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Unification of Germany - Wikipedia
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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Early modern era and Eighteenth century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_modern_era_and_Eighteenth_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dissolution_of_the_Old_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dissolution_of_the_Old_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Dissolution of the Old Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dissolution_of_the_Old_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rise_of_German_nationalism_under_Napoleon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rise_of_German_nationalism_under_Napoleon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Rise of German nationalism under Napoleon</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rise_of_German_nationalism_under_Napoleon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Congress_of_Vienna_and_the_rise_of_German_dualism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Congress_of_Vienna_and_the_rise_of_German_dualism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Congress of Vienna and the rise of German dualism</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Congress_of_Vienna_and_the_rise_of_German_dualism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Congress of Vienna and the rise of German dualism subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Congress_of_Vienna_and_the_rise_of_German_dualism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Problems_of_reorganization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Problems_of_reorganization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Problems of reorganization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Problems_of_reorganization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prelude" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prelude"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Prelude</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Prelude-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Prelude subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Prelude-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vormärz" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vormärz"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span><i>Vormärz</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vormärz-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Emergence_of_liberal_nationalism_and_conservative_response" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emergence_of_liberal_nationalism_and_conservative_response"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.1</span> <span>Emergence of liberal nationalism and conservative response</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emergence_of_liberal_nationalism_and_conservative_response-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economy_and_the_customs_union" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy_and_the_customs_union"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.2</span> <span>Economy and the customs union</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economy_and_the_customs_union-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roads_and_railways" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roads_and_railways"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.3</span> <span>Roads and railways</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roads_and_railways-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geography,_patriotism_and_language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geography,_patriotism_and_language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.4</span> <span>Geography, patriotism and language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geography,_patriotism_and_language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-German_revolutions_and_Polish_uprising_of_1848–1849" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#German_revolutions_and_Polish_uprising_of_1848–1849"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>German revolutions and Polish uprising of 1848–1849</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-German_revolutions_and_Polish_uprising_of_1848–1849-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Frankfurt_Parliament" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Frankfurt_Parliament"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.1</span> <span>Frankfurt Parliament</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Frankfurt_Parliament-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_aborted_1848–1849_German_Empire_in_retrospective_analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_aborted_1848–1849_German_Empire_in_retrospective_analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.2</span> <span>The aborted 1848–1849 German Empire in retrospective analysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_aborted_1848–1849_German_Empire_in_retrospective_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Problem_of_spheres_of_influence:_The_Erfurt_Union_and_the_Punctation_of_Olmütz" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Problem_of_spheres_of_influence:_The_Erfurt_Union_and_the_Punctation_of_Olmütz"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Problem of spheres of influence: The Erfurt Union and the Punctation of Olmütz</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Problem_of_spheres_of_influence:_The_Erfurt_Union_and_the_Punctation_of_Olmütz-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_expectations_of_a_unified_Germany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_expectations_of_a_unified_Germany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>External expectations of a unified Germany</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_expectations_of_a_unified_Germany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prussia's_growing_strength:_Realpolitik" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prussia's_growing_strength:_Realpolitik"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Prussia's growing strength: <i>Realpolitik</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prussia's_growing_strength:_Realpolitik-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Schleswig-Holstein_Question" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Schleswig-Holstein_Question"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6</span> <span>The Schleswig-Holstein Question</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Schleswig-Holstein_Question-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-War_between_Austria_and_Prussia,_1866" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#War_between_Austria_and_Prussia,_1866"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.7</span> <span>War between Austria and Prussia, 1866</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-War_between_Austria_and_Prussia,_1866-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Choosing_sides" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Choosing_sides"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.7.1</span> <span>Choosing sides</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Choosing_sides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Austria_isolated" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Austria_isolated"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.7.2</span> <span>Austria isolated</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Austria_isolated-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Founding_a_unified_state" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Founding_a_unified_state"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Founding a unified state</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Founding_a_unified_state-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Founding a unified state subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Founding_a_unified_state-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Peace_of_Prague_and_the_North_German_Confederation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Peace_of_Prague_and_the_North_German_Confederation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Peace of Prague and the North German Confederation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Peace_of_Prague_and_the_North_German_Confederation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unified_Italy_and_Austro-Hungarian_Compromise" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unified_Italy_and_Austro-Hungarian_Compromise"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Unified Italy and Austro-Hungarian Compromise</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unified_Italy_and_Austro-Hungarian_Compromise-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-War_with_France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#War_with_France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>War with France</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-War_with_France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Background" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.1</span> <span>Background</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spanish_prelude" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spanish_prelude"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.2</span> <span>Spanish prelude</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spanish_prelude-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Open_hostilities_and_the_disastrous_end_of_the_Second_French_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Open_hostilities_and_the_disastrous_end_of_the_Second_French_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.3</span> <span>Open hostilities and the disastrous end of the Second French Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Open_hostilities_and_the_disastrous_end_of_the_Second_French_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Proclamation_of_the_German_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proclamation_of_the_German_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.4</span> <span>Proclamation of the German Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proclamation_of_the_German_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-War_as_″the_capstone_of_the_unification_process″" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#War_as_″the_capstone_of_the_unification_process″"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.5</span> <span>War as ″the capstone of the unification process″</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-War_as_″the_capstone_of_the_unification_process″-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Internal_political_and_administrative_unification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internal_political_and_administrative_unification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Internal political and administrative unification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internal_political_and_administrative_unification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Constituent_states_of_the_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constituent_states_of_the_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4.1</span> <span>Constituent states of the Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constituent_states_of_the_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_structure_of_the_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_structure_of_the_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4.2</span> <span>Political structure of the Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_structure_of_the_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historical_arguments_and_the_Empire's_social_anatomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_arguments_and_the_Empire's_social_anatomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4.3</span> <span>Historical arguments and the Empire's social anatomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_arguments_and_the_Empire's_social_anatomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Beyond_the_political_mechanism:_forming_a_nation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Beyond_the_political_mechanism:_forming_a_nation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Beyond the political mechanism: forming a nation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Beyond_the_political_mechanism:_forming_a_nation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Beyond the political mechanism: forming a nation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Beyond_the_political_mechanism:_forming_a_nation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Kulturkampf" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kulturkampf"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span><i>Kulturkampf</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kulturkampf-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Integrating_the_Jewish_community" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Integrating_the_Jewish_community"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Integrating the Jewish community</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Integrating_the_Jewish_community-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Writing_the_story_of_the_nation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Writing_the_story_of_the_nation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Writing the story of the nation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Writing_the_story_of_the_nation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span 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Available in 71 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-71" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">71 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unifikasie_van_Duitsland" title="Unifikasie van Duitsland – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Unifikasie van Duitsland" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%AF_%D8%A3%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A7_(1871)" title="توحيد ألمانيا (1871) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="توحيد ألمانيا (1871)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unificaci%C3%B3n_alemana" title="Unificación alemana – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Unificación alemana" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almaniyan%C4%B1n_birl%C9%99%C5%9Fdirilm%C9%99si_(1871)" title="Almaniyanın birləşdirilməsi (1871) – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Almaniyanın birləşdirilməsi (1871)" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tek-kok_th%C3%B3ng-it" title="Tek-kok thóng-it – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Tek-kok thóng-it" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%E2%80%99%D1%8F%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%96_(1871)" title="Аб’яднанне Германіі (1871) – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Аб’яднанне Германіі (1871)" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F_(1871)" title="Обединение на Германия (1871) – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Обединение на Германия (1871)" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ujedinjenje_Njema%C4%8Dke" title="Ujedinjenje Njemačke – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Ujedinjenje Njemačke" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unificaci%C3%B3_alemanya" title="Unificació alemanya – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Unificació alemanya" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sjednocen%C3%AD_N%C4%9Bmecka" title="Sjednocení Německa – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Sjednocení Německa" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tysklands_samling_1871" title="Tysklands samling 1871 – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Tysklands samling 1871" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Einigung" title="Deutsche Einigung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Deutsche Einigung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saksamaa_%C3%BChendamine" title="Saksamaa ühendamine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Saksamaa ühendamine" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B5%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%AF%CE%B7%CF%83%CE%B7" title="Γερμανική ενοποίηση – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γερμανική ενοποίηση" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unificaci%C3%B3n_alemana" title="Unificación alemana – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Unificación alemana" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unuigo_de_Germanio" title="Unuigo de Germanio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Unuigo de Germanio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/1871ko_Alemaniaren_bateratzea" title="1871ko Alemaniaren bateratzea – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="1871ko Alemaniaren bateratzea" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C_%D8%A2%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86" title="متحدسازی آلمان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="متحدسازی آلمان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unification_allemande" title="Unification allemande – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Unification allemande" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unificaci%C3%B3n_Alem%C3%A1" title="Unificación Alemá – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Unificación Alemá" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8F%85%EC%9D%BC%EC%9D%98_%ED%86%B5%EC%9D%BC" title="독일의 통일 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="독일의 통일" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB_%D5%B4%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Գերմանիայի միավորում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գերմանիայի միավորում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3" title="जर्मनी का एकीकरण – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="जर्मनी का एकीकरण" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ujedinjenje_Njema%C4%8Dke" title="Ujedinjenje Njemačke – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Ujedinjenje Njemačke" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unigo_di_Germania" title="Unigo di Germania – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Unigo di Germania" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penyatuan_Jerman" title="Penyatuan Jerman – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Penyatuan Jerman" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stofnun_%C3%9E%C3%BDskalands" title="Stofnun Þýskalands – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Stofnun Þýskalands" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unificazione_tedesca" title="Unificazione tedesca – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Unificazione tedesca" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%99%D7%97%D7%95%D7%93_%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%94" title="איחוד גרמניה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="איחוד גרמניה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%90_(1871)" title="გერმანიის გაერთიანება (1871) – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="გერმანიის გაერთიანება (1871)" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C4%81cijas_apvieno%C5%A1ana" title="Vācijas apvienošana – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Vācijas apvienošana" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vokietijos_suvienijimas" title="Vokietijos suvienijimas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Vokietijos suvienijimas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%A9metorsz%C3%A1g_egyes%C3%ADt%C3%A9se" title="Németország egyesítése – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Németország egyesítése" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%9A%D0%B5_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Обединување на Германија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Обединување на Германија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%86_%E0%B4%8F%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%82" title="ജർമ്മനിയുടെ ഏകീകരണം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ജർമ്മനിയുടെ ഏകീകരണം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duitse_eenwording" title="Duitse eenwording – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Duitse eenwording" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B_%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3" title="जर्मनीको एकीकरण – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="जर्मनीको एकीकरण" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%89%E3%82%A4%E3%83%84%E7%B5%B1%E4%B8%80" title="ドイツ統一 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ドイツ統一" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tysklands_samling" title="Tysklands samling – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Tysklands samling" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samlinga_av_Tyskland" title="Samlinga av Tyskland – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Samlinga av Tyskland" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unificacion_alemanda" title="Unificacion alemanda – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Unificacion alemanda" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%9C%E0%AC%B0%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%AE%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%A8%E0%AD%80%E0%AC%B0_%E0%AC%8F%E0%AC%95%E0%AD%80%E0%AC%95%E0%AC%B0%E0%AC%A3" title="ଜର୍ମାନୀର ଏକୀକରଣ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଜର୍ମାନୀର ଏକୀକରଣ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%BE_%E0%A8%8F%E0%A8%95%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%A8" title="ਜਰਮਨੀ ਦਾ ਏਕੀਕਰਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਜਰਮਨੀ ਦਾ ਏਕੀਕਰਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%AF%D8%A7_%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AF" title="جرمنی دا اتحاد – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="جرمنی دا اتحاد" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%86%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AF" title="د جرمني اتحاد – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د جرمني اتحاد" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unificashan_a_Joermani" title="Unificashan a Joermani – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Unificashan a Joermani" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zjednoczenie_Niemiec_(1866%E2%80%931871)" title="Zjednoczenie Niemiec (1866–1871) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Zjednoczenie Niemiec (1866–1871)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unifica%C3%A7%C3%A3o_da_Alemanha" title="Unificação da Alemanha – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Unificação da Alemanha" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unificarea_Germaniei" title="Unificarea Germaniei – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Unificarea 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data-title="یەکخستنی ئەڵمانیا" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%9A%D0%B5%D1%9A%D0%B5_%D0%8A%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B5_1871." title="Уједињење Њемачке 1871. – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Уједињење Њемачке 1871." data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saksan_yhdistyminen" title="Saksan yhdistyminen – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Saksan yhdistyminen" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tysklands_enande" title="Tysklands enande – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Tysklands enande" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pag-iisa_ng_Alemanya" title="Pag-iisa ng Alemanya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Pag-iisa ng Alemanya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF_%E0%AE%92%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81" title="செருமானிய ஒருங்கிணைப்பு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almanya%27n%C4%B1n_birle%C5%9Fmesi" title="Almanya'nın birleşmesi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Almanya'nın birleşmesi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B1%27%D1%94%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D0%9D%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%87%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Об'єднання Німеччини – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Об'єднання Німеччини" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">1866–1871 unification of most German states into the German Reich</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the 1990 reunification of East and West Germany, see <a href="/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">German reunification</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent"><caption class="infobox-title summary">Unification of Germany</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="border-bottom:#aaa solid 1px"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Deutsches_Reich_(1871-1918)-en.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Deutsches_Reich_%281871-1918%29-en.png/240px-Deutsches_Reich_%281871-1918%29-en.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Deutsches_Reich_%281871-1918%29-en.png/360px-Deutsches_Reich_%281871-1918%29-en.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Deutsches_Reich_%281871-1918%29-en.png/480px-Deutsches_Reich_%281871-1918%29-en.png 2x" data-file-width="2362" data-file-height="2362" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption"><a href="/wiki/States_of_the_German_Empire" title="States of the German Empire">States of the German Empire</a> when the Duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg was merged into the Kingdom of Prussia on 1 July 1876</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Native name</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align: left;"><span lang="de"> <i>Deutsche Einigung</i></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Date</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align: left;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/North_German_Confederation_Treaty" title="North German Confederation Treaty">18 August 1866</a> – <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Frankfurt_(1871)" title="Treaty of Frankfurt (1871)">10 May 1871</a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data location" style="text-align: left;"><span class="nowrap"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/North_German_Confederation" title="North German Confederation"><img alt="North German Confederation" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/North_German_Confederation" title="North German Confederation">North German Confederation</a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Participants</th><td class="infobox-data attendee" style="text-align: left;"> <ul><li><b>First phase:</b> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia"><img alt="Kingdom of Prussia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281803-1892%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281803-1892%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281803-1892%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281803-1892%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281803-1892%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281803-1892%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Kingdom of Prussia</a> (leading member)</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Saxony" title="Kingdom of Saxony"><img alt="Kingdom of Saxony" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Flagge_K%C3%B6nigreich_Sachsen_%281815-1918%29.svg/23px-Flagge_K%C3%B6nigreich_Sachsen_%281815-1918%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Flagge_K%C3%B6nigreich_Sachsen_%281815-1918%29.svg/35px-Flagge_K%C3%B6nigreich_Sachsen_%281815-1918%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Flagge_K%C3%B6nigreich_Sachsen_%281815-1918%29.svg/45px-Flagge_K%C3%B6nigreich_Sachsen_%281815-1918%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Saxony" title="Kingdom of Saxony">Kingdom of Saxony</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Mecklenburg-Schwerin" title="Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin"><img alt="Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogt%C3%BCmer_Mecklenburg.svg/23px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogt%C3%BCmer_Mecklenburg.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogt%C3%BCmer_Mecklenburg.svg/35px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogt%C3%BCmer_Mecklenburg.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogt%C3%BCmer_Mecklenburg.svg/45px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogt%C3%BCmer_Mecklenburg.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Mecklenburg-Schwerin" title="Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin">Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Mecklenburg-Strelitz" title="Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz"><img alt="Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogt%C3%BCmer_Mecklenburg.svg/23px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogt%C3%BCmer_Mecklenburg.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogt%C3%BCmer_Mecklenburg.svg/35px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogt%C3%BCmer_Mecklenburg.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogt%C3%BCmer_Mecklenburg.svg/45px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogt%C3%BCmer_Mecklenburg.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Mecklenburg-Strelitz" title="Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz">Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Oldenburg" title="Grand Duchy of Oldenburg"><img alt="Grand Duchy of Oldenburg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Flagge_Herzogtum_Oldenburg.svg/23px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Oldenburg.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Flagge_Herzogtum_Oldenburg.svg/35px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Oldenburg.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Flagge_Herzogtum_Oldenburg.svg/46px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Oldenburg.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="200" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Oldenburg" title="Grand Duchy of Oldenburg">Grand Duchy of Oldenburg</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach" title="Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach"><img alt="Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach_%281813-1897%29.svg/23px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach_%281813-1897%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach_%281813-1897%29.svg/35px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach_%281813-1897%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach_%281813-1897%29.svg/45px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach_%281813-1897%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach">Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Lauenburg.svg/23px-Flag_of_Lauenburg.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Lauenburg.svg/35px-Flag_of_Lauenburg.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Lauenburg.svg/46px-Flag_of_Lauenburg.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="300" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Saxe-Lauenburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg">Duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Anhalt" title="Anhalt"><img alt="Anhalt" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Flagge_Herzogtum_Anhalt.svg/23px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Anhalt.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Flagge_Herzogtum_Anhalt.svg/35px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Anhalt.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Flagge_Herzogtum_Anhalt.svg/45px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Anhalt.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Anhalt" title="Duchy of Anhalt">Duchy of Anhalt</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Brunswick" title="Duchy of Brunswick"><img alt="Duchy of Brunswick" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Flagge_Herzogtum_Braunschweig.svg/23px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Braunschweig.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Flagge_Herzogtum_Braunschweig.svg/35px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Braunschweig.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Flagge_Herzogtum_Braunschweig.svg/45px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Braunschweig.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Brunswick" title="Duchy of Brunswick">Duchy of Brunswick</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Saxe-Altenburg" title="Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg"><img alt="Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Saxe-Altenburg_%281893-1918%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Saxe-Altenburg_%281893-1918%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Saxe-Altenburg_%281893-1918%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Saxe-Altenburg_%281893-1918%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Saxe-Altenburg_%281893-1918%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Saxe-Altenburg_%281893-1918%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Saxe-Altenburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg">Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Saxe-Coburg_and_Gotha" title="Saxe-Coburg and Gotha"><img alt="Saxe-Coburg and Gotha" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281911-1920%29.svg/23px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281911-1920%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281911-1920%29.svg/35px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281911-1920%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281911-1920%29.svg/45px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281911-1920%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Saxe-Coburg_and_Gotha" class="mw-redirect" title="Duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha">Duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Saxe-Meiningen" title="Saxe-Meiningen"><img alt="Saxe-Meiningen" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281826-1911%29.svg/23px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281826-1911%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281826-1911%29.svg/35px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281826-1911%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281826-1911%29.svg/45px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281826-1911%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Saxe-Meiningen" class="mw-redirect" title="Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen">Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Lippe.svg/23px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Lippe.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Lippe.svg/35px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Lippe.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Lippe.svg/45px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Lippe.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Lippe" title="Principality of Lippe">Principality of Lippe</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Reu%C3%9F_j%C3%BCngere_Linie.svg/19px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Reu%C3%9F_j%C3%BCngere_Linie.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Reu%C3%9F_j%C3%BCngere_Linie.svg/29px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Reu%C3%9F_j%C3%BCngere_Linie.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Reu%C3%9F_j%C3%BCngere_Linie.svg/38px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Reu%C3%9F_j%C3%BCngere_Linie.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="480" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Reuss-Gera" title="Principality of Reuss-Gera">Principality of Reuss-Gera</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Reu%C3%9F_%C3%A4ltere_Linie.svg/19px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Reu%C3%9F_%C3%A4ltere_Linie.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Reu%C3%9F_%C3%A4ltere_Linie.svg/29px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Reu%C3%9F_%C3%A4ltere_Linie.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Reu%C3%9F_%C3%A4ltere_Linie.svg/38px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Reu%C3%9F_%C3%A4ltere_Linie.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="405" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Reuss-Greiz" title="Principality of Reuss-Greiz">Principality of Reuss-Greiz</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Schaumburg-Lippe" title="Principality of Schaumburg-Lippe"><img alt="Principality of Schaumburg-Lippe" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Schaumburg-Lippe.svg/23px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Schaumburg-Lippe.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Schaumburg-Lippe.svg/35px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Schaumburg-Lippe.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Schaumburg-Lippe.svg/45px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Schaumburg-Lippe.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Schaumburg-Lippe" title="Principality of Schaumburg-Lippe">Principality of Schaumburg-Lippe</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstent%C3%BCmer_Schwarzburg.svg/23px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstent%C3%BCmer_Schwarzburg.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstent%C3%BCmer_Schwarzburg.svg/35px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstent%C3%BCmer_Schwarzburg.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstent%C3%BCmer_Schwarzburg.svg/45px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstent%C3%BCmer_Schwarzburg.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt" class="mw-redirect" title="Principality of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt">Principality of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstent%C3%BCmer_Schwarzburg.svg/23px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstent%C3%BCmer_Schwarzburg.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstent%C3%BCmer_Schwarzburg.svg/35px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstent%C3%BCmer_Schwarzburg.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstent%C3%BCmer_Schwarzburg.svg/45px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstent%C3%BCmer_Schwarzburg.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Schwarzburg-Sondershausen" class="mw-redirect" title="Principality of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen">Principality of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Waldeck_and_Pyrmont" title="Principality of Waldeck and Pyrmont">Principality of Waldeck and Pyrmont</a></li></ul></li> <li><b>Second phase:</b> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bavaria" title="Kingdom of Bavaria"><img alt="Kingdom of Bavaria" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Flag_of_Bavaria_%28striped%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Bavaria_%28striped%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Flag_of_Bavaria_%28striped%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Bavaria_%28striped%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Flag_of_Bavaria_%28striped%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Bavaria_%28striped%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bavaria" title="Kingdom of Bavaria">Kingdom of Bavaria</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg" title="Kingdom of Württemberg"><img alt="Kingdom of Württemberg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Flagge_K%C3%B6nigreich_W%C3%BCrttemberg.svg/23px-Flagge_K%C3%B6nigreich_W%C3%BCrttemberg.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Flagge_K%C3%B6nigreich_W%C3%BCrttemberg.svg/35px-Flagge_K%C3%B6nigreich_W%C3%BCrttemberg.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Flagge_K%C3%B6nigreich_W%C3%BCrttemberg.svg/46px-Flagge_K%C3%B6nigreich_W%C3%BCrttemberg.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg" title="Kingdom of Württemberg">Kingdom of Württemberg</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Baden" title="Grand Duchy of Baden"><img alt="Grand Duchy of Baden" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Flag_of_the_Grand_Duchy_of_Baden_%281855%E2%80%931891%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Grand_Duchy_of_Baden_%281855%E2%80%931891%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Flag_of_the_Grand_Duchy_of_Baden_%281855%E2%80%931891%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Grand_Duchy_of_Baden_%281855%E2%80%931891%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Flag_of_the_Grand_Duchy_of_Baden_%281855%E2%80%931891%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Grand_Duchy_of_Baden_%281855%E2%80%931891%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Baden" title="Grand Duchy of Baden">Grand Duchy of Baden</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse" title="Grand Duchy of Hesse"><img alt="Grand Duchy of Hesse" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Hessen_ohne_Wappen.svg/19px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Hessen_ohne_Wappen.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Hessen_ohne_Wappen.svg/29px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Hessen_ohne_Wappen.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Hessen_ohne_Wappen.svg/38px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Hessen_ohne_Wappen.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="400" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse" title="Grand Duchy of Hesse">Grand Duchy of Hesse</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Bremen_(state)" title="Bremen (state)"><img alt="Bremen (state)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Flag_of_Bremen.svg/23px-Flag_of_Bremen.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Flag_of_Bremen.svg/35px-Flag_of_Bremen.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Flag_of_Bremen.svg/45px-Flag_of_Bremen.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Free_Hanseatic_City_of_Bremen" class="mw-redirect" title="Free Hanseatic City of Bremen">Free Hanseatic City of Bremen</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Hamburg" title="Hamburg"><img alt="Hamburg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Flag_of_Hamburg.svg/23px-Flag_of_Hamburg.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Flag_of_Hamburg.svg/35px-Flag_of_Hamburg.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Flag_of_Hamburg.svg/45px-Flag_of_Hamburg.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Free_and_Hanseatic_City_of_Hamburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg">Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Free_City_of_L%C3%BCbeck" title="Free City of Lübeck"><img alt="Free City of Lübeck" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_the_Free_City_of_L%C3%BCbeck.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Free_City_of_L%C3%BCbeck.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_the_Free_City_of_L%C3%BCbeck.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Free_City_of_L%C3%BCbeck.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_the_Free_City_of_L%C3%BCbeck.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Free_City_of_L%C3%BCbeck.