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id="toc-1806_establishment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Developments_after_1806" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Developments_after_1806"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Developments after 1806 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Developments_after_1806-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Congress_of_Vienna_(1815)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Congress_of_Vienna_(1815)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 The Congress of Vienna (1815) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Congress_of_Vienna_(1815)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Constitution_of_1820_and_legal_reforms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Constitution_of_1820_and_legal_reforms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 The Constitution of 1820 and legal reforms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Constitution_of_1820_and_legal_reforms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Constitution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constitution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.1 Constitution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constitution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legal_and_administrative_reforms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legal_and_administrative_reforms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.2 Legal and administrative reforms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legal_and_administrative_reforms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Civic_administration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civic_administration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.3 Civic administration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civic_administration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abolition_of_serfdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abolition_of_serfdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.4 Abolition of serfdom </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abolition_of_serfdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_reforms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_reforms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.5 Economic reforms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_reforms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impact_of_the_July_Revolution_(1830–1848)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impact_of_the_July_Revolution_(1830–1848)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Impact of the July Revolution (1830–1848) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Impact_of_the_July_Revolution_(1830–1848)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_March_Revolution_(1848–1849)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_March_Revolution_(1848–1849)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 The March Revolution (1848–1849) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_March_Revolution_(1848–1849)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Revolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Revolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6.1 Revolution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Revolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reforms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reforms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6.2 Reforms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reforms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Dalwigk_Era_(1850–1866)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Dalwigk_Era_(1850–1866)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 The Dalwigk Era (1850–1866) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Dalwigk_Era_(1850–1866)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Internal_politics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internal_politics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7.1 Internal politics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internal_politics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Zollverein_crisis,_1852" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Zollverein_crisis,_1852"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7.2 Zollverein crisis, 1852 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Zollverein_crisis,_1852-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-German_National_Association" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#German_National_Association"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7.3 German National Association </div> </a> <ul id="toc-German_National_Association-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dynastic_reorientation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dynastic_reorientation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7.4 Dynastic reorientation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dynastic_reorientation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lead-up_to_the_Austro-Prussian_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lead-up_to_the_Austro-Prussian_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7.5 Lead-up to the Austro-Prussian War </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lead-up_to_the_Austro-Prussian_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Austro-Prussian_War_(1866)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Austro-Prussian_War_(1866)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8 Austro-Prussian War (1866) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Austro-Prussian_War_(1866)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Peace_treaty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Peace_treaty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8.1 Peace treaty </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Peace_treaty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8.2 Aftermath </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hesse_in_the_German_Empire_(1870–1914)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hesse_in_the_German_Empire_(1870–1914)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.9 Hesse in the German Empire (1870–1914) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hesse_in_the_German_Empire_(1870–1914)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Proclamation_of_the_German_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proclamation_of_the_German_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.9.1 Proclamation of the German Empire </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proclamation_of_the_German_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-A_small_state_in_the_German_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#A_small_state_in_the_German_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.9.2 A small state in the German Empire </div> </a> <ul id="toc-A_small_state_in_the_German_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_reforms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_reforms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.9.3 Political reforms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_reforms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.9.4 Social policy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cultural_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultural_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.9.5 Cultural policy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cultural_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_World_War_and_end_of_the_grand_duchy_(1914–1918)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_World_War_and_end_of_the_grand_duchy_(1914–1918)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.10 First World War and end of the grand duchy (1914–1918) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_World_War_and_end_of_the_grand_duchy_(1914–1918)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Government </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Government-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Government subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Grand_Duke" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grand_Duke"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Grand Duke </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grand_Duke-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Landstände" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Landstände"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Landstände </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Landstände-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Upper_chamber" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Upper_chamber"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1 Upper chamber </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Upper_chamber-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lower_Chamber" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lower_Chamber"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.2 Lower Chamber </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lower_Chamber-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legislative_process" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legislative_process"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.3 Legislative process </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legislative_process-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Executive" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Executive"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Executive </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Executive-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Administrative_subdivisions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Administrative_subdivisions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Administrative subdivisions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Administrative_subdivisions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-First-order_subdivisions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First-order_subdivisions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.1 First-order subdivisions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First-order_subdivisions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Military </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demographics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demographics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Demographics </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Demographics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Demographics subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Demographics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nobility" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nobility"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Nobility </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nobility-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emigration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emigration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Emigration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emigration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Religion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Protestantism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Protestantism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.1 Protestantism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Protestantism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Catholicism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Catholicism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.2 Catholicism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Catholicism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Judaism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Judaism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.3 Judaism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Judaism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Economy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Economy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Economy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tolls" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tolls"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Tolls </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tolls-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Currency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Currency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Currency </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Currency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Weights_and_measures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Weights_and_measures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Weights and measures </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Weights_and_measures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Corporations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Corporations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Corporations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Corporations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transport_and_communications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transport_and_communications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Transport and communications </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transport_and_communications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Communications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Communications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5.1 Communications </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Communications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Street_vehicles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Street_vehicles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5.2 Street vehicles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Street_vehicles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rhine_shipping" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rhine_shipping"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5.3 Rhine shipping </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rhine_shipping-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Railways" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Railways"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5.4 Railways </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Railways-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Culture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Culture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Architecture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Heritage_management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Heritage_management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Heritage management </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Heritage_management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jugendstil" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jugendstil"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Jugendstil </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jugendstil-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Language </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Grand Duchy of Hesse</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 41 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-41" aria-hidden="true" > 41 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D9%87%D8%B3%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%89" title="دوقية هسن الكبرى – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="دوقية هسن الكبرى" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hesse-Darmstadt" title="Hesse-Darmstadt – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Hesse-Darmstadt" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%B6y%C3%BCk_Hesse_hersoqlu%C4%9Fu" title="Böyük Hesse hersoqluğu – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Böyük Hesse hersoqluğu" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B5_%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%86%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%8D%D0%BD" title="Вялікае Герцагства Гесэн – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Вялікае Герцагства Гесэн" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D1%85%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%86%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%A5%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Велико херцогство Хесен – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Велико херцогство Хесен" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dugelezh-veur_Hessen" title="Dugelezh-veur Hessen – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Dugelezh-veur Hessen" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gran_ducat_de_Hessen_i_del_Rin" title="Gran ducat de Hessen i del Rin – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Gran ducat de Hessen i del Rin" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hesensk%C3%A9_velkov%C3%A9vodstv%C3%AD" title="Hesenské velkovévodství – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Hesenské velkovévodství" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storhertugd%C3%B8mmet_Hessen" title="Storhertugdømmet Hessen – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Storhertugdømmet Hessen" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Hessen" title="Großherzogtum Hessen – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Großherzogtum Hessen" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hesseni_suurhertsogkond" title="Hesseni suurhertsogkond – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Hesseni suurhertsogkond" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B5%CE%B3%CE%AC%CE%BB%CE%BF_%CE%94%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%BA%CE%AC%CF%84%CE%BF_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%88%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B7%CF%82" title="Μεγάλο Δουκάτο της Έσσης – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μεγάλο Δουκάτο της Έσσης" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hesse-Darmstadt" title="Hesse-Darmstadt – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Hesse-Darmstadt" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hesio-Darmstadt" title="Hesio-Darmstadt – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Hesio-Darmstadt" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hessengo_Dukerri_Handia" title="Hessengo Dukerri Handia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Hessengo Dukerri Handia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88%DA%A9%E2%80%8C%D9%86%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%A8%D8%B2%D8%B1%DA%AF_%D9%87%D8%B3%D9%86" title="دوک‌نشین بزرگ هسن – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دوک‌نشین بزرگ هسن" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand-duch%C3%A9_de_Hesse" title="Grand-duché de Hesse – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Grand-duché de Hesse" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%80rd-di%C3%B9cachd_Hesse" title="Àrd-diùcachd Hesse – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Àrd-diùcachd Hesse" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%97%A4%EC%84%BC_%EB%8C%80%EA%B3%B5%EA%B5%AD" title="헤센 대공국 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="헤센 대공국" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keharyapatihan_Hessen" title="Keharyapatihan Hessen – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Keharyapatihan Hessen" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granducato_d%27Assia" title="Granducato d'Assia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Granducato d'Assia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%93%D7%95%D7%9B%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%92%D7%93%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%94_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%94%D7%A1%D7%9F" title="הדוכסות הגדולה של הסן – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הדוכסות הגדולה של הסן" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnus_Ducatus_Hassiae" title="Magnus Ducatus Hassiae – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Magnus Ducatus Hassiae" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hesseni_Nagyhercegs%C3%A9g" title="Hesseni Nagyhercegség – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Hesseni Nagyhercegség" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE_%D0%92%D0%BE%D1%98%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%A5%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Големо Војводство Хесен – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Големо Војводство Хесен" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%98%D1%85_%D0%93%D2%AF%D0%BD%D1%82_%D0%A3%D0%BB%D1%81" title="Хессений Их Гүнт Улс – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Хессений Их Гүнт Улс" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groothertogdom_Hessen" title="Groothertogdom Hessen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Groothertogdom Hessen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%98%E3%83%83%E3%82%BB%E3%83%B3%E5%A4%A7%E5%85%AC%E5%9B%BD" title="ヘッセン大公国 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ヘッセン大公国" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storhertugd%C3%B8mmet_Hessen" title="Storhertugdømmet Hessen – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Storhertugdømmet Hessen" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wielkie_Ksi%C4%99stwo_Hesji" title="Wielkie Księstwo Hesji – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wielkie Księstwo Hesji" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gr%C3%A3o-Ducado_de_Hesse" title="Grão-Ducado de Hesse – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Grão-Ducado de Hesse" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marele_Ducat_Hessa" title="Marele Ducat Hessa – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Marele Ducat Hessa" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%86%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Великое герцогство Гессен – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Великое герцогство Гессен" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse" title="Grand Duchy of Hesse – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Grand Duchy of Hesse" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hessenin_suurherttuakunta" title="Hessenin suurherttuakunta – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Hessenin suurherttuakunta" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storhertigd%C3%B6met_Hessen" title="Storhertigdömet Hessen – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Storhertigdömet Hessen" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%94%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B5%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%AE%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99" title="แกรนด์ดัชชีเฮ็สเซิน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="แกรนด์ดัชชีเฮ็สเซิน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hessen_B%C3%BCy%C3%BCk_D%C3%BCkal%C4%B1%C4%9F%C4%B1" title="Hessen Büyük Dükalığı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Hessen Büyük Dükalığı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B5_%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%86%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B5" title="Велике герцогство Гессенське – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Велике герцогство Гессенське" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_c%C3%B4ng_qu%E1%BB%91c_Hessen" title="Đại công quốc Hessen – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Đại công quốc Hessen" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%BB%91%E6%A3%AE%E5%A4%A7%E5%85%AC%E5%9B%BD" title="黑森大公国 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="黑森大公国" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q20135#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements 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searchaux" style="display:none">German state (1806–1918)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the region sometimes known in English as Rhine-Hesse, see <a href="/wiki/Rhenish_Hesse" title="Rhenish Hesse">Rhenish Hesse</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1043282317">.mw-parser-output .ib-country{border-collapse:collapse;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country td,.mw-parser-output .ib-country th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-header{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-names{padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-name-style{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-image{padding:0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-anthem{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Grand Duchy of Hesse and by Rhine</div><div class="ib-country-names">Großherzogtum Hessen und bei Rhein (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">1806–1918</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="noresize" style="display:table; width:100%;"> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding-left:5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Hessen_ohne_Wappen.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of Hesse"><img alt="Flag of Hesse" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Hessen_ohne_Wappen.svg/125px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Hessen_ohne_Wappen.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Hessen_ohne_Wappen.svg/188px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Hessen_ohne_Wappen.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Hessen_ohne_Wappen.svg/250px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Hessen_ohne_Wappen.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="400" /></a></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Hesse" title="Flag of Hesse">Flag</a></div> </div> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding: 0px 5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Greater_Coat_of_arms_of_Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse_(1902-1918).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coat of arms of Hesse"><img alt="Coat of arms of Hesse" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Greater_Coat_of_arms_of_Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse_%281902-1918%29.svg/110px-Greater_Coat_of_arms_of_Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse_%281902-1918%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="110" height="92" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Greater_Coat_of_arms_of_Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse_%281902-1918%29.svg/165px-Greater_Coat_of_arms_of_Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse_%281902-1918%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Greater_Coat_of_arms_of_Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse_%281902-1918%29.svg/220px-Greater_Coat_of_arms_of_Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse_%281902-1918%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="429" /></a></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Hesse" title="Coat of arms of Hesse"> Coat of arms</a></div> </div> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Motto: Gott, Ehre, Vaterland<div>God, Honour, Fatherland</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data anthem">Anthem: <a href="/wiki/Hessenlied" title="Hessenlied">Hessenlied</a> "Song of Hesse" <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Hesse_in_the_German_Reich_(1871).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Grand Duchy of Hesse within the German Empire"><img alt="The Grand Duchy of Hesse within the German Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Hesse_in_the_German_Reich_%281871%29.svg/250px-Hesse_in_the_German_Reich_%281871%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Hesse_in_the_German_Reich_%281871%29.svg/375px-Hesse_in_the_German_Reich_%281871%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Hesse_in_the_German_Reich_%281871%29.svg/500px-Hesse_in_the_German_Reich_%281871%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1425" data-file-height="1133" /></a><div class="ib-country-map-caption">The Grand Duchy of Hesse within the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Grand Duchy of Hesse (1815–1866)"><img alt="Grand Duchy of Hesse (1815–1866)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse.png/250px-Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="444" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse.png/375px-Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse.png/500px-Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse.png 2x" data-file-width="726" data-file-height="1289" /></a><div class="ib-country-map-caption">Grand Duchy of Hesse (1815–1866)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Status</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li>State of the <a href="/wiki/Confederation_of_the_Rhine" title="Confederation of the Rhine">Confederation of the Rhine</a> (1806–1813)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/States_of_the_German_Confederation" title="States of the German Confederation">State</a> of the <a href="/wiki/German_Confederation" title="German Confederation">German Confederation</a> (1815–1866)</li> <li>State of the <a href="/wiki/North_German_Confederation" title="North German Confederation">North German Confederation</a> (1867/70–1871)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/States_of_the_German_Empire" title="States of the German Empire">Federal State</a> of the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a> (1871–1918)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Darmstadt" title="Darmstadt">Darmstadt</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Common languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Hessian_dialects" title="Hessian dialects">Hessian German</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_Church_in_Hesse_and_Nassau" title="Protestant Church in Hesse and Nassau">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholicism">Catholicism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Hesse" title="Politics of Hesse">Government</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Monarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitutional Monarchy">Constitutional Monarchy</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Hesse" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Hesse">Grand Duke</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1806–1830 (first) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Louis_I,_Grand_Duke_of_Hesse" title="Louis I, Grand Duke of Hesse">Louis I</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1892–1918 (last) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Louis,_Grand_Duke_of_Hesse" title="Ernest Louis, Grand Duke of Hesse">Ernest Louis</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Minister-President" class="mw-redirect" title="Minister-President">Minister-President</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1821–1829 (first) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Carl_Ludwig_Wilhelm_Grolman" title="Carl Ludwig Wilhelm Grolman">Carl Grolman</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1906–1918 (last) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Christian_Wilhelm_Karl_Ewald" title="Christian Wilhelm Karl Ewald">Christian Ewald</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Legislature</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Landst%C3%A4nde" title="Landstände">Landstände</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Historical era</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">WWI</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Established </div></th><td class="infobox-data">13 August 1806</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918" class="mw-redirect" title="German Revolution of 1918">German Revolution</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">9 November 1918</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Area</th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">1806<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> </th><td class="infobox-data">9,300 km2 (3,600 sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">1815</th><td class="infobox-data">8,345 km2 (3,222 sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">1866</th><td class="infobox-data">7,682 km2 (2,966 sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">1910<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></th><td class="infobox-data">7,688.36 km2 (2,968.49 sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Hesse" class="mw-redirect" title="Demographics of Hesse">Population</a></th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1806<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">546,000</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1889<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">968,000</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1910<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1,282,051</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> Preceded by</td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;">Succeeded by </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Flag_of_Hesse-Darmstadt_Regiment_during_the_Seven_Years_War_%281756-1763%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_Hesse-Darmstadt_Regiment_during_the_Seven_Years_War_%281756-1763%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Flag_of_Hesse-Darmstadt_Regiment_during_the_Seven_Years_War_%281756-1763%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_Hesse-Darmstadt_Regiment_during_the_Seven_Years_War_%281756-1763%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Flag_of_Hesse-Darmstadt_Regiment_during_the_Seven_Years_War_%281756-1763%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Hesse-Darmstadt_Regiment_during_the_Seven_Years_War_%281756-1763%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="448" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Landgraviate_of_Hesse-Darmstadt" title="Landgraviate of Hesse-Darmstadt">Landgraviate of Hesse-Darmstadt</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_with_haloes_%281430-1806%29.svg/20px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_with_haloes_%281430-1806%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_with_haloes_%281430-1806%29.svg/30px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_with_haloes_%281430-1806%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_with_haloes_%281430-1806%29.svg/40px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_with_haloes_%281430-1806%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/People%27s_State_of_Hesse" title="People's State of Hesse">People's State of Hesse</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Hessen_ohne_Wappen.svg/20px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Hessen_ohne_Wappen.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Hessen_ohne_Wappen.svg/30px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Hessen_ohne_Wappen.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Hessen_ohne_Wappen.svg/40px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Hessen_ohne_Wappen.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="400" /> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> The Grand Duchy of Hesse and by Rhine (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: Großherzogtum Hessen und bei Rhein) was a <a href="/wiki/Grand_duchy" title="Grand duchy">grand duchy</a> in western <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> that existed from 1806 to 1918. The grand duchy originally formed from the <a href="/wiki/Landgraviate_of_Hesse-Darmstadt" title="Landgraviate of Hesse-Darmstadt">Landgraviate of Hesse-Darmstadt</a> in 1806 as the Grand Duchy of Hesse (German: Großherzogtum Hessen). It assumed the name Hesse und bei Rhein in 1816 to distinguish itself from the <a href="/wiki/Electorate_of_Hesse" title="Electorate of Hesse">Electorate of Hesse</a>, which had formed from the neighbouring <a href="/wiki/Landgraviate_of_Hesse-Kassel" title="Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel">Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel</a>. Colloquially, the grand duchy continued to be known by its former name of Hesse-Darmstadt. In 1806, the Landgraviate of Hesse-Darmstadt seceded from the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> and joined <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a>'s new <a href="/wiki/Confederation_of_the_Rhine" title="Confederation of the Rhine">Confederation of the Rhine</a>. The country was promoted to the status of grand duchy and received considerable new territories, principally the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Westphalia" title="Duchy of Westphalia">Duchy of Westphalia</a>. After the French defeat in 1815, the grand duchy joined the new <a href="/wiki/German_Confederation" title="German Confederation">German Confederation</a>. Westphalia was taken by <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussia</a>, but Hesse received <a href="/wiki/Rhenish_Hesse" title="Rhenish Hesse">Rhenish Hesse</a> in return. A constitution was proclaimed in 1820 and a long process of legal reforms was begun, with the aim of unifying the disparate territories under the grand duke's control. The political history of the grand duchy during this period was characterised by conflict between the conservative <a href="/wiki/Mediatised_houses" title="Mediatised houses">mediatised houses</a> (Standesherren) and forces supporting political and social <a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberalisation</a>. During the <a href="/wiki/1848_revolutions" class="mw-redirect" title="1848 revolutions">1848 revolutions</a>, the government was forced to grant wide-ranging reforms, including the full abolition of serfdom and universal manhood suffrage, but the reactionary government of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Reinhard_von_Dalwigick&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Reinhard von Dalwigick (page does not exist)">Reinhard von Dalwigick</a> rolled most of these back over the following decade. In 1866, Hesse entered the <a href="/wiki/Austro-Prussian_War" title="Austro-Prussian War">Austro-Prussian War</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian</a> side, but received a relatively mild settlement from the Prussian victors. The grand duchy joined the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a> in 1871. As a small state within the empire, the grand duchy had limits placed on its autonomy, but significant religious, social, and cultural reforms were carried out. During the <a href="/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%931919" class="mw-redirect" title="German Revolution of 1918–1919">November Revolution</a> after <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> in 1918, the grand duchy was overthrown and replaced by the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_State_of_Hesse" title="People's State of Hesse">People's State of Hesse</a>. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geography">Geography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Geography">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse.png/250px-Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="444" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse.png/375px-Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse.png/500px-Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse.png 2x" data-file-width="726" data-file-height="1289" /></a><figcaption>Territory of the Grand Duchy of Hesse, 1815–1866</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hessen1930.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Hessen1930.png/250px-Hessen1930.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="354" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Hessen1930.png/375px-Hessen1930.