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<span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_botany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_botany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Early botany</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_botany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_modern_botany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_modern_botany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Early modern botany</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_modern_botany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_modern_botany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_modern_botany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Late modern botany</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_modern_botany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Branches_of_botany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Branches_of_botany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Branches of botany</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Branches_of_botany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scope_and_importance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scope_and_importance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Scope and importance</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Scope_and_importance-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Scope and importance subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Scope_and_importance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Human_nutrition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_nutrition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Human nutrition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_nutrition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plant_biochemistry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plant_biochemistry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Plant biochemistry</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Plant_biochemistry-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Plant biochemistry subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Plant_biochemistry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Medicine_and_materials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medicine_and_materials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Medicine and materials</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medicine_and_materials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plant_ecology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plant_ecology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Plant ecology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Plant_ecology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Plant ecology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Plant_ecology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Plants,_climate_and_environmental_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plants,_climate_and_environmental_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Plants, climate and environmental change</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plants,_climate_and_environmental_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Genetics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Genetics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Genetics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Genetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Molecular_genetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Molecular_genetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Molecular genetics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Molecular_genetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epigenetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epigenetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Epigenetics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epigenetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plant_evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plant_evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Plant evolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plant_evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plant_physiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plant_physiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Plant physiology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Plant_physiology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Plant physiology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Plant_physiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Plant_hormones" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plant_hormones"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Plant hormones</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plant_hormones-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plant_anatomy_and_morphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plant_anatomy_and_morphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Plant anatomy and morphology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plant_anatomy_and_morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Systematic_botany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Systematic_botany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Systematic botany</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Systematic_botany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Symbols" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Symbols"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Symbols</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Symbols-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Botany</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 179 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-179" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">179 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plantkunde" title="Plantkunde – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Plantkunde" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanik" title="Botanik – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Botanik" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%A5%E1%8A%90_%E1%8B%95%E1%8C%BD" title="ሥነ ዕጽ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ሥነ ዕጽ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ab mw-list-item"><a href="https://ab.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Аботаника – Abkhazian" lang="ab" hreflang="ab" data-title="Аботаника" data-language-autonym="Аԥсшәа" data-language-local-name="Abkhazian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Аԥсшәа</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="علم النبات – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم النبات" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanica" title="Botanica – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Botanica" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Բուսաբանութիւն – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Բուսաբանութիւն" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanica" title="Botanica – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Botanica" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Arpetan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="উদ্ভিদবিজ্ঞান – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="উদ্ভিদবিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bot%C3%A1nica" title="Botánica – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Botánica" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ka%27avokuaaty" title="Ka'avokuaaty – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Ka'avokuaaty" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanika" title="Botanika – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Botanika" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="উদ্ভিদবিজ্ঞান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="উদ্ভিদবিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Si%CC%8Dt-bu%CC%8Dt-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Si̍t-bu̍t-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Si̍t-bu̍t-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-map-bms mw-list-item"><a href="https://map-bms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botani" title="Botani – Banyumasan" lang="jv-x-bms" hreflang="jv-x-bms" data-title="Botani" data-language-autonym="Basa Banyumasan" data-language-local-name="Banyumasan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Banyumasan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ботаника – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Ботаника" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Батаніка – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Батаніка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Батаніка – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Батаніка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="बनस्पति बिज्ञान – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="बनस्पति बिज्ञान" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanika" title="Botanika – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Botanika" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bi mw-list-item"><a href="https://bi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boteni" title="Boteni – Bislama" lang="bi" hreflang="bi" data-title="Boteni" data-language-autonym="Bislama" data-language-local-name="Bislama" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bislama</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ботаника – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Ботаника" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanik" title="Botanik – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Botanik" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A2%E0%BE%A9%E0%BD%B2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A4%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%84%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%82%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%94%E0%BC%8D" title="རྩི་ཤིང་རིག་པ། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="རྩི་ཤིང་རིག་པ།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanika" title="Botanika – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Botanika" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louzawouriezh" title="Louzawouriezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Louzawouriezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bot%C3%A0nica" title="Botànica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Botànica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ботаника – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Ботаника" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanika" title="Botanika – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Botanika" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanika" title="Botanika – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Botanika" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanica" title="Botanica – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Botanica" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Corsu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botaneg" title="Botaneg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Botaneg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanik" title="Botanik – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Botanik" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanik" title="Botanik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Botanik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%8E%DE%A6%DE%80%DE%A6%DE%88%DE%A9_%DE%87%DE%A8%DE%8D%DE%B0%DE%89%DE%AA" title="ގަހަވީ އިލްމު – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ގަހަވީ އިލްމު" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ދިވެހިބަސް</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botaanika" title="Botaanika – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Botaanika" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CE%BF%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE" title="Βοτανική – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Βοτανική" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bot%C3%A1nica" title="Botánica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Botánica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plantoscienco" title="Plantoscienco – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Plantoscienco" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bot%C3%A1nica" title="Botánica – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Botánica" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanika" title="Botanika – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Botanika" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="گیاه‌شناسی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="گیاه‌شناسی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botany" title="Botany – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Botany" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanique" title="Botanique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Botanique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botany" title="Botany – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Botany" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botaniche" title="Botaniche – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Botaniche" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luibheola%C3%ADocht" title="Luibheolaíocht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Luibheolaíocht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lus-oaylleeaght" title="Lus-oaylleeaght – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Lus-oaylleeaght" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luibh-e%C3%B2las" title="Luibh-eòlas – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Luibh-eòlas" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bot%C3%A1nica" title="Botánica – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Botánica" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ботаника – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Ботаника" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ГӀалгӀай</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%9D%EB%AC%BC%ED%95%99" title="식물학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="식물학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botany" title="Botany – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Botany" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-haw mw-list-item"><a href="https://haw.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C4%81lailau_nahele" title="Kālailau nahele – Hawaiian" lang="haw" hreflang="haw" data-title="Kālailau nahele" data-language-autonym="Hawaiʻi" data-language-local-name="Hawaiian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hawaiʻi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Բուսաբանություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բուսաբանություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="वनस्पति विज्ञान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="वनस्पति विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanika" title="Botanika – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Botanika" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botaniko" title="Botaniko – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Botaniko" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanika" title="Botanika – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Botanika" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botani" title="Botani – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Botani" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanica" title="Botanica – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Botanica" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanica" title="Botanica – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Botanica" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%C3%A6" title="Ботаникæ – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Ботаникæ" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ирон</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grasafr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Grasafræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Grasafræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanica" title="Botanica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Botanica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%95%D7%98%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94" title="בוטניקה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="בוטניקה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botani" title="Botani – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Botani" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0" title="ಸಸ್ಯಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಸಸ್ಯಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botany" title="Botany – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Botany" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kapampangan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A2%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="ბოტანიკა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ბოტანიკა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%8E%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="نَباتیات – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="نَباتیات" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>कॉशुर / کٲشُر</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ботаника – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ботаника" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Losonieth" title="Losonieth – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Losonieth" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rw mw-list-item"><a href="https://rw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubushakashatsi_ku_Bimera" title="Ubushakashatsi ku Bimera – Kinyarwanda" lang="rw" hreflang="rw" data-title="Ubushakashatsi ku Bimera" data-language-autonym="Ikinyarwanda" data-language-local-name="Kinyarwanda" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ikinyarwanda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botania" title="Botania – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Botania" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etid_plant" title="Etid plant – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Etid plant" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanik" title="Botanik – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Botanik" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riweknas%C3%AE" title="Riweknasî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Riweknasî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ботаника – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Ботаника" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mrj mw-list-item"><a href="https://mrj.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ботаника – Western Mari" lang="mrj" hreflang="mrj" data-title="Ботаника" data-language-autonym="Кырык мары" data-language-local-name="Western Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кырык мары</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bot%C3%A1nika" title="Botánika – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Botánika" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladino</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanice" title="Botanice – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Botanice" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bot%C4%81nika" title="Botānika – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Botānika" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanik" title="Botanik – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Botanik" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ботаника – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Ботаника" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Лезги</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanika" title="Botanika – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Botanika" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plantk%C3%B3nde" title="Plantkónde – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Plantkónde" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanica" title="Botanica – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Botanica" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/spaske" title="spaske – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="spaske" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>La .lojban.