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Free_and_Hanseatic_City_of_L%C3%BCbeck" class="mw-redirect" title="Free and Hanseatic City of Lübeck">Free and Hanseatic City of Lübeck</a></li></ul></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Outcome</th><td class="infobox-data description" style="text-align: left;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lesser_Germany" title="Lesser Germany">Lesser Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Prague_(1866)" title="Peace of Prague (1866)">Peace of Prague (1866)</a></li> <li>4 German states having <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a> being popular or led by <a href="/wiki/Habsburgs" class="mw-redirect" title="Habsburgs">German monarchy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Luxembourg" title="Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Liechtenstein" title="Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a>) did not join new Germany</li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Confederation" title="German Confederation">German Confederation</a> dissolved</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Compromise_of_1867" title="Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867">Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Limburg_(1839%E2%80%931867)" title="Duchy of Limburg (1839–1867)">Duchy of Limburg</a> integrated into <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Netherlands">Kingdom of Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Prussia" class="mw-redirect" title="King of Prussia">King of Prussia</a> holder of the <i><a href="/wiki/Bundespr%C3%A4sidium" title="Bundespräsidium">Bundespräsidium</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minister_President_of_Prussia" title="Minister President of Prussia">Minister President of Prussia</a> simultaneously also the <a href="/wiki/Chancellor_of_Germany" title="Chancellor of Germany">Federal Chancellor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Prussia" title="East Prussia">East Prussian</a> cradle of Prussian statehood made part of Germany under intensified <a href="/wiki/Germanization" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanization">Germanization</a> of Poles (<a href="/wiki/Warmians_(ethnic_group)" title="Warmians (ethnic group)">Warmians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Masurians" title="Masurians">Masurians</a>, and Powiślans), <a href="/wiki/Prussian_Lithuanians" title="Prussian Lithuanians">Prussian Lithuanians</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kursenieki" title="Kursenieki">Kursenieki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lauenburg_and_B%C3%BCtow_Land" title="Lauenburg and Bütow Land">Lauenburg and Bütow Land</a> and former <a href="/wiki/Starostwo_of_Draheim" title="Starostwo of Draheim">Starostwo of Draheim</a> under intensified <a href="/wiki/Germanization" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanization">Germanization</a> of <a href="/wiki/Polish_people" title="Polish people">Poles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kashubians" title="Kashubians">Kashubians</a></li> <li>Remainder of the <a href="/wiki/Prussian_Partition" title="Prussian Partition">Prussian Partition</a> of <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Poland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Province_of_Posen" title="Province of Posen">Province of Posen</a> and <a href="/wiki/West_Prussia" title="West Prussia">West Prussia</a>) annexed into the German Empire under intensified <a href="/wiki/Germanization" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanization">Germanization</a> of <a href="/wiki/Polish_people" title="Polish people">Poles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kashubians" title="Kashubians">Kashubians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesia" title="Silesia">Silesia</a> and <a href="/wiki/County_of_Kladsko" title="County of Kladsko">County of Glatz</a> under intensified <a href="/wiki/Germanization" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanization">Germanization</a> of <a href="/wiki/Polish_people" title="Polish people">Poles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silesians" title="Silesians">Silesians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Czechs" title="Czechs">Czechs</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Moravians" title="Moravians">Moravians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusatia" title="Lusatia">Lusatia</a> under intensified <a href="/wiki/Germanization" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanization">Germanization</a> of <a href="/wiki/Sorbs" title="Sorbs">Sorbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eupen-Malmedy" title="Eupen-Malmedy">Eupen-Malmedy</a> under intensified <a href="/wiki/Germanization" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanization">Germanization</a> of <a href="/wiki/Walloons" title="Walloons">Walloons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schleswig" class="mw-redirect" title="Schleswig">Schleswig</a>, <a href="/wiki/Holstein" title="Holstein">Holstein</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saxe-Lauenburg" title="Saxe-Lauenburg">Saxe-Lauenburg</a> annexed into <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Prussia</a> of the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a> under intensified <a href="/wiki/Germanization" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanization">Germanization</a> of <a href="/wiki/Danes" title="Danes">Danes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_German_Confederation_(1871)" title="Constitution of the German Confederation (1871)">Constitution of the German Confederation (1871)</a> and second phase of unification</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_German_Empire" title="Proclamation of the German Empire">Proclamation of the German Empire</a> with <a href="/wiki/William_I,_German_Emperor" title="William I, German Emperor">William I Hohenzollern</a> as <a href="/wiki/German_Emperor" title="German Emperor">German Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_German_Empire" title="Constitution of the German Empire">Constitution of the German Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War">Franco-Prussian War</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Frankfurt_(1871)" title="Treaty of Frankfurt (1871)">Treaty of Frankfurt</a> <ul><li>The territories (later called "<a href="/wiki/Alsace%E2%80%93Lorraine" title="Alsace–Lorraine">Alsace–Lorraine</a>") eventually annexed into the German Empire from <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">France</a> under intensified <a href="/wiki/Germanization" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanization">Germanization</a> of the <a href="/wiki/French_people" title="French people">French</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kulturkampf" title="Kulturkampf">Kulturkampf</a></i></li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title">Events leading to <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:King_George_I_of_Greece_and_Tsar_Ferdinand_of_Bulgaria_at_Thessaloniki.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Sarajevo"><img alt="Sarajevo" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/King_George_I_of_Greece_and_Tsar_Ferdinand_of_Bulgaria_at_Thessaloniki.jpg/250px-King_George_I_of_Greece_and_Tsar_Ferdinand_of_Bulgaria_at_Thessaloniki.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/King_George_I_of_Greece_and_Tsar_Ferdinand_of_Bulgaria_at_Thessaloniki.jpg/375px-King_George_I_of_Greece_and_Tsar_Ferdinand_of_Bulgaria_at_Thessaloniki.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/King_George_I_of_Greece_and_Tsar_Ferdinand_of_Bulgaria_at_Thessaloniki.jpg/500px-King_George_I_of_Greece_and_Tsar_Ferdinand_of_Bulgaria_at_Thessaloniki.jpg 2x" data-file-width="885" data-file-height="554" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="plainlist"><ul><li> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Unification of Germany</a> 1866–1871</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War">Franco-Prussian War</a> 1870–1871</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concert_of_Europe#Second_phase" title="Concert of Europe">Second Concert of Europe</a> 1871</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Eastern_Crisis" title="Great Eastern Crisis">Great Eastern Crisis</a> 1875–1878</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_campaign_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina_in_1878" title="Austro-Hungarian campaign in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1878">Campaign in Bosnia</a> 1878</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_Alliance_(1879)" title="Dual Alliance (1879)">Dual Alliance</a> 1879</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_South_Africa#Boer_Wars" title="Military history of South Africa">Boer Wars</a> 1880–1902</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austro%E2%80%93Serbian_Alliance_of_1881" class="mw-redirect" title="Austro–Serbian Alliance of 1881">Austro–Serbian Alliance</a> 1881–1903</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple_Alliance_(1882)" title="Triple Alliance (1882)">Triple Alliance</a> 1882</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Conference" title="Berlin Conference">Berlin Conference</a> 1884</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Crisis_(1885%E2%80%931888)" title="Bulgarian Crisis (1885–1888)">Bulgarian Crisis</a> 1885–1888</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinsurance_Treaty" title="Reinsurance Treaty">Reinsurance Treaty</a> 1887–1890</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Russian_Alliance" title="Franco-Russian Alliance">Franco-Russian Alliance</a> 1894</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War" title="First Sino-Japanese War">First Sino-Japanese War</a> 1894–1895</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-German_naval_arms_race" title="Anglo-German naval arms race">Anglo-German naval arms race</a> 1898–1912</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fashoda_Incident" title="Fashoda Incident">Fashoda Incident</a> 1898</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Japanese_Alliance" title="Anglo-Japanese Alliance">Anglo-Japanese Alliance</a> 1902</li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_Coup_(Serbia)" title="May Coup (Serbia)">May Coup</a> 1903</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a> 1904–1905</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entente_Cordiale" title="Entente Cordiale">Entente Cordiale</a> 1904</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Moroccan_Crisis" title="First Moroccan Crisis">First Moroccan Crisis</a> 1905–1906</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pig_War_(1906%E2%80%931908)" title="Pig War (1906–1908)">Pig War</a> 1906–1908</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Russian_Convention" title="Anglo-Russian Convention">Anglo-Russian Convention</a> 1907</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_Turk_Revolution" title="Young Turk Revolution">Young Turk Revolution</a> 1908</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_Crisis" title="Bosnian Crisis">Bosnian Crisis</a> 1908–1909</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racconigi_Bargain" title="Racconigi Bargain">Racconigi Bargain</a> 1909</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agadir_Crisis" title="Agadir Crisis">Second Moroccan Crisis</a> 1911</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italo-Turkish_War" title="Italo-Turkish War">Italo-Turkish War</a> 1911–1912</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balkan_Wars" title="Balkan Wars">Balkan Wars</a> 1912–1913</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Archduke_Franz_Ferdinand" title="Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand">Assassination of Franz Ferdinand</a> 1914</li> <li><a href="/wiki/July_Crisis" title="July Crisis">July Crisis</a> 1914</li></ul> </li></ul></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Events_leading_to_World_War_I" title="Template:Events leading to World War I"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Events_leading_to_World_War_I" title="Template talk:Events leading to World War I"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Events_leading_to_World_War_I" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Events leading to World War I"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>unification of Germany</b> (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: <i lang="de">Deutsche Einigung</i>, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">pronounced</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="de-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Standard_German" title="Help:IPA/Standard German">[ˈdɔʏtʃə<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈʔaɪnɪɡʊŋ]</a></span> <span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/4\/4a\/De-Deutsche_Einigung.ogg\/De-Deutsche_Einigung.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"De-Deutsche Einigung.ogg"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/4a/De-Deutsche_Einigung.ogg/De-Deutsche_Einigung.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:De-Deutsche_Einigung.ogg" title="File:De-Deutsche Einigung.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span>) was a process of building the first <a href="/wiki/Nation-state" class="mw-redirect" title="Nation-state">nation-state</a> for <a href="/wiki/Germans" title="Germans">Germans</a> with <a href="/wiki/Federalism" title="Federalism">federal features</a> based on the concept of <a href="/wiki/Lesser_Germany" title="Lesser Germany">Lesser Germany</a> (one without <a href="/wiki/Habsburgs" class="mw-redirect" title="Habsburgs">Habsburgs</a>' multi-ethnic Austria or its German-speaking part). It commenced on 18 August 1866 with adoption of the <a href="/wiki/North_German_Confederation_Treaty" title="North German Confederation Treaty">North German Confederation Treaty</a> establishing the <a href="/wiki/North_German_Confederation" title="North German Confederation">North German Confederation</a>, initially a <a href="/wiki/Military_alliance" title="Military alliance">military alliance</a> <i>de facto</i> dominated by <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Prussia</a> which was subsequently deepened through adoption of the <a href="/wiki/North_German_Constitution" title="North German Constitution">North German Constitution</a>. </p><p>The process symbolically concluded when most of the south German states joined the North German Confederation with the ceremonial <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_German_Empire" title="Proclamation of the German Empire">proclamation of the German Empire</a> i.e. the <a href="/wiki/German_Reich" title="German Reich">German Reich</a> having <a href="/wiki/States_of_the_German_Empire" title="States of the German Empire">25 member states</a> and led by the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Kingdom of Prussia</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hohenzollerns" class="mw-redirect" title="Hohenzollerns">Hohenzollerns</a> on 18 January 1871; the event was later celebrated as the customary date of the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a>'s foundation, although the legally meaningful events relevant to the accomplishment of unification occurred on 1 January 1871 (<a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_German_Confederation_(1871)" title="Constitution of the German Confederation (1871)">accession of South German states and constitutional adoption of the name "German Empire"</a>), 4 May 1871 (entry into force of the permanent <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_German_Empire" title="Constitution of the German Empire">Constitution of the German Empire</a>) and 10 May 1871 (<a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Frankfurt_(1871)" title="Treaty of Frankfurt (1871)">Treaty of Frankfurt</a> and recognition of the Empire by the <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">French Third Republic</a>). </p><p>Despite the legal, administrative, and political disruption caused by the <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire">dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire</a> in 1806, the German-speaking people of the old Empire had a common linguistic, cultural, and legal tradition. <a href="/wiki/European_liberalism" class="mw-redirect" title="European liberalism">European liberalism</a> offered an intellectual basis for unification by challenging <a href="/wiki/Dynastic" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynastic">dynastic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Absolutism_(European_history)" title="Absolutism (European history)">absolutist</a> models of social and political organization; its German manifestation emphasized the importance of tradition, education, and linguistic unity. Economically, the creation of the Prussian <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Zollverein" title="Zollverein">Zollverein</a></i></span> (customs union) in 1818, and its subsequent expansion to include other states of the Austria (under <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian Empire</a>)-led <a href="/wiki/German_Confederation" title="German Confederation">German Confederation</a>, reduced competition between and within states. Emerging modes of transportation facilitated business and recreational travel, leading to contact and sometimes conflict between and among German-speakers from throughout <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central Europe</a>. The model of diplomatic <a href="/wiki/Spheres_of_influence" class="mw-redirect" title="Spheres of influence">spheres of influence</a> resulting from the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a> in 1814–1815 after the Napoleonic Wars endorsed Austrian dominance in Central Europe through <a href="/wiki/Habsburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Habsburg">Habsburg</a> leadership of the German Confederation, designed to replace the Holy Roman Empire. The negotiators at <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a> took no account of Prussia's growing strength within and declined to create a second coalition of the German states under Prussia's influence, and so failed to foresee that Prussia (Kingdom of Prussia) would rise to challenge Austria for leadership of the German peoples. This <a href="/wiki/German_dualism" class="mw-redirect" title="German dualism">German dualism</a> presented <a href="/wiki/German_question" title="German question">two solutions to the problem of unification</a>: <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Lesser_Germany" title="Lesser Germany">Kleindeutsche Lösung</a></i></span>, the small Germany solution (Germany without Austria), or <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Pan_Germanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Pan Germanism">Großdeutsche Lösung</a></i></span>, the greater Germany solution (Germany with Austria or its German-speaking part), ultimately settled in favor of the former solution in the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Prague_(1866)" title="Peace of Prague (1866)">Peace of Prague</a>. </p><p>Historians debate whether <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Otto von Bismarck</a>—<a href="/wiki/Minister_President_of_Prussia" title="Minister President of Prussia">Minister President of Prussia</a>—had a master plan to expand the <a href="/wiki/North_German_Confederation" title="North German Confederation">North German Confederation</a> of 1866 to include the remaining independent German states into a single entity or simply to expand the <a href="/wiki/Power_in_international_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Power in international relations">power</a> of the Kingdom of Prussia. They conclude that factors in addition to the strength of Bismarck's <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Realpolitik" title="Realpolitik">Realpolitik</a></i></span> led a collection of early modern <a href="/wiki/Polities" class="mw-redirect" title="Polities">polities</a> to reorganize their political, economic, military, and diplomatic relationships in the 19th century. Reaction to Danish and <a href="/wiki/French_nationalism" title="French nationalism">French nationalism</a> provided for expressions of German unity. Military successes—especially those of Prussia—in three regional wars generated enthusiasm and pride that politicians could harness to promote unification. This experience echoed the memory of mutual accomplishment in the Napoleonic Wars, particularly in the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Sixth_Coalition" title="War of the Sixth Coalition">War of Liberation</a> of 1813–1814. By establishing a Germany without <a href="/wiki/Multinational_state" title="Multinational state">multi-ethnic</a> Austria (under <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a>) or its <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German-speaking part</a>, the political and administrative unification in 1871 at least temporarily solved the problem of dualism. </p><p>Despite undergoing in the later years several further changes of its name and borders, overhauls of its constitutional system, periods of limited sovereignty and interrupted unity of its territory or government, and despite <a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_Prussia" title="Abolition of Prussia">dissolution of its dominant founding federated state</a>, the polity resulting from the unification process continues its existence, surviving until today in its contemporary form known as the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Republic_of_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Republic of Germany">Federal Republic of Germany</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_history">Early history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Germany&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_the_Holy_Roman_Empire,_1789_en.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Map_of_the_Holy_Roman_Empire%2C_1789_en.png/300px-Map_of_the_Holy_Roman_Empire%2C_1789_en.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="245" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Map_of_the_Holy_Roman_Empire%2C_1789_en.png/450px-Map_of_the_Holy_Roman_Empire%2C_1789_en.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Map_of_the_Holy_Roman_Empire%2C_1789_en.png/600px-Map_of_the_Holy_Roman_Empire%2C_1789_en.png 2x" data-file-width="2650" data-file-height="2160" /></a><figcaption>Map of the Austrian <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a>-led <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> (HRE) in 1789. The two biggest lands of the HRE were the German-speaking part of <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austria</a> (orange) and the German-speaking part of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Prussia</a> (blue), besides a large number of small states (many of them too small to be shown on the map).</figcaption></figure> <p>Germans emerged in medieval times among the descendants of the Romanized <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic peoples</a> in the area of modern western Germany, between the <a href="/wiki/Rhine_river" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhine river">Rhine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Elbe" title="Elbe">Elbe</a> rivers, particularly the <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frisians" title="Frisians">Frisians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saxons" title="Saxons">Saxons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thuringii" title="Thuringii">Thuringii</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alemanni" title="Alemanni">Alemanni</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Baiuvarii" title="Baiuvarii">Baiuvarii</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Heather_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heather-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The region was divided into long-lasting divisions, or "<a href="/wiki/Stem_duchies" class="mw-redirect" title="Stem duchies">Stem duchies</a>", based upon these ethnic designations, under the dominance of the western Franks starting with <a href="/wiki/Clovis_I" title="Clovis I">Clovis I</a>, who established control of the Romanized and Frankish population of Gaul in the 5th century, and began a new process of conquering the peoples east of the Rhine. In subsequent centuries the power of the Franks grew considerably.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMinahan2000288–289_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMinahan2000288–289-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the early 9th century AD, large parts of Europe had been united under the rule of the Frankish leader <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a>, who expanded the <a href="/wiki/Frankish_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankish Empire">Frankish Empire</a> (Francia) in several directions including east of the Rhine, where he conquered <a href="/wiki/Saxons" title="Saxons">Saxons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frisians" title="Frisians">Frisians</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Germany" title="Kingdom of Germany">A confederated realm of German princedoms</a>, along with some adjacent lands, had been in existence for over a thousand years; dating to the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Verdun" title="Treaty of Verdun">Treaty of Verdun</a> i.e. the establishment of <a href="/wiki/East_Francia" title="East Francia">East Francia</a> from eastern Frankish Empire in east of the Rhine in 843, especially when the <a href="/wiki/Ottonian_dynasty" title="Ottonian dynasty">Ottonian dynasty</a> took power to rule East Francia in 919. The realm later in 962 made up the core of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>, which at times included <a href="/wiki/List_of_states_in_the_Holy_Roman_Empire" title="List of states in the Holy Roman Empire">more than 1,000 entities</a> and was called the "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation" from 1512 with the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Diet_(Holy_Roman_Empire)#Locations_of_Imperial_Diets" title="Imperial Diet (Holy Roman Empire)">Diet of Cologne</a> (new title was adopted partly because the Empire lost most of its territories in Italy and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Arles" title="Kingdom of Arles">Burgundy</a> to the south and west by the late 15th century, but also to emphasize the new importance of the German <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Estate" title="Imperial Estate">Imperial Estates</a> in ruling the Empire due to the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Reform" title="Imperial Reform">Imperial Reform</a>). The states of the Holy Roman Empire ranged in size from the small and complex territories of the princely <a href="/wiki/Hohenlohe" title="Hohenlohe">Hohenlohe</a> family branches to sizable, well-defined territories such as the <a href="/wiki/Electorate_of_Bavaria" title="Electorate of Bavaria">Electorate of Bavaria</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Margraviate_of_Brandenburg" title="Margraviate of Brandenburg">Margraviate of Brandenburg</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bohemia" title="Kingdom of Bohemia">Kingdom of Bohemia</a>. Their governance varied: they included <a href="/wiki/Free_imperial_city" title="Free imperial city">free imperial cities</a>, also of different sizes, such as the powerful <a href="/wiki/Augsburg" title="Augsburg">Augsburg</a> and the minuscule <a href="/wiki/Weil_der_Stadt" title="Weil der Stadt">Weil der Stadt</a>; ecclesiastical territories, also of varying sizes and influence, such as the wealthy <a href="/wiki/Abbey_of_Reichenau" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbey of Reichenau">Abbey of Reichenau</a> and the powerful <a href="/wiki/Electorate_of_Cologne" title="Electorate of Cologne">Archbishopric of Cologne</a>; and dynastic states such as <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg" title="Duchy of Württemberg">Württemberg</a>. Among the German-speaking states, the Holy Roman Empire's administrative and legal mechanisms provided a venue to resolve disputes between peasants and landlords, between jurisdictions, and within jurisdictions. Through the organization of <a href="/wiki/Imperial_circles" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial circles">imperial circles</a> (<i>Reichskreise</i>), groups of states consolidated resources and promoted regional and organizational interests, including economic cooperation and military protection.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>l </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_modern_era_and_Eighteenth_century">Early modern era and Eighteenth century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Germany&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early modern era and Eighteenth century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since the 15th century, with few exceptions, the Empire's <a href="/wiki/Prince-elector" title="Prince-elector">Prince-electors</a> had chosen successive heads of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Habsburg" title="House of Habsburg">House of Habsburg</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Austria" title="Duchy of Austria">Duchy of Austria</a> to hold the title of <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Holy Roman Emperor">Holy Roman Emperor</a>. Although they initially sought to restore central Imperial power, preserving a weak and fragmented Empire was convenient for France and Sweden, and therefore, their ensuing intervention led to the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</a> which effectively thwarted for centuries any serious attempts to reinforce the imperial central authority and petrified fragmentation, resulting in the German-speaking territories comprising on the eve of the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a> still more than 300 political entities, most of them being parts of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>, though portions of the extensive <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Monarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="Habsburg Monarchy">Habsburg Monarchy</a> (exclusively its large non-German-speaking territories: <a href="/wiki/Lands_of_the_Crown_of_Saint_Stephen" title="Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen">Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen</a> and the Austrian partition of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth) or of the <a href="/wiki/Hohenzollern" class="mw-redirect" title="Hohenzollern">Hohenzollern</a> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Kingdom of Prussia</a> (both the German-speaking former <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Prussia" title="Duchy of Prussia">Duchy of Prussia</a> and the non-German-speaking entire territory of the Prussian partition of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth) as well as the German-speaking Swiss cantons were outside of the Imperial borders. This became known as the practice of <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Kleinstaaterei" title="Kleinstaaterei">Kleinstaaterei</a></i></span> ("small-statery") As a further consequence, there was no German national identity in development as late as 1800, mainly due to the highly autonomous or semi-independent nature of the princely states; most inhabitants of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>, outside of those ruled by the emperor directly, identified themselves mainly with their prince rather than with the Empire or the nation as a whole. However, by the 19th century, transportation and communications improvements started to bring these regions closer together.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dissolution_of_the_Old_Empire">Dissolution of the Old Empire</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Germany&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Dissolution of the Old Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Invasion of the Holy Roman Empire by the <a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First French Empire</a> in the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Second_Coalition" title="War of the Second Coalition">War of the Second Coalition</a> (1798–1802) resulted in crushing the Empire and allied forces by <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon Bonaparte">Napoleon Bonaparte</a>. The treaties of <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Lun%C3%A9ville" title="Treaty of Lunéville">Lunéville</a> (1801) and the <a href="/wiki/German_Mediatization" class="mw-redirect" title="German Mediatization">Mediatization of 1803</a> secularized the ecclesiastical principalities and abolished most free imperial cities and these territories along with their inhabitants were absorbed by dynastic states. This transfer particularly enhanced the territories of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg" title="Kingdom of Württemberg">Württemberg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Baden" title="Grand Duchy of Baden">Baden</a>. In 1806, after a successful invasion of Prussia and the defeat of Prussia at the joint battles of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jena-Auerstedt" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Jena-Auerstedt">Jena-Auerstedt</a> 1806 during the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Third_Coalition" title="War of the Third Coalition">War of the Third Coalition</a>, Napoleon dictated the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Pressburg_(1805)" title="Peace of Pressburg (1805)">Treaty of Pressburg</a> which included the formal <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire">dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire</a> and the abdication of <a href="/wiki/Francis_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor">Emperor Francis II</a> from the nominal reign over it. Napoleon established instead a German <a href="/wiki/Client_state" title="Client state">client state</a> of France known as the <a href="/wiki/Confederation_of_the_Rhine" title="Confederation of the Rhine">Confederation of the Rhine</a> which, <i>inter alia</i>, provided for the mediatization of over a hundred petty princes and counts and the absorption of their territories, as well as those of hundreds of <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Knight" title="Imperial Knight">imperial knights</a>, by the Confederation's member-states. Several states were promoted to kingdoms such as the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bavaria" title="Kingdom of Bavaria">Kingdom of Bavaria</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Saxony" title="Kingdom of Saxony">Kingdom of Saxony</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hanover" title="Kingdom of Hanover">Kingdom of Hanover</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the formal secession from the Empire of the majority of its constituent states, the Emperor dissolved the Holy Roman Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his abdication, Francis released all former estates from their duties and obligations to him, and took upon himself solely the title of Emperor of Austria, which had been established since 1804.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMann195870_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMann195870-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rise_of_German_nationalism_under_Napoleon">Rise of German nationalism under Napoleon</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Germany&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Rise of German nationalism under Napoleon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Under the <a href="/wiki/French_period" title="French period">hegemony of the First French Empire</a> (1804–1814), popular German nationalism thrived in the reorganized German states. Due in part to the shared experience, albeit under French dominance, various justifications emerged to identify "Germany" as a potential future single state. For the German philosopher <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Johann Gottlieb Fichte</a>, </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p> The first, original, and truly natural boundaries of states are beyond doubt their internal boundaries. Those who speak the same language are joined to each other by a multitude of invisible bonds by nature herself, long before any human art begins; they understand each other and have the power of continuing to make themselves understood more and more clearly; they belong together and are by nature one and an inseparable whole.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_Of_The_Nations-Monument.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="monument commemorating the battle, tall square block, soldier on top, images of soldiers around the monument" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Battle_Of_The_Nations-Monument.jpg/220px-Battle_Of_The_Nations-Monument.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Battle_Of_The_Nations-Monument.jpg/330px-Battle_Of_The_Nations-Monument.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Battle_Of_The_Nations-Monument.jpg/440px-Battle_Of_The_Nations-Monument.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1457" data-file-height="1367" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Monument_to_the_Battle_of_the_Nations" title="Monument to the Battle of the Nations">Battle of the Nations monument</a>, erected for the centennial in 1913, honors the efforts of the German people in the victory over Napoleon.</figcaption></figure> <p>A common language may have been seen to serve as the basis of a nation, but as contemporary historians of 19th-century Germany noted, it took more than linguistic similarity to unify these several hundred polities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989434_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989434-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The experience of German-speaking Central Europe during the years of French hegemony contributed to a sense of common cause to remove the French invaders and reassert control over their own lands. The <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Fourth_Coalition" title="War of the Fourth Coalition">Napoleon's campaigns in Poland</a> (1806–07) resulting in his decision to re-establish a form of Polish statehood (the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Warsaw" title="Duchy of Warsaw">Duchy of Warsaw</a>) at the cost of also Prussian-conquered Polish territories, as well as his campaigns on <a href="/wiki/Peninsular_War" title="Peninsular War">Iberian Peninsula</a>, in western Germany, and his disastrous <a href="/wiki/French_invasion_of_Russia" title="French invasion of Russia">invasion of Russia</a> in 1812 disillusioned many Germans, princes and peasants alike. Napoleon's <a href="/wiki/Continental_System" title="Continental System">Continental System</a> nearly ruined the Central European economy. The invasion of Russia included nearly 125,000 troops from German lands, and the loss of that army encouraged many Germans, both high- and low-born, to envision a Central Europe free of Napoleon's influence.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The creation of student militias such as the <a href="/wiki/L%C3%BCtzow_Free_Corps" title="Lützow Free Corps">Lützow Free Corps</a> exemplified this tendency.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989384–387_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989384–387-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The debacle in Russia loosened the French grip on the German princes. In 1813, Napoleon mounted a campaign in the German states to bring them back into the French orbit; the subsequent <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Sixth_Coalition" title="War of the Sixth Coalition">War of Liberation</a> culminated in the great <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Leipzig" title="Battle of Leipzig">Battle of Leipzig</a>, also known as the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nations" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Nations">Battle of Nations</a>. In October 1813, more than 500,000 combatants engaged in ferocious fighting over three days, making it the largest European land battle of the 19th century. The engagement resulted in a decisive victory for the <a href="/wiki/Sixth_Coalition" class="mw-redirect" title="Sixth Coalition">Coalition</a> of Austria, Prussia, Russia, Saxony, and Sweden. As a result, the <a href="/wiki/Confederation_of_the_Rhine" title="Confederation of the Rhine">Confederation of the Rhine</a> collapsed and the <a href="/wiki/French_period" title="French period">French period</a> came to an end. Success encouraged the Coalition forces to pursue Napoleon across the Rhine; his army and his government collapsed, and the victorious Coalition incarcerated Napoleon on <a href="/wiki/Elba" title="Elba">Elba</a>. During the brief Napoleonic restoration known as the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Days" title="Hundred Days">100 Days</a> of 1815, forces of the <a href="/wiki/Seventh_Coalition" class="mw-redirect" title="Seventh Coalition">Seventh Coalition</a>, including an Anglo-Allied army under the command of the <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Wellesley,_1st_Duke_of_Wellington" title="Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington">Duke of Wellington</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussian</a> army under the command of <a href="/wiki/Gebhard_Leberecht_von_Bl%C3%BCcher" title="Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher">Gebhard von Blücher</a>, were victorious at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Waterloo" title="Battle of Waterloo">Waterloo</a> (18 June 1815).<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The critical role played by Blücher's troops, especially after having to retreat from the field at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ligny" title="Battle of Ligny">Ligny</a> the day before, helped to turn the tide of combat against the French. The Prussian cavalry pursued the defeated French in the evening of 18 June, sealing the allied victory. From the German perspective, the actions of Blücher's troops at Waterloo, and the combined efforts at Leipzig, offered a rallying point of pride and enthusiasm.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989322–323_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989322–323-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This interpretation became a key building block of the <a href="/wiki/Borussian_myth" title="Borussian myth"><i>Borussian</i> myth</a> expounded by the pro-Prussian nationalist historians later in the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Congress_of_Vienna_and_the_rise_of_German_dualism">Congress of Vienna and the rise of German dualism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Germany&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Congress of Vienna and the rise of German dualism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wappen_Deutscher_Bund.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="double eagle, black on gold coat of arms" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Wappen_Deutscher_Bund.svg/170px-Wappen_Deutscher_Bund.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Wappen_Deutscher_Bund.svg/255px-Wappen_Deutscher_Bund.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Wappen_Deutscher_Bund.svg/340px-Wappen_Deutscher_Bund.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="194" data-file-height="248" /></a><figcaption>Coat of arms of the <a href="/wiki/German_Confederation" title="German Confederation">German Confederation</a>, also called the <i>Deutscher Bund</i></figcaption></figure> <p>After Napoleon's defeat, the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a> established a new European political-diplomatic system based on the <a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_in_international_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Balance of power in international relations">balance of power</a>. This system reorganized Europe into <a href="/wiki/Sphere_of_influence" title="Sphere of influence">spheres of influence</a>, which, in some cases, suppressed the aspirations of the various nationalities, including the Germans and Italians.