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Hessen1930.png/500px-Hessen1930.png 2x" data-file-width="1936" data-file-height="2738" /></a><figcaption>Territory of the Grand Duchy of Hesse from 1866, with its three provinces: Upper Hesse, Starkenburg, and Rhenish Hesse</figcaption></figure> The portion of the grand duchy on the right bank of the <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</a> stretched most of the way from the south of the modern state of <a href="/wiki/Hesse" title="Hesse">Hesse</a> to <a href="/wiki/Frankenberg,_Hesse" title="Frankenberg, Hesse">Frankenberg</a>. The portion on the left bank was located in the modern state of <a href="/wiki/Rhineland-Palatinate" title="Rhineland-Palatinate">Rhineland-Palatinate</a>. In addition to the great floodplains of the Rhine (<a href="/wiki/Hessian_Ried" title="Hessian Ried">Hessian Ried</a>), <a href="/wiki/Main_(river)" title="Main (river)">Main</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wetterau" title="Wetterau">Wetterau</a>, the grand duchy also contained upland regions like the <a href="/wiki/Vogelsberg" title="Vogelsberg">Vogelsberg</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Hessian_Hinterland" title="Hessian Hinterland">Hessian Hinterland</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Odenwald" title="Odenwald">Odenwald</a>. In the south, the <a href="/wiki/Exclave" class="mw-redirect" title="Exclave">exclaves</a> of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wimpfen_district&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wimpfen district (page does not exist)">Wimpfen district</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreis_Wimpfen" class="extiw" title="de:Kreis Wimpfen">de</a>] extended into the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Baden" title="Grand Duchy of Baden">Grand Duchy of Baden</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Physical_geography_and_population">Physical geography and population</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Physical geography and population">edit</a>]</div> The territory consisted of two separate areas: the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Provinces_of_Hesse-Darmstadt&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Provinces of Hesse-Darmstadt (page does not exist)">province</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provinz_(Hessen-Darmstadt)" class="extiw" title="de:Provinz (Hessen-Darmstadt)">de</a>] of <a href="/wiki/Upper_Hesse" title="Upper Hesse">Upper Hesse</a> in the north and the provinces of <a href="/wiki/Starkenburg" title="Starkenburg">Starkenburg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rhenish_Hesse" title="Rhenish Hesse">Rhenish Hesse</a> in the south, as well as a number of much smaller exclaves. The northern and southern sections were separated by a narrow stretch of territory, which belonged to <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussia</a> after 1866 and before that to <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Nassau" title="Duchy of Nassau">Duchy of Nassau</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Free_City_of_Frankfurt" title="Free City of Frankfurt">Free City of Frankfurt</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Electorate_of_Hesse" title="Electorate of Hesse">Electorate of Hesse</a>. About 25% of the land area was forested.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Mayer189155-4">[4]</a> The two sections had very different characters: <dl><dt>Upper Hesse</dt></dl> <a href="/wiki/Upper_Hesse" title="Upper Hesse">Upper Hesse</a> was the largest of the three provinces by area. Most of this territory was forested uplands of the <a href="/wiki/Vogelsberg" title="Vogelsberg">Vogelsberg</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Hessian_Hinterland" title="Hessian Hinterland">Hessian Hinterland</a>. Only a small portion was part of the fertile <a href="/wiki/Wetterau" title="Wetterau">Wetterau</a>, where there were also <a href="/wiki/Brown_coal" class="mw-redirect" title="Brown coal">brown coal</a> deposits. There were many streams and waterways in the area, but none of them were big enough to serve as transport routes. <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">Agriculture</a> brought only low yields, while there was no industry at all.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Mayer189154-5">[5]</a> This led to increasing poverty over the course of the 19th century and massive <a href="/wiki/Emigration" title="Emigration">emigration</a> to the established industrial centres in Germany and overseas. While Upper Hesse was also the largest province by population at the start of the 19th century, by the end of the grand duchy in 1918 it had become the smallest. The only significant institution which was based here was the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Giessen" title="University of Giessen">University of Giessen</a>. <dl><dt>Starkenburg and Rhenish Hesse</dt></dl> <a href="/wiki/Starkenburg" title="Starkenburg">Starkenburg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rhenish_Hesse" title="Rhenish Hesse">Rhenish Hesse</a> were totally different. They lay almost entirely on the banks of the Rhine (except for the <a href="/wiki/Odenwald" title="Odenwald">Odenwald</a>, which faced similar structural problems to the Vogelsberg). Intensive agriculture was possible and profitable in many areas of these plains, such as <a href="/wiki/Orchard" title="Orchard">fruit growing</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Bergstra%C3%9Fe_(route)" title="Bergstraße (route)">Bergstraße</a> and <a href="/wiki/Viticulture" title="Viticulture">viticulture</a> in Rhine-Hesse. There were two large navigable rivers, the <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Main_(river)" title="Main (river)">Main</a>, which were the most important transportation routes until the development of the <a href="/wiki/Railway" class="mw-redirect" title="Railway">railway</a>. Burgeoning industry developed in this region. The three major centres of the grand duchy were located here: the capital at <a href="/wiki/Darmstadt" title="Darmstadt">Darmstadt</a>, the largest industrial centre at <a href="/wiki/Offenbach_am_Main" title="Offenbach am Main">Offenbach am Main</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mainz" title="Mainz">Mainz</a> which was the largest city and the most significant centre for trade.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Mayer189154_f-6">[6]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_geography">Political geography</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Political geography">edit</a>]</div> The grand duchy was divided into three provinces: <ul><li>Starkenburg (capital at Darmstadt): Right bank of the Rhine, south of the Main.</li> <li>Rhenish Hesse (capital at Mainz): Left bank of the Rhine, territory gained from the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a>.</li> <li>Upper Hesse (capital at <a href="/wiki/Giessen" title="Giessen">Giessen</a>): North of the Main, separated from Starkenburg by the <a href="/wiki/Free_City_of_Frankfurt" title="Free City of Frankfurt">Free City of Frankfurt</a>.</li></ul> The neighbouring states were: <ul><li>The Prussian <a href="/wiki/Rhine_Province" title="Rhine Province">Rhine Province</a>, the Duchy of Nassau (part of Prussia after 1866), and the Prussian <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Westphalia" title="Province of Westphalia">Province of Westphalia</a> to the west;</li> <li>The Electorate of Hesse (also part of Prussia from 1866) to the north and northeast;</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bavaria" title="Kingdom of Bavaria">Kingdom of Bavaria</a> to the east;</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Baden" title="Grand Duchy of Baden">Grand Duchy of Baden</a> to the south;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C3%BCrnbach" title="Kürnbach">Kürnbach</a> was governed as a <a href="/wiki/Condominium_(international_law)" title="Condominium (international law)">condominium</a> with Baden until 1905;</li> <li>The Bavarian province of <a href="/wiki/Circle_of_the_Rhine" title="Circle of the Rhine">Palatinate</a> to the southwest;</li> <li>The two main regions of the grand duchy were separated by the Free City of Frankfurt and the Electorate of Hesse (parts of Prussia after 1866)</li> <li>The long northern region of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Biedenkopf_district&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Biedenkopf district (page does not exist)">Biedenkopf district</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreis_Biedenkopf" class="extiw" title="de:Kreis Biedenkopf">de</a>] and the Hessian Hinterland was linked to the rest of Upper Hesse by a corridor of land only 500 metres wide at <a href="/wiki/Heuchelheim" title="Heuchelheim">Heuchelheim</a>, which was surrounded on both sides by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wetzler_district&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wetzler district (page does not exist)">Wetzler district</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landkreis_Wetzlar" class="extiw" title="de:Landkreis Wetzlar">de</a>], an exclave of the Prussian Rhine Province.</li></ul> There were also a number of Hessian exclaves to the north and south: <ul><li>The exclave of <a href="/w/index.php?title=V%C3%B6hl_district&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vöhl district (page does not exist)">Vöhl district</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreis_V%C3%B6hl" class="extiw" title="de:Kreis Vöhl">de</a>] was sandwiched between the Electorate of Hesse and the <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Waldeck_and_Pyrmont" title="Principality of Waldeck and Pyrmont">Principality of Waldeck and Pyrmont</a>, while <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eimelrod&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eimelrod (page does not exist)">Eimelrod</a> und <a href="/w/index.php?title=H%C3%B6ringhausen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Höringhausen (page does not exist)">Höringhausen</a> were inside Waldeck;</li> <li>The exclave of <a href="/wiki/Bad_Wimpfen" title="Bad Wimpfen">Wimpfen</a> was sandwiched between Baden and the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg" title="Kingdom of Württemberg">Kingdom of Württemberg</a>;</li> <li>Another exclave, made up of half the town of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Helmhof&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Helmhof (page does not exist)">Helmhof</a>, was located inside Baden;</li></ul> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Amt_Dorheim&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Amt Dorheim (page does not exist)">Amt Dorheim</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amt_Dorheim" class="extiw" title="de:Amt Dorheim">de</a>], which belonged to the Electorate of Hesse, was an <a href="/wiki/Enclave" class="mw-redirect" title="Enclave">enclave</a> within the grand duchy until 1866, when it was given to the grand duchy. <a href="/wiki/Hesse-Homburg" title="Hesse-Homburg">Hesse-Homburg</a> was inherited by the Grand Duke of Hesse in 1866, but had to be ceded to Prussia later that same year. The Biedenkopf district and the Hessian Hinterland were also annexed by Prussia in 1866. These territories were combined with Electoral Hesse, the Duchy of Nassau, and Frankfurt to create the new Prussian <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Hesse-Nassau" title="Province of Hesse-Nassau">Province of Hesse-Nassau</a> in 1868. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1806_establishment">1806 establishment</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: 1806 establishment">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wappen-HD_(1804%E2%80%931808).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Wappen-HD_%281804%E2%80%931808%29.svg/200px-Wappen-HD_%281804%E2%80%931808%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Wappen-HD_%281804%E2%80%931808%29.svg/300px-Wappen-HD_%281804%E2%80%931808%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Wappen-HD_%281804%E2%80%931808%29.svg/400px-Wappen-HD_%281804%E2%80%931808%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="729" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms" title="Coat of arms">Coat of arms</a> of the Grand Duchy, 1806–1808</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Grandduchy_of_Hesse_HD_1812.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Grandduchy_of_Hesse_HD_1812.png/200px-Grandduchy_of_Hesse_HD_1812.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="277" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Grandduchy_of_Hesse_HD_1812.png/300px-Grandduchy_of_Hesse_HD_1812.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Grandduchy_of_Hesse_HD_1812.png/400px-Grandduchy_of_Hesse_HD_1812.png 2x" data-file-width="671" data-file-height="931" /></a><figcaption>Grand Duchy of Hesse in 1812</figcaption></figure> During the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louis_I,_Grand_Duke_of_Hesse" title="Louis I, Grand Duke of Hesse">Louis X</a>, Landgrave of <a href="/wiki/Landgraviate_of_Hesse-Darmstadt" title="Landgraviate of Hesse-Darmstadt">Hesse-Darmstadt</a>, initially sought <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussian</a> protection against <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleonic France">Napoleonic France</a>, but after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Austerlitz" title="Battle of Austerlitz">Battle of Austerlitz</a>, this policy became untenable. At the last minute, Louis X switched sides and supplied troops to <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> Along with fifteen other states, the Landgraviate of Hesse-Darmstadt left the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> and joined the <a href="/wiki/Confederation_of_the_Rhine" title="Confederation of the Rhine">Confederation of the Rhine</a>. The Landgraviate of Hesse-Darmstadt was promoted to a grand duchy and Louis X thereafter styled himself Grand Duke Louis I (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: Großherzog Ludewig I., with an extra 'e') and announced not only the promotion, but also the territories he had received under the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_the_Confederation_of_the_Rhine" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of the Confederation of the Rhine">Treaty of the Confederation of the Rhine</a> in an edict on 13 August 1806.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> Along with the promotion to the rank of grand duchy, Hesse was also rewarded with territorial gains, such as the <a href="/wiki/Electorate_of_Cologne" title="Electorate of Cologne">Electorate of Cologne</a>. However, although all this territory lay under his <a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">sovereignty</a>, the princes who had previously held these territories, the <a href="/wiki/Mediatised_houses" title="Mediatised houses">mediatised houses</a>, retained a significant portion of their former powers. Before this territorial expansion, the Landgraviate of Hesse-Darmstadt had around 210,000 inhabitants in its territories on the right bank of the Rhine.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> After 1806, the population was around 546,000. At the same time, the Grand Duchy reached its greatest territorial extent, around 9,300 km2.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Almost simultaneously, there was a radical change in the state's internal politics. With two edicts on 1 October 1806, the Grand Duke revoked the financial privileges of the landed nobility on a large scale<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> (the landed nobility became subject to taxation<a href="#cite_note-12">[Anm. 1]</a>) and their <a href="/wiki/Landst%C3%A4nde" title="Landstände">Landstände</a> (feudal estates) were abolished,<a href="#cite_note-13">[12]</a> which transformed Hesse-Darmstadt "from a mosaic of patrimonial fragments into a centralized, absolute monarchy".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmitt1983-14">[13]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Developments_after_1806">Developments after 1806</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Developments after 1806">edit</a>]</div> On 24 April 1809, Napoleon ordered the abolition of the <a href="/wiki/Teutonic_Order" title="Teutonic Order">Teutonic Order</a>, amalgamating <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kloppenheim&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kloppenheim (page does not exist)">Kloppenheim</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Schiffenberg_Abbey&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Schiffenberg Abbey (page does not exist)">Schiffenberg Abbey</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kloster_Schiffenberg" class="extiw" title="de:Kloster Schiffenberg">de</a>] into the grand duchy. Between 1808 and 1810, there were plans to introduce the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Code" title="Napoleonic Code">Napoleonic Code</a> as only valid law for the whole grand duchy. However, these discussions were terminated by the conservative government of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Friedrich_August_von_Lichtenberg&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Friedrich August von Lichtenberg (page does not exist)">Friedrich August von Lichtenberg</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_August_von_Lichtenberg" class="extiw" title="de:Friedrich August von Lichtenberg">de</a>], which was opposed to social changes.<a href="#cite_note-15">[14]</a> On 11 May 1810, the grand duchy and the <a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">French Empire</a> concluded a treaty,<a href="#cite_note-16">[15]</a> which granted the grand duchy further areas under French control, which had been taken from Electoral Hesse in 1806. Although the treaty was agreed in May, it was only signed by Napoleon on 17 October 1810.<a href="#cite_note-17">[16]</a> The Hessian certificate of possession is dated 10 November 1810.<a href="#cite_note-18">[17]</a> The Babenhausen district was attached to Strakenburg province, the other territories to Upper Hesse. In August 1810, there was a three-way agreement between France, Hesse, and the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Baden" title="Grand Duchy of Baden">Grand Duchy of Baden</a>. Baden placed its territories at French disposal and France gave them back to the grand duchy with a treaty signed on 11 November 1810.<a href="#cite_note-19">[18]</a> The Hessian certificate of possession is dated 13 November 1810.<a href="#cite_note-20">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Congress_of_Vienna_(1815)">The Congress of Vienna (1815)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: The Congress of Vienna (1815)">edit</a>]</div> At the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a> in 1815, the grand duchy joined the <a href="/wiki/German_Confederation" title="German Confederation">German Confederation</a> and received a portion of the former <a href="/wiki/Mont-Tonnerre" title="Mont-Tonnerre">Mont-Tonnerre</a> <a href="/wiki/130_departments_of_the_First_French_Empire" title="130 departments of the First French Empire">department</a>, which had a population of 140,000 people and included the important federal <a href="/wiki/Fortress_of_Mainz" title="Fortress of Mainz">Fortress of Mainz</a>, as compensation for the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Westphalia" title="Duchy of Westphalia">Duchy of Westphalia</a>, which Hesse had received in 1803 and which was now transferred to Prussia.<a href="#cite_note-21">[20]</a> During the turbulence of <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Days" title="Hundred Days">Hundred Days</a>, when Napoleon returned from exile, Austria, Prussia, and the Grand Duchy of Hesse concluded a treaty on 30 June 1816, which regulated the region and went into more detail that the treaty signed at Vienna in the previous year.<a href="#cite_note-22">[21]</a> There were further border agreements and exchanges of small areas of territory with the Electorate of Hesse and the Kingdom of Bavaria. The <a href="/wiki/Letters_patent" title="Letters patent">patents</a> of possession are dated 8 July 1816, but were only published on 11 July.<a href="#cite_note-23">[22]</a> After this consolidation, the grand duchy had a population of roughly 630,000.<a href="#cite_note-24">[23]</a> The neighbouring <a href="/wiki/Landgraviate_of_Hesse-Kassel" title="Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel">Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel</a>, which Napoleon had annexed into the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Westphalia" title="Kingdom of Westphalia">Kingdom of Westphalia</a>, was re-established by the Congress of Vienna as the <a href="/wiki/Electorate_of_Hesse" title="Electorate of Hesse">Electorate of Hesse</a>. After Louis I's counterpart in Hesse-Kessel, <a href="/wiki/William_I,_Elector_of_Hesse" title="William I, Elector of Hesse">William I, Elector of Hesse</a>, began styling himself "Elector of Hesse and Grand Duke of Fulda", Louis sought the additional title "Elector of <a href="/wiki/Mainz" title="Mainz">Mainz</a> and Duke of <a href="/wiki/Worms,_Germany" title="Worms, Germany">Worms</a>" in order to match William I. However, Austria and Prussia refused to grant this.<a href="#cite_note-25">[24]</a> Instead, William gestured to this claimed title by changing the name of the grand duchy to the Grand Duchy of Hesse and by Rhine (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: Großherzogtum Hessen und bei Rhein), which also helped to distinguish the two Hessian states. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Constitution_of_1820_and_legal_reforms">The Constitution of 1820 and legal reforms</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: The Constitution of 1820 and legal reforms">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Constitution">Constitution</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Constitution">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ludwigsmonument-3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Ludwigsmonument-3.jpg/220px-Ludwigsmonument-3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="408" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Ludwigsmonument-3.jpg/330px-Ludwigsmonument-3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Ludwigsmonument-3.jpg/440px-Ludwigsmonument-3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="736" data-file-height="1366" /></a><figcaption>Louis I depicted with Hessian Constitution in his right hand on the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ludwigsmonument&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ludwigsmonument (page does not exist)">Ludwigsmonument</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwigsmonument" class="extiw" title="de:Ludwigsmonument">de</a>] in Darmstadt</figcaption></figure> As a result of these territorial acquisitions, the grand duchy was composed of numerous disparate components. A constitution was therefore urgently needed in order to unite the various territories of the new state. Furthermore, article 13 of the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_German_Confederation" title="Constitution of the German Confederation">Constitution of the German Confederation</a> required each member state to establish their own "parliamentary constitution" (Landständische Verfassung).<a href="#cite_note-26">[25]</a> Louis I balked at this and was quoted as saying that a parliament "in a sovereign state [is] not necessary, not useful, and in some respects dangerous."<a href="#cite_note-27">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[27]</a> In fact, the process of constitutional reform was mainly undertaken by the civil service rather than the grand duke himself.<a href="#cite_note-29">[28]</a> The members of the civil service who led the reforms were:<a href="#cite_note-30">[29]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/August_Friedrich_Wilhelm_Crome" title="August Friedrich Wilhelm Crome">August Friedrich Wilhelm Crome</a> (1753–1833)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karl_Christian_Eigenbrodt&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Karl Christian Eigenbrodt (page does not exist)">Karl Christian Eigenbrodt</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Christian_Eigenbrodt" class="extiw" title="de:Karl Christian Eigenbrodt">de</a>] (1769–1839)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Claus_Kr%C3%B6ncke&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Claus Kröncke (page does not exist)">Claus Kröncke</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claus_Kr%C3%B6ncke" class="extiw" title="de:Claus Kröncke">de</a>] (1771–1843)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ludwig_Minnigerode&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ludwig Minnigerode (page does not exist)">Ludwig Minnigerode</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Minnigerode" class="extiw" title="de:Ludwig Minnigerode">de</a>] (1773–1839)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heinrich_Karl_Jaup&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Heinrich Karl Jaup (page does not exist)">Heinrich Karl Jaup</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Karl_Jaup" class="extiw" title="de:Heinrich Karl Jaup">de</a>] (1781–1860)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peter_Joseph_Floret&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Peter Joseph Floret (page does not exist)">Peter Joseph Floret</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Joseph_Floret" class="extiw" title="de:Peter Joseph Floret">de</a>] (1776–1836)</li></ul> In 1816, a three-man legal commission was established to craft a constitution and other necessary laws, composed of Floret and <a href="/wiki/Carl_Ludwig_Wilhelm_Grolman" title="Carl Ludwig Wilhelm Grolman">Carl Ludwig Wilhelm Grolman</a>. The constitution which was promulgated by grand ducal edict in March 1820 provided for a parliament (Landstände), but with no authority of its own. Although this led to the first elections in the grand duchy,<a href="#cite_note-31">[30]</a> it also caused massive protests, <a href="/wiki/Tax_strike" class="mw-redirect" title="Tax strike">tax strikes</a>, and even armed rebellions against the government in some parts of the grand duchy. The grand duke and his administration gave in to the pressure and a new constitution was promulgated on 17 December 1820.<a href="#cite_note-32">[31]</a> The new constitution contained most of what the opponents of the first constitution had wanted, but the grand duke saved face since the constitution was formally granted by him. Louis I was honoured as a great lawgiver, with the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ludwigsmonument&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ludwigsmonument (page does not exist)">Ludwigsmonument</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwigsmonument" class="extiw" title="de:Ludwigsmonument">de</a>] in Darmstadt honouring him for "his" constitution. The constitution was followed by a wide range of further reforms in the grand duchy. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Legal_and_administrative_reforms">Legal and administrative reforms</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Legal and administrative reforms">edit</a>]</div> After its territorial augmentation, the grand duchy consisted of numerous territories with different administrative systems. To regularise this, it was urgently necessary to integrate the various regions. At the lower levels, the administrative system of these regions was still based on the <a href="/wiki/Amt#Germany_2" title="Amt">Amt</a> system which had become obsolete centuries earlier. As well as being the lowest level administrative subdivision, the Ämter were also the courts of <a href="/wiki/First_instance" class="mw-redirect" title="First instance">first instance</a>. Preliminary work on reforming this system began by 1816,<a href="#cite_note-33">[32]</a> and from 1821, the court system and the administrative system were separated at the lowest level in Starkenburg and Upper Hesse provinces. In Rheinhessen, this had already been done around twenty years earlier, while the area was under French control. The tasks that had previously been assigned to the Ämter were transferred to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Landratsbezirk&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Landratsbezirk (page does not exist)">Landratsbezirke</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landratsbezirk" class="extiw" title="de:Landratsbezirk">de</a>] ("local council districts", responsible for administration) and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Landgericht_(Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Hessen)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Landgericht (Großherzogtum Hessen) (page does not exist)">Landgerichten</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landgericht_(Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse)" class="extiw" title="de:Landgericht (Grand Duchy of Hesse)">de</a>] ("local courts", responsible for judicial functions).<a href="#cite_note-bsb01-34">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[Anm. 2]</a> This process took place over several years, since at first the state could make new rules about administration and justice only where it had unrestricted authority over these matters. The areas in which the grand duchy's sovereignty was unrestricted were called Dominiallande, while the areas where the Standesherren and other nobles exercised their own judicial and administrative authority were the Souveränitätslanden.<a href="#cite_note-36">[34]</a> In the latter areas, the state first had to forge agreements with the individual lords, in order to integrate their judicial powers into the state's court system. In some cases this took until the middle of the 1820s. The "Edict concerning Standesherren's Legal Relationships in the Grand Duchy of Hesse" of 27 March 1820 served as the frame of reference for these agreements.<a href="#cite_note-37">[35]</a> According to this edict, the individual Standesherren retained their personnel sovereignty in the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Landratsbezirk&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Landratsbezirk (page does not exist)">Landratsbezirke</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landratsbezirk" class="extiw" title="de:Landratsbezirk">de</a>] and Landgerichten established in the Souveränitätslanden, which meant that the Standesherren chose the local councillors and judges. This remaining power was only removed during the <a href="/wiki/German_revolutions_of_1848%E2%80%931849" title="German revolutions of 1848–1849">German revolutions of 1848–1849</a>. From the 50+ Ämter that had previously existed 24 Landratsbezirke and 27 Landgerichten were created.<a href="#cite_note-38">[36]</a> The new Landgerichte had their own <a href="/wiki/Judicial_district#Germany" title="Judicial district">judicial districts</a>, which covered almost the same areas as the Landratsbezirke did. In general, the old seats of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Amtsman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Amtsman (page does not exist)">Amtsmen</a> remained either the seat of the Landrat or the Landgericht.<a href="#cite_note-39">[37]</a> Five further Landratsbezirke and six more Landgerichten were created over the following years as a result of the negotiations with the Standesherren.<a href="#cite_note-40">[Anm. 3]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Civic_administration">Civic administration</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Civic administration">edit</a>]</div> A modern system of civic administration, modelled on the French system, was also introduced in 1821.<a href="#cite_note-42">[39]</a> The outmoded cooperative parish associations were replaced by a system of civic and parish citizenship.<a href="#cite_note-43">[40]</a> Bürgermeister (mayors) were established for individual settlements and parish associations with at least 400 inhabitants. In 1831 there were 1092 parishes in the grand duchy, administered by 732 mayors.<a href="#cite_note-44">[41]</a> The mayoralties were administered by an elected local board, consisting of the mayor, deputies, and parish councillors. Male residents elected three men and one of them was chosen as mayor: <ul><li>In the Dominialland, this decision was made by the state.</li> <li>In the Souveränitätslanden, the Standesherren chose them.</li></ul> This system ensured that, if the authorities did not like a particular candidate, they could prevent them from taking office. Thus, for example, the entrepreneur <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernst_Emil_Hoffmann&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ernst Emil Hoffmann (page does not exist)">Ernst Emil Hoffmann</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Emil_Hoffmann" class="extiw" title="de:Ernst Emil Hoffmann">de</a>] received the most votes in Darmstadt two times, but the mayoralty was assigned to the second or third place candidates.<a href="#cite_note-45">[42]</a> In Upper Hesse and Starkenburg, the local council had oversight of the mayors, while in Rhinehessen, where this local district did not exist, the mayors were chosen directly by the provincial governments. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Abolition_of_serfdom">Abolition of serfdom</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Abolition of serfdom">edit</a>]</div> The state was also interested in replacing the old agricultural <a href="/wiki/Ground_rent" title="Ground rent">ground rent</a>, which was often based on the yield of the year's harvest, with a modern system of taxation. There had been plans for this since 1816. A first step in the process was also implemented during the reforms of 1821.<a href="#cite_note-46">[43]</a> However, this was only a limited reform, since only the ground rents paid to the state were removable. The removal of "private" ground rents, including those paid to churches, religious orders, and Standesherren, failed to pass the first chamber of the parliament. Furthermore, in order to remove the ground rent from their land, farmers were initially required to pay a fee which was eighteen times their annual rent and most farmers could not afford this. The process of abolition would drag on into the second half of the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-47">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Economic_reforms">Economic reforms</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Economic reforms">edit</a>]</div> The constitution declared that an economic system based on <a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberal</a> principles was the state's goal.<a href="#cite_note-48">[45]</a> Achieving <a href="/wiki/Economic_freedom" title="Economic freedom">economic freedom</a>, which also required the abolition of <a href="/wiki/Guild" title="Guild">guild</a> privileges, proved difficult, as a result of "damage to multiple interests".<a href="#cite_note-49">[46]</a> Even in this area, different conditions applied in different parts of the grand duchy. In Rhine-Hesse, the guilds had been abolished during French rule, while in the provinces on the right bank of the Rhine, guild privileges had only been abolished in a few places for a few industries. This abolition was expanded, but guild privileges continued to exist.<a href="#cite_note-50">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Impact_of_the_July_Revolution_(1830–1848)">Impact of the July Revolution (1830–1848)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Impact of the July Revolution (1830–1848)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/July_Revolution" title="July Revolution">July Revolution</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Landbote.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Landbote.jpg/220px-Landbote.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="380" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Landbote.jpg/330px-Landbote.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Landbote.jpg/440px-Landbote.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1381" data-file-height="2383" /></a><figcaption>Title page of <a href="/wiki/The_Hessian_Courier" title="The Hessian Courier">The Hessian Courier</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Karl_du_Thil_1845_(IZ_05-100_Kretzschmar_%2B_ACR).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Karl_du_Thil_1845_%28IZ_05-100_Kretzschmar_%2B_ACR%29.jpg/220px-Karl_du_Thil_1845_%28IZ_05-100_Kretzschmar_%2B_ACR%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="389" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Karl_du_Thil_1845_%28IZ_05-100_Kretzschmar_%2B_ACR%29.jpg/330px-Karl_du_Thil_1845_%28IZ_05-100_Kretzschmar_%2B_ACR%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Karl_du_Thil_1845_%28IZ_05-100_Kretzschmar_%2B_ACR%29.jpg/440px-Karl_du_Thil_1845_%28IZ_05-100_Kretzschmar_%2B_ACR%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="605" data-file-height="1070" /></a><figcaption><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karl_du_Thil&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Karl du Thil (page does not exist)">Karl du Thil</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_du_Thil" class="extiw" title="de:Karl du Thil">de</a>], President of the Council of Ministers, 1829–1848</figcaption></figure> The government in Darmstadt only implemented the <a href="/wiki/Karlsbad_Decrees" class="mw-redirect" title="Karlsbad Decrees">Karlsbad Decrees</a> in a moderate manner, to the displeasure of the <a href="/wiki/Great_power" title="Great power">great powers</a>, Prussia and Austria.<a href="#cite_note-51">[48]</a> On the other hand, the government continually persecuted the opposition (although without much long-term success in the courts), since they feared a revolution.<a href="#cite_note-page784-52">[49]</a> A political crisis was already broiling in Hesse at the time of the <a href="/wiki/July_Revolution" title="July Revolution">July Revolution</a> in 1830: when <a href="/wiki/Louis_II,_Grand_Duke_of_Hesse" title="Louis II, Grand Duke of Hesse">Louis II</a> succeeded as grand duke after the death of his father in 1830, he had a total debt of two million <a href="/wiki/Guilder" title="Guilder">guilder</a>, which he expected the state to pay for. The liberal opposition in the <a href="/wiki/Landst%C3%A4nde" title="Landstände">Landstände</a> considered this outrageous and rejected the proposal with a resounding vote of 41:7.<a href="#cite_note-page784-52">[49]</a> In Upper Hesse province, a revolt broke out in September 1830, whose members expressed a general dissatisfaction with the state. Characteristically, the territories of the Standesherren were particularly affected: <a href="/wiki/B%C3%BCdingen" title="Büdingen">Büdingen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ortenberg,_Hesse" title="Ortenberg, Hesse">Ortenberg</a>. In these areas, shops were burgled and the local government offices were destroyed. The toll office in <a href="/wiki/Heldenbergen" class="mw-redirect" title="Heldenbergen">Heldenbergen</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Nidda,_Hesse" title="Nidda, Hesse">Nidda</a> courthouse were also affected. The grand duke introduced <a href="/wiki/Summary_execution" title="Summary execution">summary execution</a>, which was unanimously approved by the Landstände. Under the command of the grand duke's brother, Prince <a href="/wiki/Prince_Emil_of_Hesse" title="Prince Emil of Hesse">Emil</a>, the rebellion was suppressed by the army. Part of this suppression was the <a href="/w/index.php?title=S%C3%B6del_Bloodbath&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Södel Bloodbath (page does not exist)">Södel Bloodbath</a>, named for the number of dead and wounded.<a href="#cite_note-53">[50]</a> After the revolution of 1830 was over, the government regained the upper hand and decided that if they could not suppress the rising appetites for reform, they would at least try to control them. The <a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">bourgeoisie</a> partially switched its focus to cultural activities, which the government then began to monitor warily. Thus, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Historical_Society_for_Hesse&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historical Society for Hesse (page does not exist)">Historical Society for Hesse</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historischer_Verein_f%C3%BCr_Hessen" class="extiw" title="de:Historischer Verein für Hessen">de</a>] was allowed to be founded in 1833, but local societies that had originally been planned were not, and the society's charter stated that the society must not occupy itself with "contemporary history and discussion of the political circumstances of more recent times." Above all, <a href="/wiki/Sports_club" title="Sports club">sports clubs</a> were considered highly suspicious, even though a demonstration of sporting activities was presented in Darmstadt at the dedication of the Ludwig Monument in 1844.