</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bot%C3%A0nica" title="Botànica – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Botànica" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanika" title="Botanika – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Botanika" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="वनस्पति विज्ञान – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="वनस्पति विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मैथिली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ботаника – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Ботаника" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botany" title="Botany – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Botany" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="സസ്യശാസ്ത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സസ്യശാസ്ത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanika" title="Botanika – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Botanika" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="वनस्पतीशास्त्र – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="वनस्पतीशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A2%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="ბოტანიკა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ბოტანიკა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="علم النبات – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="علم النبات" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botani" title="Botani – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Botani" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB_%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Ургамал судлал – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Ургамал судлал" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AF%E1%80%80%E1%80%B9%E1%80%81%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92" title="ရုက္ခဗေဒ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ရုက္ခဗေဒ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah mw-list-item"><a href="https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tlanelhuayomatiliztli" title="Tlanelhuayomatiliztli – Nahuatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah" data-title="Tlanelhuayomatiliztli" data-language-autonym="Nāhuatl" data-language-local-name="Nahuatl" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nāhuatl</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botany" title="Botany – Fijian" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Botany" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="Fijian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Na Vosa Vakaviti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plantkunde" title="Plantkunde – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Plantkunde" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="वनस्पति विज्ञान – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="वनस्पति विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80" title="बोतानी – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="बोतानी" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="植物学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="植物学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nqo mw-list-item"><a href="https://nqo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DF%9D%DF%8D%DF%98%DF%8D%DF%B2%DF%9D%DF%8B%DF%B2_%DF%A0%DF%8E%DF%AC" title="ߝߍߘߍ߲ߝߋ߲ ߠߎ߬ – N’Ko" lang="nqo" hreflang="nqo" data-title="ߝߍߘߍ߲ߝߋ߲ ߠߎ߬" data-language-autonym="ߒߞߏ" data-language-local-name="N’Ko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ߒߞߏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ботаника – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Ботаника" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanikk" title="Botanikk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Botanikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanikk" title="Botanikk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Botanikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botannie" title="Botannie – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Botannie" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nouormand</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanike" title="Botanike – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Botanike" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Novial</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanica" title="Botanica – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Botanica" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B5" title="Ботанике – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Ботанике" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Олык марий</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%89%E0%AC%A6%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%AD%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%A6_%E0%AC%AC%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%9C%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%9E%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%A8" title="ଉଦ୍ଭିଦ ବିଜ୍ଞାନ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଉଦ୍ଭିଦ ବିଜ୍ଞାନ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiinbiqila" title="Xiinbiqila – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Xiinbiqila" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanika" title="Botanika – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Botanika" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AC%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%A4%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A8" title="ਬਨਸਪਤੀ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਬਨਸਪਤੀ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pfl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pfl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanik" title="Botanik – Palatine German" lang="pfl" hreflang="pfl" data-title="Botanik" data-language-autonym="Pälzisch" data-language-local-name="Palatine German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Pälzisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%B9%D9%86%DB%8C" title="باٹنی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="باٹنی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AF%E1%80%80%E1%80%B9%E1%80%81%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92" title="ရုက္ခဗေဒ – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="ရုက္ခဗေဒ" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%BC%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" title="بوټپوهنه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="بوټپوهنه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batani" title="Batani – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Batani" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bot%C3%A0nica" title="Botànica – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Botànica" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanik" title="Botanik – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Botanik" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanika" title="Botanika – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Botanika" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bot%C3%A2nica" title="Botânica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Botânica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanika" title="Botanika – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Botanika" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nebatiyat" title="Nebatiyat – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Nebatiyat" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qırımtatarca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanic%C4%83" title="Botanică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Botanică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sach%27a_yachay" title="Sach'a yachay – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Sach'a yachay" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ботаніка – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Ботаніка" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ботаника – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Ботаника" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ботаника – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Ботаника" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="वनस्पतिविज्ञानम् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="वनस्पतिविज्ञानम्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bot%C3%A0nica" title="Botànica – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Botànica" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botany" title="Botany – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Botany" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanika" title="Botanika – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Botanika" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/But%C3%A0nica" title="Butànica – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Butànica" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%8B%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%B7%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="උද්භිද විද්‍යාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="උද්භිද විද්‍යාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botany" title="Botany – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Botany" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="نباتاتيات – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="نباتاتيات" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanika" title="Botanika – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Botanika" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanika" title="Botanika – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Botanika" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%95%D9%88%DB%95%DA%A9%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="ڕوەکناسی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ڕوەکناسی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ботаника – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Ботаника" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanika" title="Botanika – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Botanika" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botani" title="Botani – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Botani" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasvitiede" title="Kasvitiede – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kasvitiede" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanik" title="Botanik – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Botanik" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanika" title="Botanika – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Botanika" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="தாவரவியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="தாவரவியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasnm%C9%A3ayt" title="Tasnmɣayt – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Tasnmɣayt" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taclḥit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasnim%C9%A3it" title="Tasnimɣit – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tasnimɣit" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ботаника – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Ботаника" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B5%E0%B1%83%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B7%E0%B0%B6%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%82" title="వృక్షశాస్త్రం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="వృక్షశాస్త్రం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A4%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="พฤกษศาสตร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="พฤกษศาสตร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B8%D1%91%D2%B3%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D3%A3" title="Гиёҳшиносӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Гиёҳшиносӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanik" title="Botanik – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Botanik" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanika" title="Botanika – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Botanika" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-udm mw-list-item"><a href="https://udm.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ботаника – Udmurt" lang="udm" hreflang="udm" data-title="Ботаника" data-language-autonym="Удмурт" data-language-local-name="Udmurt" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Удмурт</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ботаніка – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Ботаніка" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="نباتیات – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="نباتیات" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bot%C3%A0nega" title="Botànega – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Botànega" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanik" title="Botanik – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Botanik" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vepsän kel’</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BB%B1c_v%E1%BA%ADt_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Thực vật học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Thực vật học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planav" title="Planav – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Planav" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Volapük</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanike" title="Botanike – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Botanike" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanika" title="Botanika – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Botanika" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="植物学 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="植物学" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%90%D7%98%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%A7" title="באטאניק – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="באטאניק" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" 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class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Good_articles*" title="This is a good article. 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Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Study of plant life</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Several terms redirect here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Botany_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Botany (disambiguation)">Botany (disambiguation)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Botanic_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Botanic (disambiguation)">Botanic (disambiguation)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Botanist_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Botanist (disambiguation)">Botanist (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Myris_fragr_Fr_080112-3294_ltn.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Image of ripe nutmeg fruit split open to show red aril" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Myris_fragr_Fr_080112-3294_ltn.jpg/280px-Myris_fragr_Fr_080112-3294_ltn.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Myris_fragr_Fr_080112-3294_ltn.jpg/420px-Myris_fragr_Fr_080112-3294_ltn.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Myris_fragr_Fr_080112-3294_ltn.jpg/560px-Myris_fragr_Fr_080112-3294_ltn.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1300" data-file-height="1144" /></a><figcaption>The fruit of <i><a href="/wiki/Myristica_fragrans" title="Myristica fragrans">Myristica fragrans</a></i>, a species native to <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, is the source of two valuable spices, the red aril (<a href="/wiki/Mace_(spice)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mace (spice)">mace</a>) enclosing the dark brown <a href="/wiki/Nutmeg" title="Nutmeg">nutmeg</a>.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:DNA_simple_horizontal.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/DNA_simple_horizontal.svg/150px-DNA_simple_horizontal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="57" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/DNA_simple_horizontal.svg/225px-DNA_simple_horizontal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/DNA_simple_horizontal.svg/300px-DNA_simple_horizontal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="248" data-file-height="94" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="display:block; margin-bottom:0.55em; background-color: #e7f4e7;background-color:light-dark(#e7f4e7,black); color:var(--color-base,#202122);font-family:inherit;font-family:inherit;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_biology_articles" title="Index of biology articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_biology" title="Outline of biology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_biology" title="Glossary of biology">Glossary</a></li></ul> <div class="hlist"> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">History</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry" title="Timeline of biology and organic chemistry">timeline</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;background:light-dark(#e7f4e7,black);color:var(--color-base,#202122);font-family:inherit;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90db90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Key components</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cell_theory" title="Cell theory">Cell theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree"> Phylogeny</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b>Properties of <a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">life</a></b></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism"> Energy processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structure#Biological" title="Structure">Order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">Regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproduction" title="Reproduction">Reproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stimulus_(physiology)" title="Stimulus (physiology)">Response to environment</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Domain_(biology)" title="Domain (biology)"> Domains</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)" title="Kingdom (biology)">Kingdoms</a> of life</b></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukarya</a> (<a href="/wiki/Animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Animals">Animals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">Fungi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Plants">Plants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protists" class="mw-redirect" title="Protists">Protists</a>)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;background:light-dark(#e7f4e7,black);color:var(--color-base,#202122);font-family:inherit;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90db90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Branches</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerobiology" title="Aerobiology">Aerobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrostology" title="Agrostology">Agrostology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriology" title="Bacteriology">Bacteriology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeology" title="Biogeology">Biogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Biological engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomechanics" title="Biomechanics">Biomechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosemiotics" title="Biosemiotics">Biosemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></li> <li>Botany</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_microbiology" title="Cellular microbiology">Cellular microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">Chemical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronobiology" title="Chronobiology">Chronobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_biology" title="Cognitive biology">Cognitive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">Computational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryobiology" title="Cryobiology">Cryobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">Embryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biology" title="Freshwater biology">Freshwater biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative biology">Generative biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontology" title="Gerontology">Gerontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herpetology" title="Herpetology">Herpetology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">Histology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_biology" title="Human biology">Human biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyology" title="Ichthyology">Ichthyology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipidology" title="Lipidology">Lipidology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammalogy" title="Mammalogy">Mammalogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">Marine biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_and_theoretical_biology" title="Mathematical and theoretical biology">Mathematical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycology" title="Mycology">Mycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neontology" title="Neontology">Neontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_science" title="Nutritional science">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ornithology" title="Ornithology">Ornithology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteology" title="Osteology">Osteology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitology" title="Parasitology">Parasitology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">Pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photobiology" title="Photobiology">Photobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">Physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomology" title="Pomology">Pomology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proteomics" title="Proteomics">Proteomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protistology" title="Protistology">Protistology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_biology" title="Quantum biology">Quantum biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Relational biology">Relational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_biology" title="Reproductive biology">Reproductive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_biology" title="Structural biology">Structural biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_biology" title="Synthetic biology">Synthetic biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">Systems biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teratology" title="Teratology">Teratology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicology" title="Toxicology">Toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virology" title="Virology">Virology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virophysics" title="Virophysics">Virophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenobiology" title="Xenobiology">Xenobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">Zoology</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;background:light-dark(#e7f4e7,black);color:var(--color-base,#202122);font-family:inherit;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90db90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Research</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biologist" title="Biologist">Biologist</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_biologists" title="List