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Generally, an enlarged Prussia and the 38 other states consolidated from the mediatized territories of 1803 were confederated within the <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian Empire</a>'s sphere of influence. The Congress established a loose <a href="/wiki/German_Confederation" title="German Confederation">German Confederation</a> (1815–1866), headed by Austria, with a "Federal <a href="/wiki/Diet_(assembly)" title="Diet (assembly)">Diet</a>" (called the <i>Bundestag</i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Bundesversammlung_(German_Confederation)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bundesversammlung (German Confederation)">Bundesversammlung</a></i>, an assembly of appointed leaders) that met in the city of <a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_am_Main" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankfurt am Main">Frankfurt am Main</a>. Its borders resembled those of its predecessor, the Holy Roman Empire (though there were some deviations e.g. Prussian territory in the Confederation was extended to include also the formerly Polish territories of the <a href="/wiki/Lauenburg_and_B%C3%BCtow_Land" title="Lauenburg and Bütow Land">Lauenburg and Bütow Land</a> and the former <a href="/wiki/Starostwo_of_Draheim" title="Starostwo of Draheim">Starostwo of Draheim</a>, while Austrian part was extended to include in the years 1818–1850 also the formerly Polish territories of the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_O%C5%9Bwi%C4%99cim" title="Duchy of Oświęcim">Duchy of Oświęcim</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Zator" title="Duchy of Zator">Duchy of Zator</a>), meaning that large portions of both Prussia and Austria were left outside. In recognition of the imperial position traditionally held by the Habsburgs, the emperors of Austria became the titular presidents of this parliament. Despite the nomenclature of <i>Diet</i> (Assembly or Parliament), this institution should in no way be construed as a broadly, or popularly, elected group of representatives. Many of the states did not have constitutions, and those that did, such as the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Baden" title="Grand Duchy of Baden">Duchy of Baden</a>, based <a href="/wiki/Suffrage" title="Suffrage">suffrage</a> on strict property requirements which effectively limited suffrage to a small portion of the male population.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee1980_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee1980-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Problems_of_reorganization">Problems of reorganization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Germany&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Problems of reorganization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map-GermanConfederation.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="map of Europe, showing territory of predominantly German-speaking population, and Austria's multi-national, multi-linguistic territory" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Map-GermanConfederation.svg/330px-Map-GermanConfederation.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Map-GermanConfederation.svg/495px-Map-GermanConfederation.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Map-GermanConfederation.svg/660px-Map-GermanConfederation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="9031" data-file-height="7615" /></a><figcaption>Boundaries of the German Confederation. Prussia is blue, Austria-Hungary yellow, and the rest grey.</figcaption></figure> <p>Problematically, the built-in Austrian dominance failed to take into account Prussia's 18th-century emergence in Imperial politics. This impractical solution did not reflect the new status of Prussia in the overall scheme. Although the Prussian army had been dramatically defeated in the 1806 <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jena-Auerstedt" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Jena-Auerstedt">Battle of Jena-Auerstedt</a>, it had made a spectacular comeback at Waterloo. Consequently, Prussian leaders expected to play a pivotal role in German politics.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZamoyski200798–115,_239–40_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZamoyski200798–115,_239–40-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ever since the <a href="/wiki/Prince-Elector" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince-Elector">Prince-Elector</a> of <a href="/wiki/Brandenburg" title="Brandenburg">Brandenburg</a> had made himself <a href="/wiki/King_in_Prussia" title="King in Prussia">King in Prussia</a> at the beginning of that century, their domains had steadily increased through inheritance and war. Prussia's consolidated strength had become especially apparent during the <a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland" title="Partitions of Poland">Partitions of Poland</a>, the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Austrian_Succession" title="War of the Austrian Succession">War of the Austrian Succession</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a> under <a href="/wiki/Frederick_the_Great" title="Frederick the Great">Frederick the Great</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989398–410_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989398–410-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As <a href="/wiki/Maria_Theresa" title="Maria Theresa">Maria Theresa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor">Joseph</a> tried to restore Habsburg hegemony in the Holy Roman Empire, Frederick countered with the creation of the <i><a href="/wiki/F%C3%BCrstenbund" title="Fürstenbund">Fürstenbund</a></i> (Union of Princes) in 1785. Austrian-Prussian <a href="/wiki/German_dualism" class="mw-redirect" title="German dualism">dualism</a> lay firmly rooted in old Imperial politics. Those balance of power manoeuvers were epitomized by the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Bavarian_Succession" title="War of the Bavarian Succession">War of the Bavarian Succession</a>, or "<a href="/wiki/Potato_War#Change_in_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Potato War">Potato War</a>" among common folk. Even after the end of the Holy Roman Empire, this competition influenced the growth and development of nationalist movements in the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prelude">Prelude</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Germany&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Prelude"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vormärz"><span id="Vorm.C3.A4rz"></span><i>Vormärz</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Germany&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Vormärz"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Vorm%C3%A4rz" title="Vormärz">Vormärz</a></div> <p>The period of Austrian and Prussian police-states and vast censorship between the Congress of Vienna and the <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848_in_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolutions of 1848 in Germany">Revolutions of 1848 in Germany</a> later became widely known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Vorm%C3%A4rz" title="Vormärz">Vormärz</a></i> ("before March"), referring to March 1848. During this period, European liberalism gained momentum; the agenda included economic, social, and political issues. Most European liberals in the <i>Vormärz</i> sought unification under nationalist principles, promoted the transition to capitalism, sought the expansion of male suffrage, among other issues. Their "radicalness" depended upon where they stood on the spectrum of <a href="/wiki/Universal_suffrage" title="Universal suffrage">male suffrage</a>: the wider the definition of suffrage, the more radical.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESperber1993_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESperber1993-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The surge of German <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalism</a>, stimulated by the experience of Germans in the Napoleonic period and initially allied with <a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberalism</a>, shifted political, social, and cultural relationships within the German states.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this context, one can detect its roots in the experience of Germans in the Napoleonic period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENipperdey19961–3_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENipperdey19961–3-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, implicit and sometimes explicit promises made during the <a href="/wiki/German_Campaign_of_1813" class="mw-redirect" title="German Campaign of 1813">German Campaign of 1813</a> engendered an expectation of <a href="/wiki/Popular_sovereignty" title="Popular sovereignty">popular sovereignty</a> and widespread participation in the political process, promises that largely went unfulfilled once peace had been achieved.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989407–408,_444_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989407–408,_444-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Emergence_of_liberal_nationalism_and_conservative_response">Emergence of liberal nationalism and conservative response</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Germany&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Emergence of liberal nationalism and conservative response"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wartburg_demonstration_1817.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="students carrying flags and banners march to the castle on the hill" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Wartburg_demonstration_1817.jpg/220px-Wartburg_demonstration_1817.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Wartburg_demonstration_1817.jpg/330px-Wartburg_demonstration_1817.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Wartburg_demonstration_1817.jpg/440px-Wartburg_demonstration_1817.jpg 2x" data-file-width="580" data-file-height="507" /></a><figcaption>In October, 1817, approximately 500 students rallied at <a href="/wiki/Wartburg_Castle" class="mw-redirect" title="Wartburg Castle">Wartburg Castle</a>, where <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a> had sought refuge over three centuries earlier, to demonstrate in favor of national unification. Wartburg was chosen for its symbolic connection to German national character. Contemporary colored wood engraving<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zug-zum-hambacher-schloss_1-1200x825.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="men and women marching to the ruined castle on top of a hill" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Zug-zum-hambacher-schloss_1-1200x825.jpg/220px-Zug-zum-hambacher-schloss_1-1200x825.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Zug-zum-hambacher-schloss_1-1200x825.jpg/330px-Zug-zum-hambacher-schloss_1-1200x825.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Zug-zum-hambacher-schloss_1-1200x825.jpg/440px-Zug-zum-hambacher-schloss_1-1200x825.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="550" /></a><figcaption>Pro-nationalist participants march to the ruins of Hambach Castle in 1832. Students and some professionals, and their spouses, predominated. They carried the flag of the underground <i>Burschenschaft</i>, which later became the basis of the flag of modern Germany.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bildarchiv_Preu%C3%9Fischer_Kulturbesitz.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Men sitting around a table. Most of them are muzzled, some are gagged as well, some have blindfolds on, and some have their ears muffled." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Bildarchiv_Preu%C3%9Fischer_Kulturbesitz.jpg/290px-Bildarchiv_Preu%C3%9Fischer_Kulturbesitz.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Bildarchiv_Preu%C3%9Fischer_Kulturbesitz.jpg/435px-Bildarchiv_Preu%C3%9Fischer_Kulturbesitz.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Bildarchiv_Preu%C3%9Fischer_Kulturbesitz.jpg/580px-Bildarchiv_Preu%C3%9Fischer_Kulturbesitz.jpg 2x" data-file-width="582" data-file-height="353" /></a><figcaption>A German caricature mocking the <a href="/wiki/Carlsbad_Decrees" title="Carlsbad Decrees">Carlsbad Decrees</a>, which suppressed freedom of expression</figcaption></figure> <p>Despite considerable conservative reaction, ideas of unity joined with notions of popular sovereignty in German-speaking lands. The <i><a href="/wiki/Burschenschaft" title="Burschenschaft">Burschenschaft</a></i> student organizations and popular demonstrations, such as those held at <a href="/wiki/Wartburg" title="Wartburg">Wartburg</a> Castle in October 1817, contributed to a growing sense of unity among German speakers of Central Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989442–445_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989442–445-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the <a href="/wiki/Wartburg_Festival" title="Wartburg Festival">Wartburg Festival</a> in 1817 the first real movements among the students were formed – fraternities and student organizations emerged. The colors black, red and gold were symbolic of this. Agitation by student organizations led such conservative leaders as <a href="/wiki/Klemens_Wenzel,_Prince_von_Metternich" class="mw-redirect" title="Klemens Wenzel, Prince von Metternich">Klemens Wenzel, Prince von Metternich</a>, to fear the rise of national sentiment.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989407–408,_444_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989407–408,_444-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The assassination of German dramatist <a href="/wiki/August_von_Kotzebue" title="August von Kotzebue">August von Kotzebue</a> in March 1819 by a radical student seeking unification was followed on 20 September 1819 by the proclamation of the <a href="/wiki/Carlsbad_Decrees" title="Carlsbad Decrees">Carlsbad Decrees</a>, which hampered intellectual leadership of the nationalist movement.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989407–408,_444_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989407–408,_444-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Metternich was able to harness conservative outrage at the assassination to consolidate legislation that would further limit the press and constrain the rising liberal and nationalist movements. Consequently, these decrees drove the <i>Burschenschaften</i> underground, restricted the publication of nationalist materials, expanded censorship of the press and private correspondence, and limited academic speech by prohibiting university professors from encouraging nationalist discussion. The decrees were the subject of <a href="/wiki/Johann_Joseph_von_G%C3%B6rres" class="mw-redirect" title="Johann Joseph von Görres">Johann Joseph von Görres</a>'s pamphlet <i>Teutschland [archaic: Deutschland] und die Revolution</i> (<i>Germany and the Revolution</i>) (1820), in which he concluded that it was both impossible and undesirable to repress the free utterance of public opinion by reactionary measures.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989442–445_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989442–445-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Hambach_Festival" title="Hambach Festival">Hambach Festival</a> (<i>Hambacher Fest</i>) in May 1832 was attended by a crowd of more than 30,000.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989610–613_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989610–613-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Promoted as a <a href="/wiki/County_fair" class="mw-redirect" title="County fair">county fair</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989610_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989610-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> its participants celebrated fraternity, liberty, and national unity. Celebrants gathered in the town below and marched to the ruins of <a href="/wiki/Hambach_Castle" title="Hambach Castle">Hambach Castle</a> on the heights above the small town of Hambach, in the Palatinate province of Bavaria. Carrying flags, beating drums, and singing, the participants took the better part of the morning and mid-day to arrive at the castle grounds, where they listened to speeches by nationalist orators from across the conservative to radical political spectrum. The overall content of the speeches suggested a fundamental difference between the German nationalism of the 1830s and the French nationalism of the <a href="/wiki/July_Revolution" title="July Revolution">July Revolution</a>: the focus of German nationalism lay in the education of the people; once the populace was educated as to what was needed, they would accomplish it. The Hambach rhetoric emphasized the overall peaceable nature of German nationalism: the point was not to build barricades, a very "French" form of nationalism, but to build emotional bridges between groups.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989612_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989612-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As he had done in 1819, after the <a href="/wiki/August_von_Kotzebue" title="August von Kotzebue">Kotzebue</a> assassination, Metternich used the popular demonstration at Hambach to push conservative social policy. The "Six Articles" of 28 June 1832 primarily reaffirmed the principle of monarchical authority. On 5 July, the Frankfurt Diet voted for an additional 10 articles, which reiterated existing rules on censorship, restricted political organizations, and limited other public activity. Furthermore, the member states agreed to send military assistance to any government threatened by unrest.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989613_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989613-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Karl_Philipp_von_Wrede" title="Karl Philipp von Wrede">Prince Wrede</a> led half of the Bavarian army to the Palatinate to "subdue" the province. Several hapless Hambach speakers were arrested, tried and imprisoned; one, Karl Heinrich Brüggemann (1810–1887), a law student and representative of the secretive <i>Burschenschaft</i>, was sent to Prussia, where he was first condemned to death, but later pardoned.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989610–613_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989610–613-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Crucially, both the Wartburg rally in 1817 and the Hambach Festival in 1832 had lacked any clear-cut program of unification. At Hambach, the positions of the many speakers illustrated their disparate agendas. Held together only by the idea of unification, their notions of how to achieve this did not include specific plans but instead rested on the nebulous idea that the <i>Volk</i> (the people), if properly educated, would bring about unification on their own. Grand speeches, flags, exuberant students, and picnic lunches did not translate into a new political, bureaucratic, or administrative apparatus. While many spoke about the need for a constitution, no such document appeared from the discussions. In 1848, nationalists sought to remedy that problem.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989610–615_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989610–615-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Economy_and_the_customs_union">Economy and the customs union</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Germany&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Economy and the customs union"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1834customstarrifs.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="drawing of a wagon loaded with barrels, covered with a tarp, stuck between two border signs, the driver paying a fee to cross. Caption reads "German cartoon on customs prior to the Zollverein, 1834"." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/1834customstarrifs.jpg/290px-1834customstarrifs.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/1834customstarrifs.jpg/435px-1834customstarrifs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/1834customstarrifs.jpg/580px-1834customstarrifs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="646" data-file-height="341" /></a><figcaption>This drawing offered a satirical commentary on the prevalence of toll barriers in the many German states, circa 1834. Some states were so small that transporters loaded and reloaded their cargoes two and three times a day.</figcaption></figure> <p>Several other factors complicated the rise of <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalism</a> in the German states. The man-made factors included political rivalries between members of the German confederation, particularly between the Austrians and the Prussians, and socio-economic competition among the commercial and merchant interests, and the old land-owning and aristocratic interests. Natural factors included widespread drought in the early 1830s, and again in the 1840s, and a food crisis in the 1840s. Further complications emerged as a result of a shift in industrialization and manufacturing; as people sought jobs, they left their villages and small towns to work during the week in the cities, returning for a day and a half on weekends.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1994_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1994-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The economic, social and cultural dislocation of ordinary people, the economic hardship of an economy in transition, and the pressures of meteorological disasters all contributed to growing problems in Central Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESperber19933_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESperber19933-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The failure of most of the governments to deal with the food crisis of the mid-1840s, caused by the <a href="/wiki/Phytophthora_infestans" title="Phytophthora infestans">potato blight</a> (related to the <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland)" title="Great Famine (Ireland)">Great Irish Famine</a>) and several seasons of bad weather, encouraged many to think that the rich and powerful had no interest in their problems. Those in authority were concerned about the growing unrest, political and social agitation among the working classes, and the disaffection of the <a href="/wiki/Intelligentsia" title="Intelligentsia">intelligentsia</a>. No amount of censorship, fines, imprisonment, or banishment, it seemed, could stem the criticism. Furthermore, it was becoming increasingly clear that both Austria and Prussia wanted to be the leaders in any resulting unification; each would inhibit the drive of the other to achieve unification.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1998127_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1998127-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Formation of the <i><a href="/wiki/Zollverein" title="Zollverein">Zollverein</a></i>, an institution key to unifying the German states economically, helped to create a larger sense of economic unification. Initially conceived by the Prussian Finance Minister <a href="/wiki/Hans,_Count_von_B%C3%BClow" class="mw-redirect" title="Hans, Count von Bülow">Hans, Count von Bülow</a>, as a Prussian <a href="/wiki/Customs_union" title="Customs union">customs union</a> in 1818, the <i>Zollverein</i> linked the many Prussian and <a href="/wiki/Hohenzollern" class="mw-redirect" title="Hohenzollern">Hohenzollern</a> territories. Over the ensuing thirty years (and more) other German states joined. The Union helped to reduce protectionist barriers between the German states, especially improving the transport of raw materials and finished goods, making it both easier to move goods across territorial borders and less costly to buy, transport, and sell raw materials. This was particularly important for the emerging industrial centers, most of which were located in the Prussian regions of the <a href="/wiki/Rhineland" title="Rhineland">Rhineland</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Saar_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Saar River">Saar</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Ruhr_(river)" title="Ruhr (river)">Ruhr</a> valleys.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> States more distant from the coast joined the Customs Union earlier. Not being a member mattered more for the states of south Germany, since the external tariff of the Customs Union prevented customs-free access to the coast (which gave access to international markets). Thus, by 1836, all states to the south of Prussia had joined the Customs Union, except Austria.<sup id="cite_ref-keller_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-keller-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In contrast, the coastal states already had barrier free access to international trade and did not want consumers and producers burdened with the import duties they would pay if they were within the Zollverein customs border. Hanover on the north coast formed its own customs union – the "Tax Union" or <a href="/wiki/Steuerverein" title="Steuerverein">Steuerverein</a> – in 1834 with Brunswick and with Oldenburg in 1836. The external tariffs on finished goods and overseas raw materials were below the rates of the Zollverein. Brunswick joined the Zollverein Customs Union in 1842, while Hanover and Oldenburg finally joined in 1854<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the Austro-Prussian war of 1866, Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenburg were annexed by Prussia and thus annexed also to the Customs Union, while the two Mecklenburg states and the city states of Hamburg and Bremen joined late because they were reliant on international trade. The Mecklenburgs joined in 1867, while Bremen and <a href="/wiki/Accession_of_Hamburg_to_the_German_Customs_Union_(Zollverein)" class="mw-redirect" title="Accession of Hamburg to the German Customs Union (Zollverein)">Hamburg joined in 1888</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-keller_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-keller-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Roads_and_railways">Roads and railways</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Germany&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Roads and railways"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By the early 19th century, German roads had deteriorated to an appalling extent. Travelers, both foreign and local, complained bitterly about the state of the <i>Heerstraßen</i>, the military roads previously maintained for the ease of moving troops. As German states ceased to be a military crossroads, however, the roads improved; the length of hard–surfaced roads in Prussia increased from 3,800 kilometers (2,400 mi) in 1816 to 16,600 kilometers (10,300 mi) in 1852, helped in part by the invention of <a href="/wiki/Macadam" title="Macadam">macadam</a>. By 1835, <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_von_Gagern" title="Heinrich von Gagern">Heinrich von Gagern</a> wrote that roads were the "veins and arteries of the body politic..." and predicted that they would promote freedom, independence and prosperity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989465_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989465-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>As people moved around, they came into contact with others, on trains, at hotels, in restaurants, and for some, at fashionable resorts such as the spa in <a href="/wiki/Kurhaus_(Baden-Baden)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurhaus (Baden-Baden)">Baden-Baden</a>. Water transportation also improved. The blockades on the Rhine had been removed by Napoleon's orders, but by the 1820s, steam engines freed riverboats from the cumbersome system of men and animals that towed them upstream. By 1846, 180 steamers plied German rivers and <a href="/wiki/Lake_Constance" title="Lake Constance">Lake Constance</a>, and a network of canals extended from the <a href="/wiki/Danube" title="Danube">Danube</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Weser" title="Weser">Weser</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Elbe" title="Elbe">Elbe</a> rivers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989466_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989466-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As important as these improvements were, they could not compete with the impact of the railway. German economist <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_List" title="Friedrich List">Friedrich List</a> called the railways and the Customs Union "Siamese Twins", emphasizing their important relationship to one another.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989467–468_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989467–468-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was not alone: the poet <a href="/wiki/August_Heinrich_Hoffmann_von_Fallersleben" title="August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben">August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben</a> wrote a poem in which he extolled the virtues of the <i>Zollverein</i>, which he began with a list of commodities that had contributed more to German unity than politics or diplomacy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989502_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989502-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historians of the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a> later regarded the railways as the first indicator of a unified state; the patriotic novelist, <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Raabe" title="Wilhelm Raabe">Wilhelm Raabe</a>, wrote: "The German empire was founded with the construction of the first railway..."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989469_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989469-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Not everyone greeted the <i>iron monster</i> with enthusiasm. The Prussian king <a href="/wiki/Frederick_William_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederick William III">Frederick William III</a> saw no advantage in traveling from Berlin to <a href="/wiki/Potsdam" title="Potsdam">Potsdam</a> a few hours faster, and Metternich refused to ride in one at all. Others wondered if the railways were an "evil" that threatened the landscape: <a href="/wiki/Nikolaus_Lenau" title="Nikolaus Lenau">Nikolaus Lenau</a>'s 1838 poem <i>An den Frühling</i> (<i>To Spring</i>) bemoaned the way trains destroyed the pristine quietude of German forests.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989458_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989458-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Bavarian_Ludwig_Railway" title="Bavarian Ludwig Railway">Bavarian Ludwig Railway</a>, which was the first passenger or freight rail line in the German lands, connected <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg" title="Nuremberg">Nuremberg</a> and <a href="/wiki/F%C3%BCrth" title="Fürth">Fürth</a> in 1835. Although it was 6 kilometers (3.7 mi) long and only operated in daylight, it proved both profitable and popular. Within three years, 141 kilometers (88 mi) of track had been laid, by 1840, 462 kilometers (287 mi), and by 1860, 11,157 kilometers (6,933 mi). Lacking a geographically central organizing feature (such as a national capital), the rails were laid in webs, linking towns and markets within regions, regions within larger regions, and so on. As the rail network expanded, it became cheaper to transport goods: in 1840, 18 <i><a href="/wiki/Pfennig" title="Pfennig">Pfennigs</a></i> per ton per kilometer and in 1870, five <i>Pfennigs</i>. The effects of the railway were immediate. For example, raw materials could travel up and down the <a href="/wiki/Ruhr" title="Ruhr">Ruhr</a> Valley without having to unload and reload. Railway lines encouraged economic activity by creating demand for commodities and by facilitating commerce. In 1850, inland shipping carried three times more freight than railroads; by 1870, the situation was reversed, and railroads carried four times more. Rail travel changed how cities looked and how people traveled. Its impact reached throughout the social order, affecting the highest born to the lowest. Although some of the outlying German provinces were not serviced by rail until the 1890s, the majority of the population, manufacturing centers, and production centers were linked to the rail network by 1865.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989466–467_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989466–467-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Geography,_patriotism_and_language"><span id="Geography.2C_patriotism_and_language"></span>Geography, patriotism and language</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Germany&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Geography, patriotism and language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maas_memel_etsch_belt.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Maas_memel_etsch_belt.svg/220px-Maas_memel_etsch_belt.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Maas_memel_etsch_belt.svg/330px-Maas_memel_etsch_belt.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Maas_memel_etsch_belt.svg/440px-Maas_memel_etsch_belt.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1300" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>German linguistic area (green) and political boundaries around 1841 (grey) in comparison to the text's geographic references (bold blue)</figcaption></figure> <p>As travel became easier, faster, and less expensive, Germans started to see unity in factors <i>other</i> than their language. The <a href="/wiki/Brothers_Grimm" title="Brothers Grimm">Brothers Grimm</a>, who compiled a massive dictionary known as <i>The Grimm</i>, also assembled a compendium of folk tales and fables, which highlighted the story-telling parallels between different regions.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Karl_Baedeker" title="Karl Baedeker">Karl Baedeker</a> wrote guidebooks to different cities and regions of Central Europe, indicating places to stay, sites to visit, and giving a short history of castles, battlefields, famous buildings, and famous people. His guides also included distances, roads to avoid, and hiking paths to follow.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The words of <a href="/wiki/August_Heinrich_Hoffmann_von_Fallersleben" title="August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben">August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben</a> expressed not only the linguistic unity of the German people but also their geographic unity. In <i>Deutschland, Deutschland über Alles</i>, officially called <i><a href="/wiki/Das_Lied_der_Deutschen" class="mw-redirect" title="Das Lied der Deutschen">Das Lied der Deutschen</a></i> ("<i>The Song of the Germans</i>"), Fallersleben called upon sovereigns throughout the German states to recognize the unifying characteristics of the German people.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such other patriotic songs as "<a href="/wiki/Die_Wacht_am_Rhein" title="Die Wacht am Rhein">Die Wacht am Rhein</a>" ("The Watch on the Rhine") by <a href="/wiki/Max_Schneckenburger" title="Max Schneckenburger">Max Schneckenburger</a> began to focus attention on geographic space, not limiting "Germanness" to a common language. Schneckenburger wrote "The Watch on the Rhine" in a specific patriotic response to French assertions that the Rhine was France's "natural" eastern boundary. In the refrain, "Dear fatherland, dear fatherland, put your mind to rest / The watch stands true on the Rhine", and in such other patriotic poetry as Nicholaus Becker's "Das Rheinlied" ("The Rhine"), Germans were called upon to defend their territorial homeland. In 1807, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt" title="Alexander von Humboldt">Alexander von Humboldt</a> argued that national character reflected geographic influence, linking landscape to people. Concurrent with this idea, movements to preserve old fortresses and historic sites emerged, and these particularly focused on the Rhineland, the site of so many confrontations with France and Spain.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="German_revolutions_and_Polish_uprising_of_1848–1849"><span id="German_revolutions_and_Polish_uprising_of_1848.E2.80.931849"></span>German revolutions and Polish uprising of 1848–1849</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Germany&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: German revolutions and Polish uprising of 1848–1849"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The widespread—mainly German—<a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848_in_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolutions of 1848 in Germany">revolutions of 1848–49</a> sought unification of Germany under a single constitution. The revolutionaries pressured various state governments, particularly those in the <a href="/wiki/Rhineland" title="Rhineland">Rhineland</a>, for a parliamentary assembly that would have the responsibility to draft a constitution. Ultimately, many of the left-wing revolutionaries hoped this constitution would establish <a href="/wiki/Universal_suffrage" title="Universal suffrage">universal male suffrage</a>, a permanent national parliament, and a unified Germany, possibly under the leadership of the Prussian king. This seemed to be the most logical course since Prussia was the strongest of the German states, as well as the largest in geographic size. Meanwhile, center-right revolutionaries sought some kind of expanded suffrage within their states and potentially, a form of loose unification. Finally, the Polish majority living in the share of Polish territory annexed by Prussia <a href="/wiki/Greater_Poland_uprising_(1848)" class="mw-redirect" title="Greater Poland uprising (1848)">pursued their own liberation agenda</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Frankfurt_Parliament">Frankfurt Parliament</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Germany&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Frankfurt Parliament"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Parliament_Frankfurt_Pauls_Church_1848.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Romanesque church, men marching into it, through a phalanx of uniformed men, houses and church are draped in banners and flags" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Parliament_Frankfurt_Pauls_Church_1848.jpg/220px-Parliament_Frankfurt_Pauls_Church_1848.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Parliament_Frankfurt_Pauls_Church_1848.jpg/330px-Parliament_Frankfurt_Pauls_Church_1848.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Parliament_Frankfurt_Pauls_Church_1848.jpg/440px-Parliament_Frankfurt_Pauls_Church_1848.jpg 2x" data-file-width="580" data-file-height="502" /></a><figcaption>Pre-parliament delegates processing into <a href="/wiki/Paulskirche" class="mw-redirect" title="Paulskirche">Paul's Church</a> in Frankfurt, where they laid the groundwork for electing a National Parliament<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Their pressure resulted in a variety of elections, based on different voting qualifications, such as the <a href="/wiki/Prussian_three-class_franchise" title="Prussian three-class franchise">Prussian three-class franchise</a>, which weighted votes based on the amount of taxes paid and therefore gave some electoral groups—chiefly the wealthier, landed ones—greater representative power.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1998138–164_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1998138–164-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 27 March 1849, the <a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankfurt Parliament">Frankfurt Parliament</a> passed the <i><a href="/wiki/Paulskirchenverfassung" class="mw-redirect" title="Paulskirchenverfassung">Paulskirchenverfassung</a></i> (Constitution of St. Paul's Church) and offered the title of <i>Kaiser</i> (Emperor) to the Prussian king <a href="/wiki/Frederick_William_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederick William IV">Frederick William IV</a> the next month. He refused for a variety of reasons. Publicly, he replied that he could not accept a crown without the consent of the actual states, by which he meant the princes. Privately, he feared opposition from the other German princes and military intervention from Austria or Russia. He also held a fundamental distaste for the idea of accepting a crown from a popularly elected parliament: he would not accept a crown of "clay".<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite franchise requirements that often perpetuated many of the problems of sovereignty and political participation liberals sought to overcome, the Frankfurt Parliament did manage to draft a constitution and reach an agreement on the <i>kleindeutsch</i> solution. While the liberals failed to achieve the unification they sought, they did manage to gain a partial victory by working with the German princes on many constitutional issues and collaborating with them on reforms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1998176–179_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1998176–179-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_aborted_1848–1849_German_Empire_in_retrospective_analysis"><span id="The_aborted_1848.E2.80.931849_German_Empire_in_retrospective_analysis"></span>The aborted 1848–1849 German Empire in retrospective analysis</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Germany&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: The aborted 1848–1849 German Empire in retrospective analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/German_Empire_(1848%E2%80%931849)" title="German Empire (1848–1849)">German Empire (1848–1849)</a></div> <p>Scholars of German history have engaged in decades of debate over how the successes and failures of the Frankfurt Parliament contribute to the historiographical explanations of German nation building. One school of thought, which emerged after <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">The Great War</a> and gained momentum in the aftermath of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, maintains that the failure of German liberals in the Frankfurt Parliament led to <a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">bourgeoisie</a> compromise with conservatives (especially the conservative <a href="/wiki/Junker" title="Junker">Junker</a> landholders), which subsequently led to the so-called <i><a href="/wiki/Sonderweg" title="Sonderweg">Sonderweg</a></i> (distinctive path) of 20th-century German history.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Failure to achieve unification in 1848, this argument holds, resulted in the late formation of the nation-state in 1871, which in turn delayed the development of positive national values. <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Hitler</a> often called on the German public to sacrifice all for the cause of their great nation, but his regime did not create German nationalism: it merely capitalized on an intrinsic cultural value of German society that still remains prevalent even to this day.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, this argument maintains, the "failure" of 1848 reaffirmed latent aristocratic longings among the German middle class; consequently, this group never developed a self-conscious program of modernization.