<a href="#cite_note-54">[51]</a> The government initially maintained its relatively open policy towards the press,<a href="#cite_note-55">[52]</a> but reacted harshly to the distribution of <a href="/wiki/The_Hessian_Courier" title="The Hessian Courier">The Hessian Courier</a>, a pamphlet by <a href="/wiki/Georg_B%C3%BCchner" title="Georg Büchner">Georg Büchner</a> calling for social revolution. The persecution of his fellow contributors continued until 1839.<a href="#cite_note-56">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_March_Revolution_(1848–1849)">The March Revolution (1848–1849)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: The March Revolution (1848–1849)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/German_revolutions_of_1848%E2%80%931849" title="German revolutions of 1848–1849">German revolutions of 1848–1849</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bilderrevolution0395.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Bilderrevolution0395.jpg/220px-Bilderrevolution0395.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="287" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Bilderrevolution0395.jpg/330px-Bilderrevolution0395.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Bilderrevolution0395.jpg/440px-Bilderrevolution0395.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2818" data-file-height="3671" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_von_Gagern" title="Heinrich von Gagern">Heinrich von Gagern</a>, chief minister during the Revolution of 1848 (lithograph by <a href="/wiki/Eduard_von_Heuss" title="Eduard von Heuss">Eduard von Heuss</a>)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Revolution">Revolution</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Revolution">edit</a>]</div> In the 1840s, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Karl_du_Thil&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Karl du Thil (page does not exist)">Karl du Thil</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_du_Thil" class="extiw" title="de:Karl du Thil">de</a>], chief minister from 1821 to 1848, inaugurated the "System du Thil", which entailed the complete suppression of all political discussion. Crop failures and rapidly rising prices for basic foodstuffs created a crisis in the grand duchy.<a href="#cite_note-57">[54]</a> Then on 24 February 1848, a <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution_of_1848" title="French Revolution of 1848">revolution</a> in <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a> forced King <a href="/wiki/Louis-Philippe" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis-Philippe">Louis-Philippe</a> to abdicate. The political tension grew so great that the government no longer waited for citizens' committees and other societies to take banned political actions before persecuting them. Within a few days, the situation had become so dire that, on 5 March 1848, Grand Duke Louis II named his son <a href="/wiki/Louis_III,_Grand_Duke_of_Hesse" title="Louis III, Grand Duke of Hesse">Louis III</a> as his <a href="/wiki/Co-regent" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-regent">co-regent</a> (in fact, Louis III became sole ruler, since Louis II was ill and died a few months later on 16 June 1848).<a href="#cite_note-58">[55]</a> The next day, Karl du Thil was dismissed and replaced as chief minister by <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_von_Gagern" title="Heinrich von Gagern">Heinrich von Gagern</a>.<a href="#cite_note-59">[56]</a> Von Gagern proclaimed that the new government would grant all of the "March demands". However, the rural population's demands that the Standesherren be stripped of their privileges and for serfdom to be abolished without requiring them to pay compensation were not fulfilled. As a result, on 8 March, a massive demonstration gathered before the residences of the Standesherren and stormed some of them.<a href="#cite_note-60">[57]</a> After this, the Standesherren agreed to the abolition of serfdom without compensation.<a href="#cite_note-61">[58]</a> In doing this, however, the farmers exceeded the limits of what the bourgeoise were willing to accept, since they were not willing to countenance interventions in <a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">private property</a>. Von Gagern brought this protest to a close with military force, but accepted the farmers' demands. This marked the end of the "hot phase" of the revolution in the grand duchy, which thus lasted only two weeks. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reforms">Reforms</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Reforms">edit</a>]</div> After March 1848, there was a reshuffle of the ministries, since Heinrich von Gagern was elected president of the <a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankfurt Parliament">Frankfurt Parliament</a> and therefore had to resign from his role as a minister in the grand duchy. Nevertheless, a series of reforms delivered most of the "March demands". The new organisation of the administration saw the three provinces and all of the districts abolished and replaced by a single level of local administration midway between them, the <a href="/wiki/Regierungsbezirk" title="Regierungsbezirk">Regierungsbezirk</a> ("government district").<a href="#cite_note-62">[59]</a> Each of these had a Bezirksrat (district council) to represent the people.<a href="#cite_note-63">[60]</a> A reform of the justice system was also carried out in the areas to the right of the Rhine,<a href="#cite_note-64">[61]</a> including the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Jury_court" class="mw-redirect" title="Jury court">jury courts</a>.<a href="#cite_note-65">[62]</a> A new electoral law was not passed until 1849.<a href="#cite_note-66">[63]</a> Under this law, all members of both chambers of the Landstände were now to be elected – the lower house by <a href="/wiki/Universal_manhood_suffrage" title="Universal manhood suffrage">universal</a> <a href="/wiki/Equal_suffrage" class="mw-redirect" title="Equal suffrage">equal suffrage</a> and the upper house by <a href="/wiki/Suffrage#Census_suffrage" title="Suffrage">census suffrage</a>. So much "democracy" was novel even for liberal politicians and the interior ministry urged people to act responsibly with their right to vote.<a href="#cite_note-67">[64]</a> Two elections were held under the new electoral system, in 1849 and 1850. Both times, the democrats received a strong majority in the lower chamber, which they used to block the enactment of a state budget. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Dalwigk_Era_(1850–1866)">The Dalwigk Era (1850–1866)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: The Dalwigk Era (1850–1866)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Reinhard_Carl_Friedrich_von_Dalwigk_1861_(IZ_36-336).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Reinhard_Carl_Friedrich_von_Dalwigk_1861_%28IZ_36-336%29.jpg/220px-Reinhard_Carl_Friedrich_von_Dalwigk_1861_%28IZ_36-336%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="281" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Reinhard_Carl_Friedrich_von_Dalwigk_1861_%28IZ_36-336%29.jpg/330px-Reinhard_Carl_Friedrich_von_Dalwigk_1861_%28IZ_36-336%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Reinhard_Carl_Friedrich_von_Dalwigk_1861_%28IZ_36-336%29.jpg/440px-Reinhard_Carl_Friedrich_von_Dalwigk_1861_%28IZ_36-336%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="665" data-file-height="850" /></a><figcaption><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reinhard_Carl_Friedrich_von_Dalwigk&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Reinhard Carl Friedrich von Dalwigk (page does not exist)">Reinhard von Dalwigk</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinhard_Carl_Friedrich_von_Dalwigk" class="extiw" title="de:Reinhard Carl Friedrich von Dalwigk">de</a>], Minister-President, 1852–1871</figcaption></figure> Grand Duke Louis III appointed <a href="/w/index.php?title=Reinhard_Carl_Friedrich_von_Dalwigk&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Reinhard Carl Friedrich von Dalwigk (page does not exist)">Reinhard von Dalwigk</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinhard_Carl_Friedrich_von_Dalwigk" class="extiw" title="de:Reinhard Carl Friedrich von Dalwigk">de</a>] as director of the ministry of the interior on 30 June 1850, transferred him provisionally to the ministry of foreign affairs and the Grand Ducal House on 8 August 1850, and finally named him president of the council of ministers on 25 September 1852.<a href="#cite_note-68">[65]</a> Louis III, who "imitated the image of a paternalistic ruler projected by his grandfather, without achieving his significance,"<a href="#cite_note-FFK827-69">[66]</a> and Dalwigk shared a conservative outlook and were both opposed to <a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberalism</a> and democracy. For Dalwigk, "the democratic principle [was] perilous for the state, since it necessarily leads to <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FFK827-69">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Internal_politics">Internal politics</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Internal politics">edit</a>]</div> In this role, Dalwigk organised a coup d'état against the Landstände in autumn 1850. On 7 October 1850, he issued an edict setting aside the existing voting system, removing the sitting Landstände from power, and ordering a return to an electoral law like the one that existed before the March Revolution for "extraordinary" elections to the Landstände.<a href="#cite_note-70">[67]</a> These led to the election of the 14th (extraordinary) Landstände, in which pro-government representatives had a majority, and marked the beginning of comprehensive efforts to dismantle the achievements of the revolution. Even after the introduction of limited suffrage in October 1850, the Landstände still had many democratic and liberal members and the crisis regarding the <a href="/wiki/Zollverein" title="Zollverein">Zollverein</a> in 1852 showed how effective this opposition could still be. However, increased pressure on individual representatives (many of whom gave up and emigrated to the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>) and, especially, the new electoral law of 1856<a href="#cite_note-71">[68]</a> weakened even this opposition.<a href="#cite_note-72">[69]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Zollverein_crisis,_1852">Zollverein crisis, 1852</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Zollverein crisis, 1852">edit</a>]</div> In external politics, Dalwigk and Louis III supported Austria, the <a href="/wiki/German_Confederation" title="German Confederation">German Confederation</a>, and a <a href="/wiki/Pan-Germanism#The_German_Question" title="Pan-Germanism">pan-German solution to the German Question</a>. The first crisis with Prussia arose in 1852 in connection with the <a href="/wiki/Zollverein" title="Zollverein">Zollverein</a>, the north German customs union dominated by Prussia. In 1851, the Prussians terminated the existing customs treaty from the end of 1853. Austria then attempted to establish a customs union with the German middle states. Dalwigk signed up for this project, against all economic logic, since the grand duchy's exports to Austria were only 3% of its exports to Prussia. Massive protests followed. Even in the Landestände, which was now dominated by pro-Dalwigk conservatives, he found only a minority in favour of this policy. On 14 May 1852, the government went so far as to dissolve the city council of <a href="/wiki/Friedberg,_Hesse" title="Friedberg, Hesse">Friedberg</a> with armed police. All of this did not help Dalwigk at all. In the end, Austria and Prussia came to an agreement between themselves on customs and Austria gave up on the idea of a customs union with the German middle states. The whole affair created an enduring enemy to Dalwigk, however: the Prussian representative in the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Convention_(German_Confederation)" title="Federal Convention (German Confederation)">Federal Convention</a>, <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Otto von Bismarck</a>. He advised the Prussian government to refuse to grant a new customs treaty to the grand duchy, unless Dalwigk resigned. However, this advice was not followed.<a href="#cite_note-73">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="German_National_Association">German National Association</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: German National Association">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/German_National_Association" title="German National Association">German National Association</a> was founded in 1859. Its goal was to create a liberal <a href="/wiki/Lesser_Germany" title="Lesser Germany">Lesser Germany</a> under Prussian leadership – the opposite goal from Dalwigk. He advised the local councils to prosecute all known members of the Association, using the ban on all political associations as justification.<a href="#cite_note-74">[71]</a> After some prominent Hessians, including <a href="/w/index.php?title=August_Metz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="August Metz (page does not exist)">August Metz</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Metz" class="extiw" title="de:August Metz">de</a>], <a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Johann_Hoffmann&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Carl Johann Hoffmann (page does not exist)">Carl Johann Hoffmann</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Johann_Hoffmann" class="extiw" title="de:Carl Johann Hoffmann">de</a>] and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Emil_Pirazzi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Emil Pirazzi (page does not exist)">Emil Pirazzi</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emil_Pirazzi" class="extiw" title="de:Emil Pirazzi">de</a>], were convicted to a symbolic few days imprisonment for this, there was a massive increase in membership of the National Association, which so overwhelmed the prosecutors, that the whole persecution was discontinued in 1861.<a href="#cite_note-Franz,_Fleck_p._834-75">[72]</a> In summer 1861, the National Association had 937 members in Hesse – the highest number outside Prussia. In 1862, the liberal Hessian Progress Party stood in the Landstände elections and won a landslide victory with 32 of the 50 seats in the lower chamber.<a href="#cite_note-76">[73]</a> Dalwigk's attempt to organise a "Reform Association" to oppose the Progress Party and the National Association was a failure, as was his attempt to get the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Convention_(German_Confederation)" title="Federal Convention (German Confederation)">Federal Convention</a> to ban the National Association.<a href="#cite_note-77">[74]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dynastic_reorientation">Dynastic reorientation</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Dynastic reorientation">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Princess_Alice_and_Prince_Louis_in_1860.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Princess_Alice_and_Prince_Louis_in_1860.jpg/220px-Princess_Alice_and_Prince_Louis_in_1860.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="317" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Princess_Alice_and_Prince_Louis_in_1860.jpg/330px-Princess_Alice_and_Prince_Louis_in_1860.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Princess_Alice_and_Prince_Louis_in_1860.jpg/440px-Princess_Alice_and_Prince_Louis_in_1860.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1041" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Louis_IV,_Grand_Duke_of_Hesse" title="Louis IV, Grand Duke of Hesse">Louis IV, Grand Duke of Hesse</a> and his wife <a href="/wiki/Princess_Alice_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Princess Alice of the United Kingdom">Princess Alice of the United Kingdom</a> in December 1860</figcaption></figure> The Grand Duchess <a href="/wiki/Princess_Mathilde_Caroline_of_Bavaria" title="Princess Mathilde Caroline of Bavaria">Mathilde</a>, a sister of King <a href="/wiki/Maximilian_II_of_Bavaria" title="Maximilian II of Bavaria">Maximilian II of Bavaria</a>, died in 1862. A few weeks later, the crown prince <a href="/wiki/Louis_IV,_Grand_Duke_of_Hesse" title="Louis IV, Grand Duke of Hesse">Louis IV</a> married <a href="/wiki/Princess_Alice_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Princess Alice of the United Kingdom">Princess Alice of the United Kingdom</a> (1843–1878), the second eldest daughter of <a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria" title="Queen Victoria">Queen Victoria</a> at <a href="/wiki/Osborne_House" title="Osborne House">Osborne House</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Wight" title="Isle of Wight">Isle of Wight</a>. This marriage made Louis an in-law of <a href="/wiki/Frederick_III,_German_Emperor" title="Frederick III, German Emperor">Frederick</a>, crown prince of Prussia, who was married to Alice's sister <a href="/wiki/Victoria,_Princess_Royal" title="Victoria, Princess Royal">Victoria</a>. This link changed the political climate in the grand duchy. Social questions became topical. In 1863, a workers' education society was established and in 1864 the Building Society for Workers' Housing (Bauverein für Arbeiterwohnungen) was established with the support of Louis and Alice. This society was based on <a href="/wiki/Building_society" title="Building society">British models</a> and erected its first social housing complex, with 64 dwellings, between 1866 and 1868.<a href="#cite_note-78">[75]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lead-up_to_the_Austro-Prussian_War">Lead-up to the Austro-Prussian War</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Lead-up to the Austro-Prussian War">edit</a>]</div> Von Dalwigk still supported Austria and sought to prevent the creation of a Lesser Germany. In Paris, he sounded out interest in an alliance of <a href="/wiki/Middle_power" title="Middle power">middle powers</a> against Prussia (and thus also against Great Britain). This agreement with a foreign initiative, directed against a German power, brought von Dalwigk into even greater disrepute with the Nationalists. In the face of the <a href="/wiki/Schleswig%E2%80%93Holstein_question" title="Schleswig–Holstein question">Schleswig–Holstein question</a>, this discredited him significantly. When Austria and Prussia came to an agreement at the <a href="/wiki/Gastein_Convention" title="Gastein Convention">Gastein Convention</a>, von Dalwigk proved to have chosen the wrong horse once again. He compounded this error in the following year when he took Hesse into the <a href="/wiki/Austro-Prussian_War" title="Austro-Prussian War">Austro-Prussian War</a> on the Austrian side.<a href="#cite_note-79">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Austro-Prussian_War_(1866)">Austro-Prussian War (1866)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Austro-Prussian War (1866)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alexander_von_Hessen-Darmstadt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Alexander_von_Hessen-Darmstadt.jpg/220px-Alexander_von_Hessen-Darmstadt.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="340" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Alexander_von_Hessen-Darmstadt.jpg/330px-Alexander_von_Hessen-Darmstadt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Alexander_von_Hessen-Darmstadt.jpg/440px-Alexander_von_Hessen-Darmstadt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1366" data-file-height="2113" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Prince_Alexander_of_Hesse_and_by_Rhine" title="Prince Alexander of Hesse and by Rhine">Prince Alexander of Hesse</a> in his uniform as an Austrian <a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_field_marshal" title="Lieutenant field marshal">lieutenant field marshal</a>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Austro-Prussian_War" title="Austro-Prussian War">Austro-Prussian War</a></div> While <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Baden" title="Grand Duchy of Baden">Baden</a> advocated "armed neutrality" in the brewing conflict between Austria and Prussia, von Dalwigk entered the war on the Austrian side immediately after hostilities broke out in June 1866.<a href="#cite_note-Franz,_Fleck_p._839-80">[77]</a> Initially, the Landstände refused to grant the government the right to issue <a href="/wiki/War_bond" title="War bond">war bonds</a>, but they backed down in the face of popular opposition, once the government reduced its request from 4 million guilder to 2.5 million.<a href="#cite_note-Franz,_Fleck_p._839-80">[77]</a> In anticipation of the Austro-Prussian War, command of the <a href="/wiki/VIII_Army_Corps_(German_Confederation)" title="VIII Army Corps (German Confederation)">8th Army</a> of the confederation (around 35,000 men) was entrusted to <a href="/wiki/Prince_Alexander_of_Hesse_and_by_Rhine" title="Prince Alexander of Hesse and by Rhine">Prince Alexander</a>, brother of Grand Duke Louis III. Although he was a <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian</a> general and an Austrian <a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_field_marshal" title="Lieutenant field marshal">lieutenant field marshal</a>, he had no actual military experience. The ultimate military disaster was not attributed to him in the end. Mobilisation in Hesse began on 16 May 1866.<a href="#cite_note-Franz,_Fleck_pp._839-81">[78]</a> On 14 June 1866, Prussian forces marched into the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Holstein" title="Duchy of Holstein">Duchy of Holstein</a> and the forces of the German Confederation faced off against Prussia. The Hessian troops were ready to march, but it took more than two weeks to gather the rest of the 8th Army in Frankfurt. Eventually, the army marched through Upper Hesse to the northeast. When the outcome of the war was decided by the Prussian victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_K%C3%B6niggr%C3%A4tz" title="Battle of Königgrätz">Battle of Königgrätz</a> on 3 July 1866, the Hessian forces had still not encountered the enemy. On 6 July 1866, Prince Alexander halted his advance and returned home, but not quickly enough. On 13 July 1866, he was intercepted by Prussian troops at <a href="/wiki/Aschaffenburg" title="Aschaffenburg">Aschaffenburg</a>. In the following <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Frohnhofen" title="Battle of Frohnhofen">Battle of Frohnhofen</a>, 800 Hessian soldiers were killed or wounded – 15% of all their deployed forces.<a href="#cite_note-Franz,_Fleck_p._839-80">[77]</a> Their continued retreat southwards led to a second defeat at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tauberbischofsheim" title="Battle of Tauberbischofsheim">Battle of Tauberbischofsheim</a> on 24 July 1866.<a href="#cite_note-Franz,_Fleck_pp._839-81">[78]</a> The Hessian General <a href="/w/index.php?title=Karl_August_von_Stockhausen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Karl August von Stockhausen (page does not exist)">Karl August von Stockhausen</a> shot himself on 11 December 1866 during investigations into the military disaster.<a href="#cite_note-82">[79]</a> The Hessian Minister of War, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Friedrich_von_Wachter&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Friedrich von Wachter (page does not exist)">Friedrich von Wachter</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_von_Wachter_(General,_1788)" class="extiw" title="de:Friedrich von Wachter (General, 1788)">de</a>] was replaced on 28 December 1866.<a href="#cite_note-83">[80]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Peace_treaty">Peace treaty</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Peace treaty">edit</a>]</div> The crown princes of Hesse and Prussia arranged a cease fire in the middle of July. Dalwigk rejected this in the hope that <a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">France</a> would enter the war against Prussia. On 31 July, Prussian troops occupied Darmstadt without a battle.<a href="#cite_note-84">[81]</a> After its defeat in the war, Hesse was forced to concede territory to Prussia in the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Treaty_of_3_September_1866&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Treaty of 3 September 1866 (page does not exist)">Treaty of 3 September 1866</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedensvertrag_vom_3._September_1866" class="extiw" title="de:Friedensvertrag vom 3. September 1866">de</a>]. Due to the intervention of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_II_of_Russia" title="Alexander II of Russia">Alexander II of Russia</a>, the brother-in-law of Grand Duke Louis III, this was a relatively mild treaty. Bismarck had originally intended to annex the whole of Upper Hesse.<a href="#cite_note-85">[82]</a> Instead, Hesse lost only 82 km2 and gained nearly 10 km2 when Prussia gave the grand duchy various enclaves within Hessian territory that had previously belonged to states which Prussia had annexed outright.<a href="#cite_note-86">[83]</a> All of these new territories were located in Upper Hesse, aside from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Offenbach-Rumpenheim&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Offenbach-Rumpenheim (page does not exist)">Rumpenheim</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offenbach-Rumpenheim" class="extiw" title="de:Offenbach-Rumpenheim">de</a>], which was south of the <a href="/wiki/Main_river" title="Main river">Main river</a> in Strakenburg province. The territory of <a href="/wiki/Hesse-Homburg" title="Hesse-Homburg">Hesse-Homburg</a>, inherited by the grand duke earlier in the year on the extinction of its ruling line, was among the territories that passed to Prussia. Hesse was also required to pay three million guilder in <a href="/wiki/War_indemnities" class="mw-redirect" title="War indemnities">war indemnities</a><a href="#cite_note-87">[84]</a> and hand its telegraph network over to the Prussians.<a href="#cite_note-88">[85]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Aftermath">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alter_Wormser_Bahnhof.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Alter_Wormser_Bahnhof.jpg/220px-Alter_Wormser_Bahnhof.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Alter_Wormser_Bahnhof.jpg/330px-Alter_Wormser_Bahnhof.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Alter_Wormser_Bahnhof.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="311" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Worms,_Germany" title="Worms, Germany">Worms</a> <a href="/wiki/Worms_Hauptbahnhof#The_first_station" title="Worms Hauptbahnhof">station</a> decorated for the reception of <a href="/wiki/William_I,_German_Emperor" title="William I, German Emperor">William I</a> of Prussia, 1868.</figcaption></figure> The war did not lead to the dismissal of Dalwigk. Grand Duke Louis III remained committed to him, although his anti-Prussian policy and his very person were now a burden to the country. One consequence of the peace treaty of 1866 was that the whole area north of the Main river (the Province of Upper Hesse, as well as <a href="/wiki/Mainz-Kastel" title="Mainz-Kastel">Mainz-Kastel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mainz-Kostheim" title="Mainz-Kostheim">Mainz-Kostheim</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Mainz_district" class="mw-redirect" title="Mainz district">Mainz district</a> of Rhine-Hesse Province) became part of the <a href="/wiki/North_German_Confederation" title="North German Confederation">North German Confederation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-89">[86]</a> Subsequently, Dalwigk's government attempted to prevent or at least to delay the integration of the rest of Hesse into the confederation. The only justification he would accept for southern Hesse joining the confederation was if France were to start a war with Prussia.<a href="#cite_note-90">[87]</a> Dalwigk also attempted to delay the integration of the Hessian army into the <a href="/wiki/Prussian_Army" title="Prussian Army">Prussian Army</a> for as long as possible. This led crown prince <a href="/wiki/Louis_IV,_Grand_Duke_of_Hesse" title="Louis IV, Grand Duke of Hesse">Louis IV</a> to resign as commander of the <a href="/wiki/25th_Division_(German_Empire)" title="25th Division (German Empire)">Grand Ducal Hessian (25th) Division</a> and caused the Prussian <a href="/wiki/Adjutant_general" title="Adjutant general">Adjutant general</a> <a href="/wiki/Adolf_von_Bonin" title="Adolf von Bonin">Adolf von Bonin</a> to issue a blatant threat to the grand duke. Minister of War, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eduard_von_Grolman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eduard von Grolman (page does not exist)">Eduard von Grolman</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduard_von_Grolman" class="extiw" title="de:Eduard von Grolman">de</a>], who had actually implemented Dalwigk's delaying policy in military matters, was fired, but Dalwigk was allowed to remain in post.<a href="#cite_note-Franz,_Fleck_p._843-91">[88]</a> When King <a href="/wiki/William_I,_German_Emperor" title="William I, German Emperor">William I</a> of Prussia came to <a href="/wiki/Worms,_Germany" title="Worms, Germany">Worms</a> in 1868 for the dedication of the <a href="/wiki/Luther_Monument_(Worms)" title="Luther Monument (Worms)">Luther Monument</a>, his first visit to the grand duchy since the war, which was interpreted as a gesture of reconciliation, "Dalwigk was conveniently away visiting relatives in <a href="/wiki/Livonia" title="Livonia">Livonia</a>."<a href="#cite_note-Franz,_Fleck_p._843-91">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hesse_in_the_German_Empire_(1870–1914)">Hesse in the German Empire (1870–1914)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Hesse in the German Empire (1870–1914)">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Proclamation_of_the_German_Empire">Proclamation of the German Empire</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Proclamation of the German Empire">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_German_Empire" title="Proclamation of the German Empire">Proclamation of the German Empire</a></div> In the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War">Franco-Prussian War</a>, the grand duchy fought alongside the North German Confederation,<a href="#cite_note-92">[89]</a> which it joined partway through the war on 20 October 1870. Despite Bismarck's hatred of him, Dalwigk travelled to <a href="/wiki/Versailles" class="mw-redirect" title="Versailles">Versailles</a> for the negotiations about Hesse's entrance into the new German union. The treaty on the grand duchy's admission to the Confederation was signed on 15 November 1870, without Hesse receiving any reserved powers, unlike the other negotiating states. The Landstände ratified the treaty on 20 December 1870. At the <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_German_Empire" title="Proclamation of the German Empire">Proclamation of the German Empire</a> on 18 January 1871 in the <a href="/wiki/Hall_of_Mirrors" title="Hall of Mirrors">Hall of Mirrors</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Versailles" title="Palace of Versailles">Palace of Versailles</a>, the grand duchy was represented by crown prince Louis.<a href="#cite_note-93">[90]</a> Grand Duke Louis III accepted the event on account of the changed circumstances, but with a heavy heart and he remained very distant from the development.<a href="#cite_note-FFK_848-94">[91]</a> As a result of documents discovered in France which revealed Dalwigk's political intrigues with the French, his position finally became unsustainable. However, it was only when Louis III was directly instructed to fire Dalwigk during a visit to <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>, that he was forced to give in and dismiss him on 1 April 1871. The new chief minister was the former Minister of Justice, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Friedrich_von_Lindelof&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Friedrich von Lindelof (page does not exist)">Friedrich von Lindelof</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_von_Lindelof" class="extiw" title="de:Friedrich von Lindelof">de</a>], a final attempt at resistance by Louis III, before he appointed Prussia's preferred candidate, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Karl_von_Hofmann&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Karl von Hofmann (page does not exist)">Karl von Hofmann</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_von_Hofmann" class="extiw" title="de:Karl von Hofmann">de</a>] in 1872. After this, Louis III completely stepped back from government, handing over public duties to the crown prince and princess. This led to the development of a glorified image of him and, at the death of "Uncle Louis" in 1877, it was largely forgotten that his rule had consisted of a series of political conflicts and missteps.<a href="#cite_note-FFK_848-94">[91]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="A_small_state_in_the_German_Empire">A small state in the German Empire</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: A small state in the German Empire">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pr-HE_Gemeinschaft.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Pr-HE_Gemeinschaft.jpg/220px-Pr-HE_Gemeinschaft.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Pr-HE_Gemeinschaft.jpg/330px-Pr-HE_Gemeinschaft.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Pr-HE_Gemeinschaft.jpg/440px-Pr-HE_Gemeinschaft.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>Double <a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms" title="Coat of arms">coat of arms</a> on a locomotive of the <a href="/wiki/Prussian-Hessian_Railway_Company" title="Prussian-Hessian Railway Company">Prussian-Hessian Railway Company</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Queen_Victoria_Ludwig_IV_240-011.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Queen_Victoria_Ludwig_IV_240-011.jpg/220px-Queen_Victoria_Ludwig_IV_240-011.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Queen_Victoria_Ludwig_IV_240-011.jpg/330px-Queen_Victoria_Ludwig_IV_240-011.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Queen_Victoria_Ludwig_IV_240-011.jpg/440px-Queen_Victoria_Ludwig_IV_240-011.jpg 2x" data-file-width="915" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Grand Duke Louis IV with his mother-in-law <a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria" title="Queen Victoria">Queen Victoria</a> and his children.</figcaption></figure> The grand duchy was the sixth-largest state of the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a> and the largest one to have no reserved powers. Its 853,000 inhabitants in 1875<a href="#cite_note-FFK_848-94">[91]</a> were 2% of the Empire's total population. This small size alone pushed the grand duchy into insignificance. In addition, the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_German_Empire" title="Constitution of the German Empire">Constitution of the German Empire</a> assigned many of its former powers to Berlin. These included: <ul><li>The integration of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_of_Hesse-Darmstadt&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Military of Hesse-Darmstadt (page does not exist)">Hessian military</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hessen-darmst%C3%A4dtische_Armee" class="extiw" title="de:Hessen-darmstädtische Armee">de</a>] into the <a href="/wiki/Prussian_Army" title="Prussian Army">Prussian Army</a>. This was effected by a military convention which was signed on 13 June 1871 and came into force on 1 January 1872.<a href="#cite_note-95">[92]</a> The Hessian ministry of war was abolished.<a href="#cite_note-96">[93]</a> The result of this was that higher command positions were filled by Prussians.<a href="#cite_note-97">[94]</a></li> <li>The largest reform of law and justice in the 19th century, in which projects that the grand duchy had failed to accomplish since 1803, like the legal unification of the whole country, were brought to completion by imperial laws, like the: <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Imperial_Penal_Code&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Imperial Penal Code (page does not exist)">Imperial Penal Code</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichsstrafgesetzbuch" class="extiw" title="de:Reichsstrafgesetzbuch">de</a>] of 1872;</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Imperial_Justice_Code&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Imperial Justice Code (page does not exist)">Imperial Justice Code</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichsjustizgesetze" class="extiw" title="de:Reichsjustizgesetze">de</a>] of 1877 (consisting of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jurisdiction_Act_(Germany)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jurisdiction Act (Germany) (page does not exist)">Jurisdiction Act</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerichtsverfassungsgesetz" class="extiw" title="de:Gerichtsverfassungsgesetz">de</a>], <a href="/wiki/Civil_procedure_code_of_Germany" title="Civil procedure code of Germany">Civil procedure code</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminal_procedure_conde_of_Germany&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Criminal procedure conde of Germany (page does not exist)">Criminal procedure code</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strafprozessordnung_(Deutschland)" class="extiw" title="de:Strafprozessordnung (Deutschland)">de</a>], and the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Konkursordnung_of_Germany&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Konkursordnung of Germany (page does not exist)">Bankruptcy ordinance</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bankruptcy_ordinance_of_Germany" class="extiw" title="de:Bankruptcy ordinance of Germany">de</a>])</li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%BCrgerliches_Gesetzbuch" title="Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch">Civil Law Book</a> of 1896, which came into force on 1 January 1900.</li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dd>The resulting restructuring of the laws of the country was limited and the new laws were largely concordant with the old ones.<a href="#cite_note-98">[95]</a></dd></dl> <ul><li>The incorporation of the Hessian railroads into the <a href="/wiki/Prussian_state_railways" title="Prussian state railways">Prussian state railways</a> in 1896, under the company name, <a href="/wiki/Prussian-Hessian_Railway_Company" title="Prussian-Hessian Railway Company">Prussian-Hessian Railway Company</a>.</li></ul> The grand duchy's most significant loss was concealed to some extent by dynastic connections: Crown Prince Louis was the son-in-law of <a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria" title="Queen Victoria">Queen Victoria</a>. He was a brother-in-law of <a href="/wiki/Edward_VII" title="Edward VII">Edward VII</a>, heir to the British throne, and of the Prussian heir, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_III,_German_Emperor" title="Frederick III, German Emperor">Frederick</a>. His daughter was married to the <a href="/wiki/Tsesarevich" title="Tsesarevich">Tsesarevich</a> <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_II_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholas II of Russia">Nicholas</a> of Russia. These links were reflected in the presence of British, Russian, and Prussian envoys in the tiny Hessian capital of Darmstadt. The limited practical significance of this was shown by the inability of this Europe-wide network to prevent the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-99">[96]</a> Louis IV's successor, <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Louis,_Grand_Duke_of_Hesse" title="Ernest Louis, Grand Duke of Hesse">Ernest Louis</a> was referred to in Berlin as the "Red Grand Duke", because the Prussian envoy had scandalously seen him speak with <a href="/wiki/Carl_Ulrich" title="Carl Ulrich">Carl Ulrich</a>, the leader of the <a href="/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany" title="Social Democratic Party of Germany">SPD</a> on several occasions.