural competence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">Deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_health" title="Environmental health">Environmental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_eugenics" title="History of eugenics">History of</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_eugenics" title="New eugenics">Liberal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthenics" title="Euthenics">Euthenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_genomics" title="Public health genomics">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization_and_disease" title="Globalization and disease">Globalization and disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harm_reduction" title="Harm reduction">Harm reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_economics" title="Health economics">Health economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_literacy" title="Health literacy">Health literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_policy" title="Health policy">Health policy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_system" title="Health system">Health system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_reform" title="Health care reform">Health care reform</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_First" title="Housing First">Housing First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation" title="Human right to water and sanitation">Human right to water and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management_of_depression" title="Management of depression">Management of depression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_law" title="Public health law">Public health law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_public_health_institutes" class="mw-redirect" title="National public health institutes">National public health institute</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_politics" title="Health politics">Health politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_rights" title="Labor rights">Labor rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_health" title="Maternal health">Maternal health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_anthropology" title="Medical anthropology">Medical anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_sociology" title="Medical sociology">Medical sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_health" title="Mental health">Mental health</a> (<a href="/wiki/Minister_of_Mental_Health" title="Minister of Mental Health">Ministers</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">Occupational safety and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_policy" title="Pharmaceutical policy">Pharmaceutical policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_pollution" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil pollution">Soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">Radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_pollution" title="Light pollution">Light</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoners%27_rights" title="Prisoners' rights">Prisoners' rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_intervention" title="Public health intervention">Public health intervention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_laboratory" title="Public health laboratory">Public health laboratory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_food" title="Right to food">Right to food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_health" title="Right to health">Right to health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_a_healthy_environment" title="Right to a healthy environment">Right to a healthy environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_housing" title="Right to housing">Right to housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_rest_and_leisure" title="Right to rest and leisure">Right to rest and leisure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_sit" title="Right to sit">Right to sit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_of_person" title="Security of person">Security of person</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_and_reproductive_health" title="Sexual and reproductive health">Sexual and reproductive health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">Social psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_health_and_illness" title="Sociology of health and illness">Sociology of health and illness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unisex_changing_rooms" title="Unisex changing rooms">Unisex changing rooms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unisex_public_toilets" class="mw-redirect" title="Unisex public toilets">Unisex public toilets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers%27_right_to_access_the_toilet" title="Workers' right to access the toilet">Workers' right to access the toilet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Preventive_healthcare" title="Preventive healthcare">Preventive healthcare</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavior_change_(public_health)" title="Behavior change (public health)">Behavior change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_change_theories" title="Behavioural change theories">Theories</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_checking" title="Drug checking">Drug checking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_planning" title="Family planning">Family planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harm_reduction" title="Harm reduction">Harm reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_promotion" title="Health promotion">Health promotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_nutrition" title="Human nutrition">Human nutrition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Healthy_diet" title="Healthy diet">Healthy diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preventive_nutrition" title="Preventive nutrition">Preventive nutrition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hygiene" title="Hygiene">Hygiene</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety" title="Food safety">Food safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_washing" title="Hand washing">Hand washing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infection_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Infection control">Infection control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_hygiene" title="Oral hygiene">Oral hygiene</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Needle_and_syringe_programmes" title="Needle and syringe programmes">Needle and syringe programmes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">Occupational safety and health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_factors_and_ergonomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Human factors and ergonomics">Human factors and ergonomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_hygiene" title="Occupational hygiene">Hygiene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy" title="Drug policy">Controlled Drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Injury_prevention" title="Injury prevention">Injury prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_medicine" title="Occupational medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_health_nursing" title="Occupational health nursing">Nursing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_safety" title="Patient safety">Patient safety</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patient_safety_organization" title="Patient safety organization">Organization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacovigilance" title="Pharmacovigilance">Pharmacovigilance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagent_testing" title="Reagent testing">Reagent testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safe_sex" title="Safe sex">Safe sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">Sanitation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_sanitation" title="Emergency sanitation">Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fecal%E2%80%93oral_route" title="Fecal–oral route">Fecal–oral transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_defecation" title="Open defecation">Open defecation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitary_sewer" title="Sanitary sewer">Sanitary sewer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">Waterborne diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation_worker" title="Sanitation worker">Worker</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_hygiene" title="School hygiene">School hygiene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_cessation" title="Smoking cessation">Smoking cessation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supervised_injection_site" title="Supervised injection site">Supervised injection site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">Vaccination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_control" title="Vector control">Vector control</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Population_health" title="Population health">Population health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_mortality" title="Child mortality">Child mortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_health" title="Community health">Community health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_health" title="Global health">Global health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_impact_assessment" title="Health impact assessment">Health impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_system" title="Health system">Health system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_mortality" title="Infant