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>More recent scholarship has rejected this idea, claiming that Germany did not have an actual "distinctive path" any more than any other nation, a historiographic idea known as <a href="/wiki/Exceptionalism" title="Exceptionalism">exceptionalism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbournEley1984Part_1_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbournEley1984Part_1-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead, modern historians claim 1848 saw specific achievements by the liberal politicians. Many of their ideas and programs were later incorporated into Bismarck's social programs (e.g., social insurance, education programs, and wider definitions of suffrage). In addition, the notion of a distinctive path relies upon the underlying assumption that some other nation's path (in this case, the United Kingdom's) is the accepted norm.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbournEley1984Chapter_2_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbournEley1984Chapter_2-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This new argument further challenges the norms of the British-centric model of development: studies of national development in Britain and other "normal" states (e.g., France or the United States) have suggested that even in these cases, the modern nation-state did not develop evenly. Nor did it develop particularly early, being rather a largely mid-to-late-19th-century phenomenon.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbournEley1984286–293_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbournEley1984286–293-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the end of the 1990s, this view has become widely accepted, although some historians still find the <i>Sonderweg</i> analysis helpful in understanding the period of <a href="/wiki/National_Socialism" class="mw-redirect" title="National Socialism">National Socialism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Problem_of_spheres_of_influence:_The_Erfurt_Union_and_the_Punctation_of_Olmütz"><span id="Problem_of_spheres_of_influence:_The_Erfurt_Union_and_the_Punctation_of_Olm.C3.BCtz"></span>Problem of spheres of influence: The Erfurt Union and the Punctation of Olmütz</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Germany&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Problem of spheres of influence: The Erfurt Union and the Punctation of Olmütz"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Image_Germania_(painting).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="The allegorical figure of Germania (robed woman, sword, flowing hair) is standing, holding sword" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Image_Germania_%28painting%29.jpg/220px-Image_Germania_%28painting%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="334" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Image_Germania_%28painting%29.jpg/330px-Image_Germania_%28painting%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Image_Germania_%28painting%29.jpg/440px-Image_Germania_%28painting%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1772" data-file-height="2690" /></a><figcaption>This depiction of <i>Germania</i>, also by <a href="/wiki/Philipp_Veit" title="Philipp Veit">Philipp Veit</a>, was created to hide the organ of the <a href="/wiki/Paulskirche" class="mw-redirect" title="Paulskirche">Paul's Church</a> in Frankfurt, during the meeting of the Parliament there, March 1848–49. The sword was intended to symbolize the <i>Word of God</i> and to mark the renewal of the people and their triumphant spirit.</figcaption></figure> <p>After the Frankfurt Parliament disbanded, Frederick William IV, under the influence of General <a href="/wiki/Joseph_von_Radowitz" title="Joseph von Radowitz">Joseph Maria von Radowitz</a>, supported the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Erfurt_Union" title="Erfurt Union">Erfurt Union</a>—a federation of German states, excluding Austria—by the free agreement of the German princes. This limited union under Prussia would have almost eliminated Austrian influence on the other German states. Combined diplomatic pressure from Austria and Russia (a guarantor of the 1815 agreements that established European spheres of influence) forced Prussia to relinquish the idea of the Erfurt Union at a meeting in the small town of <a href="/wiki/Olomouc" title="Olomouc">Olmütz</a> in Moravia. In November 1850, the Prussians—specifically Radowitz and Frederick William—agreed to the restoration of the German Confederation under Austrian leadership. This became known as the <a href="/wiki/Punctation_of_Olm%C3%BCtz" title="Punctation of Olmütz">Punctation of Olmütz</a>, but among Prussians it was known as the "Humiliation of Olmütz."<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although seemingly minor events, the Erfurt Union proposal and the Punctation of Olmütz brought the problems of influence in the German states into sharp focus. The question became not a matter of <i>if</i> but rather <i>when</i> unification would occur, and <i>when</i> was contingent upon strength. One of the former Frankfurt Parliament members, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gustav_Droysen" title="Johann Gustav Droysen">Johann Gustav Droysen</a>, summed up the problem: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p> We cannot conceal the fact that the whole <a href="/wiki/German_question" title="German question">German question</a> is a simple alternative between Prussia and Austria. In these states, German life has its positive and negative poles—in the former, all the interests [that] are national and reformative, in the latter, all that are dynastic and destructive. The German question is not a constitutional question but a question of power; and the Prussian monarchy is now wholly German, while that of Austria cannot be.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Unification under these conditions raised a basic diplomatic problem. The possibility of German (or <a href="/wiki/Italian_unification" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian unification">Italian</a>) unification would overturn the overlapping <a href="/wiki/Sphere_of_influence" title="Sphere of influence">spheres of influence</a> system created in 1815 at the Congress of Vienna. The principal architects of this convention, <a href="/wiki/Klemens_Wenzel,_Prince_von_Metternich" class="mw-redirect" title="Klemens Wenzel, Prince von Metternich">Metternich</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Stewart,_Viscount_Castlereagh" title="Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh">Castlereagh</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Russia" title="Alexander I of Russia">Tsar Alexander</a> (with his foreign secretary Count <a href="/wiki/Karl_Nesselrode" title="Karl Nesselrode">Karl Nesselrode</a>), had conceived of and organized a Europe balanced and guaranteed by four "<a href="/wiki/Great_powers" class="mw-redirect" title="Great powers">great powers</a>": Great Britain, France, Russia, and Austria, with each power having a geographic sphere of influence. France's sphere included the Iberian Peninsula and a share of influence in the Italian states. Russia's included the eastern regions of Central Europe and a balancing influence in the Balkans. Austria's sphere expanded throughout much of the Central European territories formerly held by the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>. Britain's sphere was the rest of the world, especially the seas.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZamoyski2007100–115_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZamoyski2007100–115-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This sphere of influence system depended upon the fragmentation of the German and Italian states, not their consolidation. Consequently, a German nation united under one banner presented significant questions. There was no readily applicable definition for who the German people would be or how far the borders of a German nation would stretch. There was also uncertainty as to who would best lead and defend "Germany", however it was defined. Different groups offered different solutions to this problem. In the <i><a href="/wiki/Kleindeutschland" class="mw-redirect" title="Kleindeutschland">Kleindeutschland</a></i> ("Lesser Germany") solution, the German states would be united under the leadership of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Hohenzollern" title="House of Hohenzollern">Prussian Hohenzollerns</a>; in the <i><a href="/wiki/Kleindeutschland_and_Gro%C3%9Fdeutschland" class="mw-redirect" title="Kleindeutschland and Großdeutschland">Grossdeutschland</a></i> ("Greater Germany") solution, the German states would be united under the leadership of the <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Austrian Habsburgs</a>. This controversy, the latest phase of the <a href="/wiki/German_dualism" class="mw-redirect" title="German dualism">German dualism</a> debate that had dominated the politics of the German states and Austro-Prussian diplomacy since the 1701 creation of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Kingdom of Prussia</a>, would come to a head during the following twenty years.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1998160–175_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1998160–175-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="External_expectations_of_a_unified_Germany">External expectations of a unified Germany</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Germany&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External expectations of a unified Germany"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Other nationalists had high hopes for the German unification movement, and the frustration with lasting German unification after 1850 seemed to set the national movement back. Revolutionaries associated national unification with progress. As <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Giuseppe Garibaldi</a> wrote to German revolutionary <a href="/wiki/Karl_Blind" title="Karl Blind">Karl Blind</a> on 10 April 1865, "The progress of humanity seems to have come to a halt, and you with your superior intelligence will know why. The reason is that the world lacks a nation [that] possesses true leadership. Such leadership, of course, is required not to dominate other peoples but to lead them along the path of duty, to lead them toward the brotherhood of nations where all the barriers erected by egoism will be destroyed." Garibaldi looked to Germany for the "kind of leadership [that], in the true tradition of medieval chivalry, would devote itself to redressing wrongs, supporting the weak, sacrificing momentary gains and material advantage for the much finer and more satisfying achievement of relieving the suffering of our fellow men. We need a nation courageous enough to give us a lead in this direction. It would rally to its cause all those who are suffering wrong or who aspire to a better life and all those who are now enduring foreign oppression." <sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>German unification had also been viewed as a prerequisite for the creation of a European federation, which <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Giuseppe Mazzini</a> and other European patriots had been promoting for more than three decades: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p> In the spring of 1834, while at Berne, Mazzini and a dozen refugees from Italy, Poland and Germany founded a new association with the grandiose name of <a href="/wiki/Young_Europe" title="Young Europe">Young Europe</a>. Its basic, and equally grandiose idea, was that, as the French Revolution of 1789 had enlarged the concept of individual liberty, another revolution would now be needed for national liberty; and his vision went further because he hoped that in the no doubt distant future free nations might combine to form a loosely federal Europe with some kind of federal assembly to regulate their common interests. [...] His intention was nothing less than to overturn the European settlement agreed [to] in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna, which had reestablished an oppressive hegemony of a few great powers and blocked the emergence of smaller nations. [...] Mazzini hoped, but without much confidence, that his vision of a league or society of independent nations would be realized in his own lifetime. In practice Young Europe lacked the money and popular support for more than a short-term existence. Nevertheless he always remained faithful to the ideal of a united continent for which the creation of individual nations would be an indispensable preliminary.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prussia's_growing_strength:_Realpolitik"><span id="Prussia.27s_growing_strength:_Realpolitik"></span>Prussia's growing strength: <i>Realpolitik</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Germany&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Prussia's growing strength: Realpolitik"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BismarckRoonMoltke.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="three men in military uniforms carrying pickel helmets—the ones with pikes sticking out of the crowns" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/BismarckRoonMoltke.jpg/220px-BismarckRoonMoltke.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/BismarckRoonMoltke.jpg/330px-BismarckRoonMoltke.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/BismarckRoonMoltke.jpg/440px-BismarckRoonMoltke.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="794" /></a><figcaption>The convergence of leadership in politics and diplomacy by Bismarck, left, reorganization of the army and its training techniques by <a href="/wiki/Albrecht_von_Roon" title="Albrecht von Roon">Albrecht von Roon</a> (center), and the redesign of operational and strategic principles by <a href="/wiki/Helmuth_von_Moltke_the_Elder" title="Helmuth von Moltke the Elder">Helmuth von Moltke</a> (right) placed Prussia among the most powerful states in European affairs after the 1860s.</figcaption></figure> <p>King <a href="/wiki/Frederick_William_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederick William IV">Frederick William IV</a> suffered a stroke in 1857 and could no longer rule. This led to his brother <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_I,_German_Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilhelm I, German Emperor">William</a> becoming <a href="/wiki/Prince_regent" title="Prince regent">prince regent</a> of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1858. Meanwhile, <a href="/wiki/Helmuth_von_Moltke_the_Elder" title="Helmuth von Moltke the Elder">Helmuth von Moltke</a> had become chief of the <a href="/wiki/Prussian_General_Staff" class="mw-redirect" title="Prussian General Staff">Prussian General Staff</a> in 1857, and <a href="/wiki/Albrecht_von_Roon" title="Albrecht von Roon">Albrecht von Roon</a> would become <a href="/wiki/Prussian_Minister_of_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Prussian Minister of War">Prussian Minister of War</a> in 1859.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoltChilton191727_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoltChilton191727-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This shuffling of authority within the Prussian military establishment would have important consequences. Von Roon and William (who took an active interest in military structures) began reorganizing the Prussian army, while Moltke redesigned the strategic defense of Prussia by streamlining operational command. Prussian army reforms (especially how to pay for them) caused a <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_crisis" title="Constitutional crisis">constitutional crisis</a> beginning in 1860 because both parliament and William—via his minister of war—wanted control over the military budget. William, crowned King Wilhelm I in 1861, appointed <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Otto von Bismarck</a> to the position of <a href="/wiki/Minister-President_of_Prussia" class="mw-redirect" title="Minister-President of Prussia">Minister-President of Prussia</a> in 1862. Bismarck resolved the crisis in favor of the war minister.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoltChilton191713–14_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoltChilton191713–14-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a> of 1854–55 and the <a href="/wiki/Second_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="Second Italian War of Independence">Italian War of 1859</a> disrupted relations among Great Britain, France, Austria, and Russia. In the aftermath of this disarray, the convergence of von Moltke's operational redesign, von Roon and Wilhelm's army restructure, and Bismarck's diplomacy influenced the realignment of the European balance of power. Their combined agendas established Prussia as the leading German power through a combination of foreign diplomatic triumphs—backed up by the possible use of Prussian military might—and an internal conservatism tempered by pragmatism, which came to be known as <i><a href="/wiki/Realpolitik" title="Realpolitik">Realpolitik</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1998175–179_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1998175–179-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bismarck expressed the essence of <i>Realpolitik</i> in his subsequently famous <a href="/wiki/Blood_and_Iron_(speech)" title="Blood and Iron (speech)">"Blood and Iron" speech</a> to the Budget Committee of the Prussian Chamber of Deputies on 30 September 1862, shortly after he became Minister President: "The great questions of the time will not be resolved by speeches and majority decisions—that was the great mistake of 1848 and 1849—but by iron and blood."<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bismarck's words, "iron and blood" (or "blood and iron", as often attributed), have often been misappropriated as evidence of a German lust for blood and power.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbournEley1984Part_I_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbournEley1984Part_I-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> First, the phrase from his speech "the great questions of time will not be resolved by speeches and majority decisions" is often interpreted as a repudiation of the political process—a repudiation Bismarck did not himself advocate.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Second, his emphasis on blood and iron did not imply simply the unrivaled military might of the Prussian army but rather two important aspects: the ability of the assorted German states to produce iron and other related war materials and the willingness to use those war materials if necessary.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 1862, when Bismarck made his speech, the idea of a German nation-state in the peaceful spirit of <a href="/wiki/Pan-Germanism" title="Pan-Germanism">Pan-Germanism</a> had shifted from the liberal and democratic character of 1848 to accommodate Bismarck's more conservative <i>Realpolitik</i>. Bismarck sought to link a unified state to the Hohenzollern dynasty, which for some historians remains one of Bismarck's primary contributions to the creation of the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a> in 1871.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward196140_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward196140-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the conditions of the treaties binding the various German states to one another prohibited Bismarck from taking unilateral action, the politician and diplomat in him realized the impracticality of this.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMann1958390–395_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMann1958390–395-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To get the German states to unify, Bismarck needed a single, outside enemy that would declare war on one of the German states first, thus providing a <i><a href="/wiki/Casus_belli" title="Casus belli">casus belli</a></i> to rally all Germans behind. This opportunity arose with the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War">Franco-Prussian War</a> in 1870. Historians have long debated Bismarck's role in the events leading up to the war. The traditional view, promulgated in large part by late 19th- and early 20th-century pro-Prussian historians, maintains that Bismarck's intent was always German unification. Post-1945 historians, however, see more short-term opportunism and cynicism in Bismarck's manipulation of the circumstances to create a war, rather than a grand scheme to unify a nation-state.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor1988Chapter_1_and_Conclusion_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor1988Chapter_1_and_Conclusion-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Regardless of motivation, by manipulating events of 1866 and 1870, Bismarck demonstrated the political and diplomatic skill that had caused Wilhelm to turn to him in 1862.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward196140–57_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward196140–57-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jutland_Peninsula_map.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Jutland_Peninsula_map.PNG/240px-Jutland_Peninsula_map.PNG" decoding="async" width="240" height="434" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Jutland_Peninsula_map.PNG/360px-Jutland_Peninsula_map.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Jutland_Peninsula_map.PNG/480px-Jutland_Peninsula_map.PNG 2x" data-file-width="5833" data-file-height="10536" /></a><figcaption>From north to south: The Danish part of <a href="/wiki/Jutland" title="Jutland">Jutland</a> in purple and terracotta, <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Schleswig" title="Duchy of Schleswig">Schleswig</a> in red and brown, and <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Holstein" title="Duchy of Holstein">Holstein</a> in lime yellow. The <a href="/wiki/Schleswig-Holstein_Question" class="mw-redirect" title="Schleswig-Holstein Question">Schleswig-Holstein Question</a> was about the status of those territories.</figcaption></figure> <p>Three episodes proved fundamental to the unification of Germany. First, the death <a href="/wiki/Frederick_VII_of_Denmark#Succession_crisis" title="Frederick VII of Denmark">without male heirs</a> of <a href="/wiki/Frederick_VII_of_Denmark" title="Frederick VII of Denmark">Frederick VII of Denmark</a> led to the <a href="/wiki/Second_War_of_Schleswig" class="mw-redirect" title="Second War of Schleswig">Second War of Schleswig</a> in 1864. Second, the <a href="/wiki/Italian_unification" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian unification">unification of Italy</a> provided Prussia an ally against Austria in the <a href="/wiki/Austro-Prussian_War" title="Austro-Prussian War">Austro-Prussian War</a> of 1866. Finally, France—fearing Hohenzollern encirclement—declared war on Prussia in 1870, resulting in the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War">Franco-Prussian War</a>. Through a combination of Bismarck's diplomacy and political leadership, <a href="/wiki/Albrecht_von_Roon" title="Albrecht von Roon">von Roon</a>'s military reorganization, and <a href="/wiki/Helmuth_von_Moltke_the_Elder" title="Helmuth von Moltke the Elder">von Moltke</a>'s military strategy, Prussia demonstrated that none of the European signatories of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1815)" title="Treaty of Paris (1815)">1815 peace treaty</a> could guarantee Austria's sphere of influence in Central Europe, thus achieving Prussian hegemony in Germany and ending the dualism debate.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Schleswig-Holstein_Question">The Schleswig-Holstein Question</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Germany&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: The Schleswig-Holstein Question"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Schleswig%E2%80%93Holstein_question" title="Schleswig–Holstein question">Schleswig–Holstein question</a></div> <p>The first episode in the saga of German unification under Bismarck came with the Schleswig-Holstein Question. On 15 November 1863, <a href="/wiki/Christian_IX_of_Denmark" title="Christian IX of Denmark">Christian IX</a> became king of Denmark and duke of <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Schleswig" title="Duchy of Schleswig">Schleswig</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Holstein" title="Duchy of Holstein">Holstein</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Saxe-Lauenburg#Post-Napoleon" title="Saxe-Lauenburg">Lauenburg</a>, which the Danish king held in <a href="/wiki/Personal_union" title="Personal union">personal union</a>. On 18 November 1863, he signed the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Schleswig-Holstein#The_November_Constitution" title="History of Schleswig-Holstein">Danish November Constitution</a> which replaced The Law of Sjælland and The Law of Jutland, which meant the new constitution applied to the Duchy of Schleswig. The <a href="/wiki/German_Confederation" title="German Confederation">German Confederation</a> saw this act as a violation of the <a href="/wiki/London_Protocol_(1852)" title="London Protocol (1852)">London Protocol of 1852</a>, which emphasized the status of the Kingdom of Denmark as distinct from the three independent duchies. The German Confederation could use the ethnicities of the area as a rallying cry: Holstein and Lauenburg were largely of German origin and spoke German in everyday life, while Schleswig had a significant Danish population and history. Diplomatic attempts to have the November Constitution repealed collapsed, and fighting began when Prussian and Austrian troops crossed the <a href="/wiki/Eider_(river)" title="Eider (river)">Eider river</a> on 1 February 1864.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Initially, the Danes attempted to defend their country using an ancient earthen wall known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Danevirke" title="Danevirke">Danevirke</a></i>, but this proved futile. The Danes were no match for the combined Prussian and Austrian forces and their modern armaments. The <a href="/wiki/Needle_gun" title="Needle gun">needle gun</a>, one of the first <a href="/wiki/Bolt_action_rifle" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolt action rifle">bolt action rifles</a> to be used in conflict, aided the Prussians in both this war and the <a href="/wiki/Austro-Prussian_War" title="Austro-Prussian War">Austro-Prussian War</a> two years later. The rifle enabled a Prussian soldier to fire five shots while lying prone, while its muzzle-loading counterpart could only fire one shot and had to be reloaded while standing. The <a href="/wiki/Second_Schleswig_War" title="Second Schleswig War">Second Schleswig War</a> resulted in victory for the combined armies of Prussia and Austria, and the two countries won control of Schleswig and Holstein in the concluding <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Vienna_(1864)" title="Treaty of Vienna (1864)">peace of Vienna</a>, signed on 30 October 1864.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoltChilton191775_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoltChilton191775-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="War_between_Austria_and_Prussia,_1866"><span id="War_between_Austria_and_Prussia.2C_1866"></span>War between Austria and Prussia, 1866</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Germany&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: War between Austria and Prussia, 1866"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Austro-Prussian_War" title="Austro-Prussian War">Austro-Prussian War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map-AustroPrussianWar.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Map-AustroPrussianWar.svg/290px-Map-AustroPrussianWar.svg.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Map-AustroPrussianWar.svg/435px-Map-AustroPrussianWar.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Map-AustroPrussianWar.svg/580px-Map-AustroPrussianWar.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1697" data-file-height="1576" /></a><figcaption>Situation at the time of the outbreak of the war: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#0062BD ; color:white;"> </span> Prussia</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#FF5850 ; color:black;"> </span> Austria</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#04C6FF ; color:black;"> </span> Prussia's allies</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#FFB1BD ; color:black;"> </span> Austria's allies</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#2DDDA0 ; color:black;"> </span> Neutral members of the German Confederation</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#FFFF00 ; color:black;"> </span> Under joint administration (Schleswig-Holstein)</div></figcaption></figure> <p>The second episode in Bismarck's unification efforts occurred in 1866. In concert with <a href="/wiki/Italian_unification" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian unification">the newly formed Italy</a>, Bismarck created a diplomatic environment in which Austria declared war on Prussia. The dramatic prelude to the war occurred largely in Frankfurt, where the two powers claimed to speak for all the German states in the parliament. In April 1866, the Prussian representative in <a href="/wiki/Florence" title="Florence">Florence</a> signed a secret agreement with the Italian government, committing each state to assist the other in a war against Austria. The next day, the Prussian delegate to the Frankfurt assembly presented a plan calling for a national constitution, a directly elected national Diet, and universal suffrage. German liberals were justifiably skeptical of this plan, having witnessed Bismarck's difficult and ambiguous relationship with the Prussian <i>Landtag</i> (State Parliament), a relationship characterized by Bismarck's cajoling and riding roughshod over the representatives. These skeptics saw the proposal as a ploy to enhance Prussian power rather than a progressive agenda of reform.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Choosing_sides">Choosing sides</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Germany&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Choosing sides"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The debate over the proposed national constitution became moot when news of Italian troop movements in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Tyrol" title="History of Tyrol">Tyrol</a> and near the Venetian border reached Vienna in April 1866. The Austrian government ordered partial <a href="/wiki/Mobilization" title="Mobilization">mobilization</a> in the southern regions; the Italians responded by ordering full mobilization. Despite calls for rational thought and action, Italy, Prussia, and Austria continued to rush toward armed conflict. On 1 May, Wilhelm gave <a href="/wiki/Helmuth_Graf_von_Moltke" class="mw-redirect" title="Helmuth Graf von Moltke">von Moltke</a> command over the Prussian armed forces, and the next day he began full-scale mobilization.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the Diet, the group of middle-sized states, known as <i>Mittelstaaten</i> (<a href="/wiki/Bavaria" title="Bavaria">Bavaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/W%C3%BCrttemberg" title="Württemberg">Württemberg</a>, the grand duchies of <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Baden" title="Grand Duchy of Baden">Baden</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse" title="Grand Duchy of Hesse">Hesse</a>, and the duchies of <a href="/wiki/Saxe-Weimar" title="Saxe-Weimar">Saxony–Weimar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saxe-Meiningen" title="Saxe-Meiningen">Saxony–Meiningen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saxe-Coburg" title="Saxe-Coburg">Saxony–Coburg</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nassau,_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Nassau, Germany">Nassau</a>), supported complete demobilization within the Confederation. These individual governments rejected the potent combination of enticing promises and subtle (or outright) threats Bismarck used to try to gain their support against the Habsburgs. The Prussian <a href="/wiki/War_cabinet" title="War cabinet">war cabinet</a> understood that its only supporters among the German states against the Habsburgs were two small principalities bordering on <a href="/wiki/Brandenburg" title="Brandenburg">Brandenburg</a> that had little military strength or political clout: the Grand Duchies of <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Mecklenburg-Schwerin" title="Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin">Mecklenburg-Schwerin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Mecklenburg-Strelitz" title="Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz">Mecklenburg-Strelitz</a>. They also understood that Prussia's only ally abroad was Italy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989905–906_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989905–906-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Opposition to Prussia's strong-armed tactics surfaced in other social and political groups. Throughout the German states, city councils, liberal parliamentary members who favored a unified state, and chambers of commerce—which would see great benefits from unification—opposed any war between Prussia and Austria. They believed any such conflict would only serve the interests of royal dynasties. Their own interests, which they understood as "civil" or "bourgeois", seemed irrelevant. Public opinion also opposed Prussian domination. Catholic populations along the <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</a>—especially in such cosmopolitan regions as <a href="/wiki/Cologne" title="Cologne">Cologne</a> and in the heavily populated <a href="/wiki/Ruhr" title="Ruhr">Ruhr</a> Valley—continued to support Austria. By late spring, most important states opposed Berlin's effort to reorganize the German states by force. The Prussian cabinet saw German unity as an issue of power and a question of who had the strength and will to wield that power. Meanwhile, the liberals in the Frankfurt assembly saw German unity as a process of negotiation that would lead to the distribution of power among the many parties.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989909_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989909-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Austria_isolated">Austria isolated</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Germany&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Austria isolated"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1866_prinz-friedrich-karl-bei-koeniggraetz_1b-640x428.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="officer on horseback ordering his enthusiastic massed infantry into battle" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/1866_prinz-friedrich-karl-bei-koeniggraetz_1b-640x428.jpg/290px-1866_prinz-friedrich-karl-bei-koeniggraetz_1b-640x428.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/1866_prinz-friedrich-karl-bei-koeniggraetz_1b-640x428.jpg/435px-1866_prinz-friedrich-karl-bei-koeniggraetz_1b-640x428.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/1866_prinz-friedrich-karl-bei-koeniggraetz_1b-640x428.jpg/580px-1866_prinz-friedrich-karl-bei-koeniggraetz_1b-640x428.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="428" /></a><figcaption>Prussian Prince <a href="/wiki/Prince_Frederick_Charles_of_Prussia" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince Frederick Charles of Prussia">Friedrich Carl</a> ordering his enthusiastic troops to attack at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_K%C3%B6niggr%C3%A4tz" title="Battle of Königgrätz">Battle of Königgrätz</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Although several German states initially sided with Austria, they stayed on the defensive and failed to take effective initiatives against Prussian troops. The Austrian army therefore faced the <a href="/wiki/Needle_gun#Dreyse_needle_gun" title="Needle gun">technologically superior</a> Prussian army with support only from <a href="/wiki/Saxony" title="Saxony">Saxony</a>. France promised aid, but it came late and was insufficient.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro199650–60,_75–79_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro199650–60,_75–79-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Complicating the situation for Austria, the Italian mobilization on Austria's southern border required a diversion of forces away from battle with Prussia to fight the <a href="/wiki/Third_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="Third Italian War of Independence">Third Italian War of Independence</a> on a second front in <a href="/wiki/Venetia_(region)" class="mw-redirect" title="Venetia (region)">Venetia</a> and on the Adriatic sea.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro199657–75_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro199657–75-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map-AustroPrussianWar-annexed.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Map-AustroPrussianWar-annexed.svg/290px-Map-AustroPrussianWar-annexed.svg.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Map-AustroPrussianWar-annexed.svg/435px-Map-AustroPrussianWar-annexed.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Map-AustroPrussianWar-annexed.svg/580px-Map-AustroPrussianWar-annexed.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1697" data-file-height="1576" /></a><figcaption>Aftermath of the war: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#0062BD ; color:white;"> </span> Prussia</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#81ABDE ; color:black;"> </span> Territories annexed by Prussia</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#04C6FF ; color:black;"> </span> Prussia's allies</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#FF5850 ; color:black;"> </span> Austria</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#FFB1BD ; color:black;"> </span> Austria's allies</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#2DDDA0 ; color:black;"> </span> Neutral members of the German Confederation</div></figcaption></figure> <p>A quick peace was essential to keep Russia from entering the conflict on Austria's side.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor198887–88_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor198887–88-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the day-long <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_K%C3%B6niggr%C3%A4tz" title="Battle of Königgrätz">Battle of Königgrätz</a>, near the village of <a href="/wiki/Sadov%C3%A1" title="Sadová">Sadová</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prince_Frederick_Charles_of_Prussia" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince Frederick Charles of Prussia">Friedrich Carl</a> and his troops arrived late, and in the wrong place. Once he arrived, however, he ordered his troops immediately into the fray. The battle was a decisive victory for Prussia and forced the Habsburgs to end the war with the unfavorable <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Prague_(1866)" title="Peace of Prague (1866)">Peace of Prague</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989908–909_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989908–909-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> laying the groundwork for the <i>Kleindeutschland</i> (little Germany) solution, or "Germany without Austria." </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Founding_a_unified_state">Founding a unified state</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Germany&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Founding a unified state"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><i>There is, in political geography, no Germany proper to speak of. There are Kingdoms and Grand Duchies, and Duchies and Principalities, inhabited by Germans, and each [is] separately ruled by an independent sovereign with all the machinery of State. Yet there is a natural undercurrent tending to a national feeling and toward a union of the Germans into one great nation, ruled by one common head as a national unit.</i></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>article from <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i> published on July 1, 1866<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Peace_of_Prague_and_the_North_German_Confederation">Peace of Prague and the North German Confederation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Germany&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Peace of Prague and the North German Confederation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Prague_(1866)" title="Peace of Prague (1866)">Peace of Prague</a> sealed the dissolution of the <a href="/wiki/German_Confederation" title="German Confederation">German Confederation</a>. Its former leading state, the Austrian Empire, was along with the majority of its allies excluded from the ensuing <a href="/wiki/North_German_Confederation_Treaty" title="North German Confederation Treaty">North German Confederation Treaty</a> sponsored by Prussia which directly annexed <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hanover" title="Kingdom of Hanover">Hanover</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electorate_of_Hesse" title="Electorate of Hesse">Hesse-Kassel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Nassau" class="mw-redirect" title="Duke of Nassau">Nassau</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Free_City_of_Frankfurt" title="Free City of Frankfurt">city of Frankfurt</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse" title="Grand Duchy of Hesse">Hesse Darmstadt</a> lost some territory but kept its statehood. At the same time, the original East Prussian cradle of the Prussian statehood as well as the Prussian-held Polish- or Kashubian-speaking territories of <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Posen" title="Province of Posen">Province of Posen</a> and <a href="/wiki/West_Prussia" title="West Prussia">West Prussia</a> were formally annexed into the <a href="/wiki/North_German_Confederation" title="North German Confederation">North German Confederation</a>, thus Germany. Following adoption of the <a href="/wiki/North_German_Constitution" title="North German Constitution">North German Constitution</a>, the new state obtained its own constitution, flag, and governmental and administrative structures.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Through military victory, Prussia under Bismarck's influence had overcome Austria's active resistance to the idea of a unified Germany. The states south of the <a href="/wiki/Main_(river)" title="Main (river)">Main</a> River (Baden, Württemberg, and Bavaria) signed separate treaties requiring them to pay indemnities and to form alliances bringing them into Prussia's sphere of influence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989910_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989910-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Austria's influence over the German states may have been broken, but the war also splintered the spirit of pan-German unity, as many German states resented Prussian power politics.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1998225–269Chapter_V:_''From_Reaction_to_Unification''_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1998225–269Chapter_V:_''From_Reaction_to_Unification''-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Unified_Italy_and_Austro-Hungarian_Compromise">Unified Italy and Austro-Hungarian Compromise</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Germany&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Unified Italy and Austro-Hungarian Compromise"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Compromise_of_1867" title="Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867">Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Prague_(1866)" title="Peace of Prague (1866)">Peace of Prague</a> offered lenient terms to Austria but its relationship with the new nation-state of Italy underwent major restructuring. Although the Austrians were far more successful in the military field against Italian troops, the monarchy lost the important province of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Lombardy%E2%80%93Venetia" title="Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia">Venetia</a>. The Habsburgs ceded Venetia to France, which then formally transferred control to Italy.