of biologists">list)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biology_awards" title="List of biology awards">List of biology awards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biology_journals" title="List of biology journals">List of journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_research_methods_in_biology" title="List of research methods in biology">List of research methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_biology" title="List of unsolved problems in biology">List of unsolved problems</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;background:light-dark(#e7f4e7,black);color:var(--color-base,#202122);font-family:inherit;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90db90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Applications</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_science" title="Agricultural science">Agricultural science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomedical_sciences" title="Biomedical sciences">Biomedical sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_technology" title="Health technology">Health technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharming_(genetics)" title="Pharming (genetics)"> Pharming</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Issoria_lathonia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/17px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg" decoding="async" width="17" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/26px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/34px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="629" data-file-height="445" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Biology" title="Portal:Biology">Biology portal</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Biology" title="Category:Biology">Category</a></span></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:TopicTOC-Biology" title="Template:TopicTOC-Biology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:TopicTOC-Biology" title="Template talk:TopicTOC-Biology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:TopicTOC-Biology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:TopicTOC-Biology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Botany</b>, also called <b>plant science</b> or <b>phytology</b>, is the branch of <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a> studying <a href="/wiki/Plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Plants">plants</a>, especially <a href="/wiki/Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">their anatomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plant_taxonomy" title="Plant taxonomy">taxonomy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Plant_ecology" title="Plant ecology">ecology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <b>botanist</b>, <b>plant scientist</b> or <b>phytologist</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Scientist" title="Scientist">scientist</a> who specialises in this field. Nowadays, botanists (in the strict sense) study approximately 410,000 <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> of <a href="/wiki/Embryophyte" title="Embryophyte">land plants</a>, including some 391,000 species of <a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">vascular plants</a> (of which approximately 369,000 are <a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">flowering plants</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERGB_Kew2016_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERGB_Kew2016-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and approximately 20,000 <a href="/wiki/Bryophyte" title="Bryophyte">bryophytes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThe_Plant_List2013_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_Plant_List2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Botany originated in prehistory as <a href="/wiki/Herbalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbalism">herbalism</a> with the efforts of early humans to identify – and later cultivate – plants that were edible, poisonous, and possibly medicinal, making it one of the first endeavours of human investigation. Medieval <a href="/wiki/Physic_garden" title="Physic garden">physic gardens</a>, often attached to <a href="/wiki/Monastery" title="Monastery">monasteries</a>, contained plants possibly having medicinal benefit. They were forerunners of the first <a href="/wiki/Botanical_garden" title="Botanical garden">botanical gardens</a> attached to <a href="/wiki/University" title="University">universities</a>, founded from the 1540s onwards. One of the earliest was the <a href="/wiki/Orto_botanico_di_Padova" title="Orto botanico di Padova">Padua botanical garden</a>. These gardens facilitated the academic study of plants. Efforts to catalogue and describe their collections were the beginnings of <a href="/wiki/Plant_taxonomy" title="Plant taxonomy">plant taxonomy</a> and led in 1753 to the <a href="/wiki/Binomial_nomenclature" title="Binomial nomenclature">binomial system of nomenclature</a> of <a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carl Linnaeus</a> that remains in use to this day for the naming of all biological species. </p><p>In the 19th and 20th centuries, new techniques were developed for the study of plants, including methods of <a href="/wiki/Optical_microscope" title="Optical microscope">optical microscopy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Live_cell_imaging" class="mw-redirect" title="Live cell imaging">live cell imaging</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electron_microscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron microscopy">electron microscopy</a>, analysis of <a href="/wiki/Ploidy" title="Ploidy">chromosome number</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phytochemistry" title="Phytochemistry">plant chemistry</a> and the structure and function of <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a>. In the last two decades of the 20th century, botanists exploited the techniques of <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular genetic analysis</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">genomics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Proteomics" title="Proteomics">proteomics</a> and <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequences" class="mw-redirect" title="DNA sequences">DNA sequences</a> to classify plants more accurately. </p><p>Modern botany is a broad subject with contributions and insights from most other areas of science and technology. Research topics include the study of plant <a href="/wiki/Plant_morphology" title="Plant morphology">structure</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cell_growth" title="Cell growth">growth</a> and differentiation, <a href="/wiki/Plant_reproduction" title="Plant reproduction">reproduction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plant_physiology#Biochemistry_of_plants" title="Plant physiology">biochemistry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">primary metabolism</a>, chemical products, <a href="/wiki/Plant_morphology#Morphology_in_development" title="Plant morphology">development</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plant_pathology" title="Plant pathology">diseases</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">evolutionary relationships</a>, <a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">systematics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">plant taxonomy</a>. Dominant themes in 21st-century plant science are <a href="/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">molecular genetics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">epigenetics</a>, which study the mechanisms and control of gene expression during differentiation of <a href="/wiki/Plant_cell" title="Plant cell">plant cells</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)#Plant_tissue" title="Tissue (biology)">tissues</a>. Botanical research has diverse applications in providing <a href="/wiki/Staple_foods" class="mw-redirect" title="Staple foods">staple foods</a>, materials such as <a href="/wiki/Lumber" title="Lumber">timber</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oil" title="Oil">oil</a>, rubber, <a href="/wiki/Fiber" title="Fiber">fibre</a> and drugs, in modern <a href="/wiki/Horticulture" title="Horticulture">horticulture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">forestry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plant_propagation" title="Plant propagation">plant propagation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plant_breeding" title="Plant breeding">breeding</a> and <a href="/wiki/Genetic_modification" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic modification">genetic modification</a>, in the synthesis of chemicals and raw materials for construction and energy production, in <a href="/wiki/Environmental_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental management">environmental management</a>, and the maintenance of <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Botany&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term "botany" comes from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> word <i><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">botanē</i></span></i> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">βοτάνη</span></span>) meaning "<a href="/wiki/Pasture" title="Pasture">pasture</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Herb" title="Herb">herbs</a>" "<a href="/wiki/Poaceae" title="Poaceae">grass</a>", or "<a href="/wiki/Fodder" title="Fodder">fodder</a>";<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">Botanē</i></span></i> is in turn derived from <i><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">boskein</i></span></i> (<a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>: <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">βόσκειν</span></span>), "to feed" or "to <a href="/wiki/Grazing" title="Grazing">graze</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiddellScott1940_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiddellScott1940-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGordhHeadrick2001134_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGordhHeadrick2001134-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOnline_Etymology_Dictionary2012_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOnline_Etymology_Dictionary2012-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Traditionally, botany has also included the study of <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">fungi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a> by <a href="/wiki/Mycologists" class="mw-redirect" title="Mycologists">mycologists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phycologists" class="mw-redirect" title="Phycologists">phycologists</a> respectively, with the study of these three groups of organisms remaining within the sphere of interest of the <a href="/wiki/International_Botanical_Congress" title="International Botanical Congress">International Botanical Congress</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Botany&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_botany" title="History of botany">History of botany</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_botany">Early botany</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Botany&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Early botany"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cork_Micrographia_Hooke.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="engraving of cork cells from Hooke's Micrographia, 1665" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Cork_Micrographia_Hooke.png/220px-Cork_Micrographia_Hooke.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="317" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Cork_Micrographia_Hooke.png/330px-Cork_Micrographia_Hooke.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Cork_Micrographia_Hooke.png/440px-Cork_Micrographia_Hooke.png 2x" data-file-width="811" data-file-height="1170" /></a><figcaption>An engraving of the cells of <a href="/wiki/Cork_oak" class="mw-redirect" title="Cork oak">cork</a>, from <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Micrographia" title="Micrographia">Micrographia</a></i>, 1665</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:267px;max-width:267px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:87px;max-width:87px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:100px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Renaissance_C14_F%C3%BCllmaurer_Leonhart_Fuchs.jpg/85px-Renaissance_C14_F%C3%BCllmaurer_Leonhart_Fuchs.jpg" decoding="async" width="85" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Renaissance_C14_F%C3%BCllmaurer_Leonhart_Fuchs.jpg/128px-Renaissance_C14_F%C3%BCllmaurer_Leonhart_Fuchs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Renaissance_C14_F%C3%BCllmaurer_Leonhart_Fuchs.jpg/170px-Renaissance_C14_F%C3%BCllmaurer_Leonhart_Fuchs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1492" data-file-height="2246" /></span></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Leonhart_Fuchs" title="Leonhart Fuchs">Leonhart Fuchs</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:87px;max-width:87px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:100px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Brunfels-1.png/85px-Brunfels-1.png" decoding="async" width="85" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Brunfels-1.png/128px-Brunfels-1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Brunfels-1.png/170px-Brunfels-1.png 2x" data-file-width="1275" data-file-height="1920" /></span></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Otto_Brunfels" title="Otto Brunfels">Otto Brunfels</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:87px;max-width:87px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:100px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Hieronymus_Bock_%281546%29.jpg/85px-Hieronymus_Bock_%281546%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="85" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Hieronymus_Bock_%281546%29.jpg/128px-Hieronymus_Bock_%281546%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Hieronymus_Bock_%281546%29.jpg/170px-Hieronymus_Bock_%281546%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="764" data-file-height="1049" /></span></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Hieronymus_Bock" title="Hieronymus Bock">Hieronymus Bock</a></div></div></div></div></div> <p>Botany originated as <a href="/wiki/Herbalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbalism">herbalism</a>, the study and use of plants for their <a href="/wiki/Medicinal_plants" title="Medicinal plants">possible medicinal properties</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESumner200016_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESumner200016-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The early recorded history of botany includes many ancient writings and plant classifications. Examples of early botanical works have been found in ancient texts from India dating back to before 1100 BCE,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReed19427–29_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReed19427–29-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOberlies1998155_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOberlies1998155-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManniche2006_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManniche2006-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in archaic <a href="/wiki/Avestan_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Avestan language">Avestan</a> writings, and in works from China purportedly from before 221 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReed19427–29_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReed19427–29-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedhamLuHuang1986_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedhamLuHuang1986-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Modern botany traces its roots back to <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a> specifically to <a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 371</span>–287 BCE), a student of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> who invented and described many of its principles and is widely regarded in the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_community" title="Scientific community">scientific community</a> as the "Father of Botany".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreene1909140–142_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreene1909140–142-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His major works, <i><a href="/wiki/Historia_Plantarum_(Theophrastus)" title="Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus)">Enquiry into Plants</a></i> and <i>On the Causes of Plants</i>, constitute the most important contributions to botanical science until the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, almost seventeen centuries later.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreene1909140–142_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreene1909140–142-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBennettHammond190230_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennettHammond190230-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another work from Ancient Greece that made an early impact on botany is <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/De_materia_medica" title="De materia medica">De materia medica</a></i></span>, a five-volume encyclopedia about <a href="/wiki/Herbalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbalism">preliminary herbal medicine</a> written in the middle of the first century by Greek physician and pharmacologist <a href="/wiki/Pedanius_Dioscorides" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedanius Dioscorides">Pedanius Dioscorides</a>. <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">De materia medica</i></span> was widely read for more than 1,500 years.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003532_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003532-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Important contributions from the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">medieval Muslim world</a> include <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Wahshiyya" title="Ibn Wahshiyya">Ibn Wahshiyya</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Nabatean_Agriculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Nabatean Agriculture">Nabatean Agriculture</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Ab%C5%AB_%E1%B8%A4an%C4%ABfa_D%C4%ABnawar%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abū Ḥanīfa Dīnawarī">Abū Ḥanīfa Dīnawarī</a>'s (828–896) the <i>Book of Plants</i>, and <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Bassal" title="Ibn Bassal">Ibn Bassal</a>'s <i>The Classification of Soils</i>. In the early 13th century, <a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Abbas_al-Nabati" title="Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati">Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Baitar" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn al-Baitar">Ibn al-Baitar</a> (d. 1248) wrote on botany in a systematic and scientific manner.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallal2010197_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallal2010197-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPanaino200293_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPanaino200293-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevey1973116_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevey1973116-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the mid-16th century, <a href="/wiki/Botanical_garden" title="Botanical garden">botanical gardens</a> were founded in a number of Italian universities. The <a href="/wiki/Orto_botanico_di_Padova" title="Orto botanico di Padova">Padua botanical garden</a> in 1545 is usually considered to be the first which is still in its original location. These gardens continued the practical value of earlier "physic gardens", often associated with monasteries, in which plants were cultivated for suspected medicinal uses. They supported the growth of botany as an academic subject. Lectures were given about the plants grown in the gardens. Botanical gardens came much later to northern Europe; the first in England was the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford_Botanic_Garden" title="University of Oxford Botanic Garden">University of Oxford Botanic Garden</a> in 1621.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill1915_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill1915-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>German physician <a href="/wiki/Leonhart_Fuchs" title="Leonhart Fuchs">Leonhart Fuchs</a> (1501–1566) was one of "the three German fathers of botany", along with theologian <a href="/wiki/Otto_Brunfels" title="Otto Brunfels">Otto Brunfels</a> (1489–1534) and physician <a href="/wiki/Hieronymus_Bock" title="Hieronymus Bock">Hieronymus Bock</a> (1498–1554) (also called Hieronymus Tragus).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENational_Museum_of_Wales2007_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENational_Museum_of_Wales2007-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYanivBachrach2005157_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYanivBachrach2005157-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fuchs and Brunfels broke away from the tradition of copying earlier works to make original observations of their own. Bock created his own system of plant classification. </p><p>Physician <a href="/wiki/Valerius_Cordus" title="Valerius Cordus">Valerius Cordus</a> (1515–1544) authored a botanically and pharmacologically important herbal <i>Historia Plantarum</i> in 1544 and a <a href="/wiki/Pharmacopoeia" title="Pharmacopoeia">pharmacopoeia</a> of lasting importance, the <i>Dispensatorium</i> in 1546.