mortality">Infant mortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_open-source_health_software" title="List of open-source health software">Open-source healthcare software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multimorbidity" title="Multimorbidity">Multimorbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_informatics" title="Public health informatics">Public health informatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">Social determinants of health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_determinants_of_health" title="Commercial determinants of health">Commercial determinants of health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_equity" title="Health equity">Health equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_health" title="Race and health">Race and health</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_medicine" title="Social medicine">Social medicine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biological and<br />epidemiological statistics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Case%E2%80%93control_study" title="Case–control study">Case–control study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial" title="Randomized controlled trial">Randomized controlled trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_risk" title="Relative risk">Relative risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_hypothesis_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical hypothesis testing">Statistical hypothesis testing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_variance" title="Analysis of variance">Analysis of variance (ANOVA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regression_analysis" title="Regression analysis">Regression analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ROC_curve" class="mw-redirect" title="ROC curve">ROC curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student%27s_t-test" title="Student's t-test">Student's <i>t</i>-test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z-test" title="Z-test"><i>Z</i>-test</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_statistical_packages" class="mw-redirect" title="List of statistical packages">Statistical software</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Infectious and epidemic<br />disease prevention</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asymptomatic_carrier" title="Asymptomatic carrier">Asymptomatic carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic">Epidemics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epidemics_and_pandemics" title="List of epidemics and pandemics">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Notifiable_disease" title="Notifiable disease">Notifiable diseases</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_notifiable_diseases" title="List of notifiable diseases">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_surveillance" title="Public health surveillance">Public health surveillance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disease_surveillance" title="Disease surveillance">Disease surveillance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarantine" title="Quarantine">Quarantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_infection" title="Sexually transmitted infection">Sexually transmitted infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_distancing" title="Social distancing">Social distancing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_disease" title="Tropical disease">Tropical disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine_trial" title="Vaccine trial">Vaccine trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WASH" title="WASH">WASH</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Food hygiene and<br />safety management</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Food <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_additive" title="Food additive">Additive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chemistry" title="Food chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_engineering" title="Food engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_microbiology" title="Food microbiology">Microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_processing" title="Food processing">Processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety" title="Food safety">Safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Food_safety_scandals" title="Category:Food safety scandals">Safety scandals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_agricultural_practice" title="Good agricultural practice">Good agricultural practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_manufacturing_practice" title="Good manufacturing practice">Good manufacturing practice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HACCP" class="mw-redirect" title="HACCP">HACCP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_22000" title="ISO 22000">ISO 22000</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Health behavioral<br />sciences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diffusion_of_innovations" title="Diffusion of innovations">Diffusion of innovations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_belief_model" title="Health belief model">Health belief model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_communication" title="Health communication">Health communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_psychology" title="Health psychology">Health psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_deviance" title="Positive deviance">Positive deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PRECEDE%E2%80%93PROCEED_model" title="PRECEDE–PROCEED model">PRECEDE–PROCEED model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cognitive_theory" title="Social cognitive theory">Social cognitive theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norms_approach" title="Social norms approach">Social norms approach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_planned_behavior" title="Theory of planned behavior">Theory of planned behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transtheoretical_model" title="Transtheoretical model">Transtheoretical model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations,<br />education<br />and history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Caribbean <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Public_Health_Agency" title="Caribbean Public Health Agency">Caribbean Public Health Agency</a></li></ul></li> <li>China <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Center_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention">Center for Disease Control and Prevention</a></li></ul></li> <li>Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_Centre_for_Disease_Prevention_and_Control" title="European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control">Centre for Disease Prevention and Control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Parliament_Committee_on_the_Environment,_Public_Health_and_Food_Safety" title="European Parliament Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety">Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety</a></li></ul></li> <li>India <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Health_and_Family_Welfare" title="Ministry of Health and Family Welfare">Ministry of Health and Family Welfare</a></li></ul></li> <li>Canada <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_Canada" title="Health Canada">Health Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Health_Agency_of_Canada" title="Public Health Agency of Canada">Public Health Agency</a></li></ul></li> <li>U.S. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_departments_in_the_United_States" title="Health departments in the United States">Health departments in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_on_Education_for_Public_Health" title="Council on Education for Public Health">Council on Education for Public Health</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Public Health Service</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Toilet_Organization" title="World Toilet Organization">World Toilet Organization</a></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_national_public_health_agencies" title="List of national public health agencies">Full list</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Education</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_education" title="Health education">Health education</a></li> <li>Higher education <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science_in_Public_Health" title="Bachelor of Science in Public Health">Bachelor of Science in Public Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Public_Health" title="Doctor of Public Health">Doctor of Public Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_degrees_of_public_health" title="Professional degrees of public health">Professional degrees of public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Schools_of_public_health" title="Category:Schools of public health">Schools of public health</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_public_health_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of public health in the United Kingdom">History of public health in the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_public_health_in_the_United_States" title="History of public health in the United States">History of public health in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sara_Josephine_Baker" title="Sara Josephine Baker">Sara Josephine Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Jay_Crumbine" title="Samuel Jay Crumbine">Samuel Jay Crumbine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Rogers_Darnall" title="Carl Rogers Darnall">Carl Rogers