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The end of Austrian dominance of the German states shifted Austria's attention to the Balkans. The reality of defeat for Austria also caused a reevaluation of internal divisions, local autonomy, and liberalism.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1867, the Austrian emperor <a href="/wiki/Franz_Joseph_I_of_Austria" title="Franz Joseph I of Austria">Franz Joseph</a> accepted a settlement (the <a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Compromise_of_1867" title="Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867">Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867</a>) in which he gave his Hungarian holdings equal status with his Austrian domains, creating the Dual Monarchy of <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989905–910_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989905–910-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="War_with_France">War with France</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Germany&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: War with France"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The French public resented the Prussian victory and demanded <i>Revanche pour Sadová</i> ("Revenge for Sadova"), illustrating anti-Prussian sentiment in France—a problem that would accelerate in the months leading up to the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War">Franco-Prussian War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Austro-Prussian War also damaged relations with the French government. At a meeting in <a href="/wiki/Biarritz" title="Biarritz">Biarritz</a> in September 1865 with <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_III" title="Napoleon III">Napoleon III</a>, Bismarck had let it be understood (or Napoleon had thought he understood) that France might annex parts of Belgium and <a href="/wiki/Luxembourg" title="Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a> in exchange for its neutrality in the war. These annexations did not happen, resulting in animosity from Napoleon towards Bismarck.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Background">Background</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Germany&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Franco-Prussian_War" title="Causes of the Franco-Prussian War">Causes of the Franco-Prussian War</a></div> <p>By 1870 three of the important lessons of the Austro-Prussian war had become apparent. The first lesson was that, through force of arms, a powerful state could challenge the old alliances and spheres of influence established in 1815. Second, through diplomatic maneuvering, a skilful leader could create an environment in which a rival state would declare war first, thus forcing states allied with the "victim" of external aggression to come to the leader's aid. Finally, as Prussian military capacity far exceeded that of Austria, Prussia was clearly the only state within the Confederation (or among the German states generally) capable of protecting all of them from potential interference or aggression. In 1866, most mid-sized German states had opposed Prussia, but by 1870 these states had been coerced and coaxed into mutually protective alliances with Prussia. If a European state declared war on one of their members, then they all would come to the defense of the attacked state. With skilful manipulation of European politics, Bismarck created a situation in which France would play the role of aggressor in German affairs, while Prussia would play that of the protector of German rights and liberties.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward19614–60_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward19614–60-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Metternich and his conservative allies had reestablished the Spanish monarchy under <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_VII_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferdinand VII of Spain">King Ferdinand VII</a>. Over the following forty years, the great powers supported the Spanish monarchy, but events in 1868 would further test the old system, finally providing the external trigger needed by Bismarck.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Spanish_prelude">Spanish prelude</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Germany&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Spanish prelude"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A revolution in Spain overthrew <a href="/wiki/Isabella_II_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Isabella II of Spain">Queen Isabella II</a>, and the throne remained empty while Isabella lived in sumptuous exile in Paris. The Spanish, looking for a suitable Catholic successor, had offered the post to three European princes, each of whom was rejected by <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_III" title="Napoleon III">Napoleon III</a>, who served as regional power-broker. Finally, in 1870 the Regency offered the crown to <a href="/wiki/Leopold,_Prince_of_Hohenzollern" title="Leopold, Prince of Hohenzollern">Leopold</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen" title="Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen">Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen</a>, a prince of the Catholic cadet Hohenzollern line. The ensuing furor has been dubbed by historians as the Hohenzollern candidature.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward196150–57_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward196150–57-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over the next few weeks, the Spanish offer turned into the talk of Europe. Bismarck encouraged Leopold to accept the offer.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward196155–56_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward196155–56-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A successful installment of a Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen king in Spain would mean that two countries on either side of France would both have German kings of Hohenzollern descent. This may have been a pleasing prospect for Bismarck, but it was unacceptable to either Napoleon III or to <a href="/wiki/Agenor,_duc_de_Gramont" class="mw-redirect" title="Agenor, duc de Gramont">Agenor, duc de Gramont</a>, his minister of foreign affairs. Gramont wrote a sharply formulated ultimatum to Wilhelm, as head of the Hohenzollern family, stating that if any Hohenzollern prince should accept the crown of Spain, the French government would respond—although he left ambiguous the nature of such response. The prince withdrew as a candidate, thus defusing the crisis, but the French ambassador to Berlin would not let the issue lie.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward196156–57_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward196156–57-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He approached the Prussian king directly while Wilhelm was vacationing in <a href="/wiki/Bad_Ems" title="Bad Ems">Ems Spa</a>, demanding that the King release a statement saying he would never support the installation of a Hohenzollern on the throne of Spain. Wilhelm refused to give such an encompassing statement, and he sent Bismarck a dispatch by telegram describing the French demands. Bismarck used the king's telegram, called the <a href="/wiki/Ems_Dispatch" class="mw-redirect" title="Ems Dispatch">Ems Dispatch</a>, as a template for a short statement to the press. With its wording shortened and sharpened by Bismarck—and further alterations made in the course of its translation by the French agency <a href="/wiki/Havas" title="Havas">Havas</a>—the Ems Dispatch raised an angry furor in France. The French public, still aggravated over the defeat at Sadová, demanded war.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward196155–59_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward196155–59-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Open_hostilities_and_the_disastrous_end_of_the_Second_French_Empire">Open hostilities and the disastrous end of the Second French Empire</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Germany&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Open hostilities and the disastrous end of the Second French Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BismarckundNapoleonIII.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="a tired sick old man in French military uniform, sitting beside an erect senior officer in Prussian uniform, spiked helmet, and sword" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/BismarckundNapoleonIII.jpg/220px-BismarckundNapoleonIII.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/BismarckundNapoleonIII.jpg/330px-BismarckundNapoleonIII.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/BismarckundNapoleonIII.jpg/440px-BismarckundNapoleonIII.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1516" data-file-height="1053" /></a><figcaption>Emperor Napoleon III (left) at Sedan, on 2 September 1870, seated next to Prussian Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, holding Napoleon's surrendered sword. The defeat of the French army destabilized Napoleon's regime; a revolution in Paris established the <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">Third French Republic</a>, and the war continued.</figcaption></figure> <p>Napoleon III had tried to secure territorial concessions from both sides before and after the Austro-Prussian War, but despite his role as mediator during the peace negotiations, he ended up with nothing. He then hoped that Austria would join in a war of revenge and that its former allies—particularly the southern German states of Baden, Württemberg, and Bavaria—would join in the cause. This hope would prove futile since the 1866 treaty came into effect and united all German states militarily—if not happily—to fight against France. Instead of a war of revenge against Prussia, supported by various German allies, France engaged in a war against all of the German states without any allies of its own.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward196164–68_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward196164–68-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The reorganization of the military by <a href="/wiki/Albrecht_von_Roon" title="Albrecht von Roon">von Roon</a> and the operational strategy of <a href="/wiki/Helmuth_von_Moltke_the_Elder" title="Helmuth von Moltke the Elder">Moltke</a> combined against France to great effect. The speed of Prussian mobilization astonished the French, and the Prussian ability to concentrate power at specific points—reminiscent of Napoleon I's strategies seventy years earlier—overwhelmed French mobilization. Utilizing their efficiently laid rail grid, Prussian troops were delivered to battle areas rested and prepared to fight, whereas French troops had to march for considerable distances to reach combat zones. After a number of battles, notably <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Spicheren" title="Battle of Spicheren">Spicheren</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_W%C3%B6rth_(1870)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Wörth (1870)">Wörth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mars-la-Tour" title="Battle of Mars-la-Tour">Mars la Tour</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gravelotte" title="Battle of Gravelotte">Gravelotte</a>, the Prussians defeated the main French armies and advanced on the primary city of <a href="/wiki/Metz" title="Metz">Metz</a> and the French capital of Paris. They captured Napoleon III and took an entire army as prisoners at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sedan" title="Battle of Sedan">Sedan</a> on 1 September 1870.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward1961218–222_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward1961218–222-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Proclamation_of_the_German_Empire">Proclamation of the German Empire</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Germany&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Proclamation of the German Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_v_Werner_-_Kaiserproklamation_am_18_Januar_1871_(3._Fassung_1885).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="painting of well dressed and portly princes and dukes cheering a king on a dais" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/A_v_Werner_-_Kaiserproklamation_am_18_Januar_1871_%283._Fassung_1885%29.jpg/330px-A_v_Werner_-_Kaiserproklamation_am_18_Januar_1871_%283._Fassung_1885%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/A_v_Werner_-_Kaiserproklamation_am_18_Januar_1871_%283._Fassung_1885%29.jpg/495px-A_v_Werner_-_Kaiserproklamation_am_18_Januar_1871_%283._Fassung_1885%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/A_v_Werner_-_Kaiserproklamation_am_18_Januar_1871_%283._Fassung_1885%29.jpg/660px-A_v_Werner_-_Kaiserproklamation_am_18_Januar_1871_%283._Fassung_1885%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1482" data-file-height="1097" /></a><figcaption>January 18, 1871: The proclamation of the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Hall_of_Mirrors" title="Hall of Mirrors">Hall of Mirrors</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Versailles" title="Palace of Versailles">Palace of Versailles</a>. <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Bismarck</a> appears in white. The Grand Duke of Baden stands beside Wilhelm, leading the cheers. Crown Prince Friedrich, later <a href="/wiki/Frederick_III,_German_Emperor" title="Frederick III, German Emperor">Friedrich III</a>, stands on his father's right. Painting by <a href="/wiki/Anton_von_Werner" title="Anton von Werner">Anton von Werner</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_German_Empire" title="Proclamation of the German Empire">Proclamation of the German Empire</a></div> <p>The humiliating capture of the French emperor and the loss of the French army itself, which marched into captivity at a makeshift camp in the Saarland ("Camp Misery"), threw the French government into turmoil; Napoleon's energetic opponents overthrew his government and proclaimed the <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">Third Republic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward1961222–230_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward1961222–230-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "In the days after Sedan, Prussian envoys met with the French and demanded a large cash indemnity as well as the cession of Alsace and Lorraine. All parties in France rejected the terms, insisting that any armistice be forged "on the basis of territorial integrity." France, in other words, would pay reparations for starting the war, but would, in Jules Favre's famous phrase, "cede neither a clod of our earth nor a stone of our fortresses".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro2003235_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro2003235-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The German High Command expected an overture of peace from the French, but the new republic refused to surrender. The Prussian army <a href="/wiki/Investment_(military)" title="Investment (military)">invested</a> Paris and <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Paris_(1870%E2%80%931871)" title="Siege of Paris (1870–1871)">held it under siege until mid-January</a>, with the city being "ineffectually bombarded".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor1988126_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor1988126-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, in January, the Germans fired some 12,000 shells, 300–400 grenades daily into the city.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward1961357–370_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward1961357–370-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On January 18, 1871, the German princes and senior military commanders <a href="/wiki/William_I_of_Germany#Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="William I of Germany">proclaimed Wilhelm "German Emperor"</a> in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Frankfurt_(1871)" title="Treaty of Frankfurt (1871)">Treaty of Frankfurt</a>, France relinquished most of its traditionally German regions (<a href="/wiki/Alsace" title="Alsace">Alsace</a> and the German-speaking part of <a href="/wiki/Lorraine_(province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lorraine (province)">Lorraine</a>); paid an indemnity, calculated (on the basis of population) as the precise equivalent of the indemnity that Napoleon Bonaparte imposed on Prussia in 1807;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor1988133_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor1988133-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and accepted German administration of Paris and most of northern France, with "German troops to be withdrawn stage by stage with each installment of the indemnity payment".<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="War_as_″the_capstone_of_the_unification_process″"><span id="War_as_.E2.80.B3the_capstone_of_the_unification_process.E2.80.B3"></span>War as ″the capstone of the unification process″</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Germany&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: War as ″the capstone of the unification process″"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Victory in the Franco-Prussian War proved the capstone of the unification process. In the first half of the 1860s, Austria and Prussia both contended to speak for the German states; both maintained they could support German interests abroad and protect German interests at home. In responding to the Schleswig-Holstein Question, they both proved equally diligent in doing so. After the victory over Austria in 1866, Prussia began internally asserting its authority to speak for the German states and defend German interests, while Austria began directing more and more of its attention to possessions in the Balkans. The victory over France in 1871 expanded Prussian hegemony in the German states (aside from Austria) to the international level. With the proclamation of Wilhelm as <i>Kaiser</i>, Prussia assumed the leadership of the new empire. The southern states became officially incorporated into a unified Germany at the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles_of_1871" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Versailles of 1871">Treaty of Versailles of 1871</a> (signed 26 February 1871; later ratified in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Frankfurt_(1871)" title="Treaty of Frankfurt (1871)">Treaty of Frankfurt</a> of 10 May 1871), which formally ended the war.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward1961432–456Chapter_XI:_the_Peace_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward1961432–456Chapter_XI:_the_Peace-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although Bismarck had led the transformation of Germany from a loose confederation into a federal <a href="/wiki/Nation_state" title="Nation state">nation state</a>, he had not done it alone. Unification was achieved by building on a tradition of legal collaboration under the Holy Roman Empire and economic collaboration through the <i>Zollverein.</i> The difficulties of the <i>Vormärz</i>, the impact of the 1848 liberals, the importance of von Roon's military reorganization, and von Moltke's strategic brilliance all played a part in political unification.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1998255–257_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1998255–257-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Einheit – unity – was achieved at the expense of Freiheit – freedom. The German Empire became," in Karl Marx's words, "a military despotism cloaked in parliamentary forms with a feudal ingredient, influenced by the bourgeoisie, festooned with bureaucrats and guarded by police." Indeed, many historians would see Germany's "escape into war" in 1914 as a flight from all of the internal-political contradictions forged by Bismarck at Versailles in the fall of 1870.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro2003302_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro2003302-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Internal_political_and_administrative_unification">Internal political and administrative unification</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Germany&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Internal political and administrative unification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The new <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a> included 26 political entities: twenty-five constituent states (or <i>Bundesstaaten</i>) and one Imperial Territory (or <i>Reichsland</i>). It realized the <i><a href="/wiki/Kleindeutsche_L%C3%B6sung" class="mw-redirect" title="Kleindeutsche Lösung">Kleindeutsche Lösung</a></i> ("Lesser German Solution", with the exclusion of Austria) as opposed to a <i><a href="/wiki/German_question" title="German question">Großdeutsche Lösung</a></i> or "Greater German Solution", which would have included Austria. Unifying various states into one nation required more than some military victories, however much these might have boosted morale. It also required a rethinking of political, social, and cultural behaviors and the construction of new metaphors about "us" and "them". Who were the new members of this new nation? What did they stand for? How were they to be organized?<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConfino1997_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConfino1997-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Constituent_states_of_the_Empire">Constituent states of the Empire</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Germany&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Constituent states of the Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Though often characterized as a federation of monarchs, the German Empire, strictly speaking, federated a group of 26 constituent entities with different forms of government, ranging from the main four constitutional monarchies to the three republican <a href="/wiki/Hanseatic_League" title="Hanseatic League">Hanseatic</a> cities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvans20051_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans20051-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><br /> </p> <table> <tbody><tr> <td style="vertical-align: top; padding-right:20px"><div style="position: relative; width: 700px;"> <figure class="noresize mw-ext-imagemap-desc-top-right" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/German_Empire_states_map.svg/700px-German_Empire_states_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="700" height="846" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/German_Empire_states_map.svg/1050px-German_Empire_states_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/German_Empire_states_map.svg/1400px-German_Empire_states_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1042" data-file-height="1260" usemap="#ImageMap_b2ee62d4317b0e85" resource="/wiki/File:German_Empire_states_map.svg" 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/></map><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> </td> <td style="vertical-align: top;"> <table style="text-align: left; border-collapse: collapse; line-height: 1.3em; font-size: 90%;"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" style="background-color:#eeeee0;text-align:center;">State </th> <th style="background-color:#eeeee0">Capital </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3" style="background-color:#efefef;text-align:center;"><b>Kingdoms</b> (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Königreiche</i></span>) </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Flag_of_Prussia_%281892-1918%29.svg/25px-Flag_of_Prussia_%281892-1918%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Flag_of_Prussia_%281892-1918%29.svg/38px-Flag_of_Prussia_%281892-1918%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Flag_of_Prussia_%281892-1918%29.svg/50px-Flag_of_Prussia_%281892-1918%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="540" /></span></span> </td> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Prussia</a></b> (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Preußen</i></span>) as a whole </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Flag_of_Bavaria_%28striped%29.svg/25px-Flag_of_Bavaria_%28striped%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Flag_of_Bavaria_%28striped%29.svg/38px-Flag_of_Bavaria_%28striped%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Flag_of_Bavaria_%28striped%29.svg/50px-Flag_of_Bavaria_%28striped%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </td> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bavaria" title="Kingdom of Bavaria">Bavaria</a></b> (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Bayern</i></span>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Munich" title="Munich">Munich</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Flagge_K%C3%B6nigreich_Sachsen_%281815-1918%29.svg/25px-Flagge_K%C3%B6nigreich_Sachsen_%281815-1918%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Flagge_K%C3%B6nigreich_Sachsen_%281815-1918%29.svg/38px-Flagge_K%C3%B6nigreich_Sachsen_%281815-1918%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Flagge_K%C3%B6nigreich_Sachsen_%281815-1918%29.svg/50px-Flagge_K%C3%B6nigreich_Sachsen_%281815-1918%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span> </td> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Saxony" title="Kingdom of Saxony">Saxony</a></b> (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Sachsen</i></span>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dresden" title="Dresden">Dresden</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Flagge_K%C3%B6nigreich_W%C3%BCrttemberg.svg/25px-Flagge_K%C3%B6nigreich_W%C3%BCrttemberg.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Flagge_K%C3%B6nigreich_W%C3%BCrttemberg.svg/38px-Flagge_K%C3%B6nigreich_W%C3%BCrttemberg.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Flagge_K%C3%B6nigreich_W%C3%BCrttemberg.svg/50px-Flagge_K%C3%B6nigreich_W%C3%BCrttemberg.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="300" /></span></span> </td> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg" title="Kingdom of Württemberg">Württemberg</a></b> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Stuttgart" title="Stuttgart">Stuttgart</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3" style="background-color:#efefef;text-align:center;"><b>Grand Duchies</b> (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Großherzogtümer</i></span>) </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Baden_%281891%E2%80%931918%29.svg/25px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Baden_%281891%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Baden_%281891%E2%80%931918%29.svg/38px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Baden_%281891%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Baden_%281891%E2%80%931918%29.svg/50px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Baden_%281891%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="300" /></span></span> </td> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Baden" title="Grand Duchy of Baden">Baden</a></b> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Karlsruhe" title="Karlsruhe">Karlsruhe</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Hessen_ohne_Wappen.svg/25px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Hessen_ohne_Wappen.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Hessen_ohne_Wappen.svg/38px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Hessen_ohne_Wappen.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Hessen_ohne_Wappen.svg/50px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Hessen_ohne_Wappen.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="400" /></span></span> </td> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse" title="Grand Duchy of Hesse">Hesse</a></b> (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Hessen</i></span>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Darmstadt" title="Darmstadt">Darmstadt</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogt%C3%BCmer_Mecklenburg.svg/25px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogt%C3%BCmer_Mecklenburg.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogt%C3%BCmer_Mecklenburg.svg/38px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogt%C3%BCmer_Mecklenburg.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogt%C3%BCmer_Mecklenburg.svg/50px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogt%C3%BCmer_Mecklenburg.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span> </td> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Mecklenburg-Schwerin" title="Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin">Mecklenburg-Schwerin</a></b> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Schwerin" title="Schwerin">Schwerin</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogt%C3%BCmer_Mecklenburg.svg/25px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogt%C3%BCmer_Mecklenburg.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogt%C3%BCmer_Mecklenburg.svg/38px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogt%C3%BCmer_Mecklenburg.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogt%C3%BCmer_Mecklenburg.svg/50px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogt%C3%BCmer_Mecklenburg.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span> </td> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Mecklenburg-Strelitz" title="Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz">Mecklenburg-Strelitz</a></b> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Neustrelitz" title="Neustrelitz">Neustrelitz</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Civil_flag_of_Oldenburg.svg/25px-Civil_flag_of_Oldenburg.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Civil_flag_of_Oldenburg.svg/38px-Civil_flag_of_Oldenburg.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Civil_flag_of_Oldenburg.svg/50px-Civil_flag_of_Oldenburg.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="216" /></span></span> </td> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Oldenburg" title="Grand Duchy of Oldenburg">Oldenburg</a></b> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Oldenburg_(city)" title="Oldenburg (city)">Oldenburg</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach_%281897-1920%29.svg/25px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach_%281897-1920%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach_%281897-1920%29.svg/38px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach_%281897-1920%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach_%281897-1920%29.svg/50px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach_%281897-1920%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span> </td> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach" title="Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach">Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach</a></b> (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach</i></span>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Weimar" title="Weimar">Weimar</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3" style="background-color:#efefef;text-align:center;"><b>Duchies</b> (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Herzogtümer</i></span>) </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Flagge_Herzogtum_Anhalt.svg/25px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Anhalt.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Flagge_Herzogtum_Anhalt.svg/38px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Anhalt.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Flagge_Herzogtum_Anhalt.svg/50px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Anhalt.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span> </td> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Anhalt" title="Duchy of Anhalt">Anhalt</a></b> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dessau" title="Dessau">Dessau</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Flagge_Herzogtum_Braunschweig.svg/25px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Braunschweig.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Flagge_Herzogtum_Braunschweig.svg/38px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Braunschweig.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Flagge_Herzogtum_Braunschweig.svg/50px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Braunschweig.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span> </td> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Brunswick" title="Duchy of Brunswick">Brunswick</a></b> (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Braunschweig</i></span>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Braunschweig" title="Braunschweig">Braunschweig</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281826-1911%29.svg/25px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281826-1911%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281826-1911%29.svg/38px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281826-1911%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281826-1911%29.svg/50px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281826-1911%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span> </td> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Saxe-Altenburg" title="Saxe-Altenburg">Saxe-Altenburg</a></b> (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Sachsen-Altenburg</i></span>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Altenburg" title="Altenburg">Altenburg</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281911-1920%29.svg/25px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281911-1920%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281911-1920%29.svg/38px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281911-1920%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281911-1920%29.svg/50px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281911-1920%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span> </td> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Saxe-Coburg_and_Gotha" title="Saxe-Coburg and Gotha">Saxe-Coburg and Gotha</a></b> (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Sachsen-Coburg und Gotha</i></span>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Coburg" title="Coburg">Coburg</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281826-1911%29.svg/25px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281826-1911%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281826-1911%29.svg/38px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281826-1911%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281826-1911%29.svg/50px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281826-1911%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span> </td> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Saxe-Meiningen" title="Saxe-Meiningen">Saxe-Meiningen</a></b> (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Sachsen-Meiningen</i></span>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Meiningen" title="Meiningen">Meiningen</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3" style="background-color:#efefef;text-align:center;"><b>Principalities</b> (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Fürstentümer</i></span>) </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Lippe.svg/25px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Lippe.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Lippe.svg/38px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Lippe.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Lippe.svg/50px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Lippe.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span> </td> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Lippe" title="Principality of Lippe">Lippe</a></b> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Detmold" title="Detmold">Detmold</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Reu%C3%9F_j%C3%BCngere_Linie.svg/25px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Reu%C3%9F_j%C3%BCngere_Linie.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Reu%C3%9F_j%C3%BCngere_Linie.svg/38px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Reu%C3%9F_j%C3%BCngere_Linie.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Reu%C3%9F_j%C3%BCngere_Linie.svg/50px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Reu%C3%9F_j%C3%BCngere_Linie.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="480" /></span></span> </td> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Reuss-Gera" title="Principality of Reuss-Gera">Reuss-Gera <small>(Junior Line)</small></a></b> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gera" title="Gera">Gera</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Reu%C3%9F_%C3%A4ltere_Linie.svg/25px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Reu%C3%9F_%C3%A4ltere_Linie.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Reu%C3%9F_%C3%A4ltere_Linie.svg/38px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Reu%C3%9F_%C3%A4ltere_Linie.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Reu%C3%9F_%C3%A4ltere_Linie.svg/50px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Reu%C3%9F_%C3%A4ltere_Linie.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="405" /></span></span> </td> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Reuss-Greiz" title="Principality of Reuss-Greiz">Reuss-Greiz <small>(Elder Line)</small></a></b> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Greiz" title="Greiz">Greiz</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Schaumburg-Lippe.svg/25px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Schaumburg-Lippe.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Schaumburg-Lippe.svg/38px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Schaumburg-Lippe.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Schaumburg-Lippe.svg/50px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Schaumburg-Lippe.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span> </td> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Schaumburg-Lippe" title="Principality of Schaumburg-Lippe">Schaumburg-Lippe</a></b> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/B%C3%BCckeburg" title="Bückeburg">Bückeburg</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstent%C3%BCmer_Schwarzburg.svg/25px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstent%C3%BCmer_Schwarzburg.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstent%C3%BCmer_Schwarzburg.svg/38px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstent%C3%BCmer_Schwarzburg.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstent%C3%BCmer_Schwarzburg.svg/50px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstent%C3%BCmer_Schwarzburg.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span> </td> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt" title="Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt">Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt</a></b> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Rudolstadt" title="Rudolstadt">Rudolstadt</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstent%C3%BCmer_Schwarzburg.svg/25px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstent%C3%BCmer_Schwarzburg.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstent%C3%BCmer_Schwarzburg.svg/38px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstent%C3%BCmer_Schwarzburg.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstent%C3%BCmer_Schwarzburg.svg/50px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstent%C3%BCmer_Schwarzburg.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span> </td> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Schwarzburg-Sondershausen" title="Schwarzburg-Sondershausen">Schwarzburg-Sondershausen</a></b> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sondershausen" title="Sondershausen">Sondershausen</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg/25px-Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg/38px-Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg/50px-Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </td> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Waldeck_and_Pyrmont" title="Principality of Waldeck and Pyrmont">Waldeck and Pyrmont</a></b> (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Waldeck und Pyrmont</i></span>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Arolsen" class="mw-redirect" title="Arolsen">Arolsen</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3" style="background-color:#efefef;text-align:center;"><b>Free and Hanseatic Cities</b> (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Freie und Hansestädte</i></span>) </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Flag_of_Bremen.svg/25px-Flag_of_Bremen.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Flag_of_Bremen.svg/38px-Flag_of_Bremen.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Flag_of_Bremen.svg/50px-Flag_of_Bremen.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span> </td> <td colspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Bremen_(state)" title="Bremen (state)">Bremen</a></b> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Flag_of_Hamburg.svg/25px-Flag_of_Hamburg.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Flag_of_Hamburg.svg/38px-Flag_of_Hamburg.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Flag_of_Hamburg.svg/50px-Flag_of_Hamburg.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span> </td> <td colspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Hamburg" title="Hamburg">Hamburg</a></b> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_the_Free_City_of_L%C3%BCbeck.svg/25px-Flag_of_the_Free_City_of_L%C3%BCbeck.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_the_Free_City_of_L%C3%BCbeck.svg/38px-Flag_of_the_Free_City_of_L%C3%BCbeck.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_the_Free_City_of_L%C3%BCbeck.svg/50px-Flag_of_the_Free_City_of_L%C3%BCbeck.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="800" /></span></span> </td> <td colspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Free_City_of_L%C3%BCbeck" class="mw-redirect" title="Free City of Lübeck">Lübeck</a></b> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3" style="background-color:#efefef;text-align:center;"><b>Imperial Territories</b> (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Reichsländer</i></span>) </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Dienstflagge_Elsa%C3%9F-Lothringen_Kaiserreich.svg/25px-Dienstflagge_Elsa%C3%9F-Lothringen_Kaiserreich.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Dienstflagge_Elsa%C3%9F-Lothringen_Kaiserreich.svg/38px-Dienstflagge_Elsa%C3%9F-Lothringen_Kaiserreich.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Dienstflagge_Elsa%C3%9F-Lothringen_Kaiserreich.svg/50px-Dienstflagge_Elsa%C3%9F-Lothringen_Kaiserreich.