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpragueSprague1939_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpragueSprague1939-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Naturalist <a href="/wiki/Conrad_von_Gesner" class="mw-redirect" title="Conrad von Gesner">Conrad von Gesner</a> (1516–1565) and herbalist <a href="/wiki/John_Gerard" title="John Gerard">John Gerard</a> (1545–<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1611</span>) published herbals covering the supposed medicinal uses of plants. Naturalist <a href="/wiki/Ulisse_Aldrovandi" title="Ulisse Aldrovandi">Ulisse Aldrovandi</a> (1522–1605) was considered the <i>father of natural history</i>, which included the study of plants. In 1665, using an early microscope, <a href="/wiki/Polymath" title="Polymath">Polymath</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a> discovered <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a> (a term he coined) in <a href="/wiki/Cork_(material)" title="Cork (material)">cork</a>, and a short time later in living plant tissue.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaggoner2001_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaggoner2001-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_modern_botany">Early modern botany</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Botany&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Early modern botany"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)#History_of_taxonomy" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy (biology) § History of taxonomy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CarlvonLinne_Garden.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photograph of a garden" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/CarlvonLinne_Garden.jpg/220px-CarlvonLinne_Garden.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/CarlvonLinne_Garden.jpg/330px-CarlvonLinne_Garden.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/CarlvonLinne_Garden.jpg/440px-CarlvonLinne_Garden.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Linnaean_Garden" title="Linnaean Garden">Linnaean Garden</a> of Linnaeus' residence in Uppsala, Sweden, was planted according to his <i>Systema sexuale</i>.</figcaption></figure> <p>During the 18th century, systems of <a href="/wiki/Plant_identification" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant identification">plant identification</a> were developed comparable to <a href="/wiki/Single_access_key" class="mw-redirect" title="Single access key">dichotomous keys</a>, where unidentified plants are placed into <a href="/wiki/Taxon" title="Taxon">taxonomic</a> groups (e.g. family, genus and species) by making a series of choices between pairs of <a href="/wiki/Character_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Character (biology)">characters</a>. The choice and sequence of the characters may be artificial in keys designed purely for identification (<a href="/wiki/Single_access_key#Diagnostic_('artificial')_versus_synoptic_('natural')_keys" class="mw-redirect" title="Single access key">diagnostic keys</a>) or more closely related to the natural or <a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_order" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxonomic order">phyletic order</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Taxon" title="Taxon">taxa</a> in synoptic keys.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScharf200973–117_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScharf200973–117-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the 18th century, new plants for study were arriving in Europe in increasing numbers from newly discovered countries and the European colonies worldwide. In 1753, <a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carl Linnaeus</a> published his <a href="/wiki/Species_Plantarum" title="Species Plantarum">Species Plantarum</a>, a hierarchical classification of plant species that remains the reference point for <a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_algae,_fungi,_and_plants" title="International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants">modern botanical nomenclature</a>. This established a standardised binomial or two-part naming scheme where the first name represented the <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genus</a> and the second identified the <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> within the genus.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECapon2005220–223_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECapon2005220–223-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the purposes of identification, Linnaeus's <i>Systema Sexuale</i> <a href="/wiki/Linnaean_taxonomy#Classification_of_plants" title="Linnaean taxonomy">classified</a> plants into 24 groups according to the number of their male sexual organs. The 24th group, <i>Cryptogamia</i>, included all plants with concealed reproductive parts, <a href="/wiki/Moss" title="Moss">mosses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liverwort" class="mw-redirect" title="Liverwort">liverworts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">ferns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">fungi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoekMannJahns20059_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoekMannJahns20059-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Increasing knowledge of <a href="/wiki/Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">plant anatomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plant_morphology" title="Plant morphology">morphology</a> and life cycles led to the realisation that there were more natural affinities between plants than the artificial sexual system of Linnaeus. <a href="/wiki/Michel_Adanson" title="Michel Adanson">Adanson</a> (1763), <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Laurent_de_Jussieu" title="Antoine Laurent de Jussieu">de Jussieu</a> (1789), and <a href="/wiki/Augustin_Pyramus_de_Candolle" title="Augustin Pyramus de Candolle">Candolle</a> (1819) all proposed various alternative natural systems of classification that grouped plants using a wider range of shared characters and were widely followed. The <a href="/wiki/Candollean_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Candollean system">Candollean system</a> reflected his ideas of the progression of morphological complexity and the later <a href="/wiki/Bentham_%26_Hooker_system" title="Bentham & Hooker system">Bentham & Hooker system</a>, which was influential until the mid-19th century, was influenced by Candolle's approach. <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin</a>'s publication of the <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">Origin of Species</a></i> in 1859 and his concept of common descent required modifications to the Candollean system to reflect evolutionary relationships as distinct from mere morphological similarity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStarr2009299–_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStarr2009299–-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 19th century botany was a socially acceptable hobby for upper-class women. These women would collect and paint flowers and plants from around the world with scientific accuracy. The paintings were used to record many species that could not be transported or maintained in other environments. <a href="/wiki/Marianne_North" title="Marianne North">Marianne North</a> illustrated over 900 species in extreme detail with watercolor and oil paintings.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Her work and many other women's botany work was the beginning of popularizing botany to a wider audience. </p><p>Botany was greatly stimulated by the appearance of the first "modern" textbook, <a href="/wiki/Matthias_Jakob_Schleiden" title="Matthias Jakob Schleiden">Matthias Schleiden</a>'s <i><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Grundzüge der Wissenschaftlichen Botanik</i></span></i>, published in English in 1849 as <i>Principles of Scientific Botany</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorton1981377_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorton1981377-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Schleiden was a microscopist and an early plant anatomist who co-founded the <a href="/wiki/Cell_theory" title="Cell theory">cell theory</a> with <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Schwann" title="Theodor Schwann">Theodor Schwann</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Virchow" title="Rudolf Virchow">Rudolf Virchow</a> and was among the first to grasp the significance of the <a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus" title="Cell nucleus">cell nucleus</a> that had been described by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Brown_(botanist,_born_1773)" title="Robert Brown (botanist, born 1773)">Robert Brown</a> in 1831.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris200076–81_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris200076–81-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1855, <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Fick" class="mw-redirect" title="Adolf Fick">Adolf Fick</a> formulated <a href="/wiki/Fick%27s_laws_of_diffusion" title="Fick's laws of diffusion">Fick's laws</a> that enabled the calculation of the rates of <a href="/wiki/Molecular_diffusion" title="Molecular diffusion">molecular diffusion</a> in biological systems.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmall2012118–_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmall2012118–-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Echeveria_glauca_II.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Echeveria_glauca_II.jpg/220px-Echeveria_glauca_II.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Echeveria_glauca_II.jpg/330px-Echeveria_glauca_II.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Echeveria_glauca_II.jpg/440px-Echeveria_glauca_II.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7360" data-file-height="4912" /></a><figcaption><i>Echeveria glauca</i> in a Connecticut greenhouse. Botany uses Latin names for identification; here, the specific name <i>glauca</i> means blue.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_modern_botany">Late modern botany</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Botany&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Late modern botany"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Building upon the gene-chromosome theory of heredity that originated with <a href="/wiki/Gregor_Mendel" title="Gregor Mendel">Gregor Mendel</a> (1822–1884), <a href="/wiki/August_Weismann" title="August Weismann">August Weismann</a> (1834–1914) proved that inheritance only takes place through <a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">gametes</a>. No other cells can pass on inherited characters.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKarp2009382_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKarp2009382-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The work of <a href="/wiki/Katherine_Esau" title="Katherine Esau">Katherine Esau</a> (1898–1997) on plant anatomy is still a major foundation of modern botany. Her books <i>Plant Anatomy</i> and <i>Anatomy of Seed Plants</i> have been key plant structural biology texts for more than half a century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENational_Science_Foundation1989_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENational_Science_Foundation1989-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChaffey2007481–482_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChaffey2007481–482-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ETH-BIB-Kurs_in_Alpenbotanik-Ans_08784-01-031.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/ETH-BIB-Kurs_in_Alpenbotanik-Ans_08784-01-031.tif/lossy-page1-170px-ETH-BIB-Kurs_in_Alpenbotanik-Ans_08784-01-031.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/ETH-BIB-Kurs_in_Alpenbotanik-Ans_08784-01-031.tif/lossy-page1-255px-ETH-BIB-Kurs_in_Alpenbotanik-Ans_08784-01-031.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/ETH-BIB-Kurs_in_Alpenbotanik-Ans_08784-01-031.tif/lossy-page1-340px-ETH-BIB-Kurs_in_Alpenbotanik-Ans_08784-01-031.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3992" data-file-height="5533" /></a><figcaption>Class of alpine botany in Switzerland, 1936</figcaption></figure> <p>The discipline of <a href="/wiki/Plant_ecology" title="Plant ecology">plant ecology</a> was pioneered in the late 19th century by botanists such as <a href="/wiki/Eugenius_Warming" title="Eugenius Warming">Eugenius Warming</a>, who produced the hypothesis that plants form <a href="/wiki/Plant_community" title="Plant community">communities</a>, and his mentor and successor <a href="/wiki/Christen_C._Raunki%C3%A6r" title="Christen C. Raunkiær">Christen C. Raunkiær</a> whose system for describing <a href="/wiki/Raunki%C3%A6r_plant_life-form" title="Raunkiær plant life-form">plant life forms</a> is still in use today. The concept that the composition of plant communities such as <a href="/wiki/Temperate_broadleaf_and_mixed_forests" title="Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests">temperate broadleaf forest</a> changes by a process of <a href="/wiki/Ecological_succession" title="Ecological succession">ecological succession</a> was developed by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Chandler_Cowles" title="Henry Chandler Cowles">Henry Chandler Cowles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Tansley" title="Arthur Tansley">Arthur Tansley</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frederic_Clements" title="Frederic Clements">Frederic Clements</a>. Clements is credited with the idea of <a href="/wiki/Climax_vegetation" class="mw-redirect" title="Climax vegetation">climax vegetation</a> as the most complex vegetation that an environment can support and Tansley introduced the concept of <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystems</a> to biology.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETansley1935299–302_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETansley1935299–302-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillis1997267–271_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillis1997267–271-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorton1981457_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorton1981457-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Building on the extensive earlier work of <a href="/wiki/Alphonse_Pyramus_de_Candolle" title="Alphonse Pyramus de Candolle">Alphonse de Candolle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Ivanovich_Vavilov" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikolai Ivanovich Vavilov">Nikolai Vavilov</a> (1887–1943) produced accounts of the <a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">biogeography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Center_of_origin" class="mw-redirect" title="Center of origin">centres of origin</a>, and evolutionary history of economic plants.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Candolle20069–25,_450–465_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Candolle20069–25,_450–465-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Particularly since the mid-1960s there have been advances in understanding of the physics of <a href="/wiki/Plant_physiology" title="Plant physiology">plant physiological</a> processes such as <a href="/wiki/Transpiration" title="Transpiration">transpiration</a> (the transport of water within plant tissues), the temperature dependence of rates of water <a href="/wiki/Evaporation" title="Evaporation">evaporation</a> from the leaf surface and the <a href="/wiki/Molecular_diffusion" title="Molecular diffusion">molecular diffusion</a> of water vapour and carbon dioxide through <a href="/wiki/Stomatal" class="mw-redirect" title="Stomatal">stomatal</a> apertures. These developments, coupled with new methods for measuring the size of stomatal apertures, and the rate of <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> have enabled precise description of the rates of <a href="/wiki/Gas_exchange" title="Gas exchange">gas exchange</a> between plants and the atmosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJasechkoSharpGibsonBirks2013347–350_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJasechkoSharpGibsonBirks2013347–350-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENobel1983608_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENobel1983608-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Innovations in <a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">statistical analysis</a> by <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Fisher" title="Ronald Fisher">Ronald Fisher</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYatesMather196391–129_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYatesMather196391–129-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Frank_Yates" title="Frank Yates">Frank Yates</a> and others at <a href="/wiki/Rothamsted_Research#Statistical_science" title="Rothamsted Research">Rothamsted Experimental Station</a> facilitated rational experimental design and data analysis in botanical research.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFinney1995554–573_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinney1995554–573-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The discovery and identification of the <a href="/wiki/Auxin" title="Auxin">auxin</a> plant hormones by <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_V._Thimann" title="Kenneth V. Thimann">Kenneth V. Thimann</a> in 1948 enabled regulation of plant growth by externally applied chemicals. <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Campion_Steward" title="Frederick Campion Steward">Frederick Campion Steward</a> pioneered techniques of <a href="/wiki/Micropropagation" title="Micropropagation">micropropagation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plant_tissue_culture" title="Plant tissue culture">plant tissue culture</a> controlled by <a href="/wiki/Plant_physiology#Plant_hormones" title="Plant physiology">plant hormones</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECocking1993_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECocking1993-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The synthetic auxin <a href="/wiki/2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic_acid" title="2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid">2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid</a> or 2,4-D was one of the first commercial synthetic <a href="/wiki/Herbicide" title="Herbicide">herbicides</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECousensMortimer1995_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECousensMortimer1995-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Apfe-auf-Naehrboden.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Micropropagation of transgenic plants" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Apfe-auf-Naehrboden.jpg/170px-Apfe-auf-Naehrboden.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Apfe-auf-Naehrboden.jpg/255px-Apfe-auf-Naehrboden.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Apfe-auf-Naehrboden.jpg/340px-Apfe-auf-Naehrboden.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1799" data-file-height="2700" /></a><figcaption>Micropropagation of transgenic plants</figcaption></figure> <p>20th century developments in plant biochemistry have been driven by modern techniques of <a href="/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry">organic chemical analysis</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">spectroscopy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">chromatography</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electrophoresis" title="Electrophoresis">electrophoresis</a>. With the rise of the related molecular-scale biological approaches of <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">genomics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proteomics" title="Proteomics">proteomics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Metabolomics" title="Metabolomics">metabolomics</a>, the relationship between the plant <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a> and most aspects of the biochemistry, physiology, morphology and behaviour of plants can be subjected to detailed experimental analysis.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEhrhardtFrommer20121–21_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEhrhardtFrommer20121–21-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concept originally stated by <a href="/wiki/Gottlieb_Haberlandt" title="Gottlieb Haberlandt">Gottlieb Haberlandt</a> in 1902<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaberlandt190269–92_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaberlandt190269–92-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that all plant cells are <a href="/wiki/Cell_potency#Totipotency" title="Cell potency">totipotent</a> and can be grown <i>in vitro</i> ultimately enabled the use of <a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">genetic engineering</a> experimentally to knock out a gene or genes responsible for a specific trait, or to add genes such as <a href="/wiki/Green_fluorescent_protein" title="Green fluorescent protein">GFP</a> that <a href="/wiki/Reporter_gene" title="Reporter gene">report</a> when a gene of interest is being expressed. These technologies enable the biotechnological use of whole plants or plant cell cultures grown in <a href="/wiki/Bioreactors" class="mw-redirect" title="Bioreactors">bioreactors</a> to synthesise <a href="/wiki/Bt_corn" class="mw-redirect" title="Bt corn">pesticides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biopharmaceutics" class="mw-redirect" title="Biopharmaceutics">antibiotics</a> or other <a href="/wiki/Pharming_(genetics)" title="Pharming (genetics)">pharmaceuticals</a>, as well as the practical application of <a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_crops" title="Genetically modified crops">genetically modified crops</a> designed for traits such as improved yield.