<a href="#cite_note-100">[97]</a> Under these circumstances, the grand duchy retained only the power to concentrate on internal politics, especially social and cultural affairs. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Political_reforms">Political reforms</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Political reforms">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>An ordinance of 1874 reorganised the top state offices.<a href="#cite_note-VOoSb-101">[98]</a> This also abolished the Ministry for Foreign Affairs, since external relations were now controlled by the German Empire. Hitherto, the Minister for Foreign Affairs had also served as Minister of the Grand Ducal House, a job which was now entrusted to the Chief Minister.<a href="#cite_note-VOoSb-101">[98]</a></li> <li>In the same year, the middle level of the administration was also reformed on the model of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Prussian_District_Ordinance&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Prussian District Ordinance (page does not exist)">Prussian District Ordinance</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreisordnung_(Preu%C3%9Fen)" class="extiw" title="de:Kreisordnung (Preußen)">de</a>] of 1872.<a href="#cite_note-102">[99]</a> The districts (Kreise) served both as administrative subdivisions of the state and as self-governing local areas. The old district councils (Bezirksräte), which had only an advisory role, were replaced by communally elected district councils (Kreistage). At the same time, the number of districts was reduced from 18 to 12.<a href="#cite_note-103">[100]</a></li> <li>The local self-government of the cities<a href="#cite_note-104">[101]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Municipalities_of_Germany" title="Municipalities of Germany">municipalities</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[102]</a> was also expanded by new regulations in 1874.</li> <li>Also in 1874, the <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestant</a> <a href="/wiki/Landeskirche" title="Landeskirche">national church</a> received a new constitution with a strong role for <a href="/wiki/Synod" title="Synod">synods</a>.<a href="#cite_note-106">[103]</a></li> <li>In 1911, the voting system for the lower chamber of the Landstände was modernised. Census suffrage was abolished, but all voters over fifty years old received two votes. Around 20% of the population was entitled to vote. This relatively low proportion was due to the fact that <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage" title="Women's suffrage">women did not receive voting rights</a> and because the <a href="/wiki/Population_pyramid" title="Population pyramid">demographic structure</a> of the grand duchy meant that relatively few men were over the voting age. The upper chamber was revised, so that was now a representative of the <a href="/wiki/Technical_University_of_Darmstadt" class="mw-redirect" title="Technical University of Darmstadt">Technical University of Darmstadt</a> (analogous to the existing representative of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Giessen" title="University of Giessen">University of Giessen</a>) and a representative for each of the three legally recognised sectors of employment: trade and industry, craftwork, and agriculture.<a href="#cite_note-107">[104]</a></li></ul> Until the end of the monarchy (and afterwards), officials were recruited mostly from old local families of officials and sometimes graduates of the University of Giessen. This ensured the continued existence of a liberal internal policy, unlike the neighbouring Prussian <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Hesse-Nassau" title="Province of Hesse-Nassau">Province of Hesse-Nassau</a>, where the district councillors often came from the east of the kingdom and were politically conservative.<a href="#cite_note-108">[105]</a> Even <a href="/wiki/Carl_Ulrich" title="Carl Ulrich">Carl Ulrich</a>, later president of the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_State_of_Hesse" title="People's State of Hesse">People's State of Hesse</a>, who was repeatedly arrested under the <a href="/wiki/Anti-Socialist_Laws" title="Anti-Socialist Laws">Anti-Socialist Laws</a> found that "the law in Hesse is implemented very mildly."<a href="#cite_note-109">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Social_policy">Social policy</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Social policy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alice,_Princess_Louis_of_Hesse.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Alice%2C_Princess_Louis_of_Hesse.jpg/220px-Alice%2C_Princess_Louis_of_Hesse.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="324" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Alice%2C_Princess_Louis_of_Hesse.jpg/330px-Alice%2C_Princess_Louis_of_Hesse.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Alice%2C_Princess_Louis_of_Hesse.jpg/440px-Alice%2C_Princess_Louis_of_Hesse.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1168" data-file-height="1720" /></a><figcaption>Grand Duchess Alice, Photograph by Franz Backofen, 1871.</figcaption></figure> In the social sphere, Grand Duchess Alice took the lead. With her help, the "Alice Women's Society for Nurses" (Alice-Frauenverein für Krankenpflege) was established. With advice from <a href="/wiki/Florence_Nightingale" title="Florence Nightingale">Florence Nightingale</a>, the society organised a secular health service. At its foundation, the society already had 33 local branches and 2,500 members. This developed into the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Alice-Hospital_Darmstadt&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alice-Hospital Darmstadt (page does not exist)">Alice Hospital</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alice-Hospital_Darmstadt" class="extiw" title="de:Alice-Hospital Darmstadt">de</a>], which still operates in Darmstadt today. Together with <a href="/wiki/Luise_B%C3%BCchner" title="Luise Büchner">Luise Büchner</a>, Alice established the "Society for the Development of Female Industry" (Verein für Förderung weiblicher Industrie), renamed the "Alice Society for Women's Education and Employment" (Alice-Verein für Frauenbildung und -Erwerb) in 1872. This society ran a market for women who worked at home ("the Alice Bazaar") and the Alice-School, a school that trained women for employment, which is now the Alice-Eleonoren-Schule in Darmstadt. The country also engaged in health care. At the beginning of the twentieth century, its focus was on <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>. The Ernest Ludwig Sanitorium for lung diseases was opened at <a href="/wiki/Sandbach,_Breuberg" class="mw-redirect" title="Sandbach, Breuberg">Sandbach</a> in 1900 and the Eleonore Sanitorium for Women (now the Eleonore Clinic) in <a href="/wiki/Winterkasten" class="mw-redirect" title="Winterkasten">Winterkasten</a> in 1905, both in the <a href="/wiki/Odenwald" title="Odenwald">Odenwald</a>. From 1908, Grand Duchess <a href="/wiki/Princess_Eleonore_of_Solms-Hohensolms-Lich" title="Princess Eleonore of Solms-Hohensolms-Lich">Eleonore</a> participated in "the Grand Duchess' Sales Days" to raise money for this cause.<a href="#cite_note-FFK879-110">[107]</a> At the baptism of the Crown Prince <a href="/wiki/Georg_Donatus,_Hereditary_Grand_Duke_of_Hesse" title="Georg Donatus, Hereditary Grand Duke of Hesse">George Donatus</a>, Grand Duchess Eleonore founded the "Grand Ducal Centre for the Care of Mothers and Infants" (Großherzogliche Zentrale für Mütter- und Säuglingsfürsorge), which maintained a national advice network and help centres with nurses. In 1912, the Centre joined with the aviation pioneer, <a href="/wiki/August_Euler" title="August Euler">August Euler</a> (1868–1957), in his aircraft the Gelber Hund and with the <a href="/wiki/LZ_10_Schwaben" title="LZ 10 Schwaben">LZ 10 Schwaben</a> <a href="/wiki/Zeppelin" title="Zeppelin">zeppelin</a> to organise the Postcard week of the Grand Duchess and Airmail in Rhein and Main, which raised 100,000 <a href="/wiki/German_mark_(1871)" title="German mark (1871)">marks</a> for the cause.<a href="#cite_note-FFK879-110">[107]</a> A major problem facing the rapidly growing population was the shortage of housing. Around the turn of the century, the population of the grand duchy passed one million people. A series of <a href="/wiki/Building_society" title="Building society">building societies</a> were established – in 1905 there were around forty. The most important was the "Ernest Louis Society: Hessian Central Society for the Construction of Affordable Housing" (Ernst-Ludwig-Verein. Hessischer Zentralverein zur Errichtung billiger Wohnungen), in which the Wormser industrialist, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cornelius_Wilhelm_von_Heyl_zu_Herrnsheim&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cornelius Wilhelm von Heyl zu Herrnsheim (page does not exist)">Cornelius Wilhelm von Heyl zu Herrnsheim</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornelius_Wilhelm_von_Heyl_zu_Herrnsheim" class="extiw" title="de:Cornelius Wilhelm von Heyl zu Herrnsheim">de</a>] played a leading role. The "Ernest Louis Society" participated in the construction of a <a href="/wiki/Darmstadt_Artists%27_Colony#The_small_residence_colony" title="Darmstadt Artists' Colony">worker's village</a> for the 1908 National Exhibition at the <a href="/wiki/Mathildenh%C3%B6he" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathildenhöhe">Mathildenhöhe</a> in Darmstadt.<a href="#cite_note-111">[108]</a> Von Heyl was also a member of the <a href="/wiki/Reichstag_(German_Empire)" title="Reichstag (German Empire)">Reichstag</a> and president of the upper chamber of the Hessian Landstände from 1874 to 1912. There he was responsible for the "Law on Housing Support for the Less Wealthy" of 1902,<a href="#cite_note-112">[109]</a> which provided simplified possibilities for finance. This improved on an earlier law passed in 1893.<a href="#cite_note-113">[110]</a> Additionally, the 1902 law created a National Housing Inspectorate ("Landeswohnungsinspektion", which monitored the state of the housing market and reported it on it.<a href="#cite_note-114">[111]</a> This made the grand duchy the leading state of the German Empire with respect to housing policy. Von Heyl also established the "Action Society for the Construction of Affordanble Housing" (Aktiengesellschaft zur Erbauung billiger Wohnungen), which built a total of 250 houses with 450 inhabitants in Worms within a few years.<a href="#cite_note-115">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[113]</a> Most of these houses are now the very upmarket district of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kiautschau&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kiautschau (page does not exist)">Kiautschau</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiautschau" class="extiw" title="de:Kiautschau">de</a>] in Worms. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cultural_policy">Cultural policy</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Cultural policy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Photo_-_Darmstadt_-_Hessisches_Landesmuseum_-_um_1906.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Photo_-_Darmstadt_-_Hessisches_Landesmuseum_-_um_1906.jpg/220px-Photo_-_Darmstadt_-_Hessisches_Landesmuseum_-_um_1906.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Photo_-_Darmstadt_-_Hessisches_Landesmuseum_-_um_1906.jpg/330px-Photo_-_Darmstadt_-_Hessisches_Landesmuseum_-_um_1906.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Photo_-_Darmstadt_-_Hessisches_Landesmuseum_-_um_1906.jpg/440px-Photo_-_Darmstadt_-_Hessisches_Landesmuseum_-_um_1906.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4124" data-file-height="2868" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hessisches_Landesmuseum_Darmstadt" title="Hessisches Landesmuseum Darmstadt">Hessisches Landesmuseum</a>, Darmstadt, 1906</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Darmstadt_%E2%80%94_Mathildenh%C3%B6he_Ernst-Ludwig-Haus,_Portal_2011.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Darmstadt_%E2%80%94_Mathildenh%C3%B6he_Ernst-Ludwig-Haus%2C_Portal_2011.jpg/220px-Darmstadt_%E2%80%94_Mathildenh%C3%B6he_Ernst-Ludwig-Haus%2C_Portal_2011.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Darmstadt_%E2%80%94_Mathildenh%C3%B6he_Ernst-Ludwig-Haus%2C_Portal_2011.jpg/330px-Darmstadt_%E2%80%94_Mathildenh%C3%B6he_Ernst-Ludwig-Haus%2C_Portal_2011.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Darmstadt_%E2%80%94_Mathildenh%C3%B6he_Ernst-Ludwig-Haus%2C_Portal_2011.jpg/440px-Darmstadt_%E2%80%94_Mathildenh%C3%B6he_Ernst-Ludwig-Haus%2C_Portal_2011.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4320" data-file-height="3240" /></a><figcaption>Ernst-Ludwig-Haus, main entrance.</figcaption></figure> In the cultural sphere, the <a href="/wiki/Kulturkampf" title="Kulturkampf">Kulturkampf</a> was of great significance in the first years of the German Empire. After some delay, the grand duchy brought the Prussian measures into force. The duchy's <a href="/wiki/Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic">Catholic</a> bishop, <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Emmanuel_von_Ketteler" title="Wilhelm Emmanuel von Ketteler">Wilhelm Emmanuel von Ketteler</a> of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Mainz" title="Roman Catholic Diocese of Mainz">Mainz</a>, a strict conservative, had worked closely with von Dalwigk and was fiercely opposed to the liberals. The Darmstadt government sought to gain a higher level of control over the Roman Catholic church and the bishop led opposition to this. A whole bundle of laws were put forward by the government in 1875 to achieve this.<a href="#cite_note-117">[114]</a> The bishop sought to maintain the highest possible level of autonomy by all means at his disposal, but in 1876 he had to close the <a href="/wiki/Seminary" title="Seminary">seminary</a> in Mainz and the church was not able to open it again until 1887.<a href="#cite_note-118">[115]</a> After Ketteler's death in 1877, the bishop's seat remained vacant until 1886, as a result of the conflict between the state and the Catholic church, since the state vetoed all candidates for the position that were put forward by the Church.<a href="#cite_note-Cosack,_p._137-119">[116]</a> The beginning of the reign of the last Grand Duke, <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Louis,_Grand_Duke_of_Hesse" title="Ernest Louis, Grand Duke of Hesse">Ernest Louis</a>, in 1892 at the age of twenty-three saw a marked focus on cultural policy. He rejected plans for the new <a href="/wiki/Hessisches_Landesmuseum_Darmstadt" title="Hessisches Landesmuseum Darmstadt">Landesmuseum in Darmstadt</a>, because he considered the plans "hideous and too pretentious, a disfigurement of the city and a disgrace for the government."<a href="#cite_note-120">[117]</a> The Grand Duke sought out the Berlin architect <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Messel" title="Alfred Messel">Alfred Messel</a> instead and the museum which he built was widely praised. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Letzte_Ausgabe_GrhHessRBl.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Letzte_Ausgabe_GrhHessRBl.jpg/220px-Letzte_Ausgabe_GrhHessRBl.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Letzte_Ausgabe_GrhHessRBl.jpg/330px-Letzte_Ausgabe_GrhHessRBl.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Letzte_Ausgabe_GrhHessRBl.jpg/440px-Letzte_Ausgabe_GrhHessRBl.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2427" data-file-height="2977" /></a><figcaption>Final issue of the Grand Duchy of Hesse's <a href="/wiki/Government_gazette" title="Government gazette">gazette</a>, 8 November 1918, one day before the fall of the grand duchy.</figcaption></figure> The most famous project of Grand Duke Ernest Louis is the <a href="/wiki/Darmstadt_Artists%27_Colony" title="Darmstadt Artists' Colony">Darmstadt Artists' Colony</a>, a project, which his mother, Grand Duchess Alice, had first conceived, but had not brought to fruition due to her early death. The colony and its four art and craft exhibition halls on Mathildenhöhe have been a <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Site" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage Site</a> since 2021.<a href="#cite_note-121">[118]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_World_War_and_end_of_the_grand_duchy_(1914–1918)">First World War and end of the grand duchy (1914–1918)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: First World War and end of the grand duchy (1914–1918)">edit</a>]</div> Under the German Empire's military constitution, Hessian troops participated in <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> as part of the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_German_Army" title="Imperial German Army">Imperial German Army</a>. Grand Duke Ernest Louis was nominally an infantry general, but he did not exercise an active command. He did visit the headquarters of the <a href="/wiki/25th_Division_(German_Empire)" title="25th Division (German Empire)">Grand Ducal Hessian (25th) Division</a> in France several times.<a href="#cite_note-Franz,_Fleck_p._882-122">[119]</a> A total of 32,000 men from this unit died during the war.<a href="#cite_note-123">[120]</a> In summer 1918, Darmstadt was hit by <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">allied</a> airstrikes.<a href="#cite_note-Franz,_Fleck_p._882-122">[119]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%931919" class="mw-redirect" title="German Revolution of 1918–1919">November Revolution</a>, Grand Duke Ernest Louis was removed from power on 9 November 1918 by the Darmstadt <a href="/wiki/German_workers%27_and_soldiers%27_councils_1918%E2%80%931919" title="German workers' and soldiers' councils 1918–1919">Workers' and Soldiers' Council</a>.<a href="#cite_note-124">[121]</a> In 1919, the Grand Duke released the officials of Hesse from their oaths of service to him,<a href="#cite_note-125">[122]</a> but he never issued an explicit <a href="/wiki/Abdication" title="Abdication">abdication</a>.<a href="#cite_note-126">[Anm. 4]</a> The grand duchy received a <a href="/wiki/Republic" title="Republic">republican</a> constitution and was renamed the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_State_of_Hesse" title="People's State of Hesse">People's State of Hesse</a> (Volksstaat Hessen). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Government">Government</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Government">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Darmstadt_Residenzschloss_20110514.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Darmstadt_Residenzschloss_20110514.jpg/220px-Darmstadt_Residenzschloss_20110514.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Darmstadt_Residenzschloss_20110514.jpg/330px-Darmstadt_Residenzschloss_20110514.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Darmstadt_Residenzschloss_20110514.jpg/440px-Darmstadt_Residenzschloss_20110514.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4657" data-file-height="3111" /></a><figcaption>The Residenzschloss (<a href="/wiki/Residential_Palace_Darmstadt" title="Residential Palace Darmstadt">Residential Palace Darmstadt</a>) of the Grand Dukes</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Grand_Duke">Grand Duke</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Grand Duke">edit</a>]</div> The constitution issued on 17 December 1820 by Grand Duke Louis I ended <a href="/wiki/Absolutism_(European_history)" title="Absolutism (European history)">absolutism</a> in the grand duchy, in favour of a <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a>, but the grand duke retained substantial authority. As the <a href="/wiki/Head_of_state" title="Head of state">head of state</a>, "all rights of state power" were invested in him<a href="#cite_note-verfassung4.1-127">[123]</a> and his person was "sacred and inviolable".<a href="#cite_note-verfassung4.2-128">[124]</a> He led the <a href="/wiki/Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">executive</a>. <table style="background:#FFFFFF; text-align:center; width:80%" class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th style="width:22.5%">Name</th> <th style="width:100px">Portrait</th> <th>Birth</th> <th>Marriage(s)</th> <th>Death </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Louis_I,_Grand_Duke_of_Hesse" title="Louis I, Grand Duke of Hesse">Louis I</a> (Ludwig I) 14 August 1806 – 6 April 1830 (Landgrave Louis X from 1790) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Ludwig_X._(Hessen-Darmstadt).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Ludwig_X._%28Hessen-Darmstadt%29.jpg/100px-Ludwig_X._%28Hessen-Darmstadt%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Ludwig_X._%28Hessen-Darmstadt%29.jpg/150px-Ludwig_X._%28Hessen-Darmstadt%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Ludwig_X._%28Hessen-Darmstadt%29.jpg/200px-Ludwig_X._%28Hessen-Darmstadt%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="908" data-file-height="1383" /></a> </td> <td>14 June 1753 in <a href="/wiki/Prenzlau" title="Prenzlau">Prenzlau</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Princess_Louise_of_Hesse-Darmstadt_(1761%E2%80%931829)" title="Princess Louise of Hesse-Darmstadt (1761–1829)">Louise of Hesse-Darmstadt</a> </td> <td>6 April 1830 in <a href="/wiki/Darmstadt" title="Darmstadt">Darmstadt</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Louis_II,_Grand_Duke_of_Hesse" title="Louis II, Grand Duke of Hesse">Louis II</a> (Ludwig II) 6 April 1830 – 16 June 1848<a href="#cite_note-129">[Anm. 5]</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Ludwig_II_von_Hessen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Ludwig_II_von_Hessen.jpg/100px-Ludwig_II_von_Hessen.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Ludwig_II_von_Hessen.jpg/150px-Ludwig_II_von_Hessen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Ludwig_II_von_Hessen.jpg/200px-Ludwig_II_von_Hessen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="506" data-file-height="679" /></a> </td> <td>26 December 1777 in Darmstadt </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Princess_Wilhelmine_of_Baden" title="Princess Wilhelmine of Baden">Wilhelmine of Baden</a> </td> <td>16 June 1848 in Darmstadt </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Louis_III,_Grand_Duke_of_Hesse" title="Louis III, Grand Duke of Hesse">Louis III</a> (Ludwig III) 5 March 1848 – 13 June 1877 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Gro%C3%9Fherzog_Ludwig_III.,_Gem%C3%A4lde_von_Joseph_Hartmann_1857.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Gro%C3%9Fherzog_Ludwig_III.%2C_Gem%C3%A4lde_von_Joseph_Hartmann_1857.jpg/100px-Gro%C3%9Fherzog_Ludwig_III.%2C_Gem%C3%A4lde_von_Joseph_Hartmann_1857.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Gro%C3%9Fherzog_Ludwig_III.%2C_Gem%C3%A4lde_von_Joseph_Hartmann_1857.jpg/150px-Gro%C3%9Fherzog_Ludwig_III.%2C_Gem%C3%A4lde_von_Joseph_Hartmann_1857.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Gro%C3%9Fherzog_Ludwig_III.%2C_Gem%C3%A4lde_von_Joseph_Hartmann_1857.jpg/200px-Gro%C3%9Fherzog_Ludwig_III.%2C_Gem%C3%A4lde_von_Joseph_Hartmann_1857.jpg 2x" data-file-width="738" data-file-height="1000" /></a> </td> <td>9 June 1806 in Darmstadt </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Princess_Mathilde_Caroline_of_Bavaria" title="Princess Mathilde Caroline of Bavaria">Mathilde Caroline of Bavaria</a> </td> <td>13 June 1877 in <a href="/wiki/Seeheim-Jugenheim" title="Seeheim-Jugenheim">Seeheim</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Louis_IV,_Grand_Duke_of_Hesse" title="Louis IV, Grand Duke of Hesse">Louis IV</a> (Ludwig IV) 13 June 1877 – 13 March 1892 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Ludwig_Hofmann-Zeitz_(1832-95)_-_Louis_IV,_Grand_Duke_of_Hesse_(1837-1892)_-_RCIN_404704_-_Royal_Collection.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Ludwig_Hofmann-Zeitz_%281832-95%29_-_Louis_IV%2C_Grand_Duke_of_Hesse_%281837-1892%29_-_RCIN_404704_-_Royal_Collection.jpg/100px-Ludwig_Hofmann-Zeitz_%281832-95%29_-_Louis_IV%2C_Grand_Duke_of_Hesse_%281837-1892%29_-_RCIN_404704_-_Royal_Collection.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Ludwig_Hofmann-Zeitz_%281832-95%29_-_Louis_IV%2C_Grand_Duke_of_Hesse_%281837-1892%29_-_RCIN_404704_-_Royal_Collection.jpg/150px-Ludwig_Hofmann-Zeitz_%281832-95%29_-_Louis_IV%2C_Grand_Duke_of_Hesse_%281837-1892%29_-_RCIN_404704_-_Royal_Collection.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Ludwig_Hofmann-Zeitz_%281832-95%29_-_Louis_IV%2C_Grand_Duke_of_Hesse_%281837-1892%29_-_RCIN_404704_-_Royal_Collection.jpg/200px-Ludwig_Hofmann-Zeitz_%281832-95%29_-_Louis_IV%2C_Grand_Duke_of_Hesse_%281837-1892%29_-_RCIN_404704_-_Royal_Collection.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1554" data-file-height="2250" /></a> </td> <td>12 September 1837 in <a href="/wiki/Bessungen" title="Bessungen">Bessungen</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Princess_Alice_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Princess Alice of the United Kingdom">Princess Alice of the United Kingdom</a> </td> <td>13 March 1892 in Darmstadt </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Louis,_Grand_Duke_of_Hesse" title="Ernest Louis, Grand Duke of Hesse">Ernest Louis</a> (Ernst Ludwig) 13 March 1892 – 9 November 1918 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:ErnstLodewijk.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/ErnstLodewijk.jpg/100px-ErnstLodewijk.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/ErnstLodewijk.jpg/150px-ErnstLodewijk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/ErnstLodewijk.jpg/200px-ErnstLodewijk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="331" data-file-height="539" /></a> </td> <td>25 November 1868 in Darmstadt </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Princess_Victoria_Melita_of_Saxe-Coburg_and_Gotha" title="Princess Victoria Melita of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha">Victoria Melita of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha</a> <a href="/wiki/Princess_Eleonore_of_Solms-Hohensolms-Lich" title="Princess Eleonore of Solms-Hohensolms-Lich">Eleonore of Solms-Hohensolms-Lich</a> </td> <td>9 October 1937 in <a href="/wiki/Schlo%C3%9F_Wolfsgarten" title="Schloß Wolfsgarten">Schloß Wolfsgarten</a>, <a href="/wiki/Langen,_Hesse" title="Langen, Hesse">Langen</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Landstände">Landstände</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Landstände">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Darmstadt,_St%C3%A4ndehaus_1888.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Darmstadt%2C_St%C3%A4ndehaus_1888.jpg/220px-Darmstadt%2C_St%C3%A4ndehaus_1888.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Darmstadt%2C_St%C3%A4ndehaus_1888.jpg/330px-Darmstadt%2C_St%C3%A4ndehaus_1888.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Darmstadt%2C_St%C3%A4ndehaus_1888.jpg/440px-Darmstadt%2C_St%C3%A4ndehaus_1888.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1692" data-file-height="1038" /></a><figcaption>The Ständehaus in <a href="/wiki/Darmstadt" title="Darmstadt">Darmstadt</a> (1888), seat of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Landst%C3%A4nde_of_the_Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Landstände of the Grand Duchy of Hesse (page does not exist)">Landstände of the Grand Duchy of Hesse</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landst%C3%A4nde_des_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtums_Hessen" class="extiw" title="de:Landstände des Großherzogtums Hessen">de</a>]</figcaption></figure> The Landstände (national <a href="/wiki/Estates_of_the_realm" title="Estates of the realm">estates</a>) was the <a href="/wiki/Bicameral" class="mw-redirect" title="Bicameral">bicameral</a> <a href="/wiki/Legislature" title="Legislature">legislature</a> which linked the subjects of the grand duchy to the grand duke and his government. It was created by the Hessian constitution of 1820 and survived until the November Revolution in 1918, when it was succeeded by the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Landtag_of_the_People%27s_State_of_Hesse&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Landtag of the People's State of Hesse (page does not exist)">Landtag of the People's State of Hesse</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landtag_des_Volksstaates_Hessen" class="extiw" title="de:Landtag des Volksstaates Hessen">de</a>]. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Upper_chamber">Upper chamber</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Upper chamber">edit</a>]</div> The Upper Chamber consisted of the princes of the grand ducal house, the heads of the Standesherr families, the Hereditary Marshal (since 1432, the head of the <a href="/wiki/Riedesel" title="Riedesel">Riedesel</a> barons of Eisenach), the Catholic bishop responsible for Hesse (i.e. the Bishop of Mainz), a representative of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Protestant_Church_in_Hesse&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Protestant Church in Hesse (page does not exist)">Protestant Church in Hesse</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelische_Landeskirche_in_Hessen" class="extiw" title="de:Evangelische Landeskirche in Hessen">de</a>] (appointed for life by the grand duke), the chancellor of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Giessen" title="University of Giessen">University of Giessen</a>, and ten Hessian citizens, whom the grand duke could grant a seat to, in recognition of special service.<a href="#cite_note-verfassung52-130">[125]</a> In order to take up a seat in the Upper Chamber, one had to be over 25 years of age.<a href="#cite_note-verfassung54-131">[126]</a> This system was interrupted in 1849, when the Upper Chamber was reformed to contain 25 representatives, elected by census suffrage.<a href="#cite_note-digitale-sammlungen.de-132">[127]</a> However, the old system was restored in 1850.<a href="#cite_note-Verordnung_1850,_pp._375-133">[128]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lower_Chamber">Lower Chamber</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Lower Chamber">edit</a>]</div> The Lower Chamber contained the elected representatives. The electoral law changed significantly over time. For a brief period after 1848, representatives were chosen by a direct vote of all (male) citizens, which was very progressive.<a href="#cite_note-digitale-sammlungen.de-132">[127]</a> In the reactionary period following the revolution, the indirect vote was restored in 1850,<a href="#cite_note-Verordnung_1850,_pp._375-133">[128]</a> and then the <a href="/wiki/Prussian_three-class_franchise" title="Prussian three-class franchise">three-class franchise</a> was adopted in 1856.<a href="#cite_note-134">[129]</a> An additional electoral reform in 1872 reduced the number of representatives elected by the landed nobility and transferred those representatives to the Upper Chamber.<a href="#cite_note-135">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Legislative_process">Legislative process</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Legislative process">edit</a>]</div> Theoretically, laws were issued by the grand duke, in close consultation with the Landstände. The Landstände had no sovereign power of their own. A law came about when the grand duke (in fact, his ministers) submitted a proposed law to the Landstände. After advice from the Landstände, the draft authorised by the Landstände would be sanctioned by the grand duke. This was the actual act which brought the law into force. Then it would be published in the Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt ("Government Gazette of Grand Ducal Hesse"). Usually, laws came into force fourteen days after this proclamation.<a href="#cite_note-136">[131]</a> In addition, the grand duke had the power to issue emergency decrees (including <a href="/wiki/Substantive_law" title="Substantive law">substantive laws</a>) in urgent situations if the Landstände could not be gathered quickly enough.<a href="#cite_note-137">[132]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Executive">Executive</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Executive">edit</a>]</div> The government of the grand duchy was rearranged on 12 October 1803, being divided into ministerial departments for the first time:<a href="#cite_note-138">[133]</a> In 1821, an edict established that the government, now known as the State-Ministry or Whole-Ministry (Staats-Ministerium or Gesamt-Ministerium), would be led by one of the ministers, who would be known as the President of the United Ministries (Präsident der vereinten Ministerien). The Ministry of War remained separate from this arrangement.<a href="#cite_note-139">[134]</a> The title was changed to "Directing State-Minister" (Dirigierende Staatsminister) in 1829, "President of the Whole Ministry (Präsident des Gesamt-Ministeriums) in 1849, <a href="/wiki/Minister-President" class="mw-redirect" title="Minister-President">Minister-President</a> (Ministerpräsident) in 1852. The ministries of the grand duchy were: <ul><li>The Ministry External Affairs and the Grand Ducal House. The external affairs portion of the ministry was closed in 1874 and the responsibilities to the house were transferred to the Minister-President.<a href="#cite_note-140">[135]</a></li> <li>The Ministry of Internal Affairs. This ministry included justice, until it became its own ministry in 1898.<a href="#cite_note-141">[136]</a></li> <li>The Ministry of Finance</li> <li>The Ministry of War, which existed alongside these departments, but was independent from them. It was abolished in 1871.<a href="#cite_note-142">[137]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Administrative_subdivisions">Administrative subdivisions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Administrative subdivisions">edit</a>]</div> From the beginning the grand duchy faced the problem of bringing its various disparate parts together. Even the core region, the Landgraviate of Hesse-Darmstadt, consisted of two separate parts: the "Old Hessian" region and the Upper <a href="/wiki/County_of_Katzenelnbogen" title="County of Katzenelnbogen">County of Katzenelnbogen</a>. In addition to this there were the territories received during secularisation and mediatisation in 1803, the treaty of the Confederation of the Rhine in 1806, and the former French areas received at the Vienna Congress in 1816. In the territorial expansion between 1803 and 1816, Hesse initially inherited and retained their particular <a href="/wiki/Administrative_division" title="Administrative division">administrative divisions</a>. This meant that the provinces on the right bank of the Rhine, were divided into <a href="/wiki/Amt#Germany_2" title="Amt">Ämtern</a>, while Rhine Hesse retained the French administrative structure based on <a href="/wiki/Canton_(administrative_division)" title="Canton (administrative division)">cantons</a> (although partially using German terminology). The process of unifying and modernising divergent systems took almost the whole of the nineteenth century. A clear end point is 1 January 1900 when the extremely fragmented <a href="/wiki/Private_law" title="Private law">private law</a> systems in Germany were replaced by the <a href="/wiki/B%C3%BCrgerliches_Gesetzbuch" title="Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch">Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch</a>, which applied to the Empire.<a href="#cite_note-143">[138]</a> The lowest level subdivision was the municipality (Gemeinde). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="First-order_subdivisions">First-order subdivisions</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: First-order subdivisions">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:S%C3%BCdbr%C3%BCcke_Mainz_1862.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/S%C3%BCdbr%C3%BCcke_Mainz_1862.jpg/220px-S%C3%BCdbr%C3%BCcke_Mainz_1862.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/S%C3%BCdbr%C3%BCcke_Mainz_1862.jpg/330px-S%C3%BCdbr%C3%BCcke_Mainz_1862.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/S%C3%BCdbr%C3%BCcke_Mainz_1862.jpg/440px-S%C3%BCdbr%C3%BCcke_Mainz_1862.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1909" data-file-height="1034" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/S%C3%BCdbr%C3%BCcke,_Mainz" title="Südbrücke, Mainz">Südbrücke</a> at <a href="/wiki/Mainz" title="Mainz">Mainz</a>, the first permanent bridge between the portions of the grand duchy on the left and right banks of the Rhine, built in 1862</figcaption></figure> The first-order subdivisions of the grand duchy were the provinces: <ul><li>Starkenburg. Capital: Darmstadt. Territory: mainly right of the Rhine and south of the Main.</li> <li>Upper Hesse. Capital: Giessen. Territory: mainly north of the Main.</li> <li>Duchy of Westphalia (1803–1816). Capital: <a href="/wiki/Arnsberg" title="Arnsberg">Arnsberg</a>.</li> <li>Rhine-Hesse (1816–1918). Capital: Mainz. Territory: mainly left of the Rhine.</li></ul> Starkenburg and the majority of Rhine Hesse were separated by the Rhine river and at first there was no permanent crossing between them. The first bridge was the <a href="/wiki/S%C3%BCdbr%C3%BCcke,_Mainz" title="Südbrücke, Mainz">Südbrücke</a> at Mainz, which was built for the <a href="/wiki/Rhine-Main_Railway" title="Rhine-Main Railway">Mainz–Darmstadt–Aschaffenburg railway</a> in 1862. Upper Hesse and Starkenburg were separated by foreign territory – the Electorate of Hesse and Free City of Frankfurt before 1866 and then the Kingdom of Prussia. This internal segmentation shaped the economic development of the grand duchy. After the 1848 revolution, the provinces and districts were replaced with eleven "government districts" (Regierungsbezirken) at 31 July 1848.<a href="#cite_note-144">[139]</a> This reform was reversed in 1852 during the reactionary period, when the earlier division into three provinces was restored.<a href="#cite_note-145">[140]</a> This structure endured beyond the end of the grand duchy in 1918. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military">Military</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Military">edit</a>]</div> Even before the establishment of the grand duchy, Hesse-Darmstadt had a standing army. This was expanded after 1816. Following the military convention with Prussia on 13 June 1871, the Hessian forces were incorporated into the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_German_Army" title="Imperial German Army">Imperial German Army</a> on 1 January 1872.<a href="#cite_note-FFK_848-94">[91]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Demographics">Demographics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Demographics">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nobility">Nobility</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Nobility">edit</a>]</div> The nobility of the grand duchy consisted of two classes with different privileges, the Standesherren (members of the <a href="/wiki/Mediatised_houses" title="Mediatised houses">mediatised houses</a>) and the ritterschaftlichen Adel (knights). Standesherren were the members of the nobility who had enjoyed <a href="/wiki/Imperial_immediacy" title="Imperial immediacy">imperial immediacy</a> under the Holy Roman Empire and had been represented in the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Diet_(Holy_Roman_Empire)" title="Imperial Diet (Holy Roman Empire)">imperial diet</a>. According to the Treaty of the Confederation of the Rhine of 1806, Stedesherren had special rights and possessed sovereignty over the areas that they ruled. Initially, there were nineteen Standesherren in the grand duchy, but by the end of the nineteenth century this had declined to seventeen.<a href="#cite_note-146">[141]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Riedesel" title="Riedesel">Riedesel</a> family held an equivalent status to the Standesherren.<a href="#cite_note-147">[142]</a> In total, about a quarter of the grand duchy's area and population belonged to the Standesherren.