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1200" /></span></span> </td> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Alsace%E2%80%93Lorraine" title="Alsace–Lorraine">Alsace–Lorraine</a></b> (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Elsass-Lothringen</i></span>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Strasbourg" title="Strasbourg">Straßburg</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Political_structure_of_the_Empire">Political structure of the Empire</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Germany&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Political structure of the Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The 1866 <a href="/wiki/North_German_Constitution" title="North German Constitution">North German Constitution</a> became (with some semantic adjustments) the 1871 <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_German_Empire" title="Constitution of the German Empire">Constitution of the German Empire</a>. With this constitution, the new Germany acquired some democratic features: notably the <a href="/wiki/Reichstag_(German_Empire)" title="Reichstag (German Empire)">Imperial Diet</a>, which—in contrast to the parliament of Prussia—gave citizens representation on the basis of elections by direct and equal <a href="/wiki/Universal_suffrage" title="Universal suffrage">suffrage</a> of all males who had reached the age of 25. Furthermore, elections were generally free of chicanery, engendering pride in the national parliament.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1998267_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1998267-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, legislation required the consent of the <i>Bundesrat</i>, the federal council of deputies from the states, in and over which Prussia had a powerful influence; Prussia could appoint 17 of 58 delegates with only 14 votes needed for a veto. Prussia thus exercised influence in both bodies, with executive power vested in the Prussian King as <i>Kaiser</i>, who appointed the federal chancellor. The chancellor was accountable solely to, and served entirely at the discretion of, the Emperor. Officially, the chancellor functioned as a one-man cabinet and was responsible for the conduct of all state affairs; in practice, the <a href="/wiki/State_Secretary" class="mw-redirect" title="State Secretary">State Secretaries</a> (bureaucratic top officials in charge of such fields as finance, war, foreign affairs, etc.) acted as unofficial portfolio ministers. With the exception of the years 1872–1873 and 1892–1894, the imperial chancellor was always simultaneously the prime minister of the imperial dynasty's hegemonic home-kingdom, Prussia. The Imperial Diet had the power to pass, amend, or reject bills, but it could not initiate legislation. (The power of initiating legislation rested with the chancellor.) The other states retained their own governments, but the military forces of the smaller states came under Prussian control. The militaries of the larger states (such as the Kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bavaria" title="Kingdom of Bavaria">Bavaria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Saxony" title="Kingdom of Saxony">Saxony</a>) retained some autonomy, but they underwent major reforms to coordinate with Prussian military principles and came under federal government control in wartime.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1998225–301_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1998225–301-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Historical_arguments_and_the_Empire's_social_anatomy"><span id="Historical_arguments_and_the_Empire.27s_social_anatomy"></span>Historical arguments and the Empire's social anatomy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Germany&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Historical arguments and the Empire's social anatomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Niederwald_memorial_1.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Statue of the allegorical figure Germania" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Niederwald_memorial_1.JPG/220px-Niederwald_memorial_1.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Niederwald_memorial_1.JPG/330px-Niederwald_memorial_1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Niederwald_memorial_1.JPG/440px-Niederwald_memorial_1.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption><i>Germania</i>, also called the <a href="/wiki/Niederwalddenkmal" class="mw-redirect" title="Niederwalddenkmal">Niederwald Monument</a>, was erected in 1877–83 at <a href="/wiki/R%C3%BCdesheim_am_Rhein" title="Rüdesheim am Rhein">Rüdesheim</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <i>Sonderweg</i> hypothesis attributed Germany's difficult 20th century to the weak political, legal, and economic basis of the new empire. The Prussian <a href="/wiki/Landed_elite" class="mw-redirect" title="Landed elite">landed elites</a>, the <i><a href="/wiki/Prussian_Junkers" class="mw-redirect" title="Prussian Junkers">Junkers</a></i>, retained a substantial share of political power in the unified state. The <i>Sonderweg</i> hypothesis attributed their power to the absence of a revolutionary breakthrough by the middle classes, or by peasants in combination with the urban workers, in 1848 and again in 1871. Recent research into the role of the Grand Bourgeoisie—which included bankers, merchants, industrialists, and entrepreneurs—in the construction of the new state has largely refuted the claim of political and economic dominance of the <i>Junkers</i> as a social group. This newer scholarship has demonstrated the importance of the merchant classes of the <a href="/wiki/Hanseatic_League" title="Hanseatic League">Hanseatic cities</a> and the industrial leadership (the latter particularly important in the Rhineland) in the ongoing development of the Second Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Additional studies of different groups in Wilhelmine Germany have all contributed to a new view of the period. Although the <i>Junkers</i> did, indeed, continue to control the officer corps, they did not dominate social, political, and economic matters as much as the <i>Sonderweg</i> theorists had hypothesized. Eastern <i>Junker</i> power had a counterweight in the western provinces in the form of the Grand Bourgeoisie and in the growing professional class of bureaucrats, teachers, professors, doctors, lawyers, scientists, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Beyond_the_political_mechanism:_forming_a_nation">Beyond the political mechanism: forming a nation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Germany&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Beyond the political mechanism: forming a nation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Koblenz_im_Buga-Jahr_2011_-_Deutsches_Eck_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="high angle view the confluence of two major rivers, marked by the statue of a man on a horse, with a city behind" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Koblenz_im_Buga-Jahr_2011_-_Deutsches_Eck_01.jpg/330px-Koblenz_im_Buga-Jahr_2011_-_Deutsches_Eck_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Koblenz_im_Buga-Jahr_2011_-_Deutsches_Eck_01.jpg/495px-Koblenz_im_Buga-Jahr_2011_-_Deutsches_Eck_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Koblenz_im_Buga-Jahr_2011_-_Deutsches_Eck_01.jpg/660px-Koblenz_im_Buga-Jahr_2011_-_Deutsches_Eck_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3703" data-file-height="2500" /></a><figcaption>Monument to Kaiser Wilhelm, at <a href="/wiki/Koblenz" title="Koblenz">Koblenz</a>, where the <a href="/wiki/Moselle_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Moselle River">Moselle River</a> (upper river) meets the <a href="/wiki/Rhine_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhine River">Rhine River</a> (lower river), called the <a href="/wiki/Deutsches_Eck" title="Deutsches Eck">Deutsches Eck</a>, or the German corner</figcaption></figure> <p>If the Wartburg and Hambach rallies had lacked a constitution and administrative apparatus, that problem was addressed between 1867 and 1871. Yet, as Germans discovered, grand speeches, flags, and enthusiastic crowds, a constitution, a political reorganization, and the provision of an imperial superstructure; and the revised Customs Union of 1867–68, still did not make a <a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">nation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1998240–290_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1998240–290-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A key element of the <a href="/wiki/Nation-state" class="mw-redirect" title="Nation-state">nation-state</a> is the creation of a national culture, frequently—although not necessarily—through deliberate national policy.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConfino1997_115-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConfino1997-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the new German nation, a <i><a href="/wiki/Kulturkampf" title="Kulturkampf">Kulturkampf</a></i> (1872–78) that followed political, economic, and administrative unification attempted to address, with a remarkable lack of success, some of the contradictions in German society. In particular, it involved a struggle over language, education, and religion. A policy of <a href="/wiki/Germanization" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanization">Germanization</a> of non-German people of the empire's population, including the <a href="/wiki/Polish_people" title="Polish people">Polish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Danish_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Danish people">Danish</a> minorities, started with language, in particular, the <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German language</a>, compulsory schooling (<a href="/wiki/Germanization" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanization">Germanization</a>), and the attempted creation of standardized curricula for those schools to promote and celebrate the idea of a shared past. Finally, it extended to the religion of the new Empire's population.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1998243–282_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1998243–282-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kulturkampf"><i>Kulturkampf</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Germany&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Kulturkampf"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kulturkampf" title="Kulturkampf">Kulturkampf</a></div> <p>For some Germans, the definition of <i>nation</i> did not include pluralism, and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholicism">Catholics</a> in particular came under scrutiny; some Germans, and especially Bismarck, feared that the Catholics' connection to the papacy might make them less loyal to the nation. As <a href="/wiki/Chancellor_of_Germany#Chancellor_of_the_German_Empire_(1871–1918)" title="Chancellor of Germany">chancellor</a>, Bismarck tried without much success to limit the influence of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a> and of its party-political arm, the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Centre_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Centre Party">Catholic Centre Party</a>, in schools and education- and language-related policies. The Catholic Centre Party remained particularly well entrenched in the Catholic strongholds of Bavaria and southern Baden, and in urban areas that held high populations of displaced rural workers seeking jobs in the heavy industry, and sought to protect the rights not only of Catholics, but other minorities, including the Poles, and the French minorities in the Alsatian lands.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1998283,_285–300_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1998283,_285–300-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The May Laws of 1873 brought the appointment of priests, and their education, under the control of the state, resulting in the closure of many seminaries, and a shortage of priests. The <a href="/wiki/Kulturkampf#Congregations_Law_1875" title="Kulturkampf">Congregations Law</a> of 1875 abolished religious orders, ended state subsidies to the Catholic Church, and removed religious protections from the Prussian constitution.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESperber1984_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESperber1984-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Integrating_the_Jewish_community">Integrating the Jewish community</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Germany&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Integrating the Jewish community"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Niederwald_memorial_2_crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="allegorical figure of Germania (woman with flowing robes, sword, flowing hair) standing, holding crown in right hand, sword partially sheathed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Niederwald_memorial_2_crop.jpg/220px-Niederwald_memorial_2_crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Niederwald_memorial_2_crop.jpg/330px-Niederwald_memorial_2_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Niederwald_memorial_2_crop.jpg/440px-Niederwald_memorial_2_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="955" data-file-height="1348" /></a><figcaption>In this close-up of the Niederwald Monument (see long shot above), <i>Germania</i> towers 40 meters (131 ft) above the town of Rüdesheim. She holds a crown in her right hand and carries a sword at her side. The Niederwald <i>Germania</i> was erected 1877–1883.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Germany" title="History of the Jews in Germany">Germanized Jews</a> remained another vulnerable population in the new German nation-state. Since 1780, after emancipation by the Holy Roman Emperor <a href="/wiki/Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor">Joseph II</a>, Jews in the former Habsburg territories had enjoyed considerable economic and legal privileges that their counterparts in other German-speaking territories did not: they could own land, for example, and they did not have to live in a Jewish quarter (also called the <i><a href="/wiki/Ghetto" title="Ghetto">Judengasse</a></i>, or "Jews' alley"). They could also attend universities and enter the professions. During the Revolutionary and Napoleonic eras, many of the previously strong barriers between Jews and Christians broke down. Napoleon had ordered the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_emancipation" title="Jewish emancipation">emancipation of Jews</a> throughout territories under French hegemony. Like their French counterparts, wealthy German Jews sponsored <a href="/wiki/Salon_(gathering)" title="Salon (gathering)">salons</a>; in particular, several Jewish <i>salonnières</i> held important gatherings in Frankfurt and Berlin during which German intellectuals developed their own form of republican intellectualism. Throughout the subsequent decades, beginning almost immediately after the defeat of the French, reaction against the mixing of Jews and Christians limited the intellectual impact of these salons. Beyond the salons, Jews continued a process of <a href="/wiki/Germanization" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanization">Germanization</a> in which they intentionally adopted German modes of dress and speech, working to insert themselves into the emerging 19th-century German <a href="/wiki/Public_sphere" title="Public sphere">public sphere</a>. The religious reform movement among German Jews reflected this effort.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaplan1991_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaplan1991-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the years of unification, German Jews played an important role in the intellectual underpinnings of the German professional, intellectual, and social life. The expulsion of Jews from Russia in the 1880s and 1890s complicated integration into the German public sphere. Russian Jews arrived in north German cities in the thousands; considerably less educated and less affluent, their often dismal poverty dismayed many of the Germanized Jews. Many of the problems related to poverty (such as illness, overcrowded housing, unemployment, school absenteeism, refusal to learn German, etc.) emphasized their distinctiveness for not only the Christian Germans, but for the local Jewish populations as well.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaplan1991in_particular,_pp._4–7_and_Conclusion_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaplan1991in_particular,_pp._4–7_and_Conclusion-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Writing_the_story_of_the_nation">Writing the story of the nation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Germany&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Writing the story of the nation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Historiography_and_nationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiography and nationalism">Historiography and nationalism</a></div> <p>Another important element in nation-building, the story of the heroic past, fell to such nationalist German historians as the liberal constitutionalist <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Christoph_Dahlmann" title="Friedrich Christoph Dahlmann">Friedrich Dahlmann</a> (1785–1860), his conservative student <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_von_Treitschke" title="Heinrich von Treitschke">Heinrich von Treitschke</a> (1834–1896), and others less conservative, such as <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Mommsen" title="Theodor Mommsen">Theodor Mommsen</a> (1817–1903) and <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_von_Sybel" title="Heinrich von Sybel">Heinrich von Sybel</a> (1817–1895), to name two. Dahlmann himself died before unification, but he laid the groundwork for the nationalist histories to come through his histories of the English and French revolutions, by casting these revolutions as fundamental to the construction of a nation, and Dahlmann himself viewed Prussia as the logical agent of unification.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbournEley1984241_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbournEley1984241-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Heinrich von Treitschke's <i>History of Germany in the Nineteenth Century</i>, published in 1879, has perhaps a misleading title: it privileges the history of Prussia over the history of other German states, and it tells the story of the German-speaking peoples through the guise of Prussia's destiny to unite all German states under its leadership. The creation of this <a href="/wiki/Borussian_myth" title="Borussian myth"><i>Borussian</i> myth</a> (<i>Borussia</i> is the Latin name for Prussia) established Prussia as Germany's savior; it was the destiny of all Germans to be united, this myth maintains, and it was Prussia's destiny to accomplish this.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to this story, Prussia played the dominant role in bringing the German states together as a nation-state; only Prussia could protect German liberties from being crushed by French or Russian influence. The story continues by drawing on Prussia's role in saving Germans from the resurgence of Napoleon's power in 1815, at Waterloo, creating some semblance of economic unity, and uniting Germans under one proud flag after 1871.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>e<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mommsen's contributions to the <i><a href="/wiki/Monumenta_Germaniae_Historica" title="Monumenta Germaniae Historica">Monumenta Germaniae Historica</a></i> laid the groundwork for additional scholarship on the study of the German nation, expanding the notion of "Germany" to mean other areas beyond Prussia. A liberal professor, historian, and theologian, and generally a titan among late 19th-century scholars, Mommsen served as a delegate to the Prussian House of Representatives from 1863 to 1866 and 1873 to 1879; he also served as a delegate to the <i>Reichstag</i> from 1881 to 1884, for the liberal <a href="/wiki/German_Progress_Party" title="German Progress Party">German Progress Party</a> (<i>Deutsche Fortschrittspartei</i>) and later for the <a href="/wiki/National_Liberal_Party_(Germany)" title="National Liberal Party (Germany)">National Liberal Party</a>. He opposed the <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">antisemitic</a> programs of Bismarck's <i>Kulturkampf</i> and the vitriolic text that Treitschke often employed in the publication of his <i>Studien über die Judenfrage</i> (<i>Studies of the Jewish Question</i>), which encouraged assimilation and Germanization of Jews.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELloberaGoldsmiths'_College1996_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloberaGoldsmiths'_College1996-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Germany&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/32px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/48px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/64px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Germany" title="Portal:Germany">Germany portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_unification" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian unification">Italian unification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Moldavia_and_Wallachia" title="Unification of Moldavia and Wallachia">Formation of Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reichsb%C3%BCrgerbewegung" class="mw-redirect" title="Reichsbürgerbewegung">Reichsbürgerbewegung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Germanism" title="Pan-Germanism">Pan-Germanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qin%27s_wars_of_unification" title="Qin's wars of unification">Qin's wars of Chinese unification</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Germany&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Informational notes</b> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Although the Prussian army had gained its reputation in the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a>, its humiliating defeat at <a href="/wiki/Jena" title="Jena">Jena</a> and <a href="/wiki/Auerstadt" class="mw-redirect" title="Auerstadt">Auerstadt</a> crushed the pride many Prussians felt in their soldiers. During their Russian exile, several officers, including <a href="/wiki/Carl_von_Clausewitz" title="Carl von Clausewitz">Carl von Clausewitz</a>, contemplated reorganization and new training methods.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989323_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989323-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">They traced the roots of the German language, and drew its different lines of development together.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The remainder of the letter exhorts the Germans to unification: "This role of world leadership, left vacant as things are today, might well be occupied by the German nation. You Germans, with your grave and philosophic character, might well be the ones who could win the confidence of others and guarantee the future stability of the international community. Let us hope, then, that you can use your energy to overcome your moth-eaten thirty tyrants of the various German states. Let us hope that in the center of Europe you can then make a unified nation out of your fifty millions. All the rest of us would eagerly and joyfully follow you."<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bismarck had "cut his teeth" on German politics, and German politicians, in Frankfurt: a quintessential politician, Bismarck had built his power-base by absorbing and co-opting measures from throughout the political spectrum. He was first and foremost a politician, and in this lied his strength. Furthermore, since he trusted neither Moltke nor Roon, he was reluctant to enter a military enterprise over which he would have no control.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMann1958316–395Chapter_6_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMann1958316–395Chapter_6-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Many modern historians describe this myth, without subscribing to it.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <p><b>Citations</b> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Heather-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Heather_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHeather" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Heather" title="Peter Heather">Heather, Peter</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Germany/History#ref58082">"Germany: Ancient History"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Online" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Online">Encyclopædia Britannica Online</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica,_Inc." title="Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.">Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190331232159/https://www.britannica.com/place/Germany/History#ref58082">Archived</a> from the original on March 31, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 21,</span> 2020</span>. <q>Within the boundaries of present-day Germany... Germanic peoples such as the eastern Franks, Frisians, Saxons, Thuringians, Alemanni, and Bavarians—all speaking West Germanic dialects—had merged Germanic and borrowed Roman cultural features. It was among these groups that a German language and ethnic identity would gradually develop during the Middle Ages.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica+Online&rft.atitle=Germany%3A+Ancient+History&rft.aulast=Heather&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2FGermany%2FHistory%23ref58082&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMinahan2000288–289-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMinahan2000288–289_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMinahan2000">Minahan 2000</a>, pp. 288–289.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMinahan2000">Minahan 2000</a>, pp. 288–289<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The citation is not specific enough to facilitate source verification (April 2023)">not specific enough to verify</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, for example: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVann1975" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Allen_Vann" title="James Allen Vann">Vann, James Allen</a> (1975). <i>The Swabian Kreis: Institutional Growth in the Holy Roman Empire 1648–1715</i>. Studies Presented to International Commission for the History of Representative and Parliamentary Institutions. Vol. LII. Bruxelles. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/2276157">2276157</a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL4590654M">4590654M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Swabian+Kreis%3A+Institutional+Growth+in+the+Holy+Roman+Empire+1648%E2%80%931715&rft.place=Bruxelles&rft.series=Studies+Presented+to+International+Commission+for+the+History+of+Representative+and+Parliamentary+Institutions&rft.date=1975&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F2276157&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL4590654M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.aulast=Vann&rft.aufirst=James+Allen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalker1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mack_Walker" title="Mack Walker">Walker, Mack</a> (1998). <i>German Home Towns: Community, State, and General Estate, 1648–1871</i>. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-8508-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-8508-4"><bdi>978-0-8014-8508-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL466977M">466977M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=German+Home+Towns%3A+Community%2C+State%2C+and+General+Estate%2C+1648%E2%80%931871&rft.place=Ithaca&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL466977M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-8508-4&rft.aulast=Walker&rft.aufirst=Mack&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGagliardo1980" class="citation book cs1">Gagliardo, John G. (1980). <i>Reich and Nation. The Holy Roman Empire as Idea and Reality, 1763–1806</i>. Indiana University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">278–</span>279. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-2531-6773-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-2531-6773-6"><bdi>0-2531-6773-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/5563434">5563434</a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL22078286M">22078286M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reich+and+Nation.+The+Holy+Roman+Empire+as+Idea+and+Reality%2C+1763%E2%80%931806&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E278-%3C%2Fspan%3E279&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1980&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F5563434&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL22078286M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=0-2531-6773-6&rft.aulast=Gagliardo&rft.aufirst=John+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKann1974" class="citation book cs1">Kann, Robert A. (1974). <i>History of the Habsburg Empire: 1526–1918</i>. Los Angeles: University of California Press. p. 221. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5200-4206-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5200-4206-3"><bdi>978-0-5200-4206-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL7708659M">7708659M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Habsburg+Empire%3A+1526%E2%80%931918&rft.place=Los+Angeles&rft.pages=221&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1974&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL7708659M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-5200-4206-3&rft.aulast=Kann&rft.aufirst=Robert+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMann195870-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMann195870_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMann1958">Mann 1958</a>, p. 70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFichte1808" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte, Johann Gottlieb</a> (1808). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historyman.co.uk/unification/Fichte.html">"Address to the German Nation"</a>. <i>www.historyman.co.uk</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 6,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.historyman.co.uk&rft.atitle=Address+to+the+German+Nation&rft.date=1808&rft.aulast=Fichte&rft.aufirst=Johann+Gottlieb&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historyman.co.uk%2Funification%2FFichte.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989434-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989434_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSheehan1989">Sheehan 1989</a>, p. 434.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalter1996" class="citation book cs1">Walter, Jakob (1996). Raeff, Marc (ed.). <i>The diary of a Napoleonic foot soldier</i>. Windrush Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9000-7537-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-9000-7537-6"><bdi>0-9000-7537-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/59977347">59977347</a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL20208714M">20208714M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+diary+of+a+Napoleonic+foot+soldier&rft.pub=Windrush+Press&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F59977347&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL20208714M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=0-9000-7537-6&rft.aulast=Walter&rft.aufirst=Jakob&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989384–387-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989384–387_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSheehan1989">Sheehan 1989</a>, pp. 384–387.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989323-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989323_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSheehan1989">Sheehan 1989</a>, p. 323.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989322–323-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989322–323_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSheehan1989">Sheehan 1989</a>, pp. 322–323.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlackbournEley1984">Blackbourn & Eley 1984</a>, Part 1; <a href="#CITEREFNipperdey1996">Nipperdey 1996</a>, Chapter 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSheehan1989">Sheehan 1989</a>, pp. 398–410; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScott2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hamish_Scott_(historian)" title="Hamish Scott (historian)">Scott, Hamish M.</a> (2006). <i>The Birth of a Great Power System</i>. London & New York: Longman. pp. <span class="nowrap">329–</span>361. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5822-1717-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5822-1717-1"><bdi>978-0-5822-1717-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/889270087">889270087</a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL3311839M">3311839M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Birth+of+a+Great+Power+System&rft.place=London+%26+New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E329-%3C%2Fspan%3E361&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F889270087&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL3311839M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-5822-1717-1&rft.aulast=Scott&rft.aufirst=Hamish+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELee1980-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee1980_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLee1980">Lee 1980</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZamoyski200798–115,_239–40-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZamoyski200798–115,_239–40_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZamoyski2007">Zamoyski 2007</a>, pp. 98–115, 239–40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989398–410-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989398–410_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSheehan1989">Sheehan 1989</a>, pp. 398–410.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerenger1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jean_Berenger" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean Berenger">Berenger, Jean</a> (1997) [1990]. <i>A History of the Habsburg Empire 1700–1918</i>. Translated by Simpson, C.A. New York: Longman. pp. <span class="nowrap">96–</span>97. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5820-9007-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5820-9007-1"><bdi>978-0-5820-9007-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/891447020">891447020</a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL7879682M">7879682M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Habsburg+Empire+1700%E2%80%931918&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E96-%3C%2Fspan%3E97&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F891447020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL7879682M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-5820-9007-1&rft.aulast=Berenger&rft.aufirst=Jean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESperber1993-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESperber1993_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSperber1993">Sperber 1993</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNamier1952" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Namier" title="Lewis Namier">Namier, Lewis</a> (1952). <i>Avenues of History</i>. New York: Macmillan. p. 34. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/422057575">422057575</a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL6114891M">6114891M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Avenues+of+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=34&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1952&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F422057575&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL6114891M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.aulast=Namier&rft.aufirst=Lewis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENipperdey19961–3-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENipperdey19961–3_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNipperdey1996">Nipperdey 1996</a>, pp. 1–3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989407–408,_444-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989407–408,_444_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989407–408,_444_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989407–408,_444_24-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSheehan1989">Sheehan 1989</a>, pp. 407–408, 444.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSheehan1989">Sheehan 1989</a>, pp. 460–470; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org/sub_image.cfm?image_id=426&language=english">German Historical Institute</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989442–445-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989442–445_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989442–445_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSheehan1989">Sheehan 1989</a>, pp. 442–445.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989610–613-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989610–613_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989610–613_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSheehan1989">Sheehan 1989</a>, pp. 610–613.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989610-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989610_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSheehan1989">Sheehan 1989</a>, p. 610.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989612-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989612_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSheehan1989">Sheehan 1989</a>, p. 612.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989613-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989613_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSheehan1989">Sheehan 1989</a>, p. 613.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989610–615-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989610–615_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSheehan1989">Sheehan 1989</a>, pp. 610–615.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1994-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1994_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlackbourn1994">Blackbourn 1994</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESperber19933-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESperber19933_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSperber1993">Sperber 1993</a>, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1998127-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1998127_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlackbourn1998">Blackbourn 1998</a>, p. 127.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSheehan1989">Sheehan 1989</a>, pp. 465–467; <a href="#CITEREFBlackbourn1998">Blackbourn 1998</a>, pp. 106–107</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-keller-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-keller_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-keller_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKellerShiue2013" class="citation book cs1">Keller, Wolfgang; Shiue, Carol (March 5, 2013). <i>The Trade Impact of the Zollverein</i>. Boulder: University of Colorado. pp. 10, 18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Trade+Impact+of+the+Zollverein&rft.place=Boulder&rft.pages=10%2C+18&rft.pub=University+of+Colorado&rft.date=2013-03-05&rft.aulast=Keller&rft.aufirst=Wolfgang&rft.au=Shiue%2C+Carol&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPloeckl2010" class="citation journal cs1">Ploeckl, Florian (August 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nuff.ox.ac.uk/economics/history/paper84/ploeckl84.pdf">"The Zollverein and the Formation of a Customs Union"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Economic and Social History Series, Nuffield College, Oxford, Nuffield College</i> (Discussion Paper 84): 23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Economic+and+Social+History+Series%2C+Nuffield+College%2C+Oxford%2C+Nuffield+College&rft.atitle=The+Zollverein+and+the+Formation+of+a+Customs+Union&rft.issue=Discussion+Paper+84&rft.pages=23&rft.date=2010-08&rft.aulast=Ploeckl&rft.aufirst=Florian&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nuff.ox.ac.uk%2Feconomics%2Fhistory%2Fpaper84%2Fploeckl84.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989465-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989465_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSheehan1989">Sheehan 1989</a>, p. 465.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989466-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989466_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSheehan1989">Sheehan 1989</a>, p. 466.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989467–468-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989467–468_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSheehan1989">Sheehan 1989</a>, pp. 467–468.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989502-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989502_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSheehan1989">Sheehan 1989</a>, p. 502.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989469-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989469_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSheehan1989">Sheehan 1989</a>, p. 469.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989458-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989458_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSheehan1989">Sheehan 1989</a>, p. 458.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989466–467-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989466–467_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSheehan1989">Sheehan 1989</a>, pp. 466–467.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pitt.edu/~dash/grimm.html#jointpublication">"The Brothers Grimm online"</a>. <i>Grimm Brothers' Home Page</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 27,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Grimm+Brothers%27+Home+Page&rft.atitle=The+Brothers+Grimm+online&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pitt.edu%2F~dash%2Fgrimm.html%23jointpublication&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in German)</span> Hans Lulfing, <i>Baedecker, Karl</i>, <i>Neue Deutsche Biographie (NDB)</i>. Band 1, Duncker & Humblot, Berlin, 1953, p. 516 f.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in German)</span> Peter Rühmkorf, Heinz Ludwig Arnold, <i>Das Lied der Deutschen</i> Göttingen: Wallstein, 2001, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-8924-4463-3" title="Special:BookSources/3-8924-4463-3">3-8924-4463-3</a>, pp. 11–14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDominick1992" class="citation book cs1">Dominick, Raymond III (1992). <i>The Environmental Movement in Germany</i>. Bloomington: Indiana University. pp. <span class="nowrap">3–</span>41. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-2533-1819-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-2533-1819-X"><bdi>0-2533-1819-X</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL1549008M">1549008M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Environmental+Movement+in+Germany&rft.place=Bloomington&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3-%3C%2Fspan%3E41&rft.pub=Indiana+University&rft.date=1992&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL1549008M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=0-2533-1819-X&rft.aulast=Dominick&rft.aufirst=Raymond+III&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in German)</span> Badische Heimat/Landeskunde online 2006 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zum.de/Faecher/G/BW/Landeskunde/rhein/geschichte/1848/national03.htm">Veit's Pauls Church <i>Germania</i></a>. Retrieved 5 June 2009.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1998138–164-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1998138–164_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlackbourn1998">Blackbourn 1998</a>, pp. 138–164.