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeonelliCharnleyWebbBastow2012_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeonelliCharnleyWebbBastow2012-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Modern morphology recognises a continuum between the major morphological categories of root, stem (caulome), leaf (phyllome) and <a href="/wiki/Trichome" title="Trichome">trichome</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESattlerJeune1992249–262_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESattlerJeune1992249–262-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, it emphasises structural dynamics.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESattler1992708–714_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESattler1992708–714-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern systematics aims to reflect and discover <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_nomenclature" title="Phylogenetic nomenclature">phylogenetic relationships</a> between plants.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEreshefsky1997493–519_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEreshefsky1997493–519-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraySargent1889292–293_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraySargent1889292–293-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMedbury199314–16_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedbury199314–16-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJuddCampbellKelloggStevens2002347–350_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJuddCampbellKelloggStevens2002347–350-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern <a href="/wiki/Molecular_phylogenetics" title="Molecular phylogenetics">Molecular phylogenetics</a> largely ignores morphological characters, relying on DNA sequences as data. Molecular analysis of <a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid_sequence" title="Nucleic acid sequence">DNA sequences</a> from most families of flowering plants enabled the <a href="/wiki/Angiosperm_Phylogeny_Group" title="Angiosperm Phylogeny Group">Angiosperm Phylogeny Group</a> to publish in 1998 a <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">phylogeny</a> of flowering plants, answering many of the questions about relationships among <a href="/wiki/Angiosperm" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiosperm">angiosperm</a> families and species.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurger2013_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurger2013-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The theoretical possibility of a practical method for identification of plant species and commercial varieties by <a href="/wiki/DNA_barcoding" title="DNA barcoding">DNA barcoding</a> is the subject of active current research.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKressWurdackZimmerWeigt20058369–8374_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKressWurdackZimmerWeigt20058369–8374-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJanzenForrestSpougeHajibabaei200912794–12797_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJanzenForrestSpougeHajibabaei200912794–12797-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Branches_of_botany">Branches of botany</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Botany&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Branches of botany"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Branches_of_botany" title="Branches of botany">Branches of botany</a></div> <p>Botany is divided along several axes. </p><p>Some subfields of botany relate to particular groups of organisms. Divisions related to the broader historical sense of botany include <a href="/wiki/Bacteriology" title="Bacteriology">bacteriology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mycology" title="Mycology">mycology</a> (or fungology) and <a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">phycology</a> - the study of bacteria, fungi and algae respectively - with <a href="/wiki/Lichenology" title="Lichenology">lichenology</a> as a subfield of mycology. The narrower sense of botany in the sense of the study of <a href="/wiki/Embryophytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Embryophytes">embryophytes</a> (land plants) is disambiguated as phytology. <a href="/wiki/Bryology" title="Bryology">Bryology</a> is the study of mosses (and in the broader sense also liverworts and hornworts). <a href="/wiki/Pteridology" class="mw-redirect" title="Pteridology">Pteridology</a> (or filicology) is the study of ferns and allied plants. A number of other taxa of ranks varying from family to subgenus have terms for their study, including <a href="/wiki/Agrostology" title="Agrostology">agrostology</a> (or graminology) for the study of grasses, <a href="/wiki/Synantherology" title="Synantherology">synantherology</a> for the study of composites, and <a href="/wiki/Batology" class="mw-redirect" title="Batology">batology</a> for the study of brambles. </p><p>Study can also be divided by <a href="/wiki/Guild_(ecology)" title="Guild (ecology)">guild</a> rather than <a href="/wiki/Clade" title="Clade">clade</a> or <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_grade" title="Evolutionary grade">grade</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a> is the study of woody plants. </p><p>Many divisions of <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a> have botanical subfields. These are commonly denoted by prefixing the word plant (e.g. plant taxonomy, plant ecology, plant anatomy, plant morphology, plant systematics, plant ecology), or prefixing or substituting the prefix phyto- (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Phytochemistry" title="Phytochemistry">phytochemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phytogeography" title="Phytogeography">phytogeography</a>). The study of fossil plants is <a href="/wiki/Palaeobotany" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeobotany">palaeobotany</a>. Other fields are denoted by adding or substituting the word botany (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Systematic_botany" class="mw-redirect" title="Systematic botany">systematic botany</a>). </p><p><a href="/wiki/Phytosociology" title="Phytosociology">Phytosociology</a> is a subfield of plant ecology that classifies and studies communities of plants. </p><p>The intersection of fields from the above pair of categories gives rise to fields such as bryogeography (the study of the distribution of mosses). </p><p>Different parts of plants also give rise to their own subfields, including <a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">xylology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carpology" title="Carpology">carpology</a> (or fructology) and <a href="/wiki/Palynology" title="Palynology">palynology</a>, these being the study of wood, fruit and pollen/spores respectively. </p><p>Botany also overlaps on the one hand with agriculture, horticulture and silviculture, and on the other hand with medicine and pharmacology, giving rise to fields such as <a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">agronomy</a>, horticultural botany, <a href="/wiki/Phytopathology" class="mw-redirect" title="Phytopathology">phytopathology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phytopharmacology" title="Phytopharmacology">phytopharmacology</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scope_and_importance">Scope and importance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Botany&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Scope and importance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Neuch%C3%A2tel_Herbarium_-_Athyrium_filix-femina_-_NEU000003080.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A herbarium specimen of the lady fern, Athyrium filix-femina" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Neuch%C3%A2tel_Herbarium_-_Athyrium_filix-femina_-_NEU000003080.tif/lossy-page1-170px-Neuch%C3%A2tel_Herbarium_-_Athyrium_filix-femina_-_NEU000003080.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Neuch%C3%A2tel_Herbarium_-_Athyrium_filix-femina_-_NEU000003080.tif/lossy-page1-255px-Neuch%C3%A2tel_Herbarium_-_Athyrium_filix-femina_-_NEU000003080.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Neuch%C3%A2tel_Herbarium_-_Athyrium_filix-femina_-_NEU000003080.tif/lossy-page1-340px-Neuch%C3%A2tel_Herbarium_-_Athyrium_filix-femina_-_NEU000003080.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1320" data-file-height="1980" /></a><figcaption>Botany involves the recording and description of plants, such as this herbarium specimen of the lady fern <i><a href="/wiki/Athyrium_filix-femina" title="Athyrium filix-femina">Athyrium filix-femina</a></i>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The study of plants is vital because they underpin almost all animal life on Earth by generating a large proportion of the <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> and food that provide humans and other organisms with <a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">aerobic respiration</a> with the chemical energy they need to exist. Plants, <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a> are the major groups of organisms that carry out <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>, a process that uses the energy of sunlight to convert water and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008186–187_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008186–187-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> into sugars that can be used both as a source of chemical energy and of organic molecules that are used in the structural components of cells.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain20081240_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain20081240-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a by-product of photosynthesis, plants release <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> into the atmosphere, a gas that is required by <a href="/wiki/Anaerobic_organism" title="Anaerobic organism">nearly</a> all living things to carry out cellular respiration. In addition, they are influential in the global <a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">carbon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Water_cycle" title="Water cycle">water</a> cycles and plant roots bind and stabilise soils, preventing soil <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGust1996_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGust1996-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plants are crucial to the future of human society as they provide food, oxygen, <a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">biochemicals</a>, and products for people, as well as creating and preserving soil.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMissouri_Botanical_Garden2009_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMissouri_Botanical_Garden2009-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historically, all living things were classified as either animals or plants<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChapman_et_al.200156_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChapman_et_al.200156-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and botany covered the study of all organisms not considered animals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraselton2013_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraselton2013-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Botanists examine both the internal functions and processes within plant <a href="/wiki/Organelle" title="Organelle">organelles</a>, cells, tissues, whole plants, plant populations and plant communities. At each of these levels, a botanist may be concerned with the classification (<a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">taxonomy</a>), <a href="/wiki/Phylogeny" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylogeny">phylogeny</a> and <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a>, structure (<a href="/wiki/Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">anatomy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plant_morphology" title="Plant morphology">morphology</a>), or function (<a href="/wiki/Plant_physiology" title="Plant physiology">physiology</a>) of plant life.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBen-Menahem20095368_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBen-Menahem20095368-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The strictest definition of "plant" includes only the "land plants" or <a href="/wiki/Embryophytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Embryophytes">embryophytes</a>, which include <a href="/wiki/Seed_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Seed plants">seed plants</a> (gymnosperms, including the <a href="/wiki/Pinophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinophyta">pines</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">flowering plants</a>) and the free-sporing <a href="/wiki/Cryptogams" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryptogams">cryptogams</a> including <a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">ferns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lycopodiopsida" title="Lycopodiopsida">clubmosses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marchantiophyta" title="Marchantiophyta">liverworts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hornwort" title="Hornwort">hornworts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moss" title="Moss">mosses</a>. Embryophytes are multicellular <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a> descended from an ancestor that obtained its energy from sunlight by <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>. They have life cycles with <a href="/wiki/Alternation_of_generations" title="Alternation of generations">alternating</a> haploid and <a href="/wiki/Diploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Diploid">diploid</a> phases. The sexual <a href="/wiki/Haploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Haploid">haploid</a> phase of embryophytes, known as the <a href="/wiki/Gametophyte" title="Gametophyte">gametophyte</a>, nurtures the developing diploid embryo <a href="/wiki/Sporophyte" title="Sporophyte">sporophyte</a> within its tissues for at least part of its life,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008602_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008602-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> even in the seed plants, where the gametophyte itself is nurtured by its parent sporophyte.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008619–620_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008619–620-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other groups of organisms that were previously studied by botanists include bacteria (now studied in <a href="/wiki/Bacteriology" title="Bacteriology">bacteriology</a>), fungi (<a href="/wiki/Mycology" title="Mycology">mycology</a>) – including <a href="/wiki/Lichen" title="Lichen">lichen</a>-forming fungi (<a href="/wiki/Lichenology" title="Lichenology">lichenology</a>), non-<a href="/wiki/Chlorophyta" title="Chlorophyta">chlorophyte</a> <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a> (<a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">phycology</a>), and viruses (<a href="/wiki/Virology" title="Virology">virology</a>). However, attention is still given to these groups by botanists, and fungi (including lichens) and photosynthetic <a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">protists</a> are usually covered in introductory botany courses.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECapon200510–11_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECapon200510–11-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMauseth20031–3_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth20031–3-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Paleobotany" title="Paleobotany">Palaeobotanists</a> study ancient plants in the fossil record to provide information about the <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">evolutionary history of plants</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">Cyanobacteria</a>, the first oxygen-releasing photosynthetic organisms on Earth, are thought to have given rise to the ancestor of plants by entering into an <a href="/wiki/Endosymbiotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Endosymbiotic">endosymbiotic</a> relationship with an early eukaryote, ultimately becoming the <a href="/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">chloroplasts</a> in plant cells. The new photosynthetic plants (along with their algal relatives) accelerated the rise in atmospheric <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> started by the <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Great_oxygenation_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Great oxygenation event">changing</a> the ancient oxygen-free, <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">reducing</a>, atmosphere to one in which free oxygen has been abundant for more than 2 billion years.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECleveland_Museum_of_Natural_History2012_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECleveland_Museum_of_Natural_History2012-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008516–517_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008516–517-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Among the important botanical questions of the 21st century are the role of plants as primary producers in the global cycling of life's basic ingredients: energy, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen and water, and ways that our plant stewardship can help address the global environmental issues of <a href="/wiki/Resource_management" title="Resource management">resource management</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conservation_(ethic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation (ethic)">conservation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Food_security" title="Food security">human food security</a>, <a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">biologically invasive organisms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">carbon sequestration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">sustainability</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBotanical_Society_of_America2013_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotanical_Society_of_America2013-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Human_nutrition">Human nutrition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Botany&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Human nutrition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Human_nutrition" title="Human nutrition">Human nutrition</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Brown_rice.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="grains of brown rice, a staple food" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Brown_rice.jpg/220px-Brown_rice.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Brown_rice.jpg/330px-Brown_rice.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Brown_rice.jpg/440px-Brown_rice.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1067" /></a><figcaption>The food we eat comes directly or indirectly from plants such as rice.</figcaption></figure> <p>Virtually all staple foods come either directly from <a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">primary production</a> by plants, or indirectly from animals that eat them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBen-Menahem20095367–5368_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBen-Menahem20095367–5368-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plants and other photosynthetic organisms are at the base of most <a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">food chains</a> because they use the energy from the sun and nutrients from the soil and atmosphere, converting them into a form that can be used by animals. This is what ecologists call the first <a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">trophic level</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEButz2007534–553_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEButz2007534–553-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The modern forms of the major <a href="/wiki/Staple_food" title="Staple food">staple foods</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Hemp" title="Hemp">hemp</a>, <a href="/wiki/Teff" title="Teff">teff</a>, maize, rice, wheat and other cereal grasses, <a href="/wiki/Pulse_(legume)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulse (legume)">pulses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Banana" title="Banana">bananas</a> and plantains,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoverSimmonds1987106–126_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoverSimmonds1987106–126-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as <a href="/wiki/Hemp" title="Hemp">hemp</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flax" title="Flax">flax</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton">cotton</a> grown for their fibres, are the outcome of prehistoric selection over thousands of years from among <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_founder_crops" class="mw-redirect" title="Neolithic founder crops">wild ancestral plants</a> with the most desirable characteristics.