<a href="#cite_note-148">[143]</a> The privileges of the Standesheren declined over the nineteenth century and they finally lost their seats in the upper chamber of the Landstände in 1918. The special position of the knights was established by the Grand Duke in 1807.<a href="#cite_note-149">[144]</a> Several of these nobles initially had control of their own local courts, the last of which were taken over by the state in the 1830s. The knights also had their own representatives in the Landstände. From 1820 until 1872, they had twenty representatives in the Lower chamber. After that, they instead had two representatives in the upper chamber. Only the richest families in Hesse could vote for these (probably around two dozen families). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emigration">Emigration</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Emigration">edit</a>]</div> The constitution of 1820 guaranteed the right to <a href="/wiki/Emigrate" class="mw-redirect" title="Emigrate">emigrate</a>, with some legal provisos.<a href="#cite_note-150">[145]</a> Due to the rising population, stagnating agricultural sector, and slow pace of industrialisation, there was continuous poverty among the lower class. From the 1840s several thousand people left the grand duchy every year (records do not exist for earlier periods). The government supported emigration in order to reduce the potential for social conflict.<a href="#cite_note-151">[146]</a> The local Gemeinden, which were responsible for supporting the poor, happily sent them overseas. The main destination was the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, but Hessians also travelled to southern Russia, and, in one case, <a href="/wiki/French_Algeria" title="French Algeria">Algeria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ffk802-152">[147]</a> In some cases the poor were actually forced to leave, as occurred in <a href="/wiki/Wimpfen" class="mw-redirect" title="Wimpfen">Wimpfen</a>.<a href="#cite_note-153">[148]</a> In 1846, 672 people from <a href="/wiki/Gro%C3%9F-Zimmern" title="Groß-Zimmern">Groß-Zimmern</a> and neighbouring communities were "exported" and around fifty other Gemeinden followed this example.<a href="#cite_note-154">[149]</a> High points were the year 1846 when more than 6,000 people emigrated,<a href="#cite_note-ffk802-152">[147]</a> and 1853, when 8,375 people did so,<a href="#cite_note-ffk832-155">[150]</a> including many of those opposed to the reactionary policies of von Dalwigk. This was roughly 1% of the population. The grand duchy's population sank between 1850 and 1855 from 853,300 inhabitants to 836,424.<a href="#cite_note-ffk832-155">[150]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Religion">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Protestantism">Protestantism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Protestantism">edit</a>]</div> In the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant church">Protestant churches</a> at the end of the 18th century, there were efforts to overcome the division between the <a href="/wiki/Lutheran" class="mw-redirect" title="Lutheran">Lutheran</a> and <a href="/wiki/Calvinist" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinist">Calvinist</a> denominations, but there was also resistance to this. The state did not manage to settle this issue in a uniform manner. Thus, in the most progressive province, Rhine-Hesse, the clergy agreed a union in 1817, but bureaucratic obstacles meant that the state did not bring that agreement to fruition until <a href="/wiki/Easter" title="Easter">Easter</a> 1822. This union of the two confessions was called the United Evangelical Protestant Church in Rhine-Hesse (Vereinigte evangelisch-protestantische Kirche in Rheinhessen) and received its own church council in Mainz. In the other two provinces, similar agreements were only agreed at the level of individual <a href="/wiki/Church_(congregation)" title="Church (congregation)">parishes</a> and many Lutheran and Calvinist churches remained separate. In 1832, a single Protestant church organisation for the whole of Hesse was established with its seat in Darmstadt. The existing united church in Mainz and the individual united church and school councils in Giessen and Darmstadt were brought under its umbrella.<a href="#cite_note-156">[151]</a> After this, the Evangelical <a href="/wiki/Landeskirche" title="Landeskirche">National Church</a> of Hesse was organisationally unified, although the two denominations retained separate churches and confessions in many places. In 1874, a charter with <a href="/wiki/Presbyterian" class="mw-redirect" title="Presbyterian">presbyterian</a>-synodal elements was issued for the church, which was modelled on the Prussian <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhineland-Westphalia_Church_Ordinance&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rhineland-Westphalia Church Ordinance (page does not exist)">Rhineland-Westphalia Church Ordinance</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rheinisch-Westf%C3%A4lische_Kirchenordnung" class="extiw" title="de:Rheinisch-Westfälische Kirchenordnung">de</a>] of 1835. Henceforth, a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Synod_(Lutheranism)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Synod (Lutheranism) (page does not exist)">national synod</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synode_(evangelische_Kirchen)" class="extiw" title="de:Synode (evangelische Kirchen)">de</a>], which made church law in cooperation with the Landesherrn, was the summus episcopus (the supreme religious authority).<a href="#cite_note-157">[152]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Catholicism">Catholicism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Catholicism">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wilhelm_Emmanuel_von_Ketteler_1865.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Wilhelm_Emmanuel_von_Ketteler_1865.jpg/220px-Wilhelm_Emmanuel_von_Ketteler_1865.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="252" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Wilhelm_Emmanuel_von_Ketteler_1865.jpg/330px-Wilhelm_Emmanuel_von_Ketteler_1865.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/Wilhelm_Emmanuel_von_Ketteler_1865.jpg 2x" data-file-width="399" data-file-height="457" /></a><figcaption>Wilhelm Emmanuel von Ketteler, Bishop 1850–1877</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Mainz" title="Roman Catholic Diocese of Mainz">Roman Catholic Diocese of Mainz</a></div> Around 25% of the inhabitants of the grand duchy were Roman Catholic. Due to the <a href="/wiki/German_mediatisation#Secularisation" title="German mediatisation">secularisation</a> carried out at the end of the Holy Roman Empire, the Roman Catholic church was largely reliant on funds supplied by the state.<a href="#cite_note-FFK771-158">[153]</a> The new organisation of the Catholic church in the grand duchy was the result of long negotiations which had already been underway long before the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a> in 1815, as in the rest of southwest Germany. After the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bavaria" title="Kingdom of Bavaria">Kingdom of Bavaria</a> sealed its own <a href="/wiki/Concordat" title="Concordat">concordat</a> with the Catholic Church in 1817, the other states of southwestern Germany began negotiations in 1818 in Frankfurt am Main to come up with a solution for their territories, which resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Papal_bull" title="Papal bull">papal bull</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Provida_solersque&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Provida solersque (page does not exist)">Provida solersque</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provida_solersque" class="extiw" title="de:Provida solersque">de</a>] of 1821.<a href="#cite_note-159">[154]</a> With respect to the grand duchy, this created the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Mainz" title="Roman Catholic Diocese of Mainz">Diocese of Mainz</a>, which became a <a href="/wiki/Suffragan_bishop" title="Suffragan bishop">suffragan</a> diocese of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Freiburg" title="Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Freiburg">Archdiocese of Freiburg</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FFK771-158">[153]</a> The borders of diocese were exactly contiguous with those of the grand duchy and remain the same to this day. The appointment of the first bishop was delayed due to disagreements about the appointment procedure. In 1827, Hesse and the Church agreed that the grand duchy could review the list of candidates for election and veto those that were not acceptable to it.<a href="#cite_note-160">[155]</a> The foundational document for the new diocese was signed in 1829 and the first bishop, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Vitus_Burg" title="Joseph Vitus Burg">Joseph Vitus Burg</a>, took up the post in 1830. At the same time, a Roman Catholic <a href="/wiki/Faculty_(division)" title="Faculty (division)">faculty</a> was added to the University of Giessen.<a href="#cite_note-FFK771-158">[153]</a> Bishop <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Emmanuel_von_Ketteler" title="Wilhelm Emmanuel von Ketteler">Wilhelm Emmanuel von Ketteler</a> (1850–1877) played an important role in the social debate within the Catholic Church well beyond the borders of the diocese. In 1851, he founded a "Theological School at the Diocesan Seminary of Mainz" (theologische Lehranstalt am bischöflichen Seminar zu Mainz). This was allowed despite the reservations of the Hessian government and the Landstände, and the faculty of Roman Catholic theology at the University of Giessen was closed, after the retirement of the final professor.<a href="#cite_note-ffk832-155">[150]</a> After the establishment of the German Empire in 1871, the conflict between Church and State erupted from around 1874, feeding into the <a href="/wiki/Kulturkampf" title="Kulturkampf">Kulturkampf</a>. Because the state vetoed all candidates, the bishop's seat remained vacant from the death of Kettler in 1877 until 1886.<a href="#cite_note-Cosack,_p._137-119">[116]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Judaism">Judaism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Judaism">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anbau_des_vormaligen_Frauenbethauses_der_Synagoge_Worms_(a).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Anbau_des_vormaligen_Frauenbethauses_der_Synagoge_Worms_%28a%29.jpg/220px-Anbau_des_vormaligen_Frauenbethauses_der_Synagoge_Worms_%28a%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Anbau_des_vormaligen_Frauenbethauses_der_Synagoge_Worms_%28a%29.jpg/330px-Anbau_des_vormaligen_Frauenbethauses_der_Synagoge_Worms_%28a%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Anbau_des_vormaligen_Frauenbethauses_der_Synagoge_Worms_%28a%29.jpg/440px-Anbau_des_vormaligen_Frauenbethauses_der_Synagoge_Worms_%28a%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5392" data-file-height="3796" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Worms_Synagogue" title="Worms Synagogue">Synagoge</a> of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_community_of_Worms&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jewish community of Worms (page does not exist)">Jewish community of Worms</a>, the oldest Jewish community in the grand duchy.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hauptsynagoge_-_drawing_of_inside_-_1911.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Hauptsynagoge_-_drawing_of_inside_-_1911.jpg/220px-Hauptsynagoge_-_drawing_of_inside_-_1911.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Hauptsynagoge_-_drawing_of_inside_-_1911.jpg/330px-Hauptsynagoge_-_drawing_of_inside_-_1911.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Hauptsynagoge_-_drawing_of_inside_-_1911.jpg/440px-Hauptsynagoge_-_drawing_of_inside_-_1911.jpg 2x" data-file-width="559" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Interior of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Main_Synagogue,_Mainz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Main Synagogue, Mainz (page does not exist)">Main Synagogue, Mainz</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hauptsynagoge_Mainz" class="extiw" title="de:Hauptsynagoge Mainz">de</a>].</figcaption></figure> Despite progressive attempts in the last years of the landgraviate of Hesse-Darmstadt, <a href="/wiki/Jewish_emancipation" title="Jewish emancipation">Jewish emancipation</a> in the grand duchy took decades. While there were some very progressive theoretical approaches, such as a report by the young councillor Karl du Thil in 1809, advocating legal equality for Jews, only very small steps were taken in practice.<a href="#cite_note-161">[156]</a> Latent <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">antisemitism</a> was widespread and led to violence against Jews, in moments of crisis, like the famine of 1817/18 and the Revolution of 1848.<a href="#cite_note-162">[157]</a> By contrast, when the state wanted to strengthen its grasp on its Jewish subjects, it moved more quickly. Thus, an ordinance was passed in 1804 requiring Jewish subjects to be listed in government registers and another in 1808 requiring Jews to adopt "German" family names.<a href="#cite_note-163">[158]</a> The constitution of 1820 placed equal status under a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gesetzesvorbehalt&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gesetzesvorbehalt (page does not exist)">statutory reservation</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesetzesvorbehalt" class="extiw" title="de:Gesetzesvorbehalt">de</a>]: "Non-Christians have national citizenship, if the law conferred it on them or if it is granted to them either explicitly or implicitly through a grant of the national administration."<a href="#cite_note-164">[Anm. 6]</a> The Jewish communities of the grand duchy were joined in an association called the "Israelite Religious Society" (Israelitische Religionsgemeinschaft). The unification of the boards and property holdings of the individual Jewish societies was regulated and supervised by the state.<a href="#cite_note-165">[159]</a> <a href="/wiki/Rabbi" title="Rabbi">Rabbis</a> were appointed by the Ministry of the Interior and Justice. Unlike the Christian churches, the Religious Society received no state subsidies.<a href="#cite_note-166">[160]</a> In 1848, <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Eberstadt_(mayor)" title="Ferdinand Eberstadt (mayor)">Ferdinand Eberstadt</a> became mayor of <a href="/wiki/Worms,_Germany" title="Worms, Germany">Worms</a>, the first Jewish mayor in Germany, and in 1874 <a href="/w/index.php?title=Samson_Rothschild&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Samson Rothschild (page does not exist)">Samson Rothschild</a> was the first Jew to be employed at a public school – also in Worms. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economy">Economy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Economy">edit</a>]</div> The economic policy of the grand duchy from the beginning was to overcome the structures inherited from the 18th century and to modernise. The remaining <a href="/wiki/Monopolies" class="mw-redirect" title="Monopolies">monopolies</a> were abolished in 1810 and procedures for granting <a href="/w/index.php?title=Commercial_concession&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Commercial concession (page does not exist)">commercial concessions</a> were unified in the same year.<a href="#cite_note-167">[161]</a> The rights of <a href="/wiki/Guild" title="Guild">guilds</a> were gradually reduced and finally abolished in 1866.<a href="#cite_note-168">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-169">[163]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tolls">Tolls</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Tolls">edit</a>]</div> The relatively small area of the grand duchy and its neighbours posed a significant economic problem. This became clear in the winter famine of 1817/18, when grain deliveries were hindered by the borders between the German states and the <a href="/wiki/Tariff" title="Tariff">tolls</a> associated with them. In the following years, the government in Darmstadt made a series of attempts to make deals with its neighbours to reduce tolls, all of which failed due to fears about the loss of sovereignty. Thus, in 1828, the grand duchy signed a treaty for a <a href="/wiki/Customs_union" title="Customs union">customs union</a> with Prussia.<a href="#cite_note-170">[164]</a> This <a href="/wiki/Prussian-Hessian_Customs_Union" title="Prussian-Hessian Customs Union">Prussian-Hessian Customs Union</a> was folded into the larger <a href="/wiki/Zollverein" title="Zollverein">Zollverein</a> in 1834. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Currency">Currency</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Currency">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hessen-Darmstadt_Kronenthaler_1825_70186.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Hessen-Darmstadt_Kronenthaler_1825_70186.jpg/220px-Hessen-Darmstadt_Kronenthaler_1825_70186.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="109" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Hessen-Darmstadt_Kronenthaler_1825_70186.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="325" data-file-height="161" /></a><figcaption>1 Kronenthaler of Grand Duke <a href="/wiki/Louis_I,_Grand_Duke_of_Hesse" title="Louis I, Grand Duke of Hesse">Louis I</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Banknote_100_Mark_Bank_f%C3%BCr_S%C3%BCdwestdeutschland.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Banknote_100_Mark_Bank_f%C3%BCr_S%C3%BCdwestdeutschland.jpg/220px-Banknote_100_Mark_Bank_f%C3%BCr_S%C3%BCdwestdeutschland.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Banknote_100_Mark_Bank_f%C3%BCr_S%C3%BCdwestdeutschland.jpg/330px-Banknote_100_Mark_Bank_f%C3%BCr_S%C3%BCdwestdeutschland.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Banknote_100_Mark_Bank_f%C3%BCr_S%C3%BCdwestdeutschland.jpg/440px-Banknote_100_Mark_Bank_f%C3%BCr_S%C3%BCdwestdeutschland.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2850" data-file-height="1668" /></a><figcaption>100 <a href="/wiki/German_mark_(1871)" title="German mark (1871)">mark</a> bank note from the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bank_f%C3%BCr_S%C3%BCddeutschland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bank für Süddeutschland (page does not exist)">Bank für Süddeutschland</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_f%C3%BCr_S%C3%BCddeutschland" class="extiw" title="de:Bank für Süddeutschland">de</a>], 1875</figcaption></figure> In 1803, following secularisation and mediatisation, the <a href="/wiki/Reichsdeputationshauptschluss" title="Reichsdeputationshauptschluss">Final recess</a> and the Treaty of the Confederation of the Rhine removed the minting rights of the states that had been abolished. In the Hessian region, the right to mint was lost by the <a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Fulda" class="mw-redirect" title="Diocese of Fulda">Diocese of Fulda</a>, the noble houses of <a href="/wiki/County_of_Isenburg" title="County of Isenburg">Isenburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solms-Hohensolms-Lich" title="Solms-Hohensolms-Lich">Solms</a>, and Erbach, and the city of <a href="/wiki/Friedberg,_Hesse" title="Friedberg, Hesse">Friedberg</a>. The last coins of the city of Friedberg were minted in late summer 1806 (although the grand duchy had annexed the city in 1804). Henceforth, only the grand duchy had the right to mint coinage within its territory and the only mint was the one at Darmstadt. This mint also produced coinage for the Duchy of Nassau and for Hesse-Homburg. The grand duchy was a member of the South German monetary union and minted <a href="/wiki/South_German_gulden" title="South German gulden">guilder</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kreuzer" title="Kreuzer">kreuzer</a> coins. As a result of the <a href="/wiki/Dresden_Coinage_Convention" title="Dresden Coinage Convention">Dresden Coinage Convention</a>, the exchange rate of these coins was pegged to the <a href="/wiki/North_German_thaler" title="North German thaler">North German thaler</a>. The grand duchy of Hesse also minted double thaler coins from 1839 and <a href="/wiki/Vereinsthaler" title="Vereinsthaler">Vereinsthaler</a> from 1857. Under the law of 30 July 1848, the grand duchy's debt payments were made with banknotes called "Ground rent certificates". According to this law, notes were issued in 1848 in denominations of 1, 5, and 10 guilder, and in denominations of 35 and 70 guilder in 1849. However, forgeries of these notes were created in <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a> and brought into circulation in Hesse, leading to a new emission of paper money in 1864, consisting of over 4.3 million guiler (law of 26 April 1864). In addition, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bank_f%C3%BCr_S%C3%BCddeutschland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bank für Süddeutschland (page does not exist)">Bank für Süddeutschland</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_f%C3%BCr_S%C3%BCddeutschland" class="extiw" title="de:Bank für Süddeutschland">de</a>] received a <a href="/wiki/Concession_(contract)" title="Concession (contract)">concession</a> from the grand duchy in 1855, allowing it to operate as a private coining bank.<a href="#cite_note-171">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-172">[166]</a> In 1874/5, the Hessian coinage was replaced by the <a href="/wiki/German_mark_(1871)" title="German mark (1871)">mark</a>, the new unified currency of the entire German Empire. The mint at Darmstadt produced the new coinage with the <a href="/wiki/Mint_mark" title="Mint mark">mint mark</a> "H" until 1882. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Weights_and_measures">Weights and measures</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Weights and measures">edit</a>]</div> Until 1818, there were a large number of different systems of weights and measures in the individual components of the grand duchy. The <a href="/wiki/Ell" title="Ell">ell</a> alone had forty different definitions and there were several hundred definitions of the <a href="/wiki/Rod_(unit)" title="Rod (unit)">rod</a>. This led to very many different measures of area. Sometimes there were different systems of measurement for different professions, such as bakers and butchers.<a href="#cite_note-173">[167]</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_Eckhardt_(land_surveyor)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Christian Eckhardt (land surveyor) (page does not exist)">Christian Eckhardt</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Eckhardt_(Geod%C3%A4t)" class="extiw" title="de:Christian Eckhardt (Geodät)">de</a>] was tasked with designing a unified national system for the whole grand duchy.<a href="#cite_note-174">[168]</a> This new system was implemented on 1 July 1818. Instead of introducing the modern, French <a href="/wiki/Metric_system" title="Metric system">metric system</a>, which had already been used in Rhine-Hesse province during its occupation by France, a compromise was devised. Eckhardt was principally concerned that the population would not use the reformed system in their day-to-day lives. He also thought that the <a href="/wiki/Decimal" title="Decimal">decimal</a> system used by metric measurements resulted in units that were not sufficiently far apart for day-to-day use.<a href="#cite_note-175">[169]</a> The compromise was as follows: the <a href="/wiki/Foot_(unit)" title="Foot (unit)">foot</a> (Fuß) and <a href="/wiki/Inch" title="Inch">inch</a> (Zoll) were retained, but the foot was defined as exactly a quarter of 1 <a href="/wiki/Metre" title="Metre">metre</a> (i.e. 25 cm). This new foot was divided into 12 inches, so each inch was roughly equivalent to 2 cm. All the other <a href="/wiki/Units_of_volume" class="mw-redirect" title="Units of volume">units of volume</a> and <a href="/wiki/Unit_of_weight" class="mw-redirect" title="Unit of weight">weight</a> were then derived from this measurement, as in the metric system: <ul><li>2.5 inches3 = 15.625 cubic-inches (Kubikzoll) was the basic equation for volume measurements.</li> <li>1 cubic-inch of water therefore weighed 15.625 <a href="/wiki/Gram" title="Gram">g</a> = 1 <a href="/wiki/Lot_(weight)" title="Lot (weight)">loth</a>, the basic unit of weight. <ul><li>32 loth = 1 <a href="/wiki/Pound_(mass)" title="Pound (mass)">Pound</a> (Pfund) = 500 g</li> <li>100 pounds = 1 <a href="/wiki/Hundredweight" title="Hundredweight">Hundredweight</a> (Zentner)</li> <li>32 cubic-inches = 1 Hessischer <a href="/wiki/Pint_glass" title="Pint glass">Pint glass</a> = ½ Liter</li></ul></li></ul> There were exceptions to this general system for medicines, precious metals, and jewels.<a href="#cite_note-gold-176">[170]</a> The system was implemented by a number of legal regulations: <ul><li>The Ordinance on the new weights and measures in the Grand Duchy of Hesse, 10 December 1819<a href="#cite_note-177">[171]</a> introduced the measures of length, area, volume, and weight and established a unified system in the grand duchy</li> <li>A series of technical ordinances followed.<a href="#cite_note-178">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-179">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-gold-176">[170]</a></li> <li>Further subsequent ordinances regulated details and resolved questions that had arisen in practice.<a href="#cite_note-180">[174]</a></li></ul> In der Praxis setzte sich das neue System – trotz seines Kompromisscharakters – nur langsam durch und die Obrigkeit musste weitere Zugeständnisse machen. Mit dem Gesetz, die Anwendung des neuen Maß- und Gewichtssystems betreffend vom 3. Juni 1821<a href="#cite_note-181">[175]</a> wurde es Privatleuten, die kein Gewerbe oder keinen Handel betrieben, freigestellt, jedes beliebige Maßsystem zu verwenden (also auch die althergebrachten Einheiten).<a href="#cite_note-182">[176]</a> On 17 August 1868, the North German Confederation published a new ordinance on weights and measures, which came into force on 1 January 1872 and introduced the metric system. Only one of the three provinces of the grand duchy was part of the North German Confederation (Upper Hesse), but to avoid the grand duchy being divided into two regions with different systems, a law was passed introducing the metric system throughout the grand duchy.<a href="#cite_note-183">[177]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Corporations">Corporations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Corporations">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Schloss_Herrnsheim_Bibliothek_Treppe_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Schloss_Herrnsheim_Bibliothek_Treppe_1.jpg/220px-Schloss_Herrnsheim_Bibliothek_Treppe_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Schloss_Herrnsheim_Bibliothek_Treppe_1.jpg/330px-Schloss_Herrnsheim_Bibliothek_Treppe_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Schloss_Herrnsheim_Bibliothek_Treppe_1.jpg/440px-Schloss_Herrnsheim_Bibliothek_Treppe_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">Cast iron</a> stairs in the library of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Herrnsheimer_Schloss&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Herrnsheimer Schloss (page does not exist)">Herrnsheimer Schloss</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herrnsheimer_Schloss" class="extiw" title="de:Herrnsheimer Schloss">de</a>], originally displayed in the <a href="/w/index.php?title=First_German_Industrial_Exhibition&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="First German Industrial Exhibition (page does not exist)">First German Industrial Exhibition</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erste_Deutsche_Industrieausstellung" class="extiw" title="de:Erste Deutsche Industrieausstellung">de</a>] at Mainz in 1842<a href="#cite_note-184">[178]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Darmstadt,_Bank_f%C3%BCr_Handel_und_Industrie.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Darmstadt%2C_Bank_f%C3%BCr_Handel_und_Industrie.jpg/220px-Darmstadt%2C_Bank_f%C3%BCr_Handel_und_Industrie.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Darmstadt%2C_Bank_f%C3%BCr_Handel_und_Industrie.jpg/330px-Darmstadt%2C_Bank_f%C3%BCr_Handel_und_Industrie.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Darmstadt%2C_Bank_f%C3%BCr_Handel_und_Industrie.jpg/440px-Darmstadt%2C_Bank_f%C3%BCr_Handel_und_Industrie.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption>Former headquarters of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Darmstadt_Bank&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Darmstadt Bank (page does not exist)">Darmstadt Bank</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_f%C3%BCr_Handel_und_Industrie_(Darmstadt)" class="extiw" title="de:Bank für Handel und Industrie (Darmstadt)">de</a>] in Darmstadt</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Banknote_10_Gulden_Bank_f%C3%BCr_S%C3%BCddeutschland_1870.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Banknote_10_Gulden_Bank_f%C3%BCr_S%C3%BCddeutschland_1870.jpg/220px-Banknote_10_Gulden_Bank_f%C3%BCr_S%C3%BCddeutschland_1870.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Banknote_10_Gulden_Bank_f%C3%BCr_S%C3%BCddeutschland_1870.jpg/330px-Banknote_10_Gulden_Bank_f%C3%BCr_S%C3%BCddeutschland_1870.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Banknote_10_Gulden_Bank_f%C3%BCr_S%C3%BCddeutschland_1870.jpg/440px-Banknote_10_Gulden_Bank_f%C3%BCr_S%C3%BCddeutschland_1870.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1566" data-file-height="1026" /></a><figcaption>10 <a href="/wiki/Guilder" title="Guilder">guilder</a> bank note from the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bank_f%C3%BCr_S%C3%BCddeutschland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bank für Süddeutschland (page does not exist)">Bank für Süddeutschland</a>, 1870</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hans_Rudi_Erdt_(1883-1918)_-_Opel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Hans_Rudi_Erdt_%281883-1918%29_-_Opel.jpg/220px-Hans_Rudi_Erdt_%281883-1918%29_-_Opel.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Hans_Rudi_Erdt_%281883-1918%29_-_Opel.jpg/330px-Hans_Rudi_Erdt_%281883-1918%29_-_Opel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Hans_Rudi_Erdt_%281883-1918%29_-_Opel.jpg/440px-Hans_Rudi_Erdt_%281883-1918%29_-_Opel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3200" data-file-height="2406" /></a><figcaption>Opel-Werbung, 1911</figcaption></figure> A number of companies with global reach were founded in the Grand Duchy of Hesse, with the support of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=IHK_f%C3%BCr_Rheinhessen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IHK für Rheinhessen (page does not exist)">Hessian Chamber of Commerce</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/IHK_f%C3%BCr_Rheinhessen" class="extiw" title="de:IHK für Rheinhessen">de</a>]. In 1842, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=First_German_Industrial_Exhibition&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="First German Industrial Exhibition (page does not exist)">First German Industrial Exhibition</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erste_Deutsche_Industrieausstellung" class="extiw" title="de:Erste Deutsche Industrieausstellung">de</a>] took place in Mainz. However, <a href="/wiki/Industrialisation" title="Industrialisation">industrialisation</a> occurred relatively late and was relatively restrained. In 1847 there were 24 steam engines in the grand duchy; in 1854 there were 83, and in 1862 there were 240, with a total combined strength of only 2,227 <a href="/wiki/Horse_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Horse power">horse power</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FFK833-185">[179]</a> One of the most important "industries" of the state was the production of <a href="/wiki/Cigarette" title="Cigarette">cigarettes</a>, with around two hundred workshops. At the <a href="/wiki/Great_Exhibition" title="Great Exhibition">Great Exhibition</a> in <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> in 1851, 74 companies from the grand duchy were present,<a href="#cite_note-ffk832-155">[150]</a> and at the <a href="/wiki/1862_International_Exhibition" title="1862 International Exhibition">1862 International Exhibition</a>, also in London, there were a hundred Hessian companies.<a href="#cite_note-Franz,_Fleck_p._834-75">[72]</a> In 1908, the air transport pioneer, <a href="/wiki/August_Euler" title="August Euler">August Euler</a> built a workshop at the edge of Darmstadt's firing range which became <a href="/wiki/Griesheim_Airport" title="Griesheim Airport">Griesheim Airport</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Biplane" title="Biplane">biplane</a> built there was a notable exhibit at the <a href="/w/index.php?title=1909_Frankfurt_International_Aeronautical_Exhibition&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1909 Frankfurt International Aeronautical Exhibition (page does not exist)">International Aeronautical Exhibition</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internationale_Luftschiffahrt-Ausstellung_Frankfurt_1909" class="extiw" title="de:Internationale Luftschiffahrt-Ausstellung Frankfurt 1909">de</a>] at Frankfurt the following year.<a href="#cite_note-186">[180]</a> Key businesses in the grand duchy included:<a href="#cite_note-187">[181]</a> <ul><li>Darmstadt <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Merck_Group" title="Merck Group">E. Merck</a> (chemicals and pharmaceuticals)</li> <li>Machine manufacturing and iron casting<a href="#cite_note-FFK833-185">[179]</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Darmstadt_Bank&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Darmstadt Bank (page does not exist)">Darmstadt Bank</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_f%C3%BCr_Handel_und_Industrie_(Darmstadt)" class="extiw" title="de:Bank für Handel und Industrie (Darmstadt)">de</a>], founded in 1853, which played a key role in financing the construction of railroads and other infrastructure.<a href="#cite_note-FFK833-185">[179]</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bank_for_South_Germany&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bank for South Germany (page does not exist)">Bank for South Germany</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_f%C3%BCr_S%C3%BCddeutschland" class="extiw" title="de:Bank für Süddeutschland">de</a>], which printed <a href="/wiki/Bank_note" class="mw-redirect" title="Bank note">bank notes</a> until 1902.</li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dd>The presence of the two banks in Darmstadt meant that the grand duchy had fewer restrictions on public companies for poor financial performance, since the banks could act more freely than in neighbouring Frankfurt or Prussia.<a href="#cite_note-FFK833-185">[179]</a></dd></dl> <ul><li>Mainz remained a leading producer of luxury goods, furniture, <a href="/wiki/Varnish" title="Varnish">varnish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lacquer" title="Lacquer">lacquer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leather" title="Leather">leather</a>, as it had been when it was the capital of the <a href="/wiki/Electorate_of_Mainz" title="Electorate of Mainz">Electorate of Mainz</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Werner_%26_Mertz" title="Werner & Mertz">Werner & Mertz</a> (Erdal shoe polish)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kupferberg_(sekt)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kupferberg (sekt) (page does not exist)">Kupferberg</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kupferberg_(Sekt)" class="extiw" title="de:Kupferberg (Sekt)">de</a>] (<a href="/wiki/Sekt" class="mw-redirect" title="Sekt">sekt</a> wine producer)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Verlag_Philipp_von_Zabern&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Verlag Philipp von Zabern (page does not exist)">Verlag Philipp von Zabern</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verlag_Philipp_von_Zabern" class="extiw" title="de:Verlag Philipp von Zabern">de</a>] (publisher)</li> <li>Lackfrabrik Ludwig Marx (leather)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bemb%C3%A9_(parquetry)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bembé (parquetry) (page does not exist)">Bembé</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bemb%C3%A9" class="extiw" title="de:Bembé">de</a>] (<a href="/wiki/Parquetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Parquetry">parquetry</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mombach" title="Mombach">Mombach</a> <ul><li>Verein für Chemische Industrie, now <a href="/w/index.php?title=Prefere_Paraform&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Prefere Paraform (page does not exist)">Prefere Paraform</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prefere_Paraform" class="extiw" title="de:Prefere Paraform">de</a>] (<a href="/wiki/Acetic_acid" title="Acetic acid">acetic acids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Methylated" class="mw-redirect" title="Methylated">methylated</a> products)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Waggonfabrik_Gebr%C3%BCder_Gastell&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Waggonfabrik Gebrüder Gastell (page does not exist)">Waggonfabrik Gebrüder Gastell</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waggonfabrik_Gebr%C3%BCder_Gastell" class="extiw" title="de:Waggonfabrik Gebrüder Gastell">de</a>] (railway cars and automobiles)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offenbach_am_Main" title="Offenbach am Main">Offenbach am Main</a> was known for its leather production and "Offenbach leather" remains famous today. The city was also a centre for the production of <a href="/wiki/Aniline" title="Aniline">aniline</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alizarin" title="Alizarin">alizarin</a> <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_dye" class="mw-redirect" title="Synthetic dye">synthetic dyes</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppenheim" title="Oppenheim">Oppenheim</a> <ul><li>Pharmaceutical companies of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Friedrich_Koch_(chemist)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Friedrich Koch (chemist) (page does not exist)">Friedrich Koch</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Koch_(Apotheker)" class="extiw" title="de:Friedrich Koch (Apotheker)">de</a>], producing <a href="/wiki/Quinine" title="Quinine">quinine</a>.</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%BCsselsheim" class="mw-redirect" title="Rüsselsheim">Rüsselsheim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Opel" title="Opel">Opel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sewing_machine" title="Sewing machine">sewing machines</a> from 1862, automobiles from 1899.<a href="#cite_note-188">[182]</a></li></ul></li> <li>Worms <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cornelius_Heyl&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cornelius Heyl (page does not exist)">Lederwerke Cornelius Heyl AG</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornelius_Heyl" class="extiw" title="de:Cornelius Heyl">de</a>] (leather)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lederwerke_Doerr_%26_Reinhart&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lederwerke Doerr & Reinhart (page does not exist)">Lederwerke Doerr & Reinhart</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lederwerke_Doerr_%26_Reinhart" class="extiw" title="de:Lederwerke Doerr & Reinhart">de</a>]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soluble_glass" class="mw-redirect" title="Soluble glass">Soluble glass</a> production</li></ul></li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Gasworks" title="Gasworks">Gasworks</a> proved a great advance, particularly for <a href="/wiki/Gas_lighting" title="Gas lighting">street lighting</a>. The first gasworks in the grand duchy was opened in Mainz in 1853. It was followed by another at Darmstadt in 1855 on 14 March, celebrated by specially lighting up the opera house, and a third at Giessen in 1856.