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSperber2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Sperber" title="Jonathan Sperber">Sperber, Jonathan</a> (2000). <i>Revolutionary Europe, 1780–1850</i>. New York: Longman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-5822-9446-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-5822-9446-0"><bdi>0-5822-9446-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL6779824M">6779824M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revolutionary+Europe%2C+1780%E2%80%931850&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL6779824M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=0-5822-9446-0&rft.aulast=Sperber&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1998176–179-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1998176–179_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlackbourn1998">Blackbourn 1998</a>, pp. 176–179.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, e.g.: <a href="/wiki/Ralf_Dahrendorf" title="Ralf Dahrendorf">Ralf Dahrendorf</a>, <i>German History</i><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The citation is not specific enough to facilitate source verification (April 2023)">not specific enough to verify</span></a></i>]</sup>, (1968), pp. 25–32; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWehler1973" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Hans-Ulrich_Wehler" title="Hans-Ulrich Wehler">Wehler, Hans-Ulrich</a> (1973). <i>Das Deutsche Kaiserreich, 1871–1918</i> (in German). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. pp. <span class="nowrap">10–</span>14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-5253-3340-4" title="Special:BookSources/3-5253-3340-4"><bdi>3-5253-3340-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/873428">873428</a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL23130743M">23130743M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Das+Deutsche+Kaiserreich%2C+1871%E2%80%931918&rft.place=G%C3%B6ttingen&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E10-%3C%2Fspan%3E14&rft.pub=Vandenhoeck+%26+Ruprecht&rft.date=1973&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F873428&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL23130743M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=3-5253-3340-4&rft.aulast=Wehler&rft.aufirst=Hans-Ulrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span>; <a href="#CITEREFKrieger1957">Krieger 1957</a>; <a href="#CITEREFGrewBien1978">Grew & Bien 1978</a>, pp. 312–345; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKockaMitchell1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Kocka" title="Jürgen Kocka">Kocka, Jürgen</a>; Mitchell, Allan (1993). <i>Bourgeois Society in Nineteenth Century Europe</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8549-6414-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8549-6414-7"><bdi>978-0-8549-6414-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL8300088M">8300088M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bourgeois+Society+in+Nineteenth+Century+Europe&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL8300088M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-8549-6414-7&rft.aulast=Kocka&rft.aufirst=J%C3%BCrgen&rft.au=Mitchell%2C+Allan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKocka1988" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Kocka" title="Jürgen Kocka">Kocka, Jürgen</a> (January 1988). "German History before Hitler: The Debate about the German Sonderweg". <i>Journal of Contemporary History</i>. <b>23</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">3–</span>16. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002200948802300101">10.1177/002200948802300101</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/260865">260865</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159651458">159651458</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Contemporary+History&rft.atitle=German+History+before+Hitler%3A+The+Debate+about+the+German+Sonderweg&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3-%3C%2Fspan%3E16&rft.date=1988-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159651458%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F260865%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F002200948802300101&rft.aulast=Kocka&rft.aufirst=J%C3%BCrgen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerghahn1982" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Volker_Berghahn" title="Volker Berghahn">Berghahn, Volker</a> (1982). <i>Modern Germany: Society, Economy and Politics in the Twentieth Century</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5213-4748-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5213-4748-8"><bdi>978-0-5213-4748-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL2382839M">2382839M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Germany%3A+Society%2C+Economy+and+Politics+in+the+Twentieth+Century&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL2382839M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-5213-4748-8&rft.aulast=Berghahn&rft.aufirst=Volker&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">World Encyclopedia V.3 p. 542.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For a summary of this argument, see <a href="#CITEREFBlackbournEley1984">Blackbourn & Eley 1984</a>, Part 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbournEley1984Part_1-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbournEley1984Part_1_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlackbournEley1984">Blackbourn & Eley 1984</a>, Part 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbournEley1984Chapter_2-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbournEley1984Chapter_2_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlackbournEley1984">Blackbourn & Eley 1984</a>, Chapter 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbournEley1984286–293-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbournEley1984286–293_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlackbournEley1984">Blackbourn & Eley 1984</a>, pp. 286–293.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKocka2003" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Kocka" title="Jürgen Kocka">Kocka, Jürgen</a> (February 2003). "Comparison and Beyond". <i>History and Theory</i>. <b>42</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">39–</span>44. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1468-2303.00228">10.1111/1468-2303.00228</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+and+Theory&rft.atitle=Comparison+and+Beyond&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E39-%3C%2Fspan%3E44&rft.date=2003-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F1468-2303.00228&rft.aulast=Kocka&rft.aufirst=J%C3%BCrgen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKocka1999" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Kocka" title="Jürgen Kocka">Kocka, Jürgen</a> (February 1999). "Asymmetrical Historical Comparison: The Case of the German <i>Sonderweg</i>". <i>History and Theory</i>. <b>38</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">40–</span>50. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F0018-2656.751999075">10.1111/0018-2656.751999075</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+and+Theory&rft.atitle=Asymmetrical+Historical+Comparison%3A+The+Case+of+the+German+Sonderweg&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E40-%3C%2Fspan%3E50&rft.date=1999-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F0018-2656.751999075&rft.aulast=Kocka&rft.aufirst=J%C3%BCrgen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For a representative analysis of this perspective, see <a href="#CITEREFEvans1987">Evans 1987</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor1954" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/A._J._P._Taylor" title="A. J. P. Taylor">Taylor, A. J. P.</a> (1954). <i>The Struggle for Mastery in Europe 1848–1918</i>. Oxford: Clarendon. p. 37. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1988-1270-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1988-1270-8"><bdi>978-0-1988-1270-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL7402365M">7402365M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Struggle+for+Mastery+in+Europe+1848%E2%80%931918&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=37&rft.pub=Clarendon&rft.date=1954&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL7402365M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-1988-1270-8&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=A.+J.+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDroysen" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gustav_Droysen" title="Johann Gustav Droysen">Droysen, Johann Gustav</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/germanunification.html#"><i>Modern History Sourcebook: Documents of German Unification, 1848–1871</i></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 9,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+History+Sourcebook%3A+Documents+of+German+Unification%2C+1848%E2%80%931871&rft.aulast=Droysen&rft.aufirst=Johann+Gustav&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fordham.edu%2Fhalsall%2Fmod%2Fgermanunification.html%23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZamoyski2007100–115-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZamoyski2007100–115_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZamoyski2007">Zamoyski 2007</a>, pp. 100–115.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1998160–175-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1998160–175_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlackbourn1998">Blackbourn 1998</a>, pp. 160–175.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mack Smith, Denis (ed.). <i>Garibaldi (Great Lives Observed)</i>, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1969, p. 76.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMack_Smith1994" class="citation book cs1">Mack Smith, Denis (1994). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mazzini00mack_0"><i>Mazzini</i></a></span>. Yale University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mazzini00mack_0/page/11">11–12</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-05884-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-05884-0"><bdi>978-0-300-05884-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mazzini&rft.pages=11-12&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-300-05884-0&rft.aulast=Mack+Smith&rft.aufirst=Denis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmazzini00mack_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoltChilton191727-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoltChilton191727_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoltChilton1917">Holt & Chilton 1917</a>, p. 27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoltChilton191713–14-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoltChilton191713–14_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoltChilton1917">Holt & Chilton 1917</a>, pp. 13–14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1998175–179-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1998175–179_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlackbourn1998">Blackbourn 1998</a>, pp. 175–179.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHollyday1970" class="citation book cs1">Hollyday, Frederic B. M. (1970). <i>Bismarck</i>. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. pp. <span class="nowrap">16–</span>18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1307-7362-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1307-7362-3"><bdi>978-0-1307-7362-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL4576160M">4576160M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bismarck&rft.place=Englewood+Cliffs%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E16-%3C%2Fspan%3E18&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=1970&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL4576160M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-1307-7362-3&rft.aulast=Hollyday&rft.aufirst=Frederic+B.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbournEley1984Part_I-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbournEley1984Part_I_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlackbournEley1984">Blackbourn & Eley 1984</a>, Part I.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMann1958316–395Chapter_6-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMann1958316–395Chapter_6_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMann1958">Mann 1958</a>, pp. 316–395, Chapter 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHull2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Isabel_V._Hull" title="Isabel V. Hull">Hull, Isabel V.</a> (2005). <i>Absolute Destruction: Military Culture and the Practices of War in Imperial Germany</i> (New ed.). Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">90–</span>108, <span class="nowrap">324–</span>333. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-7293-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-7293-0"><bdi>978-0-8014-7293-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL7848816M">7848816M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Absolute+Destruction%3A+Military+Culture+and+the+Practices+of+War+in+Imperial+Germany&rft.place=Ithaca%2C+New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E90-%3C%2Fspan%3E108%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E324-%3C%2Fspan%3E333&rft.edition=New&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL7848816M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-7293-0&rft.aulast=Hull&rft.aufirst=Isabel+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward196140-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward196140_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoward1961">Howard 1961</a>, p. 40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMann1958390–395-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMann1958390–395_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMann1958">Mann 1958</a>, pp. 390–395.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor1988Chapter_1_and_Conclusion-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor1988Chapter_1_and_Conclusion_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTaylor1988">Taylor 1988</a>, Chapter 1 and Conclusion.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward196140–57-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward196140–57_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoward1961">Howard 1961</a>, pp. 40–57.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSheehan1989">Sheehan 1989</a>, pp. 900–904; <a href="#CITEREFWawro1996">Wawro 1996</a>, pp. 4–32; <a href="#CITEREFHoltChilton1917">Holt & Chilton 1917</a>, p. 75</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoltChilton191775-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoltChilton191775_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoltChilton1917">Holt & Chilton 1917</a>, p. 75.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sheehan, pp. 900–906.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSheehan1989">Sheehan 1989</a>, p. 96; <a href="#CITEREFWawro1996">Wawro 1996</a>, pp. 82–84.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989905–906-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989905–906_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSheehan1989">Sheehan 1989</a>, pp. 905–906.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989909-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989909_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSheehan1989">Sheehan 1989</a>, p. 909.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro199650–60,_75–79-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro199650–60,_75–79_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWawro1996">Wawro 1996</a>, pp. 50–60, 75–79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro199657–75-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro199657–75_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWawro1996">Wawro 1996</a>, pp. 57–75.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor198887–88-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor198887–88_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTaylor1988">Taylor 1988</a>, pp. 87–88.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989908–909-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989908–909_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSheehan1989">Sheehan 1989</a>, pp. 908–909.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1866/07/01/79809602.pdf">The Situation of Germany.</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Portable_Document_Format" class="mw-redirect" title="Portable Document Format">PDF</a>) – <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>, July 1, 1866.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989910-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989910_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSheehan1989">Sheehan 1989</a>, p. 910.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1998225–269Chapter_V:_''From_Reaction_to_Unification''-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1998225–269Chapter_V:_''From_Reaction_to_Unification''_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlackbourn1998">Blackbourn 1998</a>, pp. 225–269, Chapter V: <i>From Reaction to Unification</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchjerve2003" class="citation book cs1">Schjerve, Rosita Rindler (2003). <i>Diglossia and Power: Language Policies and Practice in the Nineteenth Century Habsburg Empire</i>. Berlin: De Gruyter. pp. <span class="nowrap">199–</span>200. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-1101-7654-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-1101-7654-4"><bdi>978-3-1101-7654-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL9017475M">9017475M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Diglossia+and+Power%3A+Language+Policies+and+Practice+in+the+Nineteenth+Century+Habsburg+Empire&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E199-%3C%2Fspan%3E200&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL9017475M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-3-1101-7654-4&rft.aulast=Schjerve&rft.aufirst=Rosita+Rindler&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSheehan1989">Sheehan 1989</a>, pp. 909–910; <a href="#CITEREFWawro1996">Wawro 1996</a>, Chapter 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan1989905–910-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheehan1989905–910_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSheehan1989">Sheehan 1989</a>, pp. 905–910.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBridgeBullen2004" class="citation book cs1">Bridge, Roy; Bullen, Roger (2004). <i>The Great Powers and the European States System 1814–1914</i> (2nd ed.). Longman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5827-8458-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5827-8458-1"><bdi>978-0-5827-8458-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL7882098M">7882098M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Powers+and+the+European+States+System+1814%E2%80%931914&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL7882098M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-5827-8458-1&rft.aulast=Bridge&rft.aufirst=Roy&rft.au=Bullen%2C+Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward19614–60-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward19614–60_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoward1961">Howard 1961</a>, pp. 4–60.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward196150–57-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward196150–57_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoward1961">Howard 1961</a>, pp. 50–57.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward196155–56-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward196155–56_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoward1961">Howard 1961</a>, pp. 55–56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward196156–57-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward196156–57_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoward1961">Howard 1961</a>, pp. 56–57.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward196155–59-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward196155–59_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoward1961">Howard 1961</a>, pp. 55–59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward196164–68-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward196164–68_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoward1961">Howard 1961</a>, pp. 64–68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward1961218–222-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward1961218–222_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoward1961">Howard 1961</a>, pp. 218–222.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward1961222–230-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward1961222–230_105-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoward1961">Howard 1961</a>, pp. 222–230.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro2003235-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro2003235_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWawro2003">Wawro 2003</a>, p. 235.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor1988126-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor1988126_107-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTaylor1988">Taylor 1988</a>, p. 126.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward1961357–370-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward1961357–370_108-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoward1961">Howard 1961</a>, pp. 357–370.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dhm.de/lemo/html/kaiserreich/innenpolitik/reichsgruendung/index.html">Die Reichsgründung 1871</a> (The Foundation of the Empire, 1871), Lebendiges virtuelles Museum Online, accessed 2008-12-22. German text translated: [...] on the wishes of Wilhelm I, on the 170th anniversary of the elevation of the House of Brandenburg to princely status on January 18, 1701, the assembled German princes and high military officials proclaimed Wilhelm I as German Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at the Versailles Palace.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor1988133-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor1988133_110-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTaylor1988">Taylor 1988</a>, p. 133.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrankshaw1981" class="citation book cs1">Crankshaw, Edward (1981). <i>Bismarck</i>. New York: The Viking Press. p. 299. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-3333-4038-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-3333-4038-8"><bdi>0-3333-4038-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL28022489M">28022489M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bismarck&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=299&rft.pub=The+Viking+Press&rft.date=1981&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL28022489M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=0-3333-4038-8&rft.aulast=Crankshaw&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward1961432–456Chapter_XI:_the_Peace-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward1961432–456Chapter_XI:_the_Peace_112-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoward1961">Howard 1961</a>, pp. 432–456, Chapter XI: the Peace.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1998255–257-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1998255–257_113-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlackbourn1998">Blackbourn 1998</a>, pp. 255–257.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro2003302-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro2003302_114-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWawro2003">Wawro 2003</a>, p. 302.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConfino1997-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConfino1997_115-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConfino1997_115-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFConfino1997">Confino 1997</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans20051-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvans20051_116-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEvans2005">Evans 2005</a>, p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1998267-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1998267_117-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlackbourn1998">Blackbourn 1998</a>, p. 267.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1998225–301-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1998225–301_118-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlackbourn1998">Blackbourn 1998</a>, pp. 225–301.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlackbournEley1984">Blackbourn & Eley 1984</a>; <a href="#CITEREFBlickle2004">Blickle 2004</a>; <a href="#CITEREFScribnerOgilvie1996">Scribner & Ogilvie 1996</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, e.g.: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEley1980" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Geoff_Eley" title="Geoff Eley">Eley, Geoff</a> (1980). <i>Reshaping the German Right: Radical Nationalism and Political Change After Bismarck</i>. New Haven: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-3000-2386-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-3000-2386-3"><bdi>0-3000-2386-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/5353122">5353122</a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL4416729M">4416729M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reshaping+the+German+Right%3A+Radical+Nationalism+and+Political+Change+After+Bismarck&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1980&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F5353122&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL4416729M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=0-3000-2386-3&rft.aulast=Eley&rft.aufirst=Geoff&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span>; <a href="#CITEREFEvans2005">Evans 2005</a>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvans1978" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_J._Evans" title="Richard J. Evans">Evans, Richard J.</a> (1978). <i>Society and politics in Wilhelmine Germany</i>. London and New York: Barnes & Noble. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-492036-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-492036-4"><bdi>0-06-492036-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/3934998">3934998</a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL21299242M">21299242M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Society+and+politics+in+Wilhelmine+Germany&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.pub=Barnes+%26+Noble&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F3934998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL21299242M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=0-06-492036-4&rft.aulast=Evans&rft.aufirst=Richard+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span>; <a href="#CITEREFNipperdey1996">Nipperdey 1996</a>; <a href="#CITEREFSperber1984">Sperber 1984</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1998240–290-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1998240–290_121-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlackbourn1998">Blackbourn 1998</a>, pp. 240–290.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, e.g.: <a href="#CITEREFLloberaGoldsmiths'_College1996">Llobera & Goldsmiths' College 1996</a>; <span class="languageicon">(in German)</span> Alexandre Escudier, Brigitte Sauzay, and Rudolf von Thadden. <i>Gedenken im Zwiespalt: Konfliktlinien europäischen Erinnerns</i>, Genshagener Gespräche; vol. 4. Göttingen: 2001</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1998243–282-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1998243–282_123-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlackbourn1998">Blackbourn 1998</a>, pp. 243–282.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1998283,_285–300-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn1998283,_285–300_124-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlackbourn1998">Blackbourn 1998</a>, pp. 283, 285–300.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESperber1984-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESperber1984_125-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSperber1984">Sperber 1984</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaplan1991-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaplan1991_126-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaplan1991">Kaplan 1991</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaplan1991in_particular,_pp._4–7_and_Conclusion-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaplan1991in_particular,_pp._4–7_and_Conclusion_127-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaplan1991">Kaplan 1991</a>, in particular, pp. 4–7 and Conclusion.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbournEley1984241-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbournEley1984241_128-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlackbournEley1984">Blackbourn & Eley 1984</a>, p. 241.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedrich2000" class="citation book cs1">Friedrich, Karin (2000). <i>The Other Prussia: Royal Prussia, Poland and Liberty, 1569–1772</i>. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5210-2775-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5210-2775-5"><bdi>978-0-5210-2775-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL7714437M">7714437M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Other+Prussia%3A+Royal+Prussia%2C+Poland+and+Liberty%2C+1569%E2%80%931772&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL7714437M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-5210-2775-5&rft.aulast=Friedrich&rft.aufirst=Karin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, e.g.: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoshar1998" class="citation book cs1">Koshar, Rudy (1998). <i>Germany's Transient Pasts: Preservation and the National Memory in the Twentieth Century</i>. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-4701-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-4701-5"><bdi>978-0-8078-4701-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/45729918">45729918</a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL689805M">689805M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Germany%27s+Transient+Pasts%3A+Preservation+and+the+National+Memory+in+the+Twentieth+Century&rft.place=Chapel+Hill&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F45729918&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL689805M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-8078-4701-5&rft.aulast=Koshar&rft.aufirst=Rudy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKohn1954" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hans_Kohn" title="Hans Kohn">Kohn, Hans</a> (1954). <i>German History; Some New German Views</i>. Boston: Beacon. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/987529">987529</a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL24208090M">24208090M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=German+History%3B+Some+New+German+Views&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Beacon&rft.date=1954&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F987529&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL24208090M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.aulast=Kohn&rft.aufirst=Hans&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span>; <a href="#CITEREFNipperdey1996">Nipperdey 1996</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELloberaGoldsmiths'_College1996-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELloberaGoldsmiths'_College1996_132-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLloberaGoldsmiths'_College1996">Llobera & Goldsmiths' College 1996</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <p><b>Bibliography</b> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlackbourn1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Blackbourn" title="David Blackbourn">Blackbourn, David</a> (1994). <i>Marpingen: Apparitions of the Virgin Mary in Bismarckian Germany</i>. New York: Knopf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-6794-1843-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-6794-1843-1"><bdi>0-6794-1843-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Marpingen%3A+Apparitions+of+the+Virgin+Mary+in+Bismarckian+Germany&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Knopf&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-6794-1843-1&rft.aulast=Blackbourn&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlackbourn1998" class="citation book cs1">— (1998). <i>The Long Nineteenth Century: A History of Germany, 1780–1918</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-1950-7672-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-1950-7672-9"><bdi>0-1950-7672-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Long+Nineteenth+Century%3A+A+History+of+Germany%2C+1780%E2%80%931918&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-1950-7672-9&rft.aulast=Blackbourn&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlackbournEley1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Blackbourn" title="David Blackbourn">Blackbourn, David</a>; <a href="/wiki/Geoff_Eley" title="Geoff Eley">Eley, Geoff</a> (1984). <i>The Peculiarities of German History: Bourgeois Society and Politics in Nineteenth-Century Germany</i>. Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1987-3057-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1987-3057-6"><bdi>978-0-1987-3057-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Peculiarities+of+German+History%3A+Bourgeois+Society+and+Politics+in+Nineteenth-Century+Germany&rft.place=Oxford+%26+New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-1987-3057-6&rft.aulast=Blackbourn&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Eley%2C+Geoff&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlickle2004" class="citation book cs1">Blickle, Peter (2004). <i>Heimat: A Critical Theory of the German Idea of Homeland</i>. Studies in German literature, linguistics and culture (New ed.). Columbia, South Carolina: Camden House Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5711-3303-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5711-3303-8"><bdi>978-1-5711-3303-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL8730421M">8730421M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Heimat%3A+A+Critical+Theory+of+the+German+Idea+of+Homeland&rft.place=Columbia%2C+South+Carolina&rft.series=Studies+in+German+literature%2C+linguistics+and+culture&rft.edition=New&rft.pub=Camden+House+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL8730421M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-1-5711-3303-8&rft.aulast=Blickle&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConfino1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alon_Confino" title="Alon Confino">Confino, Alon</a> (1997). <i>The Nation as a Local Metaphor: Württemberg, Imperial Germany, and National Memory, 1871–1918</i>. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-4665-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-4665-0"><bdi>978-0-8078-4665-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL1011446M">1011446M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nation+as+a+Local+Metaphor%3A+W%C3%BCrttemberg%2C+Imperial+Germany%2C+and+National+Memory%2C+1871%E2%80%931918&rft.place=Chapel+Hill&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1997&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL1011446M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-8078-4665-0&rft.aulast=Confino&rft.aufirst=Alon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDahrendorf1979" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ralf_Dahrendorf" title="Ralf Dahrendorf">Dahrendorf, Ralf</a> (1979) [1967]. <i>Society and Democracy in Germany</i>. Doubleday. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-3850-6304-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-3850-6304-0"><bdi>0-3850-6304-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL21335583M">21335583M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Society+and+Democracy+in+Germany&rft.pub=Doubleday&rft.date=1979&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL21335583M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=0-3850-6304-0&rft.aulast=Dahrendorf&rft.aufirst=Ralf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvans1987" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_J._Evans" title="Richard J. Evans">Evans, Richard J.</a> (1987). <i>Rethinking German History: Nineteenth-Century Germany and the Origins of the Third Reich</i>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-0030-2090-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-0030-2090-8"><bdi>978-0-0030-2090-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rethinking+German+History%3A+Nineteenth-Century+Germany+and+the+Origins+of+the+Third+Reich&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-0030-2090-8&rft.aulast=Evans&rft.aufirst=Richard+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvans2005" class="citation book cs1">— (2005). <i>Death in Hamburg: Society and Politics in the Cholera Years, 1830–1910</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1430-3636-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1430-3636-4"><bdi>978-0-1430-3636-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Death+in+Hamburg%3A+Society+and+Politics+in+the+Cholera+Years%2C+1830%E2%80%931910&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-1430-3636-4&rft.aulast=Evans&rft.aufirst=Richard+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlores2002" class="citation book cs1">Flores, Richard R. (2002). <i>Remembering the Alamo: memory, modernity, and the master symbol</i>. History, culture, and society series (1. ed.). Austin, Tex: Univ. of Texas Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-292-72540-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-292-72540-9"><bdi>978-0-292-72540-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Remembering+the+Alamo%3A+memory%2C+modernity%2C+and+the+master+symbol&rft.place=Austin%2C+Tex&rft.series=History%2C+culture%2C+and+society+series&rft.edition=1.&rft.pub=Univ.+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-292-72540-9&rft.aulast=Flores&rft.aufirst=Richard+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrewBien1978" class="citation book cs1">Grew, Raymond; Bien, David D. (1978). <i>Crises of Political Development in Europe and the United States</i>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-6910-7598-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-6910-7598-0"><bdi>0-6910-7598-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL4740623M">4740623M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crises+of+Political+Development+in+Europe+and+the+United+States&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1978&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL4740623M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=0-6910-7598-0&rft.aulast=Grew&rft.aufirst=Raymond&rft.au=Bien%2C+David+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoltChilton1917" class="citation book cs1">Holt, Lucious Hudson; Chilton, Alexander Wheeler (1917). <i>The History of Europe from 1862–1914: From the Accession of Bismarck to the Outbreak of the Great War</i>. New York: MacMillan. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1115959">1115959</a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL6604098M">6604098M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Europe+from+1862%E2%80%931914%3A+From+the+Accession+of+Bismarck+to+the+Outbreak+of+the+Great+War&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=MacMillan&rft.date=1917&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1115959&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL6604098M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.aulast=Holt&rft.aufirst=Lucious+Hudson&rft.au=Chilton%2C+Alexander+Wheeler&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoward1961" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Howard_(historian)" title="Michael Howard (historian)">Howard, Michael Eliot</a> (1961). <i>The Franco-Prussian War: The German invasion of France, 1870–1871</i>. New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-4150-2787-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-4150-2787-8"><bdi>978-0-4150-2787-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL7481175M">7481175M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Franco-Prussian+War%3A+The+German+invasion+of+France%2C+1870%E2%80%931871&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1961&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL7481175M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-4150-2787-8&rft.aulast=Howard&rft.aufirst=Michael+Eliot&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaplan1991" class="citation book cs1">Kaplan, Marion (1991). <i>The Making of the Jewish Middle Class: Women, Family, and Identity in Imperial Germany</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1950-9396-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1950-9396-4"><bdi>978-0-1950-9396-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL7387583M">7387583M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+the+Jewish+Middle+Class%3A+Women%2C+Family%2C+and+Identity+in+Imperial+Germany&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL7387583M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-1950-9396-4&rft.aulast=Kaplan&rft.aufirst=Marion&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrieger1957" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Krieger" title="Leonard Krieger">Krieger, Leonard</a> (1957). <i>The German Idea of Freedom</i>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-2264-5347-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-2264-5347-7"><bdi>978-0-2264-5347-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/works/OL4125447W">4125447W</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+German+Idea+of+Freedom&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1957&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fworks%2FOL4125447W%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-2264-5347-7&rft.aulast=Krieger&rft.aufirst=Leonard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee1980" class="citation book cs1">Lee, Lloyd (1980). <i>The Politics of Harmony: Civil Service, Liberalism, and Social Reform in Baden, 1800–1850</i>. Cranbury, New Jersey: Associated University Presses. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8741-3143-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8741-3143-7"><bdi>978-0-8741-3143-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL8381260M">8381260M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Politics+of+Harmony%3A+Civil+Service%2C+Liberalism%2C+and+Social+Reform+in+Baden%2C+1800%E2%80%931850&rft.place=Cranbury%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pub=Associated+University+Presses&rft.date=1980&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL8381260M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-8741-3143-7&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Lloyd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLloberaGoldsmiths'_College1996" class="citation book cs1">Llobera, Josep R.; Goldsmiths' College (1996). <i>The role of historical memory in (ethno)nation-building</i>. Goldsmiths Sociology Papers. London: Goldsmiths College. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9029-8606-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9029-8606-0"><bdi>978-0-9029-8606-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL17517779M">17517779M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+role+of+historical+memory+in+%28ethno%29nation-building&rft.place=London&rft.series=Goldsmiths+Sociology+Papers&rft.pub=Goldsmiths+College&rft.date=1996&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL17517779M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-9029-8606-0&rft.aulast=Llobera&rft.aufirst=Josep+R.