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZoharyHopf200020–22_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZoharyHopf200020–22-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Botanists study how plants produce food and how to increase yields, for example through <a href="/wiki/Plant_breeding" title="Plant breeding">plant breeding</a>, making their work important to humanity's ability to feed the world and provide <a href="/wiki/Food_security" title="Food security">food security</a> for future generations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlorosNewsomeFisher2010_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlorosNewsomeFisher2010-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Botanists also study weeds, which are a considerable problem in agriculture, and the biology and control of <a href="/wiki/Plant_pathology" title="Plant pathology">plant pathogens</a> in agriculture and natural <a href="/wiki/Ecosystems" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystems">ecosystems</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoening2005_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoening2005-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ethnobotany" title="Ethnobotany">Ethnobotany</a> is the study of the relationships between plants and people. When applied to the investigation of historical plant–people relationships ethnobotany may be referred to as archaeobotany or <a href="/wiki/Paleoethnobotany" title="Paleoethnobotany">palaeoethnobotany</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAcharyaAnshu2008440_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAcharyaAnshu2008440-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of the earliest plant-people relationships arose between the <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">indigenous people</a> of Canada in identifying edible plants from inedible plants. This relationship the indigenous people had with plants was recorded by ethnobotanists.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuhnleinTurner1991_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuhnleinTurner1991-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Plant_biochemistry">Plant biochemistry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Botany&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Plant biochemistry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Plant biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes used by plants. Some of these processes are used in their <a href="/wiki/Primary_metabolism" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary metabolism">primary metabolism</a> like the photosynthetic <a href="/wiki/Calvin_cycle" title="Calvin cycle">Calvin cycle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crassulacean_acid_metabolism" title="Crassulacean acid metabolism">crassulacean acid metabolism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELüttge20067–25_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELüttge20067–25-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others make specialised materials like the <a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">cellulose</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lignin" title="Lignin">lignin</a> used to build their bodies, and <a href="/wiki/Secondary_metabolism" title="Secondary metabolism">secondary products</a> like <a href="/wiki/Resin" title="Resin">resins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aroma_compounds" class="mw-redirect" title="Aroma compounds">aroma compounds</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chromatography_rev.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Chromatography_rev.jpg/500px-Chromatography_rev.jpg" decoding="async" width="440" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Chromatography_rev.jpg/960px-Chromatography_rev.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="1857" data-file-height="711" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Paper_chromatography" title="Paper chromatography">Paper chromatography</a> of some <a href="/wiki/Spinach" title="Spinach">spinach</a> leaf extract shows the various pigments present in their chloroplasts: yellowish xanthophylls, greenish chlorophylls <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Plants and various other groups of photosynthetic eukaryotes collectively known as "<a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a>" have unique organelles known as <a href="/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">chloroplasts</a>. Chloroplasts are thought to be descended from <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a> that formed <a href="/wiki/Endosymbiotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Endosymbiotic">endosymbiotic</a> relationships with ancient plant and algal ancestors. Chloroplasts and cyanobacteria contain the blue-green pigment <a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll_a" title="Chlorophyll a">chlorophyll <i>a</i></a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008190–193_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008190–193-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chlorophyll <i>a</i> (as well as its plant and green algal-specific cousin <a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll_b" title="Chlorophyll b">chlorophyll <i>b</i></a>)<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> absorbs light in the blue-violet and orange/red parts of the <a href="/wiki/Visible_spectrum" title="Visible spectrum">spectrum</a> while reflecting and transmitting the green light that we see as the characteristic colour of these organisms. The energy in the red and blue light that these pigments absorb is used by chloroplasts to make energy-rich carbon compounds from carbon dioxide and water by <a href="/wiki/Carbon_fixation#Oxygenic_photosynthesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon fixation">oxygenic photosynthesis</a>, a process that generates <a href="/wiki/Molecular_oxygen" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular oxygen">molecular oxygen</a> (O<sub>2</sub>) as a by-product. </p><p>The light energy captured by <a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll_a" title="Chlorophyll a">chlorophyll <i>a</i></a> is initially in the form of electrons (and later a <a href="/wiki/Proton_gradient" class="mw-redirect" title="Proton gradient">proton gradient</a>) that's used to make molecules of <a href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">ATP</a> and <a href="/wiki/NADPH" class="mw-redirect" title="NADPH">NADPH</a> which temporarily store and transport energy. Their energy is used in the <a href="/wiki/Light-independent_reactions" class="mw-redirect" title="Light-independent reactions">light-independent reactions</a> of the Calvin cycle by the enzyme <a href="/wiki/Rubisco" class="mw-redirect" title="Rubisco">rubisco</a> to produce molecules of the 3-carbon sugar <a href="/wiki/Glyceraldehyde_3-phosphate" title="Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate">glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate</a> (G3P). Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate is the first product of photosynthesis and the raw material from which <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a> and almost all other organic molecules of biological origin are synthesised. Some of the glucose is converted to starch which is stored in the chloroplast.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewisMcCourt20041535–1556_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewisMcCourt20041535–1556-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Starch is the characteristic energy store of most land plants and algae, while <a href="/wiki/Inulin" title="Inulin">inulin</a>, a polymer of <a href="/wiki/Fructose" title="Fructose">fructose</a> is used for the same purpose in the sunflower family <a href="/wiki/Asteraceae" title="Asteraceae">Asteraceae</a>. Some of the glucose is converted to <a href="/wiki/Sucrose" title="Sucrose">sucrose</a> (common table sugar) for export to the rest of the plant. </p><p>Unlike in animals (which lack chloroplasts), plants and their eukaryote relatives have delegated many biochemical roles to their <a href="/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">chloroplasts</a>, including synthesising all their <a href="/wiki/Fatty_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatty acids">fatty acids</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPadmanabhanDinesh-Kumar20101368–1380_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPadmanabhanDinesh-Kumar20101368–1380-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchnurrShockeyDe_BoerBrowse20021700–1709_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchnurrShockeyDe_BoerBrowse20021700–1709-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and most <a href="/wiki/Amino_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Amino acids">amino acids</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerroSalviRivière-RollandVermat200211487–11492_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerroSalviRivière-RollandVermat200211487–11492-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fatty acids that chloroplasts make are used for many things, such as providing material to build <a href="/wiki/Cell_membrane" title="Cell membrane">cell membranes</a> out of and making the polymer <a href="/wiki/Cutin" title="Cutin">cutin</a> which is found in the <a href="/wiki/Plant_cuticle" title="Plant cuticle">plant cuticle</a> that protects land plants from drying out.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKolattukudy199683–108_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKolattukudy199683–108-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Plants synthesise a number of unique <a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">polymers</a> like the <a href="/wiki/Polysaccharide" title="Polysaccharide">polysaccharide</a> molecules <a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">cellulose</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pectin" title="Pectin">pectin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Xyloglucan" title="Xyloglucan">xyloglucan</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFry19891–11_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFry19891–11-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> from which the land plant cell wall is constructed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompsonFry200123–34_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompsonFry200123–34-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vascular land plants make <a href="/wiki/Lignin" title="Lignin">lignin</a>, a polymer used to strengthen the <a href="/wiki/Secondary_cell_walls" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary cell walls">secondary cell walls</a> of xylem <a href="/wiki/Tracheid" title="Tracheid">tracheids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Xylem_vessel_element" class="mw-redirect" title="Xylem vessel element">vessels</a> to keep them from collapsing when a plant sucks water through them under water stress. Lignin is also used in other cell types like <a href="/wiki/Ground_tissue#Sclerenchyma" title="Ground tissue">sclerenchyma fibres</a> that provide structural support for a plant and is a major constituent of wood. <a href="/wiki/Sporopollenin" title="Sporopollenin">Sporopollenin</a> is a chemically resistant polymer found in the outer cell walls of spores and pollen of land plants responsible for the survival of early land plant spores and the pollen of seed plants in the fossil record. It is widely regarded as a marker for the start of land plant evolution during the <a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</a> period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKenrickCrane199733–39_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenrickCrane199733–39-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere today is much lower than it was when plants emerged onto land during the <a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian</a> periods. Many <a href="/wiki/Monocots" class="mw-redirect" title="Monocots">monocots</a> like <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Pineapple" title="Pineapple">pineapple</a> and some <a href="/wiki/Dicots" class="mw-redirect" title="Dicots">dicots</a> like the <a href="/wiki/Asteraceae" title="Asteraceae">Asteraceae</a> have since independently evolved<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGowikWesthoff201056–63_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGowikWesthoff201056–63-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> pathways like <a href="/wiki/Crassulacean_acid_metabolism" title="Crassulacean acid metabolism">Crassulacean acid metabolism</a> and the <a href="/wiki/C4_carbon_fixation" title="C4 carbon fixation">C<sub>4</sub> carbon fixation</a> pathway for photosynthesis which avoid the losses resulting from <a href="/wiki/Photorespiration" title="Photorespiration">photorespiration</a> in the more common <a href="/wiki/C3_carbon_fixation" title="C3 carbon fixation">C<sub>3</sub> carbon fixation</a> pathway. These biochemical strategies are unique to land plants. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medicine_and_materials">Medicine and materials</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Botany&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Medicine and materials"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Phytochemistry" title="Phytochemistry">Phytochemistry</a> is a branch of plant biochemistry primarily concerned with the chemical substances produced by plants during <a href="/wiki/Secondary_metabolism" title="Secondary metabolism">secondary metabolism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBenderothTextorWindsorMitchell-Olds20069118–9123_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenderothTextorWindsorMitchell-Olds20069118–9123-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of these compounds are toxins such as the <a href="/wiki/Alkaloid" title="Alkaloid">alkaloid</a> <a href="/wiki/Coniine" title="Coniine">coniine</a> from <a href="/wiki/Conium" title="Conium">hemlock</a>. Others, such as the <a href="/wiki/Essential_oil" title="Essential oil">essential oils</a> <a href="/wiki/Peppermint#Oil" title="Peppermint">peppermint oil</a> and lemon oil are useful for their aroma, as flavourings and spices (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Capsaicin" title="Capsaicin">capsaicin</a>), and in medicine as pharmaceuticals as in <a href="/wiki/Opium" title="Opium">opium</a> from <a href="/wiki/Papaver_somniferum" title="Papaver somniferum">opium poppies</a>. Many <a href="/wiki/Medication" title="Medication">medicinal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Recreational_drugs" class="mw-redirect" title="Recreational drugs">recreational drugs</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Tetrahydrocannabinol" title="Tetrahydrocannabinol">tetrahydrocannabinol</a> (active ingredient in <a href="/wiki/Cannabis_(drug)" title="Cannabis (drug)">cannabis</a>), <a href="/wiki/Caffeine" title="Caffeine">caffeine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Morphine" title="Morphine">morphine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nicotine" title="Nicotine">nicotine</a> come directly from plants. Others are simple <a href="/wiki/Derivative_(chemistry)" title="Derivative (chemistry)">derivatives</a> of botanical natural products. For example, the pain killer <a href="/wiki/Aspirin" title="Aspirin">aspirin</a> is the acetyl <a href="/wiki/Ester" title="Ester">ester</a> of <a href="/wiki/Salicylic_acid" title="Salicylic acid">salicylic acid</a>, originally isolated from the <a href="/wiki/Bark_(botany)" title="Bark (botany)">bark</a> of <a href="/wiki/Willow" title="Willow">willow</a> trees,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJeffreys200538–40_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJeffreys200538–40-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a wide range of <a href="/wiki/Opiate" title="Opiate">opiate</a> <a href="/wiki/Analgesics" class="mw-redirect" title="Analgesics">painkillers</a> like <a href="/wiki/Diamorphine" class="mw-redirect" title="Diamorphine">heroin</a> are obtained by chemical modification of <a href="/wiki/Morphine" title="Morphine">morphine</a> obtained from the <a href="/wiki/Opium_poppy" class="mw-redirect" title="Opium poppy">opium poppy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMann1987186–187_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMann1987186–187-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Popular <a href="/wiki/Stimulant" title="Stimulant">stimulants</a> come from plants, such as <a href="/wiki/Caffeine" title="Caffeine">caffeine</a> from coffee, tea and chocolate, and <a href="/wiki/Nicotine" title="Nicotine">nicotine</a> from tobacco. Most alcoholic beverages come from <a href="/wiki/Fermentation_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fermentation (food)">fermentation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">carbohydrate</a>-rich plant products such as <a href="/wiki/Barley" title="Barley">barley</a> (beer), rice (<a href="/wiki/Sake" title="Sake">sake</a>) and grapes (wine).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUniversity_of_Maryland_Medical_Center2011_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUniversity_of_Maryland_Medical_Center2011-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a> have used various plants as ways of treating illness or disease for thousands of years.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDensmore1974_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDensmore1974-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This knowledge Native Americans have on plants has been recorded by <a href="/wiki/Ethnobotany" title="Ethnobotany">enthnobotanists</a> and then in turn has been used by <a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_industry" title="Pharmaceutical industry">pharmaceutical companies</a> as a way of <a href="/wiki/Drug_discovery" title="Drug discovery">drug discovery</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCutcheonEllisHancockTowers1992_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCutcheonEllisHancockTowers1992-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Plants can synthesise coloured dyes and pigments such as the <a href="/wiki/Anthocyanin" title="Anthocyanin">anthocyanins</a> responsible for the red colour of <a href="/wiki/Red_wine" title="Red wine">red wine</a>, yellow <a href="/wiki/Reseda_luteola" title="Reseda luteola">weld</a> and blue <a href="/wiki/Isatis_tinctoria" title="Isatis tinctoria">woad</a> used together to produce <a href="/wiki/Lincoln_green" title="Lincoln green">Lincoln green</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indoxyl" title="Indoxyl">indoxyl</a>, source of the blue dye <a href="/wiki/Indigo" title="Indigo">indigo</a> traditionally used to dye denim and the artist's pigments <a href="/wiki/Gamboge" title="Gamboge">gamboge</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rose_madder" title="Rose madder">rose madder</a>. </p><p>Sugar, <a href="/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">starch</a>, cotton, <a href="/wiki/Linen" title="Linen">linen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hemp" title="Hemp">hemp</a>, some types of <a href="/wiki/Rope" title="Rope">rope</a>, wood and <a href="/wiki/Particle_board" title="Particle board">particle boards</a>, <a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">papyrus</a> and paper, <a href="/wiki/Vegetable_oil" title="Vegetable oil">vegetable oils</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epicuticular_wax" title="Epicuticular wax">wax</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Natural_rubber" title="Natural rubber">natural rubber</a> are examples of commercially important materials made from plant tissues or their secondary products. <a href="/wiki/Charcoal" title="Charcoal">Charcoal</a>, a pure form of carbon made by <a href="/wiki/Pyrolysis" title="Pyrolysis">pyrolysis</a> of wood, has a long <a href="/wiki/Charcoal#History" title="Charcoal">history</a> as a metal-<a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">smelting</a> fuel, as a filter material and <a href="/wiki/Activated_carbon#Applications" title="Activated carbon">adsorbent</a> and as an artist's material and is one of the three ingredients of <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder" title="Gunpowder">gunpowder</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">Cellulose</a>, the world's most abundant organic polymer,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlemmHeubleinFinkBohn2005_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlemmHeubleinFinkBohn2005-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> can be converted into energy, fuels, materials and chemical feedstock. <a href="/wiki/Cellulose#products" title="Cellulose">Products made from cellulose</a> include <a href="/wiki/Rayon" title="Rayon">rayon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cellophane" title="Cellophane">cellophane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Methyl_cellulose" title="Methyl cellulose">wallpaper paste</a>, <a href="/wiki/Butanol_fuel#Using_Alternate_Carbon_Sources" title="Butanol fuel">biobutanol</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nitrocellulose" title="Nitrocellulose">gun cotton</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sugarcane" title="Sugarcane">Sugarcane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rapeseed" title="Rapeseed">rapeseed</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soy" class="mw-redirect" title="Soy">soy</a> are some of the plants with a highly fermentable sugar or oil content that are used as sources of <a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">biofuels</a>, important alternatives to <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuels</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Biodiesel" title="Biodiesel">biodiesel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScharlemannLaurance200852–53_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScharlemannLaurance200852–53-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sweetgrass was used by Native Americans to ward off bugs like <a href="/wiki/Mosquitoes" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosquitoes">mosquitoes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWashington_Post_18_Aug_2015_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWashington_Post_18_Aug_2015-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These bug repelling properties of sweetgrass were later found by the <a href="/wiki/American_Chemical_Society" title="American Chemical Society">American Chemical Society</a> in the molecules <a href="/wiki/Phytol" title="Phytol">phytol</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coumarin" title="Coumarin">coumarin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWashington_Post_18_Aug_2015_102-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWashington_Post_18_Aug_2015-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Plant_ecology">Plant ecology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Botany&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Plant ecology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Plant_ecology" title="Plant ecology">Plant ecology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Medicago_italica_root_nodules_2.