<a href="#cite_note-FFK833-185">[179]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transport_and_communications">Transport and communications</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Transport and communications">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Communications">Communications</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Communications">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thurn_und_Taxis_1866_52.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Thurn_und_Taxis_1866_52.jpg/220px-Thurn_und_Taxis_1866_52.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Thurn_und_Taxis_1866_52.jpg/330px-Thurn_und_Taxis_1866_52.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Thurn_und_Taxis_1866_52.jpg/440px-Thurn_und_Taxis_1866_52.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption>Stamp of the <a href="/wiki/Thurn-und-Taxis_Post" title="Thurn-und-Taxis Post">Thurn-und-Taxis Post</a></figcaption></figure> The right to manage the postal service was granted to Prince <a href="/wiki/Karl_Alexander,_5th_Prince_of_Thurn_and_Taxis" title="Karl Alexander, 5th Prince of Thurn and Taxis">Karl Alexander von Thurn und Taxis</a> in 1807. Until 1867, <a href="/wiki/Thurn-und-Taxis_Post" title="Thurn-und-Taxis Post">Thurn-und-Taxis Post</a> held a <a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">monopoly</a> on postal services within the grand duchy. The state was responsible for an administrative office, tariffs, and <a href="/wiki/Post_road" title="Post road">post roads</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Post_office" title="Post office">post offices</a> bore the name "Grand Ducal Hessian Post Office of..."<a href="#cite_note-189">[183]</a> Around 1850, the grand duchy was connected up to the newly developed international <a href="/wiki/Telegraph" class="mw-redirect" title="Telegraph">telegraph</a> network.<a href="#cite_note-190">[184]</a> In 1852, the telegraph line running along the Rhine-Neckar Railroad was made available for private telegraph messages and in 1853 a separate "telegraph office" was opened in Darmstadt.<a href="#cite_note-FFK833-185">[179]</a> During the 1890s, the <a href="/wiki/Telephone_network" title="Telephone network">telephone network</a> was expanded, from less than 800 km to 7260 km and the number of telephones connected to the network rose from 755 to 4267.<a href="#cite_note-191">[185]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Street_vehicles">Street vehicles</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: Street vehicles">edit</a>]</div> In the period before the arrival of the railroads, the construction of a <a href="/wiki/Road_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Road network">road network</a> was an important task, in order to bind the different parts of the grand duchy together. In pursuit of this, an <a href="/wiki/Eminent_domain" title="Eminent domain">expropriation</a> law was passed in 1821, based on article 27 of the constitution.<a href="#cite_note-192">[186]</a> After the conclusion of the customs union with Prussia in 1830, there were further laws on the construction and maintenance of "national roads" (Staatskunststraßen) and provincial roads.<a href="#cite_note-193">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-194">[188]</a> Important road links built at this time include:<a href="#cite_note-FFK770-195">[189]</a> <ul><li>Darmstadt–Dieburg, Starkenburg Province (now the L 3094)</li> <li>Reinheim–Michelstadt–Obernburg, Starkenburg Province, in 1820</li> <li>Hirschhorn–Beerfelden, Starkenburg Province in 1822 (now the L 3119)</li> <li>Mainz–Worms (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gaustra%C3%9Fe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gaustraße (page does not exist)">Gaustraße</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaustra%C3%9Fe" class="extiw" title="de:Gaustraße">de</a>]), Rhine-Hesse Province (now the L 425 and 439)</li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Vehicle_registration_plate" title="Vehicle registration plate">Vehicle registration plates</a> for the grand duchy started with "V" (i.e. the <a href="/wiki/Roman_numeral" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman numeral">Roman numeral</a> for 5), followed by the first letter of the individual province, so the plate of a car registered in Rhine-Hesse province would begin "VR". The plates had black letters on a white background. These plates continued in use until 1945.<a href="#cite_note-196">[190]</a> The first "Automobile post line" of the <a href="/wiki/Reichspost" title="Reichspost">Reichspost</a> was opened in 1906, between <a href="/wiki/Friedberg,_Hesse" title="Friedberg, Hesse">Friedberg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ranstadt" title="Ranstadt">Ranstadt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-197">[191]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rhine_shipping">Rhine shipping</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Rhine shipping">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Concordia_1.dt.Rheindampfer.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Concordia_1.dt.Rheindampfer.jpg/220px-Concordia_1.dt.Rheindampfer.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Concordia_1.dt.Rheindampfer.jpg/330px-Concordia_1.dt.Rheindampfer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Concordia_1.dt.Rheindampfer.jpg/440px-Concordia_1.dt.Rheindampfer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="936" data-file-height="520" /></a><figcaption>Rhine steamer <a href="/wiki/Concordia_(1826)" title="Concordia (1826)">Concordia</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1830</figcaption></figure> Before railroads, the Rhine was the most important transportation route in the grand duchy. The French occupiers in the Napoleonic period had given it a central administration which was based in Mainz. At the Congress of Vienna in 1815, these tasks were given to a new organisation, also based in Mainz, called the <a href="/wiki/Central_Commission_for_Navigation_on_the_Rhine" title="Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine">Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine</a>. It took until 1821 for the members of this organisation to agree to a new system of shipping regulations.<a href="#cite_note-FFK770-195">[189]</a> New regulations were all the more urgent because this was the time when the first <a href="/wiki/Steamboat" title="Steamboat">steamboats</a> began to travel on the Rhine. In 1828, the Cologne steamboat company transported 18,600 passengers on the Rhine. In 1826, the grand duchy granted a concession for a "Steamboat company of the Rhine and Main" and from 1828, the steamboat <a href="/wiki/Stadt_Frankfurt_(1827)" title="Stadt Frankfurt (1827)">Stadt Frankfurt</a> travelled between Frankfurt and Mainz.<a href="#cite_note-FFK770-195">[189]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Railways">Railways</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: Railways">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Hessian_Ludwig_Railway" title="Hessian Ludwig Railway">Hessian Ludwig Railway</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse_State_Railways" title="Grand Duchy of Hesse State Railways">Grand Duchy of Hesse State Railways</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Prussian-Hessian_Railway_Company" title="Prussian-Hessian Railway Company">Prussian-Hessian Railway Company</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ludwigsbahnhof_Darmstadt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Ludwigsbahnhof_Darmstadt.jpg/220px-Ludwigsbahnhof_Darmstadt.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Ludwigsbahnhof_Darmstadt.jpg/330px-Ludwigsbahnhof_Darmstadt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Ludwigsbahnhof_Darmstadt.jpg/440px-Ludwigsbahnhof_Darmstadt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="393" /></a><figcaption>Main station of the <a href="/wiki/Hessian_Ludwig_Railway" title="Hessian Ludwig Railway">Hessian Ludwig Railway</a> in Darmstadt (1875–1912).</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Darmstadt-Hbf-1911.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Darmstadt-Hbf-1911.jpg/220px-Darmstadt-Hbf-1911.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Darmstadt-Hbf-1911.jpg/330px-Darmstadt-Hbf-1911.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Darmstadt-Hbf-1911.jpg/440px-Darmstadt-Hbf-1911.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1602" data-file-height="1028" /></a><figcaption>New <a href="/wiki/Darmstadt_Hauptbahnhof" title="Darmstadt Hauptbahnhof">Darmstadt Hauptbahnhof</a> (Darmstadt main station), opened 1912).</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eisenbahndirektion_Mainz_1900.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Eisenbahndirektion_Mainz_1900.tif/lossy-page1-220px-Eisenbahndirektion_Mainz_1900.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Eisenbahndirektion_Mainz_1900.tif/lossy-page1-330px-Eisenbahndirektion_Mainz_1900.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Eisenbahndirektion_Mainz_1900.tif/lossy-page1-440px-Eisenbahndirektion_Mainz_1900.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2963" data-file-height="2148" /></a><figcaption>Business headquarters of the <a href="/wiki/Hessian_Ludwig_Railway" title="Hessian Ludwig Railway">Hessian Ludwig Railway</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Prussian-Hessian_Railway_Company" title="Prussian-Hessian Railway Company">Prussian-Hessian Railway Company</a>, in Mainz.</figcaption></figure> In 1836, only half a year after the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Bavarian_Ludwig_Railway" title="Bavarian Ludwig Railway">first railway in Germany</a>, the grand duchy's parliament passed a law, which enabled the expropriation of land for private companies building railroads.<a href="#cite_note-198">[192]</a> The first private initiative for the construction of a railroad network, which was to include a Frankfurt–Darmstadt–Heidelberg line and a branch line to Mainz, failed in 1838, when the company undertaking the project could not raise sufficient capital. The state refused to invest in the project.<a href="#cite_note-199">[193]</a> The grand duchy had no real railway policy. Later on, it invested in individual projects with a half stake or even on it own, without any overarching plan. Thus, the first railway connection in the grand duchy, the extension of the <a href="/wiki/Taunus_Railway" title="Taunus Railway">Taunus Railway</a> to <a href="/wiki/Mainz-Kastel_station" title="Mainz-Kastel station">Mainz-Kastel station</a> in 1840, was a project of the neighbouring states that just happened to pass into the grand duchy.<a href="#cite_note-200">[194]</a> The province of Starkenburg received a central railway connection, the <a href="/wiki/Main-Neckar_Railway" title="Main-Neckar Railway">Main-Neckar Railway</a>, early on and the province of Upper Hesse was connected up by the <a href="/wiki/Main-Weser_Railway" class="mw-redirect" title="Main-Weser Railway">Main-Weser Railway</a> fairly early. This links were the product of joint railway projects with its neighbouring states: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Main-Neckar_Railway" title="Main-Neckar Railway">Main-Neckar Railway</a> with <a href="/wiki/Frankfurt" title="Frankfurt">Frankfurt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Baden" title="Grand Duchy of Baden">Baden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Main-Weser_Railway" class="mw-redirect" title="Main-Weser Railway">Main-Weser Railway</a> with Frankfurt and the <a href="/wiki/Electorate_of_Hesse" title="Electorate of Hesse">Electorate of Hesse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt-Offenbach_Local_Railway" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankfurt-Offenbach Local Railway">Frankfurt-Offenbach Local Railway</a> with the Free City of Frankfurt</li></ul> Meanwhile, the construction of a railway in the third province, Rhine Hesse, was undertaken by a private company, the <a href="/wiki/Hessian_Ludwig_Railway" title="Hessian Ludwig Railway">Hessian Ludwig Railway</a>, which developed into one of largest private railways in Germany. It maintained a thick network of lines in Rhine-Hesse, Starkenburg, and beyond. Their original line, the <a href="/wiki/Mainz%E2%80%93Ludwigshafen_railway" title="Mainz–Ludwigshafen railway">Mainz-Worms(-Ludwigshafen) railway</a>, linked the railway network of the grand duchy to France from 1853. This was a boon for the grand duchy's export market. Finally, in 1876 the state founded its own company, the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse_State_Railways" title="Grand Duchy of Hesse State Railways">Grand Duchy of Hesse State Railways</a>, which continued to expand the network into Upper Hesse. In 1897, the Hessian Ludwig Railway was nationalised, merged with the Grand Duchy of Hesse State Railways, and then both were placed under the control of the <a href="/wiki/Prussian-Hessian_Railway_Company" title="Prussian-Hessian Railway Company">Prussian-Hessian Railway Company</a> (a subsidiary of the <a href="/wiki/Prussian_state_railways" title="Prussian state railways">Prussian state railways</a>, which had its headquarters in Mainz). The Main-Neckar Railway followed in 1902. From this point, the vast majority of most of the grand duchy's railway network was under the Prussian-Hessian Railway Company. <dl><dt>Overview of the Hessian railway network in 1889<a href="#cite_note-201">[195]</a></dt> <dd></dd></dl> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr class="hintergrundfarbe5"> <th>Railway company</th> <th>km</th> <th>%</th> <th>Establishment</th> <th>Company closed</th> <th>Notes </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hessian_Ludwig_Railway" title="Hessian Ludwig Railway">Hessian Ludwig Railway</a> </td> <td>507 </td> <td>55 </td> <td>1853 </td> <td>1897 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Private_railway" title="Private railway">Private railway</a>, nationalised and transferred to the Prussian-Hessian Railway Company in 1897. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse_State_Railways" title="Grand Duchy of Hesse State Railways">Grand Duchy of Hesse State Railways</a> </td> <td>183 </td> <td>20 </td> <td>1876 </td> <td>1897 </td> <td>Control transferred to the Prussian-Hessian Railway Company in 1897. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Main-Neckar_Railway" title="Main-Neckar Railway">Main-Neckar Railway</a> </td> <td>49 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>1843 </td> <td>1902 </td> <td>State railway (joint-ownership with <a href="/wiki/Frankfurt" title="Frankfurt">Frankfurt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Baden" title="Grand Duchy of Baden">Baden</a>). Control transferred to the Prussian-Hessian Railway Company in 1897. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Other </td> <td>47 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>– </td> <td>– </td> <td>Various private railways </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Baden_State_Railway" title="Grand Duchy of Baden State Railway">Grand Duchy of Baden State Railway</a> </td> <td>22 </td> <td>2 </td> <td>1840 </td> <td>1920 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Prussian_state_railways" title="Prussian state railways">Prussian state railways</a> </td> <td>111 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>1850 </td> <td>1920 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Main-Weser_Railway" class="mw-redirect" title="Main-Weser Railway">Main-Weser Railway</a> (co-owned by Hesse-Darmstadt, Frankfurt, and <a href="/wiki/Electorate_of_Hesse" title="Electorate of Hesse">Hesse-Kessel</a>, 1849–1869) <a href="/wiki/Frankfurt-Offenbach_Local_Railway" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankfurt-Offenbach Local Railway">Frankfurt-Offenbach Local Railway</a> (co-owned by Hesse-Darmstadt and Frankfurt, 1848–1869) <a href="/w/index.php?title=Frankfurt%E2%80%93G%C3%B6ttingen_Railway&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Frankfurt–Göttingen Railway (page does not exist)">Hanau-Frankfurt Railway</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahnstrecke_Frankfurt%E2%80%93G%C3%B6ttingen" class="extiw" title="de:Bahnstrecke Frankfurt–Göttingen">de</a>] and <a href="/wiki/Friedberg%E2%80%93Hanau_railway" title="Friedberg–Hanau railway">Friedberg–Hanau railway</a> (sections).<a href="#cite_note-202">[196]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Total </td> <td>919 </td> <td>100 </td> <td>– </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> The highest authority over the railroads in the grand duchy was the Finance Ministry, which had a railroad office from 1891. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: Culture">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Architecture">Architecture</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=62" title="Edit section: Architecture">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Opper-darmstadt-ludwigskirche1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Opper-darmstadt-ludwigskirche1.jpg/220px-Opper-darmstadt-ludwigskirche1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Opper-darmstadt-ludwigskirche1.jpg/330px-Opper-darmstadt-ludwigskirche1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Opper-darmstadt-ludwigskirche1.jpg/440px-Opper-darmstadt-ludwigskirche1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="420" /></a><figcaption>St.-Ludwigs-Kirche in Darmstadt by <a href="/wiki/Georg_Moller" title="Georg Moller">Georg Moller</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Georg_Moller" title="Georg Moller">Georg Moller</a> (1784–1852), a leading <a href="/wiki/Architect" title="Architect">architect</a> and <a href="/wiki/City_planner" class="mw-redirect" title="City planner">city planner</a> became the grand duchy's manager of works in 1810 and was responsible for a series of public buildings: <a href="/w/index.php?title=St_Ludwig%27s_Church,_Darmstadt&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="St Ludwig's Church, Darmstadt (page does not exist)">St Ludwig's Church</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Ludwig_(Darmstadt)" class="extiw" title="de:St. Ludwig (Darmstadt)">de</a>] (the first <a href="/wiki/Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic">Catholic</a> church in Darmstadt since the <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a>), the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hessian_State_Archives,_Darmstadt&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hessian State Archives, Darmstadt (page does not exist)">National Theatre</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hessisches_Staatsarchiv_Darmstadt" class="extiw" title="de:Hessisches Staatsarchiv Darmstadt">de</a>], <a href="/w/index.php?title=Luisenplatz,_Darmstadt&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Luisenplatz, Darmstadt (page does not exist)">Luisenplatz, Darmstadt</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luisenplatz_(Darmstadt)" class="extiw" title="de:Luisenplatz (Darmstadt)">de</a>; <a href="/w/index.php?title=Luisenplatz:Luisenplatz,_Darmstadt&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Luisenplatz:Luisenplatz, Darmstadt (page does not exist)">Luisenplatz</a>] with the Ludwig Column, the mausoleum in the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rosenh%C3%B6he_Park&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rosenhöhe Park (page does not exist)">Rosenhöhe Park</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Park_Rosenh%C3%B6he" class="extiw" title="de:Park Rosenhöhe">de</a>], and the <a href="/wiki/Masonic_lodge" title="Masonic lodge">masonic lodge</a> (now known as the 'Moller House'). Outside Darmstadt, he was responsible for the <a href="/wiki/Staatstheater_Mainz" title="Staatstheater Mainz">Staatstheater Mainz</a> and the restoration of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Schloss_Biedenkopf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Schloss Biedenkopf (page does not exist)">Schloss Biedenkopf</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schloss_Biedenkopf" class="extiw" title="de:Schloss Biedenkopf">de</a>]. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Heritage_management">Heritage management</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=63" title="Edit section: Heritage management">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kloster_Lorsch_07.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Kloster_Lorsch_07.jpg/220px-Kloster_Lorsch_07.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Kloster_Lorsch_07.jpg/330px-Kloster_Lorsch_07.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Kloster_Lorsch_07.jpg/440px-Kloster_Lorsch_07.jpg 2x" data-file-width="16000" data-file-height="12400" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Carolingian" class="mw-redirect" title="Carolingian">Carolingian</a> Torhalle (gatehouse) at <a href="/wiki/Lorsch_Abbey" title="Lorsch Abbey">Lorsch Abbey</a></figcaption></figure> Under the first and last grand dukes, there was a significant effort at <a href="/wiki/Cultural_heritage_management" title="Cultural heritage management">heritage protection</a>. At the instigation of Georg Moller, a heritage management regulation was brought into effect in the grand duchy on 22 January 1818, which dealt with care for buildings and archaeological remains and was a precursor of modern heritage protection laws.<a href="#cite_note-203">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-204">[198]</a> Among other things Moller was responsible for the preservation of the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Renaissance" title="Carolingian Renaissance">Carolingian</a> Torhalle (gatehouse) at <a href="/wiki/Lorsch_Abbey" title="Lorsch Abbey">Lorsch Abbey</a>, which is now a <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Site" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage Site</a>. The grand duchy's "Law on Cultural Heritage Management" of 16 July 1902 was the first modern, codified heritage management law in Germany.<a href="#cite_note-205">[199]</a> This became the model for similar laws outside the grand duchy and remained in effect until 1986.<a href="#cite_note-206">[200]</a><a href="#cite_note-207">[201]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jugendstil">Jugendstil</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=64" title="Edit section: Jugendstil">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jugendstil" title="Jugendstil">Jugendstil</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mathildenhoehe_Hochzeitsturm_Ausstellungsgebaeude_Pano_2_co.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Mathildenhoehe_Hochzeitsturm_Ausstellungsgebaeude_Pano_2_co.jpg/220px-Mathildenhoehe_Hochzeitsturm_Ausstellungsgebaeude_Pano_2_co.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Mathildenhoehe_Hochzeitsturm_Ausstellungsgebaeude_Pano_2_co.jpg/330px-Mathildenhoehe_Hochzeitsturm_Ausstellungsgebaeude_Pano_2_co.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Mathildenhoehe_Hochzeitsturm_Ausstellungsgebaeude_Pano_2_co.jpg/440px-Mathildenhoehe_Hochzeitsturm_Ausstellungsgebaeude_Pano_2_co.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5920" data-file-height="3046" /></a><figcaption>Wedding tower and exhibition hall at <a href="/wiki/Mathildenh%C3%B6he" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathildenhöhe">Mathildenhöhe</a> in Darmstadt</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sprudelhof_BadNauheim_Brunnen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Sprudelhof_BadNauheim_Brunnen.jpg/220px-Sprudelhof_BadNauheim_Brunnen.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Sprudelhof_BadNauheim_Brunnen.jpg/330px-Sprudelhof_BadNauheim_Brunnen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Sprudelhof_BadNauheim_Brunnen.jpg/440px-Sprudelhof_BadNauheim_Brunnen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="864" data-file-height="576" /></a><figcaption>Sprudelhof in Bad Nauheim</figcaption></figure> Grand Duke Ernest Louis was a great supporter of the arts and, unlike most other German monarchs, also of <a href="/wiki/Modern_art" title="Modern art">modern art</a>, especially the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Judendstil&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Judendstil (page does not exist)">Judendstil</a> (<a href="/wiki/Art_Nouveau" title="Art Nouveau">Art Nouveau</a>). As a grandson of Queen Victoria, he had become familiar with the <a href="/wiki/Arts_and_Crafts_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Arts and Crafts Movement">Arts and Crafts Movement</a> during his visits to England. In 1899, he invited seven young artists to form the <a href="/wiki/Darmstadt_Artists%27_Colony" title="Darmstadt Artists' Colony">Artists' Colony</a>. He had the architect <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Maria_Olbrich" title="Joseph Maria Olbrich">Joseph Maria Olbrich</a> design a workshop at <a href="/wiki/Mathildenh%C3%B6he" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathildenhöhe">Mathildenhöhe</a> and also allowed the artists to design their own houses. In addition to Olbrich, members of the colony included <a href="/wiki/Peter_Behrens" title="Peter Behrens">Peter Behrens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hans_Christiansen_(artist)" title="Hans Christiansen (artist)">Hans Christiansen</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ludwig_Habich&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ludwig Habich (page does not exist)">Ludwig Habich</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Habich" class="extiw" title="de:Ludwig Habich">de</a>]. Between 1901 and 1914, four exhibitions of Jugendstil art took place at Mathildenhöhe. In <a href="/wiki/Bad_Nauheim" title="Bad Nauheim">Bad Nauheim</a>, a unique collection of spa facilities, mostly designed by these artists, was created: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sprudelhof&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sprudelhof (page does not exist)">Sprudelhof</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprudelhof" class="extiw" title="de:Sprudelhof">de</a>], drinking water fountains, bath houses, parks, pumps, and a laundry. The whole structure still exists today, providing an extraordinary ensemble of the artistic and architectural style of the grand duchy in 1910. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Language">Language</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=65" title="Edit section: Language">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:B%C3%B6sges%C3%A4%C3%9F.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/B%C3%B6sges%C3%A4%C3%9F.jpg/220px-B%C3%B6sges%C3%A4%C3%9F.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/B%C3%B6sges%C3%A4%C3%9F.jpg/330px-B%C3%B6sges%C3%A4%C3%9F.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/B%C3%B6sges%C3%A4%C3%9F.jpg/440px-B%C3%B6sges%C3%A4%C3%9F.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2068" /></a><figcaption>The "Rechtschreibgrenze" ("Correct Spelling Boundary"): traffic sign leaving "Preußisch-Bösgesäß" and stating that Hessisch-Bös-Gesäß is 1 km away<a href="#cite_note-208">[202]</a></figcaption></figure> Until the beginning of the 20th century, the grand duchy retained different spelling rules from the neighbouring states of Prussian and Bavaria, which continues to have an impact today. This system meant that <a href="/wiki/Compound_(linguistics)" title="Compound (linguistics)">compound place names</a> in the grand duchy were written with a <a href="/wiki/Hyphen" title="Hyphen">hyphen</a>, unlike standard German. Examples of this can still be seen in places that once fell within the boundaries of the grand duchy. A standardised spelling system for all Prussian official purposes was introduced on 1 January 1903 by the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Prussian_Ministry_of_Culture,_Education,_and_Health&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Prussian Ministry of Culture, Education, and Health (page does not exist)">Prussian Ministry of Culture, Education, and Health</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preu%C3%9Fisches_Ministerium_der_geistlichen,_Unterrichts-_und_Medizinalangelegenheiten" class="extiw" title="de:Preußisches Ministerium der geistlichen, Unterrichts- und Medizinalangelegenheiten">de</a>].<a href="#cite_note-209">[203]</a> Since the rules of the Prussian state railways applied to the Prussian-Hessian Railway Company, compound place names in the names of railway stations were written without the hyphen, even though the name of the place that they served was written with one, as with <a href="/wiki/Gro%C3%9F_Gerau_station" title="Groß Gerau station">Groß Gerau station</a> in <a href="/wiki/Gro%C3%9F-Gerau" title="Groß-Gerau">Groß-Gerau</a> and <a href="/wiki/Palatine_Northern_Railway" title="Palatine Northern Railway">Hohensülzen station</a> in <a href="/wiki/Hohen-S%C3%BClzen" title="Hohen-Sülzen">Hohen-Sülzen</a>.<a href="#cite_note-210">[204]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=66" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Hesse" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Hesse">List of rulers of Hesse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hessenlager" title="Hessenlager">Hessenlager</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=67" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> The mediatised houses were more fortunate, since they were granted a 1/3 tax deduction owing to the privileged status awarded to them in the Treaty of the Confederation of the Rhine (Franz/Fleck/Kallenberg: Großherzogtum Hessen, pp. 709 f.) </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> In Darmstadt and Gießen the equivalents of the Landgerichten were called "Stadtgericht" ("city courts"). </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Landgericht_Sch%C3%B6nberg&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Landgericht Schönberg (page does not exist)">Landgericht Schönberg</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landgericht_Sch%C3%B6nberg" class="extiw" title="de:Landgericht Schönberg">de</a>] however only existed in the period 1822–1826. </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_III_of_Bavaria" title="Ludwig III of Bavaria">Ludwig III of Bavaria</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Anif_declaration" title="Anif declaration">Anif declaration</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Friedrich,_Prince_of_Waldeck_and_Pyrmont" title="Friedrich, Prince of Waldeck and Pyrmont">Friedrich, Prince of Waldeck and Pyrmont</a> acted similarly. All the other German monarchs did abdicate. </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> Louis III was named co-regent on 5 March 1848 and was de facto sole ruler thereafter, as Louis II stepped back from government completely. </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> Art. 15 of the Constitution of 1820 </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=68" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> Franz/Fleck/Kallenberg: Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 693 (166 Quadratmeilen). </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> Mayer, p. 53. </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gemeindeverzeichnis.de/gem1900/gem1900.htm?hessen1900.htm">Willkommen bei Gemeindeverzeichnis.de</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Mayer189155-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Mayer189155_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFvon_Mayer1891">von Mayer 1891</a>, p. 55. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Mayer189154-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Mayer189154_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFvon_Mayer1891">von Mayer 1891</a>, p. 54. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Mayer189154_f-6"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Mayer189154_f_6-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFvon_Mayer1891">von Mayer 1891</a>, pp. 54 f. </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> Franz/Fleck/Kallenberg: Großherzogtum Hessen, S. 686–690. </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M2dJAAAAYAAJ&q=gericht&pg=PA1">Patent, die Deklaration der Hessen-Darmstädtischen Lande zu einem souveränen Großherzogtum betreffend</a>" of 13 August 1806, in: Großherzoglich Hessische Verordnungen, Heft 1 (1806–1808), Darmstadt 1811, p. 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> Franz/Fleck/Kallenberg: Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 685. </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> Franz/Fleck/Kallenberg: Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 693 (166 square miles). </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M2dJAAAAYAAJ&q=gericht&pg=PA37">Erklärung des Großherzogs vom 1. Oktober 1806 zur Aufhebung aller Steuerprivilegien</a>" in Großherzoglich Hessische Verordnungen, Heft 1 (1806–1808), Darmstadt 1811, pp. 37 f. </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M2dJAAAAYAAJ&q=gericht&pg=PA36">Erklärung des Großherzogs vom 1. Oktober 1806 über die Abschaffung der Landstände</a>. In: Großherzoglich Hessische Verordnungen, Heft 1 (1806–1808), Darmstadt 1811, S. 39 f. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmitt1983-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmitt1983_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchmitt1983">Schmitt 1983</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> Polley: Recht und Verfassung, p. 344. </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> Text (in <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>) in Schmidt, p. 30ff, n. 100. </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> Schmidt, S. 30. </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> Schmidt, p. 33. </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> Text (in <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>) in Schmidt, pp. 34ff, n. 114. </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> Schmidt, p. 38. </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> Article 47 <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna#Final_Act" title="Congress of Vienna">Final Act of the Congress of Vienna</a>, 9 June 1815, p. 96 (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/dms/load/img/?PPN=PPN546672892&IDDOC=316027">Online</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> Schmidt, p. 39. </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> Schmidt, p. 44. </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> Hoffmann, S. 31. </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg: Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 740. </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> Uta Ziegler, Quellen zu den Reformen in den Rheinbundstaaten: Vol. 6: Regierungsakten des Großherzogtums Hessen 1802–1820. Vol. 6, 2002, ISBN 3-486-56643-1, pp. 461 ff. </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Ewald_Grothe" title="Ewald Grothe">Ewald Grothe</a>, Konstitutionalismus in Hessen vor 1848. Drei Wege zum Verfassungsstaat im Vormärz. Eine vergleichende Betrachtung. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vhghessen.de/inhalt/zhg/ZHG_107/11_Grothe_Konstitutionalismus.pdf">online</a> (PDF; 398 kB); accessed on 1 May 2020. </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> This statement became famous but it appears to derive not from Louis himself but from a document prepared for him by his chief minister, Ludwig Adolf von Grolmann. Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg: Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 701. </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> Franz/Fleck/Kallenberg: Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 701. </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg: Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 703. </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> Eckhart G. Franz, "Großherzoglich Hessisch … 1806–1918." in Uwe Schulz (ed.), Die Geschichte Hessens. Stuttgart 1983, ISBN 3-8062-0332-6, p. 184. </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jura.uni-wuerzburg.de/lehrstuehle/dreier/verfassungsdokumente-von-der-magna-carta-bis-ins-20-jahrhundert/verfassung-des-grossherzogtums-hessen-17-dez-1820/">Verfassungsurkunde für das Großherzogtum Hessen 17. Dezember 1820.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220328163728/https://www.jura.uni-wuerzburg.de/lehrstuehle/dreier/verfassungsdokumente-von-der-magna-carta-bis-ins-20-jahrhundert/verfassung-des-grossherzogtums-hessen-17-dez-1820/">Archived</a> 28 March 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> in <a href="/wiki/Horst_Dreier" title="Horst Dreier">Horst Dreier</a>. Verfassungsdokumente von der Magna Carta bis ins 20. Jahrhundert, originally published in the Hessisches Regierungsblatt 1820, p. 535 ff. </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=nyp.33433008784757&view=1up&seq=113">Durch die höchste Verordnung vom 4ten November 1816 ist der Wille Seiner Königlichen Hoheit des Großherzogs ausgesprochen worden, daß der unvollkommene Zustand der bürgerlichen Gesetzgebung verbessert und durch Gleichförmigkeit derselben das Band zwischen alten und neuen Unterthanen des Großherzogthums fester geknüpft werden soll</a> of 1 December 1817, in Sammlung der in der Großherzoglich Hessischen Zeitung vom Jahr 1817 publicirten Verordnungen und höheren Verfügungen. Großherzogliche Invalidenanstalt, Darmstadt 1818, pp. 103–108 (originally published in Großherzoglich Hessischer Zeitung No. 145 of 4 December 1817). </li> <li id="cite_note-bsb01-34"><a href="#cite_ref-bsb01_34-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGroßherzoglich_Hessisches_Ministerium_des_Inneren_und_der_Justiz1821" class="citation book cs1">Großherzoglich Hessisches Ministerium des Inneren und der Justiz, ed. (1821). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10510149?page=403">Verordnung: Die Eintheilung des Landes in Landraths- und Landgerichtsbezirke betreffend</a>. p. 403.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Verordnung%3A+Die+Eintheilung+des+Landes+in+Landraths-+und+Landgerichtsbezirke+betreffend&rft.pages=403&rft.date=1821&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.digitale-sammlungen.de%2Fde%2Fview%2Fbsb10510149%3Fpage%3D403&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGrand+Duchy+of+Hesse" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> Ruppel & Müller, p. 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> § 41 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10510148?page=129">Edict, die standesherrlichen Rechts-Verhältnisse im Großherzogthum Hessen betreffend</a> of 27 March 1820, in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt, no. 17 of 29 March 1820, pp. 125–160 (142ff). </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> Ruppel/Müller, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> Franz, Fleck & Kallenberg: Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 762. </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> Ruppel & Müller, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10510149?page=357">Gesetz die Gemeindeordnung betreffend</a> of 30 June 1821, in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt No. 29 of 29 July 1821, pp. 355–376. </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> Franz, Fleck & Kallenberg: Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 763. </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Wilhelm_Justin_Wagner&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Georg Wilhelm Justin Wagner (page does not exist)">Georg Wilhelm Justin Wagner</a>, Statistisch-topographisch-historische Beschreibung des Großherzogthums Hessen. Leske, 1831. </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> Franz/Fleck/Kallenberg: Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 763. </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10510149?page=395">Den Abkauf fiscalischer Grundrenten betreffend</a> of 11 July 1821, in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt No. 32 of 18 July 1821, pp. 395–399. </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> Franz/Fleck/Kallenberg: Großherzogtum Hessen, S. 764. </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> Article 104 of the Verfassung des Großherzogtums Hessen stated: "exceptional trade and business privileges should not exist, unless in accordance with a specific law" (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.documentarchiv.de/nzjh/verfhessen.html">Source</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200630023104/http://www.documentarchiv.de/nzjh/verfhessen.html">Archived</a> 30 June 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>). </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> Quote from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Joseph_von_Wrede&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Carl Joseph von Wrede (page does not exist)">Carl Joseph von Wrede</a>, representative of the Roman Catholic Church in the first chamber of the Parliament, cited by Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg: Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 766). </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg: Großherzogtum Hessen, pp. 766 f. </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg, Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 782. </li> <li id="cite_note-page784-52">^ <a href="#cite_ref-page784_52-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-page784_52-1">b</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg, Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 784. </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg, Großherzogtum Hessen, pp. 784 f. </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg, Großherzogtum Hessen, pp. 798 f. </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg, Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 789. </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg, Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 791. </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg: Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 801. </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10510176?page=65">Edict, die Mitregentschaft Seiner Königlichen Hoheit des Erbgroßherzogs betreffend</a> of 5 March 1848, in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt No. 7 of 5 March 1848, p. 61. </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10510176?page=67">Decret</a> of 6 March 1848 in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt No. 8 of 6 March 1848, p. 63; Full list of the new government: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413113229/https://reader.