&rft.au=Goldsmiths%27+College&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMann1958" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Golo_Mann" title="Golo Mann">Mann, Golo</a> (1958). <i>Deutsche Geschichte des 19. und 20. Jahrhunderts</i> (in German). S. Fischer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-1034-7901-8" title="Special:BookSources/3-1034-7901-8"><bdi>3-1034-7901-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL15250052M">15250052M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Deutsche+Geschichte+des+19.+und+20.+Jahrhunderts&rft.pub=S.+Fischer&rft.date=1958&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL15250052M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=3-1034-7901-8&rft.aulast=Mann&rft.aufirst=Golo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMann1968" class="citation book cs1">— (1968). <i>The History of Germany Since 1789</i>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL5546196M">5546196M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Germany+Since+1789&rft.date=1968&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL5546196M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.aulast=Mann&rft.aufirst=Golo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMinahan2000" class="citation book cs1">Minahan, James (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NwvoM-ZFoAgC&pg=PA287">"Germans"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NwvoM-ZFoAgC"><i>One Europe, Many Nations: A Historical Dictionary of European National Groups</i></a>. Greenwood Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-30984-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-30984-1"><bdi>0-313-30984-1</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 11,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Germans&rft.btitle=One+Europe%2C+Many+Nations%3A+A+Historical+Dictionary+of+European+National+Groups&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-313-30984-1&rft.aulast=Minahan&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNwvoM-ZFoAgC%26pg%3DPA287&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNipperdey1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nipperdey" title="Thomas Nipperdey">Nipperdey, Thomas</a> (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://press.princeton.edu/books/hardcover/9780691636115/germany-from-napoleon-to-bismarck"><i>Germany from Napoleon to Bismarck, 1800–1866</i></a>. Translated by Nolan, Daniel. Princeton: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-6916-3611-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-6916-3611-5"><bdi>978-0-6916-3611-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL1273142M">1273142M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Germany+from+Napoleon+to+Bismarck%2C+1800%E2%80%931866&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL1273142M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-6916-3611-5&rft.aulast=Nipperdey&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpress.princeton.edu%2Fbooks%2Fhardcover%2F9780691636115%2Fgermany-from-napoleon-to-bismarck&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScribnerOgilvie1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_W._Scribner" title="Robert W. Scribner">Scribner, Robert W.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Sheilagh_Ogilvie" title="Sheilagh Ogilvie">Ogilvie, Sheilagh C.</a>, eds. (1996). <i>Germany: A New Social and Economic History</i>. London: Arnold Publication. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3405-1332-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3405-1332-3"><bdi>978-0-3405-1332-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Germany%3A+A+New+Social+and+Economic+History&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Arnold+Publication&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-3405-1332-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSheehan1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_J._Sheehan" title="James J. Sheehan">Sheehan, James J.</a> (1989). <i>German History 1770–1866</i>. Oxford History of Modern Europe. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1982-0432-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1982-0432-9"><bdi>978-0-1982-0432-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL7397485M">7397485M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=German+History+1770%E2%80%931866&rft.place=Oxford&rft.series=Oxford+History+of+Modern+Europe&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL7397485M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-1982-0432-9&rft.aulast=Sheehan&rft.aufirst=James+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSperber1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Sperber" title="Jonathan Sperber">Sperber, Jonathan</a> (1984). <i>Popular Catholicism in Nineteenth-Century Germany</i>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-6910-5432-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-6910-5432-2"><bdi>978-0-6910-5432-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/10559169">10559169</a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL2867289M">2867289M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Popular+Catholicism+in+Nineteenth-Century+Germany&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F10559169&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL2867289M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-6910-5432-2&rft.aulast=Sperber&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSperber1993" class="citation book cs1">— (1993). <i>Rhineland Radicals: The Democratic Movement and the Revolution of 1848–1849</i>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-6910-0866-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-6910-0866-0"><bdi>978-0-6910-0866-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rhineland+Radicals%3A+The+Democratic+Movement+and+the+Revolution+of+1848%E2%80%931849&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-6910-0866-0&rft.aulast=Sperber&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/A._J._P._Taylor" title="A. J. P. Taylor">Taylor, A. J. P.</a> (1988). <i>Bismarck: The Man and the Statesman</i>. Oxford: Clarendon. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3947-0387-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3947-0387-9"><bdi>978-0-3947-0387-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL7461954M">7461954M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bismarck%3A+The+Man+and+the+Statesman&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon&rft.date=1988&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL7461954M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-3947-0387-9&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=A.+J.+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLambert1971" class="citation book cs1">Lambert, Susan, ed. (1971). <i>The Franco-Prussian War and the Commune in caricature, 1870 - 71</i>. London: Victoria and Albert Museum. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-901486-30-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-901486-30-1"><bdi>978-0-901486-30-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Franco-Prussian+War+and+the+Commune+in+caricature%2C+1870+-+71&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Victoria+and+Albert+Museum&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=978-0-901486-30-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWawro1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Wawro" title="Geoffrey Wawro">Wawro, Geoffrey</a> (1996). <i>The Austro-Prussian War</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-5215-6059-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-5215-6059-4"><bdi>0-5215-6059-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL813265M">813265M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Austro-Prussian+War&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL813265M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=0-5215-6059-4&rft.aulast=Wawro&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWawro2003" class="citation book cs1">— (2003). <i>The Franco-Prussian War: The German Conquest of France</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-5215-8436-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-5215-8436-1"><bdi>0-5215-8436-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/51305920">51305920</a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL3566186M">3566186M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Franco-Prussian+War%3A+The+German+Conquest+of+France&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F51305920&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL3566186M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=0-5215-8436-1&rft.aulast=Wawro&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span>)</li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZamoyski2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adam_Zamoyski" title="Adam Zamoyski">Zamoyski, Adam</a> (2007). <i>Rites of Peace: The Fall of Napoleon and the Congress of Vienna</i>. New York: HarperCollins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-0607-7518-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-0607-7518-6"><bdi>978-0-0607-7518-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL7281494M">7281494M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rites+of+Peace%3A+The+Fall+of+Napoleon+and+the+Congress+of+Vienna&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL7281494M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-0607-7518-6&rft.aulast=Zamoyski&rft.aufirst=Adam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <p><b>Further reading</b> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBazillion1990" class="citation book cs1">Bazillion, Richard J. (1990). <i>Modernizing Germany: Karl Biedermann's career in the kingdom of Saxony, 1835-1901</i>. American university studies. Vol. 84. New York: P. Lang. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8204-1185-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8204-1185-9"><bdi>978-0-8204-1185-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modernizing+Germany%3A+Karl+Biedermann%27s+career+in+the+kingdom+of+Saxony%2C+1835-1901&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=American+university+studies&rft.pub=P.+Lang&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-8204-1185-9&rft.aulast=Bazillion&rft.aufirst=Richard+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrose2013" class="citation book cs1">Brose, Eric Dorn (2013). <i>German history 1789-1871: from the Holy Roman Empire to the Bismarckian Reich</i>. New York; Oxford: Berghahn. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78238-004-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78238-004-7"><bdi>978-1-78238-004-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=German+history+1789-1871%3A+from+the+Holy+Roman+Empire+to+the+Bismarckian+Reich&rft.place=New+York%3B+Oxford&rft.pub=Berghahn&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-78238-004-7&rft.aulast=Brose&rft.aufirst=Eric+Dorn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBucholz1991" class="citation book cs1">Bucholz, Arden (1991). <i>Moltke, Schlieffen, and Prussian War Planning</i>. New York: Berg. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8549-6653-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8549-6653-6"><bdi>0-8549-6653-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Moltke%2C+Schlieffen%2C+and+Prussian+War+Planning&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Berg&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0-8549-6653-6&rft.aulast=Bucholz&rft.aufirst=Arden&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBucholz2001" class="citation book cs1">— (2001). <i>Moltke and the German Wars 1864–1871</i>. New York: Palgrave MacMillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-3336-8758-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-3336-8758-2"><bdi>0-3336-8758-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Moltke+and+the+German+Wars+1864%E2%80%931871&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Palgrave+MacMillan&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-3336-8758-2&rft.aulast=Bucholz&rft.aufirst=Arden&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClark2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Clark" title="Christopher Clark">Clark, Christopher M.</a> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4LPODzLgDVEC"><i>Iron Kingdom: The Rise and Downfall of Prussia, 1600-1947</i></a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02385-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02385-7"><bdi>978-0-674-02385-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Iron+Kingdom%3A+The+Rise+and+Downfall+of+Prussia%2C+1600-1947&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-674-02385-7&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=Christopher+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4LPODzLgDVEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClemente1992" class="citation book cs1">Clemente, Steven E. (1992). <i>For King and Kaiser! The making of the Prussian Army Officer, 1860 - 1914</i>. Contributions in military studies. New York: Greenwood Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-28004-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-28004-7"><bdi>978-0-313-28004-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=For+King+and+Kaiser%21+The+making+of+the+Prussian+Army+Officer%2C+1860+-+1914&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Contributions+in+military+studies&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-313-28004-7&rft.aulast=Clemente&rft.aufirst=Steven+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCocks1990" class="citation book cs1">Cocks, Geoffrey, ed. (1990). <i>German professions, 1800 - 1950</i> (1. [print.] ed.). New York, NY: Oxford Univ. Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-505596-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-505596-2"><bdi>978-0-19-505596-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=German+professions%2C+1800+-+1950&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.edition=1.+%5Bprint.%5D&rft.pub=Oxford+Univ.+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-19-505596-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDwyer2001" class="citation book cs1">Dwyer, Philip, ed. (2001). <i>Modern Prussian history, 1830 - 1947</i> (1. publ ed.). Harlow: Pearson Education. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-29270-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-582-29270-3"><bdi>978-0-582-29270-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Prussian+history%2C+1830+-+1947&rft.place=Harlow&rft.edition=1.+publ&rft.pub=Pearson+Education&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-582-29270-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedrich1995" class="citation book cs1">Friedrich, Otto (1995). <i>Blood and iron: from Bismarck to Hitler; the von Moltke family's impact on German history</i> (1. ed.). New York, NY: Harper Collins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-016866-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-016866-7"><bdi>978-0-06-016866-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Blood+and+iron%3A+from+Bismarck+to+Hitler%3B+the+von+Moltke+family%27s+impact+on+German+history&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.edition=1.&rft.pub=Harper+Collins&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-06-016866-7&rft.aulast=Friedrich&rft.aufirst=Otto&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGroh1982" class="citation book cs1">Groh, John E. (1982). <i>Nineteenth century German Protestantism: the church as social model</i>. Washington, D.C.: University Press of America. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8191-2077-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8191-2077-9"><bdi>978-0-8191-2077-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nineteenth+century+German+Protestantism%3A+the+church+as+social+model&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=University+Press+of+America&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-8191-2077-9&rft.aulast=Groh&rft.aufirst=John+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenneObjartel1983" class="citation book cs1">Henne, Helmut; Objartel, Georg (1983). <i>German Student Jargon in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries</i>. Berlin; NY: <a href="/wiki/De_Gruyter" title="De Gruyter">de Gruyter</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/9193308">9193308</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=German+Student+Jargon+in+the+Eighteenth+and+Nineteenth+Centuries&rft.place=Berlin%3B+NY&rft.pub=de+Gruyter&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F9193308&rft.aulast=Henne&rft.aufirst=Helmut&rft.au=Objartel%2C+Georg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHughes1991" class="citation book cs1">Hughes, Michael (1991). <i>Nationalism and society: Germany 1800 - 1945</i> (repr ed.). London: Arnold. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7131-6522-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7131-6522-7"><bdi>978-0-7131-6522-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nationalism+and+society%3A+Germany+1800+-+1945&rft.place=London&rft.edition=repr&rft.pub=Arnold&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-7131-6522-7&rft.aulast=Hughes&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKollander1995" class="citation book cs1">Kollander, Patricia (1995). <i>Frederick III: Germany's liberal emperor</i>. Contributions to the study of world history. Westport (Conn.) London: Greenwood press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-29483-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-29483-9"><bdi>978-0-313-29483-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Frederick+III%3A+Germany%27s+liberal+emperor&rft.place=Westport+%28Conn.%29+London&rft.series=Contributions+to+the+study+of+world+history&rft.pub=Greenwood+press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-313-29483-9&rft.aulast=Kollander&rft.aufirst=Patricia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLowenstein1994" class="citation book cs1">Lowenstein, Steven M. (1994). <i>The Berlin Jewish community: enlightenment, family, and crisis, 1770-1830</i>. Studies in Jewish history. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-508326-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-508326-2"><bdi>978-0-19-508326-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Berlin+Jewish+community%3A+enlightenment%2C+family%2C+and+crisis%2C+1770-1830&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Studies+in+Jewish+history&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-19-508326-2&rft.aulast=Lowenstein&rft.aufirst=Steven+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLüdtke1989" class="citation book cs1">Lüdtke, Alf (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/policestateinpru0000ludt"><i>Police and State in Prussia, 1815-1850</i></a>. Paris; New York; Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-30164-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-30164-0"><bdi>978-0-521-30164-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Police+and+State+in+Prussia%2C+1815-1850&rft.place=Paris%3B+New+York%3B+Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-521-30164-0&rft.aulast=L%C3%BCdtke&rft.aufirst=Alf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpolicestateinpru0000ludt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOhles1992" class="citation book cs1">Ohles, Frederik (1992). <i>Germany's rude awakening: censorship in the land of the Brothers Grimm</i>. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87338-460-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87338-460-5"><bdi>978-0-87338-460-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Germany%27s+rude+awakening%3A+censorship+in+the+land+of+the+Brothers+Grimm&rft.place=Kent%2C+Ohio&rft.pub=Kent+State+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-87338-460-5&rft.aulast=Ohles&rft.aufirst=Frederik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPflanze1979" class="citation book cs1">Pflanze, Otto, ed. (1979). <i>The unification of Germany: 1848 - 1871</i> (Reprint ed.). Huntington, N.Y: Krieger. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88275-803-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88275-803-9"><bdi>978-0-88275-803-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+unification+of+Germany%3A+1848+-+1871&rft.place=Huntington%2C+N.Y&rft.edition=Reprint&rft.pub=Krieger&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-88275-803-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchleunes1989" class="citation book cs1">Schleunes, Karl A. (1989). <i>Schooling and society: the politics of education in Prussia and Bavaria 1750-1900</i>. Oxford New York: Berg St. Martin's press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85496-267-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85496-267-9"><bdi>978-0-85496-267-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Schooling+and+society%3A+the+politics+of+education+in+Prussia+and+Bavaria+1750-1900&rft.place=Oxford+New+York&rft.pub=Berg+St.+Martin%27s+press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-85496-267-9&rft.aulast=Schleunes&rft.aufirst=Karl+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchulze1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hagen_Schulze" title="Hagen Schulze">Schulze, Hagen</a> (1991). <i>The Course of German Nationalism: From Frederick the Great to Bismarck, 1763–1867</i>. Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5213-7759-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5213-7759-1"><bdi>978-0-5213-7759-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL2227160M">2227160M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Course+of+German+Nationalism%3A+From+Frederick+the+Great+to+Bismarck%2C+1763%E2%80%931867&rft.place=Cambridge+%26+New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL2227160M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-5213-7759-1&rft.aulast=Schulze&rft.aufirst=Hagen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShowalter2015" class="citation book cs1">Showalter, Dennis E. (2015). <i>The Wars of German Unification</i> (2nd ed.).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Wars+of+German+Unification&rft.edition=2nd&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Showalter&rft.aufirst=Dennis+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShowalter1975" class="citation book cs1">— (1975). <i>Railroads and Rifles: Soldiers, Technology, and the Unification of Germany</i>. Hamden, Connecticut: Hailer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9798-5009-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-9798-5009-6"><bdi>0-9798-5009-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Railroads+and+Rifles%3A+Soldiers%2C+Technology%2C+and+the+Unification+of+Germany&rft.place=Hamden%2C+Connecticut&rft.pub=Hailer&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=0-9798-5009-6&rft.aulast=Showalter&rft.aufirst=Dennis+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSked2001" class="citation book cs1">Sked, Alan (2001). <i>The decline and fall of the Habsburg Empire 1815-1918</i> (2. ed.). Harlow: Longman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-35666-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-582-35666-5"><bdi>978-0-582-35666-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+decline+and+fall+of+the+Habsburg+Empire+1815-1918&rft.place=Harlow&rft.edition=2.&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-582-35666-5&rft.aulast=Sked&rft.aufirst=Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1991" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Woodruff D. (1991). <i>Politics and the sciences of culture in Germany, 1840-1920</i>. New-York Oxford: Oxford university press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-506536-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-506536-7"><bdi>978-0-19-506536-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Politics+and+the+sciences+of+culture+in+Germany%2C+1840-1920&rft.place=New-York+Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+university+press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-19-506536-7&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Woodruff+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSorkin1999" class="citation book cs1">Sorkin, David (1999). <i>The transformation of German Jewry: 1780 - 1840</i>. Jewish studies. Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8143-2828-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8143-2828-6"><bdi>978-0-8143-2828-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+transformation+of+German+Jewry%3A+1780+-+1840&rft.place=Detroit%2C+MI&rft.series=Jewish+studies&rft.pub=Wayne+State+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-8143-2828-6&rft.aulast=Sorkin&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSperber1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Sperber" title="Jonathan Sperber">Sperber, Jonathan</a> (1994). <i>The European Revolutions, 1848–1851</i>. New Approaches to European History. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5215-4779-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5215-4779-6"><bdi>978-0-5215-4779-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/27814087">27814087</a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL24776092M">24776092M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+European+Revolutions%2C+1848%E2%80%931851&rft.series=New+Approaches+to+European+History&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F27814087&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL24776092M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-5215-4779-6&rft.aulast=Sperber&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStargardt1994" class="citation book cs1">Stargardt, Nicholas (1994). <i>The German idea of militarism: radical and socialist critics, 1866-1914</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-46692-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-46692-9"><bdi>978-0-521-46692-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+German+idea+of+militarism%3A+radical+and+socialist+critics%2C+1866-1914&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-521-46692-9&rft.aulast=Stargardt&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteinberg2011" class="citation book cs1">Steinberg, Jonathan (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=twCXU4ROpRkC"><i>Bismarck: A Life</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-984543-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-984543-9"><bdi>978-0-19-984543-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bismarck%3A+A+Life&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-19-984543-9&rft.aulast=Steinberg&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtwCXU4ROpRkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWawro2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Wawro" title="Geoffrey Wawro">Wawro, Geoffrey</a> (2000). <i>Warfare and Society in Europe, 1792–1914</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-4152-1445-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-4152-1445-2"><bdi>978-0-4152-1445-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/50552980">50552980</a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL45213M">45213M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warfare+and+Society+in+Europe%2C+1792%E2%80%931914&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F50552980&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL45213M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-4152-1445-2&rft.aulast=Wawro&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Germany&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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.navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Unification_of_Germany" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Unification_of_Germany" title="Template:Unification of Germany"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Unification_of_Germany" title="Template talk:Unification of Germany"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Unification_of_Germany" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Unification of Germany"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Unification_of_Germany" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Unification of Germany</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian Empire</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(later <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bavaria" title="Kingdom of Bavaria">Kingdom of Bavaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hanover" title="Kingdom of Hanover">Kingdom of Hanover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Kingdom of Prussia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Saxony" title="Kingdom of Saxony">Kingdom of Saxony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg" title="Kingdom of Württemberg">Kingdom of Württemberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/States_of_the_German_Confederation" title="States of the German Confederation">States of the German Confederation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Unions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_of_the_Rhine" title="Confederation of the Rhine">Confederation of the Rhine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Confederation" title="German Confederation">German Confederation</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zollverein" title="Zollverein">Zollverein</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Empire_(1848%E2%80%931849)" title="German Empire (1848–1849)">German Empire (1848–1849)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erfurt_Union" title="Erfurt Union">Erfurt Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_German_Confederation" title="North German Confederation">North German Confederation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;">1814–1815</span> <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;">1815–1848</span> <i><a href="/wiki/Vorm%C3%A4rz" title="Vormärz">Vormärz</a></i> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;">1817</span> <a href="/wiki/Wartburg_Festival" title="Wartburg Festival">Wartburg Festival</a></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;">1819</span> <a href="/wiki/Carlsbad_Decrees" title="Carlsbad Decrees">Carlsbad Decrees</a></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;">1832</span> <a href="/wiki/Hambach_Festival" title="Hambach Festival">Hambach Festival</a></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;">1833</span> <i><a href="/wiki/Frankfurter_Wachensturm" title="Frankfurter Wachensturm">Frankfurter Wachensturm</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_revolutions_of_1848%E2%80%931849" title="German revolutions of 1848–1849"><span style="font-size:85%;">1848</span> Revolutions</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;">1848–1849</span> <a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankfurt Parliament">Frankfurt Parliament</a></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;">1848</span> <a href="/wiki/Greater_Poland_uprising_(1848)" class="mw-redirect" title="Greater Poland uprising (1848)">Greater Poland uprising</a></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;">1850</span> <a href="/wiki/Punctation_of_Olm%C3%BCtz" title="Punctation of Olmütz">Punctation of Olmütz</a></li></ul></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;">1850-1851</span> <a href="/wiki/Dresden_Conference_(1851)" title="Dresden Conference (1851)">Dresden Conference</a></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;">1862</span> <a href="/wiki/Blood_and_Iron_(speech)" title="Blood and Iron (speech)">"Blood and Iron" speech</a></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;">1864</span> <a href="/wiki/Second_Schleswig_War" title="Second Schleswig War">Second Schleswig War</a></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;">1866</span> <a href="/wiki/Austro-Prussian_War" title="Austro-Prussian War">Austro-Prussian War</a> / <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Prague_(1866)" title="Peace of Prague (1866)">Peace of Prague</a></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;">1870–1871</span> <a href="/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War">Franco-Prussian War</a></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;">1871</span> <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles_(1871)" title="Treaty of Versailles (1871)">Treaty of Versailles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Friedrich_Karl_vom_und_zum_Stein" title="Heinrich Friedrich Karl vom und zum Stein">Baron von Stein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_I_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg" title="Charles I of Württemberg">Charles I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_IX_of_Denmark" title="Christian IX of Denmark">Christian IX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_von_Simson" title="Eduard von Simson">Eduard von Simson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor">Franz I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Joseph_I_of_Austria" title="Franz Joseph I of Austria">Franz Joseph I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_William_III_of_Prussia" title="Frederick William III of Prussia">Frederick William III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_William_IV_of_Prussia" title="Frederick William IV of Prussia">Frederick William IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Daniel_Bassermann" title="Friedrich Daniel Bassermann">Friedrich Daniel Bassermann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Ferdinand_von_Beust" title="Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust">Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_von_Gagern" title="Heinrich von Gagern">Heinrich von Gagern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Johann Gottlieb Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gustav_Droysen" title="Johann Gustav Droysen">Johann Gustav Droysen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archduke_John_of_Austria" title="Archduke John of Austria">Archduke John</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John,_King_of_Saxony" title="John, King of Saxony">John, King of Saxony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_August_von_Hardenberg" title="Karl August von Hardenberg">Karl August von Hardenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klemens_von_Metternich" title="Klemens von Metternich">Klemens von Metternich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_II_of_Bavaria" title="Ludwig II of Bavaria">Ludwig II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleon_III" title="Napoleon III">Napoleon III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Otto von Bismarck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Blum" title="Robert Blum">Robert Blum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">Wilhelm von Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_I,_German_Emperor" title="William I, German Emperor">Wilhelm I</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alsace%E2%80%93Lorraine" title="Alsace–Lorraine">Alsace–Lorraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austro-Prussian_rivalry" title="Austro-Prussian rivalry">Austro-Prussian rivalry</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Burschenschaft" title="Burschenschaft">Burschenschaft</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Deutschlandlied" title="Deutschlandlied">Das Lied der Deutschen</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Die_Wacht_am_Rhein" title="Die Wacht am Rhein">Die Wacht am Rhein</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Germany" title="Flag of Germany">Flag of Germany</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/L%C3%BCtzow_Free_Corps" title="Lützow Free Corps">Lützow Free Corps</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Germanism" title="Pan-Germanism">Pan-Germanism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Lesser_Germany" title="Lesser Germany">Lesser Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_question" title="German question">German question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">German reunification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Austria_proposal" title="Greater Austria proposal">Greater Austria proposal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schleswig%E2%80%93Holstein_question" title="Schleswig–Holstein question">Schleswig–Holstein question</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sonderweg" title="Sonderweg">Sonderweg</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/16px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/24px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/32px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Germany" title="Portal:Germany">Germany portal</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="International_relations_(1814–1919)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Great_Power_diplomacy" title="Template:Great Power diplomacy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Great_Power_diplomacy" title="Template talk:Great Power diplomacy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Great_Power_diplomacy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Great Power diplomacy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="International_relations_(1814–1919)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)" title="International relations (1814–1919)">International relations (1814–1919)</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Great powers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1865%E2%80%931917)" title="History of the United States (1865–1917)">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Alliances</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Triple_Alliance_(1882)" title="Triple Alliance (1882)">Triple Alliance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dual_Alliance_(1879)" title="Dual Alliance (1879)">Dual Alliance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple_Entente" title="Triple Entente">Triple Entente</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Russian_Alliance" title="Franco-Russian Alliance">Franco-Russian Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entente_Cordiale" title="Entente Cordiale">Entente Cordiale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Russian_Convention" title="Anglo-Russian Convention">Anglo-Russian Convention</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Japanese_Alliance" title="Anglo-Japanese Alliance">Anglo-Japanese Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/League_of_the_Three_Emperors" title="League of the Three Emperors">League of the Three Emperors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight-Nation_Alliance" title="Eight-Nation Alliance">Eight-Nation Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balkan_League" title="Balkan League">Balkan League</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Trends</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_balance_of_power" title="European balance of power">European balance of power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_and_modernization_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman decline</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_question" title="Eastern question">Eastern question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Rise of nationalism in the Ottoman Empire">Spread of nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_public_debt" title="Ottoman public debt">Sovereign debt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French%E2%80%93German_enmity" title="French–German enmity">French–German enmity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revanchism" title="Revanchism">Revanchism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_Britannica" title="Pax Britannica">Pax Britannica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Imperialism" title="New Imperialism">New Imperialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa" title="Scramble for Africa">Scramble for Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Lever" title="Egyptian Lever">Egyptian Lever</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_imperialism_in_Asia" title="Western imperialism in Asia">In Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Game" title="Great Game">Great Game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_China" title="Scramble for China">Scramble for China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Door_Policy" title="Open Door Policy">Open Door Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiji_era" title="Meiji era">Meiji era</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Slavism" title="Pan-Slavism">Pan-Slavism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Rapprochement" title="Great Rapprochement">Great Rapprochement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_warfare" title="Industrial warfare">Industrial warfare</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Treaties and<br />agreements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles_(1871)" title="Treaty of Versailles (1871)">Treaty of Versailles (1871)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Frankfurt_(1871)" title="Treaty of Frankfurt (1871)">Treaty of Frankfurt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Berlin_(1878)" title="Treaty of Berlin (1878)">Treaty of Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinsurance_Treaty" title="Reinsurance Treaty">Reinsurance Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1898)" title="Treaty of Paris (1898)">Treaty of Paris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Bj%C3%B6rk%C3%B6" title="Treaty of Björkö">Treaty of Björkö</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taft%E2%80%93Katsura_agreement" title="Taft–Katsura agreement">Taft–Katsura agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hague_Conventions_of_1899_and_1907" title="Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907">Hague Conventions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martens_Clause" title="Martens Clause">Martens Clause</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Korea_Treaty_of_1905" title="Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905">Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Korea_Treaty_of_1910" title="Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910">Japan–Korea Annexation Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racconigi_Bargain" title="Racconigi Bargain">Racconigi agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1917_Franco-Russian_agreement" title="1917 Franco-Russian agreement">1917 Franco-Russian agreement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Moldavia_and_Wallachia" title="Unification of Moldavia and Wallachia">Formation of Romania</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Unification of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Italy" title="Unification of Italy">Unification of Italy</a></li> <li><a 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<div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-66fb676896-c2gr8","wgBackendResponseTime":178,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.818","walltime":"2.088","ppvisitednodes":{"value":17071,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":331106,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":33337,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":17,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":17,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":426964,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1717.038 1 -total"," 21.41% 367.592 84 Template:Cite_book"," 19.04% 326.847 2 Template:Reflist"," 14.85% 255.028 86 Template:Sfn"," 7.85% 134.854 1 Template:Infobox_event"," 6.18% 106.124 1 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