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Colour photograph of roots of Medicago italica, showing root nodules" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Medicago_italica_root_nodules_2.JPG/250px-Medicago_italica_root_nodules_2.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Medicago_italica_root_nodules_2.JPG/330px-Medicago_italica_root_nodules_2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Medicago_italica_root_nodules_2.JPG/500px-Medicago_italica_root_nodules_2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2256" data-file-height="1496" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Root_nodule" title="Root nodule">nodules</a> of <i><a href="/wiki/Medicago_italica" title="Medicago italica">Medicago italica</a></i> contain the <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation" title="Nitrogen fixation">nitrogen fixing</a> bacterium <i><a href="/wiki/Sinorhizobium_meliloti" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinorhizobium meliloti">Sinorhizobium meliloti</a></i>. The plant provides the bacteria with nutrients and an <a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">anaerobic</a> environment, and the bacteria <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation" title="Nitrogen fixation">fix nitrogen</a> for the plant.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008794_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008794-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Plant ecology is the science of the functional relationships between plants and their <a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">habitats</a> – the environments where they complete their <a href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">life cycles</a>. Plant ecologists study the composition of local and regional <a href="/wiki/Flora" title="Flora">floras</a>, their <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>, genetic diversity and <a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">fitness</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adaptation</a> of plants to their environment, and their competitive or <a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">mutualistic</a> interactions with other species.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003786–818_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003786–818-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some ecologists even rely on <a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">empirical data</a> from indigenous people that is gathered by ethnobotanists.<sup id="cite_ref-TeachEthnobotany-2012_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TeachEthnobotany-2012-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This information can relay a great deal of information on how the land once was thousands of years ago and how it has changed over that time.<sup id="cite_ref-TeachEthnobotany-2012_105-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TeachEthnobotany-2012-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The goals of plant ecology are to understand the causes of their distribution patterns, productivity, environmental impact, evolution, and responses to environmental change.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurrows19901–73_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurrows19901–73-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Plants depend on certain <a href="/wiki/Edaphic" class="mw-redirect" title="Edaphic">edaphic</a> (soil) and climatic factors in their environment but can modify these factors too. For example, they can change their environment's <a href="/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo">albedo</a>, increase <a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">runoff</a> interception, stabilise mineral soils and develop their organic content, and affect local temperature. Plants compete with other organisms in their <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystem</a> for resources.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAddelson2003_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAddelson2003-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrimeHodgson1987283–295_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrimeHodgson1987283–295-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They interact with their neighbours at a variety of <a href="/wiki/Spatial_scale" title="Spatial scale">spatial scales</a> in groups, populations and <a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">communities</a> that collectively constitute vegetation. Regions with characteristic <a href="/wiki/Holdridge_life_zones" title="Holdridge life zones">vegetation types</a> and dominant plants as well as similar <a href="/wiki/Abiotic_component" title="Abiotic component">abiotic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biotic_components" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotic components">biotic</a> factors, <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climate</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">geography</a> make up <a href="/wiki/Biomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Biomes">biomes</a> like <a href="/wiki/Tundra" title="Tundra">tundra</a> or <a href="/wiki/Tropical_rainforest" title="Tropical rainforest">tropical rainforest</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003819–848_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003819–848-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">Herbivores</a> eat plants, but plants can <a href="/wiki/Plant_defence_against_herbivory" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant defence against herbivory">defend themselves</a> and some species are <a href="/wiki/Parasitic_plant" title="Parasitic plant">parasitic</a> or even <a href="/wiki/Carnivorous_plant" title="Carnivorous plant">carnivorous</a>. Other organisms form <a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">mutually</a> beneficial relationships with plants. For example, <a href="/wiki/Mycorrhiza" title="Mycorrhiza">mycorrhizal</a> fungi and <a href="/wiki/Rhizobia" title="Rhizobia">rhizobia</a> provide plants with nutrients in exchange for food, <a href="/wiki/Ant" title="Ant">ants</a> are recruited by <a href="/wiki/Myrmecophyte" title="Myrmecophyte">ant plants</a> to provide protection,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerreraPellmyr2002211–235_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerreraPellmyr2002211–235-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Honey_bee" title="Honey bee">honey bees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bat" title="Bat">bats</a> and other animals <a href="/wiki/Pollinate" class="mw-redirect" title="Pollinate">pollinate</a> flowers<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEProctorYeo1973479_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEProctorYeo1973479-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerreraPellmyr2002157–185_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerreraPellmyr2002157–185-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Seed_dispersal#Humans" title="Seed dispersal">humans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seed_dispersal#Dispersal_by_animals" title="Seed dispersal">other animals</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerreraPellmyr2002185–210_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerreraPellmyr2002185–210-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> act as <a href="/wiki/Dispersal_vector" title="Dispersal vector">dispersal vectors</a> to spread <a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">spores</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seed" title="Seed">seeds</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plants,_climate_and_environmental_change"><span id="Plants.2C_climate_and_environmental_change"></span>Plants, climate and environmental change</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Botany&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Plants, climate and environmental change"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Plant responses to climate and other environmental changes can inform our understanding of how these changes affect ecosystem function and productivity. For example, plant <a href="/wiki/Phenology" title="Phenology">phenology</a> can be a useful <a href="/wiki/Proxy_(climate)" title="Proxy (climate)">proxy</a> for temperature in <a href="/wiki/Historical_climatology" title="Historical climatology">historical climatology</a>, and the biological <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">impact of climate change</a> and <a href="/wiki/Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">global warming</a>. <a href="/wiki/Palynology" title="Palynology">Palynology</a>, the analysis of fossil pollen deposits in sediments from <a href="/wiki/Geologic_timescale" class="mw-redirect" title="Geologic timescale">thousands or millions of years ago</a> allows the reconstruction of past climates.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBennettWillis20015–32_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennettWillis20015–32-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Estimates of atmospheric CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> concentrations since the <a href="/wiki/Palaeozoic" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeozoic">Palaeozoic</a> have been obtained from <a href="/wiki/Stomatal" class="mw-redirect" title="Stomatal">stomatal</a> densities and the leaf shapes and sizes of ancient <a href="/wiki/Land_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Land plants">land plants</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeerlingOsborneChaloner2001287–394_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeerlingOsborneChaloner2001287–394-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a> can expose plants to higher levels of <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet radiation-B</a> (UV-B), resulting in lower growth rates.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBjörnCallaghanGehrkeJohanson1999449–454_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBjörnCallaghanGehrkeJohanson1999449–454-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, information from studies of <a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">community ecology</a>, plant <a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">systematics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">taxonomy</a> is essential to understanding <a href="/wiki/Climate_change#Vegetation" title="Climate change">vegetation change</a>, <a href="/wiki/Habitat_destruction" title="Habitat destruction">habitat destruction</a> and <a href="/wiki/Endangered_species" title="Endangered species">species extinction</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBen-Menahem20095369–5370_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBen-Menahem20095369–5370-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Genetics">Genetics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Botany&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Genetics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Plant_genetics" title="Plant genetics">Plant genetics</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1062633282">@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .content .thumb>div:not(.thumbinner){display:flex;justify-content:center;flex-wrap:wrap;align-content:flex-start;flex-direction:column}}body.skin-vector .mw-parser-output div.thumb>div:not(.thumbinner){font-size:94%;text-align:center;overflow:hidden;min-width:100px}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output div.thumb>div:not(.thumbinner){margin:0 auto;max-width:100%!important}</style> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="display:table;"> <span typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Punnett_square_mendel_flowers.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="A Punnett square depicting a cross between two pea plants heterozygous for purple (B) and white (b) blossoms"><img alt="A Punnett square depicting a cross between two pea plants heterozygous for purple (B) and white (b) blossoms" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Punnett_square_mendel_flowers.svg/250px-Punnett_square_mendel_flowers.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Punnett_square_mendel_flowers.svg/375px-Punnett_square_mendel_flowers.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Punnett_square_mendel_flowers.svg/500px-Punnett_square_mendel_flowers.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550" /></a></span><div class="thumbcaption" style="display:table-caption;caption-side:bottom;box-sizing:border-box;"><div style="float: left; margin-top: 0.25em; width: 11px; height: 9.5px;"><div style="position: relative; width: 0px; height: 0px; border-style: solid inset; border-width: 0 5.5px 9.5px 5.5px; border-color: transparent transparent #51e89e transparent;"></div></div><div style="padding-left: 20px">A <a href="/wiki/Punnett_square" title="Punnett square">Punnett square</a> depicting a cross between two pea plants <a href="/wiki/Heterozygous" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterozygous">heterozygous</a> for purple (B) and white (b) blossoms</div> </div> </div> </div> <p>Inheritance in plants follows the same fundamental principles of genetics as in other multicellular organisms. <a href="/wiki/Gregor_Mendel" title="Gregor Mendel">Gregor Mendel</a> discovered the <a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">genetic laws of inheritance</a> by studying inherited traits such as shape in <i>Pisum sativum</i> (<a href="/wiki/Peas" class="mw-redirect" title="Peas">peas</a>). What Mendel learned from studying plants has had far-reaching benefits outside of botany. Similarly, "<a href="/wiki/Transposon" class="mw-redirect" title="Transposon">jumping genes</a>" were discovered by <a href="/wiki/Barbara_McClintock" title="Barbara McClintock">Barbara McClintock</a> while she was studying maize.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBen-Menahem20095369_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBen-Menahem20095369-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, there are some distinctive genetic differences between plants and other organisms. </p><p>Species boundaries in plants may be weaker than in animals, and cross species <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_(biology)" title="Hybrid (biology)">hybrids</a> are often possible. A familiar example is <a href="/wiki/Peppermint" title="Peppermint">peppermint</a>, <i>Mentha</i> × <i>piperita</i>, a <a href="/wiki/Sterility_(physiology)" title="Sterility (physiology)">sterile</a> hybrid between <i><a href="/wiki/Mentha_aquatica" title="Mentha aquatica">Mentha aquatica</a></i> and spearmint, <i><a href="/wiki/Mentha_spicata" class="mw-redirect" title="Mentha spicata">Mentha spicata</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStace2010b629–633_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStace2010b629–633-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The many cultivated varieties of wheat are the result of multiple inter- and intra-<a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">specific</a> crosses between wild species and their hybrids.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHancock2004190–196_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHancock2004190–196-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Angiosperms" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiosperms">Angiosperms</a> with <a href="/wiki/Monoecious" class="mw-redirect" title="Monoecious">monoecious</a> flowers often have <a href="/wiki/Self-incompatibility_in_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-incompatibility in plants">self-incompatibility mechanisms</a> that operate between the <a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">pollen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stigma_(botany)" title="Stigma (botany)">stigma</a> so that the pollen either fails to reach the stigma or fails to <a href="/wiki/Germinate" class="mw-redirect" title="Germinate">germinate</a> and produce male <a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">gametes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESobotkaSákováCurn2000103–112_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESobotkaSákováCurn2000103–112-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is one of several methods used by plants to promote <a href="/wiki/Plant_reproductive_morphology" title="Plant reproductive morphology">outcrossing</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERennerRicklefs1995596–606_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERennerRicklefs1995596–606-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In many land plants the male and female gametes are produced by separate individuals. These species are said to be <a href="/wiki/Plant_reproductive_morphology#Terminology" title="Plant reproductive morphology">dioecious</a> when referring to vascular plant <a href="/wiki/Sporophyte" title="Sporophyte">sporophytes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Monoecious" class="mw-redirect" title="Monoecious">dioicous</a> when referring to <a href="/wiki/Bryophyte" title="Bryophyte">bryophyte</a> <a href="/wiki/Gametophyte" title="Gametophyte">gametophytes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPorleyHodgetts20052–3_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorleyHodgetts20052–3-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Charles Darwin in his 1878 book The Effects of Cross and Self-Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> at the start of chapter XII noted "The first and most important of the conclusions which may be drawn from the observations given in this volume, is that generally cross-fertilisation is beneficial and self-fertilisation often injurious, at least with the plants on which I experimented." An important adaptive benefit of outcrossing is that it allows the masking of deleterious mutations in the genome of progeny. This beneficial effect is also known as hybrid vigor or heterosis. Once outcrossing is established, subsequent switching to inbreeding becomes disadvantageous since it allows expression of the previously masked deleterious recessive mutations, commonly referred to as inbreeding depression. </p><p>Unlike in higher animals, where <a href="/wiki/Parthenogenesis" title="Parthenogenesis">parthenogenesis</a> is rare, <a href="/wiki/Asexual_reproduction" title="Asexual reproduction">asexual reproduction</a> may occur in plants by several different mechanisms. The formation of stem <a href="/wiki/Tuber" title="Tuber">tubers</a> in potato is one example. Particularly in <a href="/wiki/Arctic" title="Arctic">arctic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Alpine_climate" title="Alpine climate">alpine</a> habitats, where opportunities for fertilisation of flowers <a href="/wiki/Zoophily" title="Zoophily">by animals</a> are rare, plantlets or <a href="/wiki/Bulbs" class="mw-redirect" title="Bulbs">bulbs</a>, may develop instead of flowers, replacing <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">sexual reproduction</a> with asexual reproduction and giving rise to <a href="/wiki/Cloning" title="Cloning">clonal populations</a> genetically identical to the parent. This is one of several types of <a href="/wiki/Apomixis" title="Apomixis">apomixis</a> that occur in plants. Apomixis can also happen in a <a href="/wiki/Seed" title="Seed">seed</a>, producing a seed that contains an embryo genetically identical to the parent.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESavidan200013–86_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESavidan200013–86-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most sexually reproducing organisms are diploid, with paired chromosomes, but doubling of their <a href="/wiki/Chromosome_number" class="mw-redirect" title="Chromosome number">chromosome number</a> may occur due to errors in <a href="/wiki/Cytokinesis" title="Cytokinesis">cytokinesis</a>. This can occur early in development to produce an <a href="/wiki/Autopolyploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Autopolyploid">autopolyploid</a> or partly autopolyploid organism, or during normal processes of cellular differentiation to produce some cell types that are polyploid (<a href="/wiki/Endopolyploidy" class="mw-redirect" title="Endopolyploidy">endopolyploidy</a>), or during gamete formation. An <a href="/wiki/Allopolyploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Allopolyploid">allopolyploid</a> plant may result from a <a href="/wiki/Hybridization_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Hybridization event">hybridisation event</a> between two different species. Both autopolyploid and allopolyploid plants can often reproduce normally, but may be unable to cross-breed successfully with the parent population because there is a mismatch in chromosome numbers. These plants that are <a href="/wiki/Reproductively_isolated" class="mw-redirect" title="Reproductively isolated">reproductively isolated</a> from the parent species but live within the same geographical area, may be sufficiently successful to form a new <a href="/wiki/Sympatric_speciation" title="Sympatric speciation">species</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008495–496_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008495–496-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some otherwise sterile plant polyploids can still reproduce <a href="/wiki/Vegetative_propagation" class="mw-redirect" title="Vegetative propagation">vegetatively</a> or by seed apomixis, forming clonal populations of identical individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008495–496_126-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008495–496-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Durum" class="mw-redirect" title="Durum">Durum</a> wheat is a fertile <a href="/wiki/Tetraploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetraploid">tetraploid</a> allopolyploid, while <a href="/wiki/Common_wheat" title="Common wheat">bread wheat</a> is a fertile <a href="/wiki/Hexaploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Hexaploid">hexaploid</a>. The commercial banana is an example of a sterile, seedless <a href="/wiki/Triploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Triploid">triploid</a> hybrid. <a href="/wiki/Taraxacum_officinale" title="Taraxacum officinale">Common dandelion</a> is a triploid that produces viable seeds by apomictic seed. </p><p>As in other eukaryotes, the inheritance of <a href="/wiki/Endosymbiotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Endosymbiotic">endosymbiotic</a> organelles like <a href="/wiki/Mitochondria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitochondria">mitochondria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">chloroplasts</a> in plants is non-<a href="/wiki/Mendelian" class="mw-redirect" title="Mendelian">Mendelian</a>. Chloroplasts are inherited through the male parent in gymnosperms but often through the female parent in flowering plants.