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/fs1/object/goToPage/bsb10510176.html?pageNo=73">Dienstnachrichten</a> in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt No. 10 of 14 March 1848, p. 69. </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> Franz, Fleck, Kallenberg, Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 810. </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg, Großherzogtum Hessen, pp. 809 f. </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> Art. 1–3 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10510176?page=223">Gesetz, die Organisation der dem Ministerium des Innern untergeordneten Verwaltungsbehörden betreffend</a> of 31 July 1848 in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt No. 38 of 3 August 1832, p. 217-225. </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> Art. 14–25 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10510176?page=223">Gesetz, die Organisation des dem Ministerium des Innern untergeordneten Verwaltungs-Behörden betreffend</a> of 31 July 1848 in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt No. 38 of 3 August 1848, pp. 217–225 (222–225). </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10510176?page=279">Gesetz, einige Abänderungen des civilgerichtlichen Verfahrens in den Provinzen Starkenburg und Oberhessen betreffend</a> of 20 August 1848 in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt No. 45 of 29 August 1848, pp. 273–277; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://reader.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/fs1/object/goToPage/bsb10510176.html?pageNo=295">Gesetz, die definitive Übertragung der Polizeigerichtsbarkeit, einschließlich der Forstgerichtsbarkeit, in den Provinzen Starkenburg und Oberhessen an die Gerichte betreffend</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">dead link</a>‍] of 24 August 1848 in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt No. 47 of 9 September 1848, pp. 289f; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://reader.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/fs1/object/goToPage/bsb10510176.html?pageNo=323">Gesetz, die Aufhebung der privilegierten Gerichtsstände betreffend</a> of 22 September 1848 in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt No. 53 of 26 September 1848, pp. 317 f. </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10510176?page=413">Gesetz, die Einführung des mündlichen und öffentlichen Strafverfahrens mit Schwurgericht in den Provinzen Starkenburg und Oberhessen betreffend</a> of 28 October 1848 in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt No. 65 of 17 November 1848, pp. 405–468. </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10510177?page=447">Gesetz, die Zusammensetzung der beiden Landständischen Kammern und die Wahlen der Abgeordneten betreffend</a> of 3 September 1849 in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt No. 52 of 4 September 1849, pp. 435–450. </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10510177?page=587">Verkündung, die Wahlen zum Landtage betreffend</a> in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt No. 69 of 23 November 1849, pp. 575–577. </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lagis-hessen.de/pnd/118523511">Dalwigk zu Lichtenfels, Friedrich Carl Reinhard Freiherr von</a>, in LAGIS, Hessische Biografie; Accessed 13 February 2021. </li> <li id="cite_note-FFK827-69">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FFK827_69-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FFK827_69-1">b</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg, Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 827. </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10510178?page=375">Verordnung, betreffend die Berufung einer außerordentlichen Ständeversammlung</a> of 7 October 1850 in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt No. 49 of 9 October 1850, pp. 375–390. </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10510184?page=265">Gesetz, die Zusammensetzung der Kammern und die Wahl der Abgeordneten der Stände betreffend</a> of 6 September 1856, in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt No. 27 of 26 September 1856, pp. 261–274. </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg, Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 830. </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg: Großherzogtum Hessen, pp. 828 f. </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10510178?page=363">Verordnung die politischen Vereine betreffend</a> of 2 October 1850 in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt No. 47 of 3 October 1850, pp. 359 f. </li> <li id="cite_note-Franz,_Fleck_p._834-75">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Franz,_Fleck_p._834_75-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Franz,_Fleck_p._834_75-1">b</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg: Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 834. </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg: Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 835. </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg, Großherzogtum Hessen, pp. 834 f. </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg, Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 837. </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg: Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 838. </li> <li id="cite_note-Franz,_Fleck_p._839-80">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Franz,_Fleck_p._839_80-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Franz,_Fleck_p._839_80-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Franz,_Fleck_p._839_80-2">c</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg, Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 839. </li> <li id="cite_note-Franz,_Fleck_pp._839-81">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Franz,_Fleck_pp._839_81-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Franz,_Fleck_pp._839_81-1">b</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg, Großherzogtum Hessen, pp. 839 f. </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tudigit.ulb.tu-darmstadt.de/show/Za-140-1866/1116">Report</a> in the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wormser_Zeitung&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wormser Zeitung (page does not exist)">Wormser Zeitung</a> of 11 December 1866; Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg, Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 841. </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lagis-hessen.de/pnd/13908455X">Wachter, Friedrich von</a>, in Hessische Biografie; Accessed 15 March 2021. </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg, Großherzogtum Hessen, S. 840. </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg, Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 840. </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> Schmidt, p. 46, n. 152. </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> Art. II <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.verfassungen.de/preussen/gesetze/frieden66-hessen.htm">Friedensvertrag vom 3. September 1866</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> Art. XI <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.verfassungen.de/preussen/gesetze/frieden66-hessen.htm">Friedensvertrag vom 3. September 1866</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> Art. XIV, Abs. 2 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.verfassungen.de/preussen/gesetze/frieden66-hessen.htm">Friedensvertrag vom 3. September 1866</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg, Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 842. </li> <li id="cite_note-Franz,_Fleck_p._843-91">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Franz,_Fleck_p._843_91-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Franz,_Fleck_p._843_91-1">b</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg, Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 843. </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg: Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 844. </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg: Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 845. </li> <li id="cite_note-FFK_848-94">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FFK_848_94-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FFK_848_94-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FFK_848_94-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FFK_848_94-3">d</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg: Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 848. </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210410101931/https://reader.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/fs1/object/goToPage/bsb11033646.html?pageNo=391">Militär-Convention</a> of 13 June 1871 in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt No. 32 of 6 Ocktober 1871, pp. 342–349. </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> § 1 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb11033646?page=663">Verordnung, die in Folge der Militärconvention vom 13. Juni 1871 in der Organisation der Militärbehörden eintretenden Veränderungen betreffend</a> of 23 December 1871 in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt No. 43 of 30 December 1871, pp. 497 f. </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg: Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 853. </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://starweb.hessen.de/cache/hessen/regierungsblatt/hessisches_regierungsblatt_1879.pdf#page=197">Verordnung zur Ausführung des Deutschen Gerichtsverfassungsgesetzes und des Einführungsgesetzes zum Gerichtsverfassungsgesetze</a> of 14 May 1879 in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt No. 15 of 30 May 1879, pp. 197 f. </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> See Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg, Großherzogtum Hessen, pp. 866–869. </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> See Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg, Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 880. </li> <li id="cite_note-VOoSb-101">^ <a href="#cite_ref-VOoSb_101-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-VOoSb_101-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb11177465?page=539">Verordnung die Organisation der obersten Staatsbehörden betreffend</a> of 22 August 1874 in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt No. 42 of 1 September 1874, pp. 487–491. </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb11177465?page=303">Gesetz, betreffend die innere Verwaltung der Kreise und Provinzen</a> in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt No. 29 of 16 June 1874, pp. 251–298. </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb11177465?page=299">Verordnung die Eintheilung des Großherzogthums in Kreise betreffend</a> of 11 June 1874 in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt No. 28 of 12 June 1874, pp. 247–250; Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg, Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 851. </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb11177465?page=351">Gesetz betreffend die Städte-Ordnung für das Großherzogthum Hessen</a> of 13 June 1874 in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt No. 30 of 16 June 1874, pp. 299–340. </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb11177465?page=395">Gesetz die Landgemeinde-Ordnung für das Großherzogthum Hessen betreffend</a> of 15 June 1874 in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt No. 31 of 16 June 1874, pp. 343–374. </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb11177465?page=19">Edict, die Verfassung der evangelischen Kirche des Großherzogthums betreffend</a> of 6 January 1874 in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt No. 2 of 26 January 1874, pp. 13–48. </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg, Großherzogtum Hessen, S. 880 f. </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg, Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 853. </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg, Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 859. </li> <li id="cite_note-FFK879-110">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FFK879_110-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FFK879_110-1">b</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg, Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 879. </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> Werner, Arbeitersiedlungen, pp. 110 f. </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> Gesetzes über die Wohnungsfürsorge für Minderbemittelte of 7 August 1902; Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg: Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 878. </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> Gesetz über die Beaufsichtigung von Mietwohnungen und Schlafstellen; Werner: Arbeitersiedlungen, pp. 110 f. </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> Werner, Arbeitersiedlungen, p. 109. </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> Werner, Arbeitersiedlungen, p. 111. </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg: Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 878. </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> * <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb11177465?page=429">Gesetz, das Volksschulwesen im Großherzogtum betreffend</a> (Law on the Elementary School System) of 16 June 1874 in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt No. 32 of 16 June 1874, pp. 377–414. * <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb11309178?page=297">Gesetz, die rechtliche Stellung der Kirchen und Religionsgemeinschaften im Staate betreffend</a> (Law on the correct position of churches and religious communities in the State) of 23 April 1875 in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt No. 21 of 3 May 1875, pp. 247–249. * <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb11309178?page=299">Gesetz, den Mißbrauch der geistlichen Amtsgewalt betreffend</a> (Law on the abuse of spiritual authority) of 23 April 1875 in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt No. 21 of 3 May 1875, pp. 249–255. The law was repealed in 1889 (Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg: Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 856) * <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb11309178?page=306">Gesetz, betreffend die Vorbildung und Anstellung der Geistlichen</a> (Law on the training and appointment of the clergy) of 23 April 1875 in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt No. 21 of 3 May 1875, pp. 256–260. This law was also repealed in 1887 (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digital.staatsbibliothek-berlin.de/werkansicht?PPN=PPN766853128&PHYSID=PHYS_0135&DMDID=DMDLOG_0001">Gesetz, die Vorbildung und Anstellung der Geistlichen betreffend</a> of 5 July 1887 in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt No. 22 of 15 July 1887, pp. 129–132). * <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb11309178?page=310">Gesetz, die religiösen Orden und ordensähnlichen Congregationen betreffend</a> (Law on Religious Orders and Order-like Congregations) of 23 April 1875 in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt No. 21 of 3 May 1875, pp. 260 f. This law was repealed in 1895 (Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg: Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 856) * <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb11309178?page=861">Gesetz, die Ausführung des Reichsgesetzes über die Beurkundung des Personenstandes und die Eheschließung vom 6. Februar 1875 betreffend</a> (Law which implements the Imperial law on the certification of civil status and marriage of 6 February 1875) of 3 December 1875 in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt No. 57 of 6 December 1875, pp. 811–814. </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg, Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 856. </li> <li id="cite_note-Cosack,_p._137-119">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cosack,_p._137_119-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cosack,_p._137_119-1">b</a> Cosack, p. 137. </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg: Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 871. </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unesco.de/kultur-und-natur/welterbe/mathildenhoehe-darmstadt-von-unesco-ausgezeichnet">Deutsche UNESCO-Kommission: Mathildenhöhe Darmstadt von UNESCO ausgezeichnet. Ensemble markiert Wendepunkt in Architektur und Kunst an der Schwelle zum 20. Jahrhundert</a>. Press release of 24 July 2021. </li> <li id="cite_note-Franz,_Fleck_p._882-122">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Franz,_Fleck_p._882_122-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Franz,_Fleck_p._882_122-1">b</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg: Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 882. </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg: Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 883. </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Manfred_Knodt&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Manfred Knodt (page does not exist)">Manfred Knodt</a>, Die Regenten von Hessen-Darmstadt. H. L. Schlapp, 2nd Edition, Darmstadt 1977, p. 149. </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> Preußische und Hessische Eisenbahndirektion in Mainz (ed.): Amtsblatt der Preußischen und Hessischen Eisenbahndirektion in Mainz, 29 March 1919, No. 20. Bekanntmachung Nr. 225, p. 129. </li> <li id="cite_note-verfassung4.1-127"><a href="#cite_ref-verfassung4.1_127-0">^</a> Artikel 4 Abs. 1 Verfassungsurkunde für das Großherzogtum Hessen vom 17. Dezember 1820. </li> <li id="cite_note-verfassung4.2-128"><a href="#cite_ref-verfassung4.2_128-0">^</a> Artikel 4 Abs. 2 Verfassungsurkunde für das Großherzogtum Hessen vom 17. Dezember 1820. </li> <li id="cite_note-verfassung52-130"><a href="#cite_ref-verfassung52_130-0">^</a> Artikel 52 der Verfassungsurkunde für das Großherzogtum Hessen of 17 December 1820 </li> <li id="cite_note-verfassung54-131"><a href="#cite_ref-verfassung54_131-0">^</a> Artikel 54 der Verfassungsurkunde für das Großherzogtum Hessen vom 17 December 1820 </li> <li id="cite_note-digitale-sammlungen.de-132">^ <a href="#cite_ref-digitale-sammlungen.de_132-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-digitale-sammlungen.de_132-1">b</a> Art. 3 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10510177?page=447">Gesetz, die Zusammensetzung der beiden Landständischen Kammern und die Wahlen der Abgeordneten betreffend</a> (Law on the composition of the chambers of the Landstände and the election of representatives) 3 September 1849 in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt No. 52 of 4 September 1849, pp. 435–450. </li> <li id="cite_note-Verordnung_1850,_pp._375-133">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Verordnung_1850,_pp._375_133-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Verordnung_1850,_pp._375_133-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10510178?page=375">Verordnung, betreffend die Berufung einer außerordentlichen Ständeversammlung</a> ("Regulation on the calling of an extraordinary meeting of the Landstände") of 7 October 1850 in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt No. 49 of 9 October 1850, pp. 375–390. </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10510184?page=265">Gesetz, die Zusammensetzung der Kammern und die Wahl der Abgeordneten der Stände betreffend</a> ("Law on the composition of the chambers of the Landstände and the election of representatives") 6 September 1856 in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt No. 27 of 26 September 1856, pp. 261–274. </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> Art. 2 No. 7 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb11033647?page=437">Gesetz, die Zusammensetzung der beiden Kammern der Stände und die Wahl der Abgeordneten betreffend</a> ("Law on the composition of the chambers of the Landstände and the election of representatives") of 8 November 1872 in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt No. 49 of 12 November 1871, pp. 385–398. </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> Cosack, p. 55. </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> Cosack, p. 56. </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> Franz, Fleck, Kallenberg: Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 696. </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10510149?page=181">Verordnung über die Organisation der obersten Staatsbehörde</a> (Ordinance on the organisation of the highest state offices) of 28 May 1821, in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt No. 14 of 1 June 1821, pp. 179–188. </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb11177465?page=539">Verordnung die Organisation der obersten Staatsbehörden betreffend</a> (Ordinance on the organisation of the highest state offices) of 22 August 1874 in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt No. 42 of 1 September 1874, pp. 487–491 (490). </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> Cosack, p. 30. </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> § 1 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb11033646?page=663">Verordnung, die in Folge der Militärconvention vom 13. Juni 1871 in der Organisation der Militärbehörden eintretenden Veränderungen betreffend</a> (Ordinance dealing with changes in the organisation of the military offices following the military convention of 13 June 1871) of 23 December 1871 in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt No. 43 of 30 December 1871, pp. 497f. </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> See Schmidt </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10510176?page=223">Gesetz, die Organisation der dem Ministerium des Innern untergeordneten Verwaltungsbehörden betreffend</a> ("Law on the organisation of the administrative offices under the control of the Ministry of the Interior") of 31 July 1848 in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt, No. 38, 3 August 1848, pp. 217–225. </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10510180?page=209">Gesetz, die dem Ministerium des Innern untergeordneten Verwaltungsbehörden betreffend</a> ("Law on the administrative offices under the control of the Ministry of the Interior") of 28 April 1852 in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt No. 27 of 3 May 1852, p. 201; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://reader.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/fs1/object/goToPage/bsb10510180.html?pageNo=229">Edict, die dem Ministerium des Innern untergeordneten Verwaltungsbehörden betreffend</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">dead link</a>‍] (Edict on the administrative offices under the control of the Ministry of the Interior") of 12 May 1852 in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt, No. 30, 20 May 1852, pp. 221–228; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://reader.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/fs1/object/goToPage/bsb10510180.html?pageNo=237">Verordnung, die Ausführung der Organisation der dem Ministerium des Innern untergeordneten Verwaltungsbehörden betreffend</a> (Regulation on the execution of the organisation of the administrative offices under the control of the Ministry of the Interior) of 12 May 1852 in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt, No. 31, 21 May 1852, p. 229. </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> Cosack, pp. 15 f. </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> Art. 52.2.3 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10510148?page=544">Verfassungs-Urkunde des Großherzogtums Hessen</a> of 17 December 1820 in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt No. 60 of 22 December 1820, pp. 535 ff. (542); <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10510155?page=379">Declaration, die staatsrechtlichen Verhältnisse der Freiherrn Riedesel zu Eisenbach betreffend</a> (Declaration on the legal relationships of the Freiherrn Riedesel zu Eisenach) of 13 July 1827 in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt No 38 of 21 August 1827, pp. 371–373. </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> Cosack, S. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M2dJAAAAYAAJ&q=gericht&pg=PA25">Deklaration über die staatsrechtlichen Verhältnisse der ehemaligen Reichsritterschaft</a> (Declaration about the legal status of the former Imperial knights) of 1 December 1807. in Großherzoglich Hessische Verordnungen, vol. 1 (1806–1808), Darmstadt 1811, pp. 25–35. </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> Art. 24 of the Constitution (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.documentarchiv.de/nzjh/verfhessen.html">Quelle</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200630023104/http://www.documentarchiv.de/nzjh/verfhessen.html">Archived</a> 30 June 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>). </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg: Großherzogtum Hessen, pp. 767, 801 ff. </li> <li id="cite_note-ffk802-152">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ffk802_152-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ffk802_152-1">b</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg: Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 802. </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.schule-bw.de/faecher-und-schularten/gesellschaftswissenschaftliche-und-philosophische-faecher/landeskunde-landesgeschichte/module/bp_2016/der_industrialisierte_nationalstaat/fenster_zur_welt/abschiebung-wimpfener-ortsarmer-nach-amerika-1854-im-spiegel-amerikanischer-presse/zeittafel.htm">Die Abschiebung der Wimpfener Ortsarmen nach Amerika im Jahr 1854/55 im Spiegel der amerikanischen Presse</a>. in Landeskunde – Landesgeschichte. Fachportal des Landesbildungsservers Baden-Württemberg. </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg: Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 803. </li> <li id="cite_note-ffk832-155">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ffk832_155-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ffk832_155-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ffk832_155-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ffk832_155-3">d</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg: Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 832. </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg: Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 772. </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> Cosack, p. 142. </li> <li id="cite_note-FFK771-158">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FFK771_158-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FFK771_158-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FFK771_158-2">c</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg: Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 771. </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> Vincenzo Nussi, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lEstAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA209">Conventiones de rebus ecclesiasticis inter S. Sedem et civilem potestatem variis formis initae ex collectione romana</a>, Moguntiae 1870, pp. 209–222 </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10510157?page=478">Bulle Ad Dominici Gregis</a> (Bull "To the Lord's Flock") 11 April 1827 in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt No. 41 of 21 October 1829, pp. 460–464. </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg, Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 726. </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg: Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 811. </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> No. 7 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M2dJAAAAYAAJ&q=gericht&pg=PA234">Verordnung vom 17. Dezember 1808</a> in Großherzoglich Hessische Verordnungen, Heft 1 (1806–1808), Darmstadt 1811, p. 234 f. </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Reuter" title="Fritz Reuter">Fritz Reuter</a>, Warmaisa: 1000 Jahre Juden in Worms. 3rd Edition. Eigenverlag, Worms 2009. ISBN 978-3-8391-0201-5, p. 160. </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> Cosack, p. 143. </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg, Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 717. </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg, Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 718. </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10510194?page=97">Verordnung, der in den Zunftbriefen enthaltenen Beschränkungen des freien Gewerbebtriebs betreffend</a> (Ordinance on the limitations of free commerce contained in guild charters ) of 16 February 1866, in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt No. 8 vom 26. February 1866, pp. 93 f. </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg, Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 768f. </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Albert_Pick" title="Albert Pick">Albert Pick</a>, Papiergeld. Ein Handbuch für Sammler und Liebhaber. Klinkhardt und Biermann, Braunschweig 1967, pp. 193–196. </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> Niklot Klüßendorf, Das hessische Münzwesen. Elwert, Marburg a.d. Lahn 2012, ISBN 978-3-942225-16-8, pp. 124–154. </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> Brand, Verordnungen, p. 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Hessisches_Landesmuseum_Darmstadt" title="Hessisches Landesmuseum Darmstadt">Hessisches Landesmuseum Darmstadt</a> (ed.): Instrumente aus dem Physikalischen Kabinett. 200 Jahre Metrisches System in Hessen = Faltblatt zur gleichnamigen Ausstellung (12. Oktober 2018 bis 17. Februar 2019). Darmstadt 2018. </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> Brand, Verordnungen, p. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-gold-176">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gold_176-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-gold_176-1">b</a> Verordnung betreffend die Vergleichung des in Deutschland gebräuchlichen Silber-, Gold-, Juwelen- und Apothekergewichts mit dem neuen großherzoglich hessischen Gewicht vom 8. Januar 1819 (Ordinance on the equivalence of the measurements used in Germany for weighing silver, gold, jewels, and medicine with the new weights of the Grand Duchy of Hesse on 8 January 1819); Brand, Verordnungen, pp. 18–20). </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> Verordnung über die neuen Maße und Gewichte im Großherzogtum Hessen vom 10. Dezember 1819; Brand, Verordnungen, pp. 8–11. </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> Ministerialverordnung die gleichförmige Einrichtung und öffentliche Beaufsichtigung der Waagen und Fasseichen betreffend vom 14. September 1818 (Ministerial Ordinance for the identical creation and public inspection of scales and Fasseiche); Brand, Verordnungen, pp. 12 f. </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> Verordnung die Verfertigung und den Gebrauch der neuen Maße und Gewichte betreffend (Ordinance on the manufacture and use of the new weights and measures); Brand, Verordnungen, pp. 13–18. </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> Brand, Verordnungen, S. 22–25. </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> Brand: Verordnungen, S. 20–22. </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> Brand: Verordnungen, p. 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> Gesetz, die Einführung der für den Norddeutschen Bund erlassenen Maß- und Gewichtsordnung in den nicht zum Norddeutschen Bund gehörigen Teilen des Großherzogtums betreffend (Law on the introduction of the ordinance on weights and measures issued for the North German Confederation in the parts of the grand duchy outside the North German Confederation); Brand, Verordnungen, pp. 41–44. </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> Ferdinand Werner, "Schloss und Park in Herrnsheim" <a href="/w/index.php?title=Der_Wormsgau&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Der Wormsgau (page does not exist)">Der Wormsgau</a> 35 (2019), pp. 83–183 (127). </li> <li id="cite_note-FFK833-185">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FFK833_185-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FFK833_185-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FFK833_185-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FFK833_185-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FFK833_185-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FFK833_185-5">f</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg: Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 833. </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg: Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 877. </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.retrobibliothek.de/retrobib/schlagwort.html?werk=Meyers&bandnr=8&seitenr=0470">Hessen (Großherzogtum: Industrie, Handel und Verkehr).</a> In: <a href="/wiki/Meyers_Konversations-Lexikon" title="Meyers Konversations-Lexikon">Meyers Konversations-Lexikon</a>. 4th edition. Volume 8, Verlag des Bibliographischen Instituts, Leipzig/Vienna 1885–1892, p. 470–470. </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg: Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 876. </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg, Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 728. </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Reinhard_Dietrich_(jurist)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Reinhard Dietrich (jurist) (page does not exist)">Reinhard Dietrich</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinhard_Dietrich_(Jurist)" class="extiw" title="de:Reinhard Dietrich (Jurist)">de</a>], "Eine Eisenbahn wird eröffnet," <a href="/w/index.php?title=Der_Wormsgau&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Der Wormsgau (page does not exist)">Der Wormsgau</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Der_Wormsgau" class="extiw" title="de:Der Wormsgau">de</a>] 33 (2017), pp. 111–126 (124f). </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg, Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 864. </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10510149?page=189">Gesetz über die Abtretung von Privateigenthum für öffentliche Zwecke</a> (Law on the expropriation of private property for official purposes) of 27 May 1821, in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gro%C3%9Fherzoglich_Hessisches_Regierungsblatt&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt (page does not exist)">Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt</a> No. 15 of 6 June 1821, pp. 187–193. </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10510158?page=347">Gesetz die Erbauung der Staatskunststrassen betreffend</a> (Law on the construction of national roads) of 15 October 1830 in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt No. 62 of 23 October 1830, pp. 351 f. </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10510158?page=353">Gesetz die Erbauung und Erhaltung der Provinzialstraßen im Großherzogthum Hessen betreffend</a> (Law on the construction and maintenance of provincial roads in the Grand Duchy of Hesse) of 12 October 1830 in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt No. 64 of 2 November 1830, pp. 357–360. </li> <li id="cite_note-FFK770-195">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FFK770_195-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FFK770_195-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FFK770_195-2">c</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg, Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 770. </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> Hoffmann, p. 154. </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg: Großherzogtum Hessen, pp. 876 f. </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://reader.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/fs1/object/goToPage/bsb10510164.html?pageNo=333">Gesetz, die Anlegung von Eisenbahnen im Großherzogtum durch Privatpersonen betreffend</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">dead link</a>‍] (Law on the laying of railroads in the grand duchy by private individuals) of 18 June 1836 in Großherzoglich Hessisches Regierungsblatt No. 30 of 27 July 1836, p. 329. </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> Horst Schneider: "Die Eisenbahnpolitik des Großherzogtums Hessen in ihren Anfängen." in Die Bahn und ihre Geschichte. ed. Georg Wittenberger & Förderkreis Museen und Denkmalpflege Darmstadt-Dieburg. Darmstadt 1985, pp. 8–15. </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg, Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 797. </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> Mayer, pp. 60 f. </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a> Mayer, p. 59 </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=nyp.33433008784757&view=1up&seq=142">Verordnung</a> In Erwägung, daß die noch erhaltenen Denkmäler der Baukunst (Ordinance in consideration of extant architectural monuments) 22 Januar 1818 in Sammlung der in der Grossherzogl. Hessischen Zeitung vom Jahre 1818 publicirten Verordnungen und höheren Verfügungen, Darmstadt 1819, pp. 6 f. </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a> Franz, Fleck, and Kallenberg: Großherzogtum Hessen, p. 777. </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a> Eckhart Franz, "„Habe Ehrfurcht vor dem Alten und Mut, das Neue frisch zu wagen!“ Die Denkmalpflege im kulturpolitischen Konzept Großherzog Ernst Ludwigs." in 100 Jahre Denkmalschutzgesetz in Hessen. Geschichte – Bedeutung – Wirkung. Stuttgart 2003, ISBN 3-8062-1855-2, pp. 23–28; <a href="/w/index.php?title=Winfried_Speitkamp&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Winfried Speitkamp (page does not exist)">Winfried Speitkamp</a>, "Entstehung und Bedeutung des Denkmalschutzgesetzes für das Großherzogtum Hessen von 1902." in 100 Jahre Denkmalschutzgesetz in Hessen. Geschichte – Bedeutung – Wirkung. Stuttgart 2003, ISBN 3-8062-1855-2, pp. 13–22; Jan Nikolaus Viebrock: Hessisches Denkmalschutzrecht (= Kommunale Schriften für Hessen). 3rd Edition, W. Kohlhammer Verlag, Stuttgart 2007, ISBN 978-3-555-40310-6, p. 9 n. 18. </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Winfried_Speitkamp&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Winfried Speitkamp (page does not exist)">Winfried Speitkamp</a>, "Entstehung und Bedeutung des Denkmalschutzgesetzes für das Großherzogtum Hessen von 1902." in 100 Jahre Denkmalschutzgesetz in Hessen. Geschichte – Bedeutung – Wirkung. Stuttgart 2003, ISBN 3-8062-1855-2, p. 13. </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernst-Rainer_H%C3%B6nes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ernst-Rainer Hönes (page does not exist)">Ernst-Rainer Hönes</a>: Denkmalschutz in Rheinland-Pfalz. 