Darnall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lister" title="Joseph Lister">Joseph Lister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Sanger" title="Margaret Sanger">Margaret Sanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Snow_(physician)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Snow (physician)">John Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Mallon" title="Mary Mallon">Typhoid Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radium_Girls" title="Radium Girls">Radium Girls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">Germ theory of disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_hygiene_movement" title="Social hygiene movement">Social hygiene movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Public_health" title="Category:Public health">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Public_health" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Public health">Commons</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Nursing" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Nursing">WikiProject</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q476322#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1167" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q476322#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1167" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q476322#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000115545300">ISNI</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/155861449">VIAF</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n79096730">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=211862">Greece</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007269245005171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA03484038?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/999895">Trove</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/029628865">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w65x64pk">SNAC</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=United_States_Public_Health_Service&oldid=1275634919">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=United_States_Public_Health_Service&oldid=1275634919</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States_Public_Health_Service" title="Category:United States Public Health Service">United States Public Health Service</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_medicine_in_the_United_States" title="Category:History of medicine in the United States">History of medicine in the United States</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_American_English_from_July_2022" title="Category:Use American English from July 2022">Use American English from July 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_Wikipedia_articles_written_in_American_English" title="Category:All Wikipedia articles written in American English">All Wikipedia articles written in American English</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_mdy_dates_from_July_2022" title="Category:Use mdy dates from July 2022">Use mdy dates from July 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_June_2024" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from June 2024">Articles with unsourced statements from June 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Source_attribution" title="Category:Source attribution">Source attribution</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link from Wikidata">Commons category link from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_Project_Gutenberg_links" title="Category:Articles with Project Gutenberg links">Articles with Project Gutenberg links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_Internet_Archive_links" title="Category:Articles with Internet Archive links">Articles with Internet Archive links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_incorporating_text_from_the_United_States_Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services" title="Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the United States Department of Health and Human Services">Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the United States Department of Health and Human Services</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 14 February 2025, at 04:30<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=United_States_Public_Health_Service&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" lang="en" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" width="88" height="31"><img src="/w/resources/assets/mediawiki_compact.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="25" height="25" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-header-container vector-sticky-header-container"> <div id="vector-sticky-header" class="vector-sticky-header"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-start"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-start vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" aria-hidden="true"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-sticky-header-search-toggle" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.vector-sticky-search-form.icon"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </button> </div> <div role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box"> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="vector-sticky-search-form" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia"> <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-sticky-header-toc vector-sticky-header-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-sticky-header-toc-label" for="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar-primary" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="mw-page-title-main">United States Public Health Service</span></div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-end" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icons"> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-talk-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="talk-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbles mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbles"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-subject-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="subject-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-article mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-article"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-history-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="history-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-history mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-history"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only mw-watchlink" id="ca-watchstar-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="watch-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-star mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-star"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="wikitext-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikiText mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-wikiText"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-ve-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-edit mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-edit"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-viewsource-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-protected-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-editLock mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-editLock"></span> <span></span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-buttons"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet mw-interlanguage-selector" id="p-lang-btn-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-language"></span> <span>13 languages</span> </button> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbleAdd-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbleAdd-progressive"></span> <span>Add topic</span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-b766959bd-zwrkg","wgBackendResponseTime":120,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.145","walltime":"1.390","ppvisitednodes":{"value":5511,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":176902,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":6106,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":15,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":10,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":218692,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1175.104 1 -total"," 32.22% 378.584 1 Template:Reflist"," 17.99% 211.366 26 Template:Cite_web"," 11.10% 130.418 3 Template:Navbox"," 9.65% 113.351 1 Template:HHS_agencies"," 9.38% 110.224 1 Template:Commons_category"," 9.17% 107.784 1 Template:Sister_project"," 8.99% 105.616 1 Template:Infobox_government_agency"," 8.94% 105.025 1 Template:Side_box"," 8.66% 101.817 1 Template:Short_description"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.657","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":6854227,"limit":52428800}},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-ext.codfw.canary-6874d6598c-qhdkf","timestamp":"20250214043023","ttl":1279786,"transientcontent":true}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"United States Public Health Service","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States_Public_Health_Service","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q476322","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q476322","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2003-05-09T21:46:13Z","dateModified":"2025-02-14T04:30:22Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/a\/ac\/United_States_Public_Health_Service_%28seal%29.svg","headline":"division of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services concerned with public health"}</script> </body> </html>