3rd Edition. Kommunal- und Schulbuchverlag, Wiesbaden 2005, p. 32. </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> The two locations are actually only ca. 150 metres apart </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> Eisenbahndirektion Mainz (ed.): Sammlung der herausgegebenen Amtsblätter of 6 December 1902, No. 68. Bekanntmachung No. 575, p. 616. </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a> Eisenbahndirektion Mainz (ed.): Amtsblatt der Königlich Preußischen und Großherzoglich Hessischen Eisenbahndirektion in Mainz of 12 November 1910, No. 51. Bekanntmachung No. 792, p. 451. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=69" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrand" class="citation book cs1">Brand, Ulrich. Verordnungen und Gesetzestexte zum Maß- und Gewichtswesen im Großherzogtum Hessen-Darmstadt. 1817–1870. Verein für Geschichte, Denkmal- und Landschaftspflege e. V. Bad Ems, Bad Ems o. 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In <a href="/w/index.php?title=Walter_Heinemeyer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Walter Heinemeyer (page does not exist)">Heinemeyer, Walter</a>; <a href="/wiki/Helmut_Berding" title="Helmut Berding">Berding, Helmut</a>; <a href="/wiki/Peter_Moraw" title="Peter Moraw">Moraw, Peter</a>; <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hans_Philippi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hans Philippi (page does not exist)">Philippi, Hans</a> (eds.). Handbuch der Hessischen Geschichte. Vol. 4.2: Hessen im Deutschen Bund und im neuen Deutschen Reich (1806) 1815–1945. Die hessischen Staaten bis 1945. Marburg: Elwert. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-7708-1238-7" title="Special:BookSources/3-7708-1238-7"><bdi>3-7708-1238-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum+Hessen+%281800%29+1806%E2%80%931918&rft.btitle=Handbuch+der+Hessischen+Geschichte.+Vol.+4.2%3A+Hessen+im+Deutschen+Bund+und+im+neuen+Deutschen+Reich+%281806%29+1815%E2%80%931945.+Die+hessischen+Staaten+bis+1945&rft.place=Marburg&rft.pub=Elwert&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=3-7708-1238-7&rft.aulast=Franz&rft.aufirst=Eckhart+G.&rft.au=Fleck%2C+Peter&rft.au=Kallenberg%2C+Fritz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGrand+Duchy+of+Hesse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hessisches_Landesamt_f%C3%BCr_Geschichtliche_Landeskunde&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hessisches Landesamt für Geschichtliche Landeskunde (page does not exist)">Hessisches Landesamt für Geschichtliche Landeskunde</a>, Geschichtlicher Atlas von Hessen. Marburg 1960–1978.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarenberg1964" class="citation book cs1">Karenberg, Dagobert (1964). Die Entwicklung der Verwaltung in Hessen-Darmstadt unter Ludewig I. (1790–1830). Darmstadt.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+Entwicklung+der+Verwaltung+in+Hessen-Darmstadt+unter+Ludewig+I.+%281790%E2%80%931830%29&rft.place=Darmstadt&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Karenberg&rft.aufirst=Dagobert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGrand+Duchy+of+Hesse" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLange1993" class="citation book cs1">Lange, Thomas (1993). Hessen-Darmstadts Beitrag für das heutige Hessen. Wiesbaden: Hessische Landeszentrale für Politische Bildung. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-927127-12-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-927127-12-8"><bdi>978-3-927127-12-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hessen-Darmstadts+Beitrag+f%C3%BCr+das+heutige+Hessen&rft.place=Wiesbaden&rft.pub=Hessische+Landeszentrale+f%C3%BCr+Politische+Bildung&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-3-927127-12-8&rft.aulast=Lange&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGrand+Duchy+of+Hesse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvon_Mayer1891" class="citation book cs1">von Mayer, Arthur (1891). Geschichte und Geographie der deutschen Eisenbahnen. Berlin: Wilhelm Baensch.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geschichte+und+Geographie+der+deutschen+Eisenbahnen&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=Wilhelm+Baensch&rft.date=1891&rft.aulast=von+Mayer&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGrand+Duchy+of+Hesse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPolley2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rainer_Polley&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rainer Polley (page does not exist)">Polley, Rainer</a> (2010). "Recht und Verfassung". In <a href="/w/index.php?title=Winfried_Speitkamp&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Winfried Speitkamp (page does not exist)">Speitkamp, Winifried</a> (ed.). Handbuch der hessischen Geschichte 1: Bevölkerung, Wirtschaft und Staat in Hessen 1806 – 1945. Marburg: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Historische_Kommission_f%C3%BCr_Hessen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historische Kommission für Hessen (page does not exist)">Historischen Kommission für Hessen</a>. pp. 335–371. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-942225-01-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-942225-01-4"><bdi>978-3-942225-01-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Recht+und+Verfassung&rft.btitle=Handbuch+der+hessischen+Geschichte+1%3A+Bev%C3%B6lkerung%2C+Wirtschaft+und+Staat+in+Hessen+1806+%E2%80%93+1945&rft.place=Marburg&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E335-%3C%2Fspan%3E371&rft.pub=Historischen+Kommission+f%C3%BCr+Hessen&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-3-942225-01-4&rft.aulast=Polley&rft.aufirst=Rainer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGrand+Duchy+of+Hesse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReuling1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ulrich_Reuling&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ulrich Reuling (page does not exist)">Reuling, Ulrich</a> (1984). "Verwaltungs-Einteilung 1821–1955. Mit einem Anhang über die Verwaltungsgebietsreform in Hessen 1968–1981". In <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fred_Schwind&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fred Schwind (page does not exist)">Schwind, Fred</a> (ed.). Geschichtlicher Atlas von Hessen : Text- und Erläuterungsband. Sigmaringen: Thorbecke. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-921254-95-7" title="Special:BookSources/3-921254-95-7"><bdi>3-921254-95-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Verwaltungs-Einteilung+1821%E2%80%931955.+Mit+einem+Anhang+%C3%BCber+die+Verwaltungsgebietsreform+in+Hessen+1968%E2%80%931981&rft.btitle=Geschichtlicher+Atlas+von+Hessen+%3A+Text-+und+Erl%C3%A4uterungsband&rft.place=Sigmaringen&rft.pub=Thorbecke&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=3-921254-95-7&rft.aulast=Reuling&rft.aufirst=Ulrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGrand+Duchy+of+Hesse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReus1984" class="citation book cs1">Reus, Heribert (1984). Gerichte und Gerichtsbezirke seit etwa 1816/1822 im Gebiete des heutigen Landes Hessen bis zum 1. Juli 1968. Wiesbaden: Hessisches Ministerium der Justiz.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gerichte+und+Gerichtsbezirke+seit+etwa+1816%2F1822+im+Gebiete+des+heutigen+Landes+Hessen+bis+zum+1.+Juli+1968&rft.place=Wiesbaden&rft.pub=Hessisches+Ministerium+der+Justiz&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Reus&rft.aufirst=Heribert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGrand+Duchy+of+Hesse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuppelMüller1976" class="citation book cs1">Ruppel, Hans Georg; Müller, Karin (1976). Historisches Ortsverzeichnis für das Gebiet des ehem. Großherzogtums und Volksstaats Hessen. Darmstadt: Historischer Verein für Hessen.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historisches+Ortsverzeichnis+f%C3%BCr+das+Gebiet+des+ehem.+Gro%C3%9Fherzogtums+und+Volksstaats+Hessen&rft.place=Darmstadt&rft.pub=Historischer+Verein+f%C3%BCr+Hessen&rft.date=1976&rft.aulast=Ruppel&rft.aufirst=Hans+Georg&rft.au=M%C3%BCller%2C+Karin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGrand+Duchy+of+Hesse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmahl2000" class="citation book cs1">Schmahl, Helmut (2000). Verpflanzt, aber nicht entwurzelt: Die Auswanderung aus Hessen-Darmstadt (Provinz Rheinhessen) nach Wisconsin im 19. Jahrhundert. Frankfurt am Main.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Verpflanzt%2C+aber+nicht+entwurzelt%3A+Die+Auswanderung+aus+Hessen-Darmstadt+%28Provinz+Rheinhessen%29+nach+Wisconsin+im+19.+Jahrhundert&rft.place=Frankfurt+am+Main&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Schmahl&rft.aufirst=Helmut&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGrand+Duchy+of+Hesse" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmidt1893" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arthur_Benno_Schmidt&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arthur Benno Schmidt (page does not exist)">Schmidt, Arthur Benno</a> (1893). Die geschichtlichen Grundlagen des bürgerlichen Rechts im Großherzogtum Hessen. Giessen: Curt von Münchow.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+geschichtlichen+Grundlagen+des+b%C3%BCrgerlichen+Rechts+im+Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum+Hessen&rft.place=Giessen&rft.pub=Curt+von+M%C3%BCnchow&rft.date=1893&rft.aulast=Schmidt&rft.aufirst=Arthur+Benno&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGrand+Duchy+of+Hesse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmitt1983" class="citation journal cs1">Schmitt, Hans A. (1983). "Germany Without Prussia: a Closer Look at the Confederation of the Rhine". German Studies Review. 6 (4): 9–39. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1429433">10.2307/1429433</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1429433">1429433</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=German+Studies+Review&rft.atitle=Germany+Without+Prussia%3A+a+Closer+Look+at+the+Confederation+of+the+Rhine&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E9-%3C%2Fspan%3E39&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1429433&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1429433%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Schmitt&rft.aufirst=Hans+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGrand+Duchy+of+Hesse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWagner1829–1831" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Wilhelm_Justin_Wagner&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Georg Wilhelm Justin Wagner (page does not exist)">Wagner, Georg Wilhelm Justin</a> (1829–1831). Allgemeine Statistik des Grossherzogthums Hessen. Darmstadt: C. W. Leske.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Allgemeine+Statistik+des+Grossherzogthums+Hessen&rft.place=Darmstadt&rft.pub=C.+W.+Leske&rft.date=1829%2F1831&rft.aulast=Wagner&rft.aufirst=Georg+Wilhelm+Justin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGrand+Duchy+of+Hesse" class="Z3988"> <ul><li>Vol. 1: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SJcAAAAAcAAJ">Provinz Starkenburg</a></li> <li>Vol. 4: Statistik des Ganzen (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/000656010">Digitised by Hathi Trust</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWerner2012" class="citation book cs1">Werner, Ferdinand (2012). Arbeitersiedlungen: Arbeiterhäuser im Rhein-Neckar-Raum. Worms: Wernersche Verlagsgesellschaft. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-88462-330-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-88462-330-5"><bdi>978-3-88462-330-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arbeitersiedlungen%3A+Arbeiterh%C3%A4user+im+Rhein-Neckar-Raum&rft.place=Worms&rft.pub=Wernersche+Verlagsgesellschaft&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-3-88462-330-5&rft.aulast=Werner&rft.aufirst=Ferdinand&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGrand+Duchy+of+Hesse" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&action=edit&section=70" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px 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media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Grand Duchy of Hesse">Grand Duchy of Hesse</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.documentarchiv.de/nzjh/verfhessen.html">Constitution of Hesse (in German)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.deutsche-schutzgebiete.de/grossherzogtum_hessen.htm">Das Großherzogtum Hessen 1806–1918</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gemeindeverzeichnis.de/gem1900/gem1900.htm?hessen1900.htm">Großherzogtum Hessen (Kreise und Gemeinden) 1910</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output 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.navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="States_of_the_Confederation_of_the_Rhine_(1806–1813)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:States_of_the_Confederation_of_the_Rhine" title="Template:States of the Confederation of the Rhine"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:States_of_the_Confederation_of_the_Rhine" title="Template talk:States of the Confederation of the Rhine"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:States_of_the_Confederation_of_the_Rhine" title="Special:EditPage/Template:States of the Confederation of the Rhine"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="States_of_the_Confederation_of_the_Rhine_(1806–1813)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">States of the <a href="/wiki/Confederation_of_the_Rhine" title="Confederation of the Rhine">Confederation of the Rhine</a> (1806–1813)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rank elevated by <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.5em;font-weight:normal;">Kingdoms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bavaria" title="Kingdom of Bavaria">Bavaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Saxony" title="Kingdom of Saxony">Saxony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg" title="Kingdom of Württemberg">Württemberg</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.5em;font-weight:normal;">Grand Duchies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Baden" title="Grand Duchy of Baden">Baden</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hesse</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.5em;font-weight:normal;">Duchies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Nassau" title="Duchy of Nassau">Nassau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Rheinbund_1812,_political_map.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Map of the Confederation of the Rhine"><img alt="Map of the Confederation of the Rhine" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Rheinbund_1812%2C_political_map.png/175px-Rheinbund_1812%2C_political_map.png" decoding="async" width="175" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Rheinbund_1812%2C_political_map.png/263px-Rheinbund_1812%2C_political_map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Rheinbund_1812%2C_political_map.png/350px-Rheinbund_1812%2C_political_map.png 2x" data-file-width="1243" data-file-height="1420" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States created</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.5em;font-weight:normal;">Kingdoms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Westphalia" title="Kingdom of Westphalia">Westphalia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.5em;font-weight:normal;">Grand Duchies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Berg" title="Grand Duchy of Berg">Berg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Frankfurt" title="Grand Duchy of Frankfurt">Frankfurt</a>1</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_W%C3%BCrzburg" title="Grand Duchy of Würzburg">Würzburg</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.5em;font-weight:normal;">Principalities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Aschaffenburg" title="Principality of Aschaffenburg">Aschaffenburg</a>2</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Leyen" title="Principality of Leyen">Leyen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Regensburg" title="Principality of Regensburg">Regensburg</a>2</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-existing states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ernestine_duchies" title="Ernestine duchies">Saxon duchies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld" title="Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld">Coburg-Saalfeld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg" title="Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg">Gotha-Altenburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxe-Hildburghausen" title="Saxe-Hildburghausen">Hildburghausen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxe-Meiningen" title="Saxe-Meiningen">Meiningen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxe-Weimar" title="Saxe-Weimar">Weimar</a>3</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxe-Eisenach" title="Saxe-Eisenach">Eisenach</a>3</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach">Weimar-Eisenach</a>4</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.5em;font-weight:normal;">Other duchies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Anhalt" title="Duchy of Anhalt">Anhalt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anhalt-Bernburg" title="Anhalt-Bernburg">Bernburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anhalt-Dessau" title="Anhalt-Dessau">Dessau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anhalt-K%C3%B6then" title="Anhalt-Köthen">Köthen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arenberg" title="Arenberg">Arenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Mecklenburg-Schwerin" title="Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin">Mecklenburg-Schwerin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Mecklenburg-Strelitz" title="Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz">Mecklenburg-Strelitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Oldenburg" title="Duchy of Oldenburg">Oldenburg</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.5em;font-weight:normal;">Principalities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Hohenzollern" title="House of Hohenzollern">Hohenzollern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hohenzollern-Hechingen" title="Hohenzollern-Hechingen">Hechingen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen" title="Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen">Sigmaringen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Isenburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Principality of Isenburg">Isenburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liechtenstein" title="Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Lippe" title="Principality of Lippe">Lippe-Detmold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reuss_(state)" class="mw-redirect" title="Reuss (state)">Reuss</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reuss-Ebersdorf" title="Reuss-Ebersdorf">Ebersdorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Reuss-Greiz" title="Principality of Reuss-Greiz">Greiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reuss-Lobenstein" title="Reuss-Lobenstein">Lobenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Reuss-Gera" title="Principality of Reuss-Gera">Schleiz</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Salm" title="Principality of Salm">Salm</a>5</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Schaumburg-Lippe" title="Principality of Schaumburg-Lippe">Schaumburg-Lippe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Schwarzburg" title="House of Schwarzburg">Schwarzburg</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt" title="Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt">Rudolstadt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schwarzburg-Sondershausen" title="Schwarzburg-Sondershausen">Sondershausen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waldeck_(state)" class="mw-redirect" title="Waldeck (state)">Waldeck</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li>1 from 1810</li> <li>2 until 1810</li> <li>3 until 1809</li> <li>4 from 1809</li> <li>5 until 1811</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="States_of_the_German_Confederation_(1815–1866)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:States_of_the_German_Confederation" title="Template:States of the German Confederation"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:States_of_the_German_Confederation" title="Template talk:States of the German Confederation"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:States_of_the_German_Confederation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:States of the German Confederation"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="States_of_the_German_Confederation_(1815–1866)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/States_of_the_German_Confederation" title="States of the German Confederation">States of the German Confederation</a> (1815–1866)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Empires</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austria</a>1</li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Deutscher_Bund.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Map of the German Confederation"><img alt="Map of the German Confederation" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Deutscher_Bund.svg/175px-Deutscher_Bund.svg.png" decoding="async" width="175" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Deutscher_Bund.svg/263px-Deutscher_Bund.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Deutscher_Bund.svg/350px-Deutscher_Bund.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="969" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Kingdoms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Prussia</a>1</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bavaria" title="Kingdom of Bavaria">Bavaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Saxony" title="Kingdom of Saxony">Saxony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hanover" title="Kingdom of Hanover">Hanover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg" title="Kingdom of Württemberg">Württemberg</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Electorates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electorate_of_Hesse" title="Electorate of Hesse">Hesse-Kassel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Grand duchies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Baden" title="Grand Duchy of Baden">Baden</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hesse-Darmstadt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourg" title="Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Mecklenburg-Schwerin" title="Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin">Mecklenburg-Schwerin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Mecklenburg-Strelitz" title="Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz">Mecklenburg-Strelitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Oldenburg" title="Grand Duchy of Oldenburg">Oldenburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach" title="Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach">Weimar-Eisenach</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Duchies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Brunswick" title="Duchy of Brunswick">Brunswick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Holstein" title="Duchy of Holstein">Holstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Limburg_(1839%E2%80%931867)" title="Duchy of Limburg (1839–1867)">Limburg</a> (from 1839)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Nassau" title="Duchy of Nassau">Nassau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxe-Lauenburg" title="Saxe-Lauenburg">Lauenburg</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/House_of_Ascania" title="House of Ascania">Anhalt (Ascania)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Anhalt" title="Duchy of Anhalt">Anhalt</a> (from 1863)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anhalt-Bernburg" title="Anhalt-Bernburg">Bernburg</a> (until 1863)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anhalt-Dessau" title="Anhalt-Dessau">Dessau</a> (until 1863)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anhalt-K%C3%B6then" title="Anhalt-Köthen">Köthen</a> (until 1847)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ernestine_duchies" title="Ernestine duchies">Ernestine duchies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saxe-Altenburg" title="Saxe-Altenburg">Altenburg</a> (from 1826)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld" title="Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld">Coburg-Saalfeld</a> (until 1826)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxe-Coburg_and_Gotha" title="Saxe-Coburg and Gotha">Coburg-Gotha</a> (from 1826)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg" title="Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg">Gotha-Altenburg</a> (until 1826)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxe-Hildburghausen" title="Saxe-Hildburghausen">Hildburghausen</a> (until 1826)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxe-Meiningen" title="Saxe-Meiningen">Meiningen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Principalities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hesse-Homburg" title="Hesse-Homburg">Hesse-Homburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liechtenstein" title="Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Lippe" title="Principality of Lippe">Lippe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Schaumburg-Lippe" title="Principality of Schaumburg-Lippe">Schaumburg-Lippe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waldeck_(state)" class="mw-redirect" title="Waldeck (state)">Waldeck and Pyrmont</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Imperial_County_of_Reuss" title="Imperial County of Reuss">Reuss</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reuss-Ebersdorf" title="Reuss-Ebersdorf">Reuss-Ebersdorf</a> (until 1824)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reuss-Lobenstein" title="Reuss-Lobenstein">Reuss-Lobenstein</a> (until 1824)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reuss-Ebersdorf" title="Reuss-Ebersdorf">Reuß-Lobenstein und Ebersdorf </a> (1824-1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Reuss-Gera" title="Principality of Reuss-Gera">Reuss-Gera (Junior Line)</a> (from 1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Reuss-Greiz" title="Principality of Reuss-Greiz">Reuss-Greiz (Elder Line)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reuss-Schleiz" class="mw-redirect" title="Reuss-Schleiz">Reuss-Schleiz</a> (until 1848)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/House_of_Hohenzollern" title="House of Hohenzollern">Hohenzollern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hohenzollern-Hechingen" title="Hohenzollern-Hechingen">Hechingen</a> (until 1850)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen" title="Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen">Sigmaringen</a> (until 1850)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/House_of_Schwarzburg" title="House of Schwarzburg">Schwarzburg</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt" title="Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt">Rudolstadt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schwarzburg-Sondershausen" title="Schwarzburg-Sondershausen">Sondershausen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Free cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bremen_(state)" title="Bremen (state)">Bremen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_City_of_Frankfurt" title="Free City of Frankfurt">Frankfurt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamburg" title="Hamburg">Hamburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Free_and_Hanseatic_City_of_L%C3%BCbeck" title="History of the Free and Hanseatic City of Lübeck">Lübeck</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li>1 partially</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="States_of_the_North_German_Confederation_(1866–1871)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:States_of_the_North_German_Confederation" title="Template:States of the North German Confederation"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:States_of_the_North_German_Confederation" title="Template talk:States of the North German Confederation"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:States_of_the_North_German_Confederation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:States of the North German Confederation"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="States_of_the_North_German_Confederation_(1866–1871)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/States_of_the_North_German_Confederation" class="mw-redirect" title="States of the North German Confederation">States of the North German Confederation</a> (1866–1871)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Kingdoms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Prussia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Saxony" title="Kingdom of Saxony">Saxony</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:NB_1866-1871.99.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Map of the North German Confederation"><img alt="Map of the North German Confederation" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/NB_1866-1871.99.svg/175px-NB_1866-1871.99.svg.png" decoding="async" width="175" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/NB_1866-1871.99.svg/263px-NB_1866-1871.99.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/NB_1866-1871.99.svg/350px-NB_1866-1871.99.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="971" data-file-height="899" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Grand_duchy" title="Grand duchy">Grand Duchies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hesse-Darmstadt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Mecklenburg-Schwerin" title="Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin">Mecklenburg-Schwerin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Mecklenburg-Strelitz" title="Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz">Mecklenburg-Strelitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Oldenburg" title="Grand Duchy of Oldenburg">Oldenburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach" title="Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach">Weimar-Eisenach</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Duchy" title="Duchy">Duchies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Anhalt" title="Duchy of Anhalt">Anhalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Brunswick" title="Duchy of Brunswick">Brunswick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxe-Altenburg" title="Saxe-Altenburg">Altenburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxe-Coburg_and_Gotha" title="Saxe-Coburg and Gotha">Coburg-Gotha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxe-Lauenburg" title="Saxe-Lauenburg">Lauenburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxe-Meiningen" title="Saxe-Meiningen">Meiningen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Principality" title="Principality">Principalities</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Lippe" title="Principality of Lippe">Lippe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Reuss-Gera" title="Principality of Reuss-Gera">Reuss-Gera (Junior Line)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Reuss-Greiz" title="Principality of Reuss-Greiz">Reuss-Greiz (Elder Line)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Schaumburg-Lippe" title="Principality of Schaumburg-Lippe">Schaumburg-Lippe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt" title="Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt">Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schwarzburg-Sondershausen" title="Schwarzburg-Sondershausen">Schwarzburg-Sondershausen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Waldeck_and_Pyrmont" title="Principality of Waldeck and Pyrmont">Waldeck and Pyrmont</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">City-states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bremen_(state)" title="Bremen (state)">Bremen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamburg" title="Hamburg">Hamburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Free_and_Hanseatic_City_of_L%C3%BCbeck" title="History of the Free and Hanseatic City of Lübeck">Lübeck</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="States_of_the_German_Empire_(1871–1918)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:States_of_the_German_Empire" title="Template:States of the German Empire"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:States_of_the_German_Empire" title="Template talk:States of the German Empire"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:States_of_the_German_Empire" title="Special:EditPage/Template:States of the German Empire"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="States_of_the_German_Empire_(1871–1918)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/States_of_the_German_Empire" title="States of the German Empire">States of the German Empire</a> (1871–1918)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Kingdoms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bavaria" title="Kingdom of Bavaria">Bavaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Prussia</a> as a whole (<a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Brandenburg" title="Province of Brandenburg">Brandenburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/East_Prussia" title="East Prussia">East Prussia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Hanover" title="Province of Hanover">Hanover</a>, <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Hesse-Nassau" title="Province of Hesse-Nassau">Hesse-Nassau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Hohenzollern" title="Province of Hohenzollern">Hohenzollern</a>, <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Pomerania_(1815%E2%80%931945)" title="Province of Pomerania (1815–1945)">Pomerania</a> (including the <a href="/wiki/Lauenburg_and_B%C3%BCtow_Land" title="Lauenburg and Bütow Land">Lauenburg and Bütow Land</a> and the former <a href="/wiki/Starostwo_of_Draheim" title="Starostwo of Draheim">Starostwo of Draheim</a>), <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Posen" title="Province of Posen">Posen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rhine_Province" title="Rhine Province">Rhineland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Saxony" title="Province of Saxony">Saxony</a>, <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Schleswig-Holstein" title="Province of Schleswig-Holstein">Schleswig-Holstein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Silesia" title="Province of Silesia">Silesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Westphalia" title="Province of Westphalia">Westphalia</a>, <a href="/wiki/West_Prussia" title="West Prussia">West Prussia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Saxony" title="Kingdom of Saxony">Saxony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg" title="Kingdom of Württemberg">Württemberg</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Deutsches_Reich_(1871-1918)-en.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Map of the German Empire"><img alt="Map of the German Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Deutsches_Reich_%281871-1918%29-en.png/175px-Deutsches_Reich_%281871-1918%29-en.png" decoding="async" width="175" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Deutsches_Reich_%281871-1918%29-en.png/263px-Deutsches_Reich_%281871-1918%29-en.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Deutsches_Reich_%281871-1918%29-en.png/350px-Deutsches_Reich_%281871-1918%29-en.png 2x" data-file-width="2362" data-file-height="2362" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Grand_duchy" title="Grand duchy">Grand Duchies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Baden" title="Grand Duchy of Baden">Baden</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hesse-Darmstadt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Mecklenburg-Schwerin" title="Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin">Mecklenburg-Schwerin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Mecklenburg-Strelitz" title="Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz">Mecklenburg-Strelitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Oldenburg" title="Grand Duchy of Oldenburg">Oldenburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach" title="Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach">Weimar-Eisenach</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Duchy" title="Duchy">Duchies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Anhalt" title="Duchy of Anhalt">Anhalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Brunswick" title="Duchy of Brunswick">Brunswick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxe-Altenburg" title="Saxe-Altenburg">Altenburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxe-Coburg_and_Gotha" title="Saxe-Coburg and Gotha">Coburg-Gotha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxe-Lauenburg" title="Saxe-Lauenburg">Lauenburg</a> (until 1876)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxe-Meiningen" title="Saxe-Meiningen">Meiningen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Principality" title="Principality">Principalities</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Lippe" title="Principality of Lippe">Lippe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Reuss-Gera" title="Principality of Reuss-Gera">Reuss-Gera (Junior Line)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Reuss-Greiz" title="Principality of Reuss-Greiz">Reuss-Greiz (Elder Line)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Schaumburg-Lippe" title="Principality of Schaumburg-Lippe">Schaumburg-Lippe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt" title="Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt">Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schwarzburg-Sondershausen" title="Schwarzburg-Sondershausen">Schwarzburg-Sondershausen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Waldeck_and_Pyrmont" title="Principality of Waldeck and Pyrmont">Waldeck and Pyrmont</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">City-states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bremen_(state)" title="Bremen (state)">Bremen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamburg" title="Hamburg">Hamburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Free_and_Hanseatic_City_of_L%C3%BCbeck" title="History of the Free and Hanseatic City of Lübeck">Lübeck</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Imperial Territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alsace%E2%80%93Lorraine" title="Alsace–Lorraine">Alsace–Lorraine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_colonial_empire" title="German colonial empire">German colonial empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mittelafrika" title="Mittelafrika">Mittelafrika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitteleuropa" title="Mitteleuropa">Mitteleuropa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&oldid=1264578662">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse&oldid=1264578662</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse" title="Category:Grand Duchy of Hesse">Grand Duchy of Hesse</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:States_of_the_German_Empire" title="Category:States of the German Empire">States of the German Empire</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:States_of_the_North_German_Confederation" title="Category:States of the North German Confederation">States of the North German Confederation</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:States_of_the_German_Confederation" title="Category:States of the German Confederation">States of the German Confederation</a></li><li><a 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