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorgensen1996383–384_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgensen1996383–384-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Molecular_genetics">Molecular genetics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Botany&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Molecular genetics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">Molecular genetics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arabidopsis_thaliana_inflorescencias.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Flowers of Arabidopsis thaliana, the most important model plant and the first to have its genome sequenced" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Arabidopsis_thaliana_inflorescencias.jpg/250px-Arabidopsis_thaliana_inflorescencias.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Arabidopsis_thaliana_inflorescencias.jpg/330px-Arabidopsis_thaliana_inflorescencias.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Arabidopsis_thaliana_inflorescencias.jpg/500px-Arabidopsis_thaliana_inflorescencias.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Thale cress, <i><a href="/wiki/Arabidopsis_thaliana" title="Arabidopsis thaliana">Arabidopsis thaliana</a></i>, the first plant to have its genome sequenced, remains the most important model organism.</figcaption></figure> <p>A considerable amount of new knowledge about plant function comes from studies of the molecular genetics of <a href="/wiki/Model_organism#Plants" title="Model organism">model plants</a> such as the Thale cress, <i><a href="/wiki/Arabidopsis_thaliana" title="Arabidopsis thaliana">Arabidopsis thaliana</a></i>, a weedy species in the mustard family (<a href="/wiki/Brassicaceae" title="Brassicaceae">Brassicaceae</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBenderothTextorWindsorMitchell-Olds20069118–9123_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenderothTextorWindsorMitchell-Olds20069118–9123-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a> or hereditary information contained in the genes of this species is encoded by about 135 million <a href="/wiki/Base_pairs" class="mw-redirect" title="Base pairs">base pairs</a> of DNA, forming one of the smallest genomes among <a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">flowering plants</a>. <i>Arabidopsis</i> was the first plant to have its genome sequenced, in 2000.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArabidopsis_Genome_Initiative2000796–815_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArabidopsis_Genome_Initiative2000796–815-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The sequencing of some other relatively small genomes, of rice (<i><a href="/wiki/Oryza_sativa" title="Oryza sativa">Oryza sativa</a></i>)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDevosGale2000_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDevosGale2000-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i><a href="/wiki/Brachypodium_distachyon" title="Brachypodium distachyon">Brachypodium distachyon</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUniversity_of_California-Davis2012_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUniversity_of_California-Davis2012-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> has made them important model species for understanding the genetics, cellular and molecular biology of <a href="/wiki/Cereals" class="mw-redirect" title="Cereals">cereals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grasses" class="mw-redirect" title="Grasses">grasses</a> and <a href="/wiki/Monocots" class="mw-redirect" title="Monocots">monocots</a> generally. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Model_organism#Plants" title="Model organism">Model plants</a> such as <i>Arabidopsis thaliana</i> are used for studying the molecular biology of <a href="/wiki/Plant_cell" title="Plant cell">plant cells</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">chloroplast</a>. Ideally, these organisms have small genomes that are well known or completely sequenced, small stature and short generation times. Corn has been used to study mechanisms of <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phloem" title="Phloem">phloem</a> loading of sugar in <a href="/wiki/C4_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="C4 plants">C<sub>4</sub> plants</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussinEvertVanderveerSharkey1996645–658_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussinEvertVanderveerSharkey1996645–658-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Single_celled" class="mw-redirect" title="Single celled">single celled</a> <a href="/wiki/Green_alga" class="mw-redirect" title="Green alga">green alga</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Chlamydomonas_reinhardtii" title="Chlamydomonas reinhardtii">Chlamydomonas reinhardtii</a></i>, while not an <a href="/wiki/Embryophyte" title="Embryophyte">embryophyte</a> itself, contains a <a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll_b" title="Chlorophyll b">green-pigmented</a> <a href="/wiki/Chloroplast#Chloroplastida_(green_algae_and_plants)" title="Chloroplast">chloroplast</a> related to that of land plants, making it useful for study.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERochaixGoldschmidt-ClermontMerchant1998550_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERochaixGoldschmidt-ClermontMerchant1998550-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/Red_alga" class="mw-redirect" title="Red alga">red alga</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Cyanidioschyzon_merolae" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyanidioschyzon merolae">Cyanidioschyzon merolae</a></i> has also been used to study some basic chloroplast functions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGlynnMiyagishimaYoderOsteryoung2007451–461_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGlynnMiyagishimaYoderOsteryoung2007451–461-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Spinach" title="Spinach">Spinach</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPossinghamRose1976295–305_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPossinghamRose1976295–305-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Peas" class="mw-redirect" title="Peas">peas</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESunForouharLi_HmTu200295–100_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESunForouharLi_HmTu200295–100-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Soybeans" class="mw-redirect" title="Soybeans">soybeans</a> and a moss <i><a href="/wiki/Physcomitrella_patens" title="Physcomitrella patens">Physcomitrella patens</a></i> are commonly used to study plant cell biology.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeinhorstCannon19931–9_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeinhorstCannon19931–9-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i><a href="/wiki/Agrobacterium_tumefaciens" title="Agrobacterium tumefaciens">Agrobacterium tumefaciens</a></i>, a soil <a href="/wiki/Rhizosphere" title="Rhizosphere">rhizosphere</a> bacterium, can attach to plant cells and infect them with a <a href="/wiki/Callus_(cell_biology)" title="Callus (cell biology)">callus</a>-inducing <a href="/wiki/Ti_plasmid" title="Ti plasmid">Ti plasmid</a> by <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer" title="Horizontal gene transfer">horizontal gene transfer</a>, causing a callus infection called crown gall disease. Schell and Van Montagu (1977) hypothesised that the Ti plasmid could be a natural vector for introducing the <a href="/wiki/Nif_gene" title="Nif gene">Nif gene</a> responsible for <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation" title="Nitrogen fixation">nitrogen fixation</a> in the root nodules of <a href="/wiki/Fabaceae" title="Fabaceae">legumes</a> and other plant species.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchellVan_Montagu1977159–179_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchellVan_Montagu1977159–179-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Today, genetic modification of the Ti plasmid is one of the main techniques for introduction of <a href="/wiki/Transgene" title="Transgene">transgenes</a> to plants and the creation of <a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_crops" title="Genetically modified crops">genetically modified crops</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Botany&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Epigenetics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a> is the study of heritable changes in <a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">gene function</a> that cannot be explained by changes in the underlying <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequence" class="mw-redirect" title="DNA sequence">DNA sequence</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBird2007396–398_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBird2007396–398-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but cause the organism's genes to behave (or "express themselves") differently.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHunter2008_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHunter2008-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One example of epigenetic change is the marking of the genes by <a href="/wiki/DNA_methylation" title="DNA methylation">DNA methylation</a> which determines whether they will be expressed or not. Gene expression can also be controlled by repressor proteins that attach to <a href="/wiki/Silencer_(DNA)" class="mw-redirect" title="Silencer (DNA)">silencer</a> regions of the DNA and prevent that region of the DNA code from being expressed. Epigenetic marks may be added or removed from the DNA during programmed stages of development of the plant, and are responsible, for example, for the differences between anthers, petals and normal leaves, despite the fact that they all have the same underlying genetic code. Epigenetic changes may be temporary or may remain through successive <a href="/wiki/Cell_division" title="Cell division">cell divisions</a> for the remainder of the cell's life. Some epigenetic changes have been shown to be <a href="/wiki/Heritability" title="Heritability">heritable</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpector20128_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpector20128-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while others are reset in the germ cells. </p><p>Epigenetic changes in <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotic</a> biology serve to regulate the process of <a href="/wiki/Cellular_differentiation" title="Cellular differentiation">cellular differentiation</a>. During <a href="/wiki/Morphogenesis" title="Morphogenesis">morphogenesis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Totipotent" class="mw-redirect" title="Totipotent">totipotent</a> <a href="/wiki/Stem_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Stem cells">stem cells</a> become the various <a href="/wiki/Pluripotent" class="mw-redirect" title="Pluripotent">pluripotent</a> <a href="/wiki/Cell_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Cell line">cell lines</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Embryo" title="Embryo">embryo</a>, which in turn become fully differentiated cells. A single fertilised egg cell, the <a href="/wiki/Zygote" title="Zygote">zygote</a>, gives rise to the many different <a href="/wiki/Plant_cell" title="Plant cell">plant cell</a> types including <a href="/wiki/Parenchyma" title="Parenchyma">parenchyma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vessel_element" title="Vessel element">xylem vessel elements</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phloem" title="Phloem">phloem</a> sieve tubes, <a href="/wiki/Guard_cell" title="Guard cell">guard cells</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(botany)" title="Epidermis (botany)">epidermis</a>, etc. as it continues to <a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">divide</a>. The process results from the epigenetic activation of some genes and inhibition of others.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReik2007425–432_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReik2007425–432-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unlike animals, many plant cells, particularly those of the <a href="/wiki/Ground_tissue#Parenchyma" title="Ground tissue">parenchyma</a>, do not terminally differentiate, remaining totipotent with the ability to give rise to a new individual plant. Exceptions include highly lignified cells, the <a href="/wiki/Ground_tissue#Sclerenchyma" title="Ground tissue">sclerenchyma</a> and xylem which are dead at maturity, and the phloem sieve tubes which lack nuclei. While plants use many of the same epigenetic mechanisms as animals, such as <a href="/wiki/Chromatin_remodeling" title="Chromatin remodeling">chromatin remodelling</a>, an alternative hypothesis is that plants set their gene expression patterns using positional information from the environment and surrounding cells to determine their developmental fate.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECostaShaw2007101–106_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECostaShaw2007101–106-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Epigenetic changes can lead to <a href="/wiki/Paramutation" title="Paramutation">paramutations</a>, which do not follow the Mendelian heritage rules. These epigenetic marks are carried from one generation to the next, with one allele inducing a change on the other.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConeVedova2004_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConeVedova2004-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Plant_evolution">Plant evolution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Botany&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Plant evolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Evolutionary history of plants</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rhynia_stem.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="colour image of a cross section of a fossil stem of Rhynia gwynne-vaughanii, a Devonian vascular plant" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Rhynia_stem.jpg/220px-Rhynia_stem.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Rhynia_stem.jpg/330px-Rhynia_stem.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Rhynia_stem.jpg/440px-Rhynia_stem.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1772" data-file-height="1900" /></a><figcaption>Transverse section of a fossil stem of the Devonian vascular plant <i><a href="/wiki/Rhynia" title="Rhynia">Rhynia</a> gwynne-vaughani</i></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">chloroplasts</a> of plants have a number of biochemical, structural and genetic similarities to <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a>, (commonly but incorrectly known as "blue-green algae") and are thought to be derived from an ancient <a href="/wiki/Endosymbiotic_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Endosymbiotic theory">endosymbiotic</a> relationship between an ancestral <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotic cell</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Chloroplast#Parent_group:_Cyanobacteria" title="Chloroplast">cyanobacterial resident</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003552–581_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003552–581-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECopeland1938383–420_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECopeland1938383–420-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWoese_et_al.1977305–311_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoese_et_al.1977305–311-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECavalier-Smith20041251–1262_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECavalier-Smith20041251–1262-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a> are a <a href="/wiki/Polyphyly" title="Polyphyly">polyphyletic</a> group and are placed in various divisions, some more closely related to plants than others. There are many differences between them in features such as cell wall composition, biochemistry, pigmentation, chloroplast structure and nutrient reserves. The algal division <a href="/wiki/Charophyta" title="Charophyta">Charophyta</a>, sister to the green algal division <a href="/wiki/Chlorophyta" title="Chlorophyta">Chlorophyta</a>, is considered to contain the ancestor of true plants.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003617–654_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003617–654-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Charophyte class <a href="/wiki/Charophyceae" title="Charophyceae">Charophyceae</a> and the land plant sub-kingdom <a href="/wiki/Embryophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Embryophyta">Embryophyta</a> together form the <a href="/wiki/Monophyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Monophyletic">monophyletic</a> group or clade <a href="/wiki/Streptophytina" class="mw-redirect" title="Streptophytina">Streptophytina</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckerMarin2009999–1004_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckerMarin2009999–1004-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nonvascular land plants are <a href="/wiki/Embryophyte" title="Embryophyte">embryophytes</a> that lack the vascular tissues <a href="/wiki/Xylem" title="Xylem">xylem</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phloem" title="Phloem">phloem</a>. They include <a href="/wiki/Moss" title="Moss">mosses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marchantiophyta" title="Marchantiophyta">liverworts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hornwort" title="Hornwort">hornworts</a>. <a href="/wiki/Pteridophyte" title="Pteridophyte">Pteridophytic</a> vascular plants with true xylem and phloem that reproduced by spores germinating into free-living gametophytes evolved during the Silurian period and diversified into several lineages during the late <a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian</a> and early <a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</a>. Representatives of the lycopods have survived to the present day. By the end of the Devonian period, several groups, including the <a href="/wiki/Lycopodiophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Lycopodiophyta">lycopods</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sphenophyllales" title="Sphenophyllales">sphenophylls</a> and <a href="/wiki/Progymnosperm" title="Progymnosperm">progymnosperms</a>, had independently evolved "megaspory" – their spores were of two distinct sizes, larger <a href="/wiki/Megaspore" title="Megaspore">megaspores</a> and smaller microspores. Their reduced gametophytes developed from megaspores retained within the <a href="/wiki/Sporangium" title="Sporangium">spore-producing organs</a> (megasporangia) of the sporophyte, a condition known as endospory. Seeds consist of an endosporic megasporangium surrounded by one or two sheathing layers (<a href="/wiki/Integument" title="Integument">integuments</a>). The young sporophyte develops within the seed, which on <a href="/wiki/Germination" title="Germination">germination</a> splits to release it. The earliest known seed plants date from the latest Devonian <a href="/wiki/Famennian" title="Famennian">Famennian</a> stage.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFairon-Demaret1996217–233_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairon-Demaret1996217–233-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewartRothwell1993279–294_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewartRothwell1993279–294-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the evolution of the seed habit, <a href="/wiki/Spermatophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Spermatophyte">seed plants</a> diversified, giving rise to a number of now-extinct groups, including <a href="/wiki/Pteridospermatophyta" title="Pteridospermatophyta">seed ferns</a>, as well as the modern gymnosperms and angiosperms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylorTaylorKrings2009chapter_13_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylorTaylorKrings2009chapter_13-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">Gymnosperms</a> produce "naked seeds" not fully enclosed in an ovary; modern representatives include <a href="/wiki/Pinophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinophyta">conifers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cycad" title="Cycad">cycads</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Ginkgo" title="Ginkgo">Ginkgo</a></i>, and <a href="/wiki/Gnetophyta" title="Gnetophyta">Gnetales</a>. <a href="/wiki/Angiosperms" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiosperms">Angiosperms</a> produce seeds enclosed in a structure such as a <a href="/wiki/Gynoecium" title="Gynoecium">carpel</a> or an <a href="/wiki/Ovary" title="Ovary">ovary</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003720–750_153-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003720–750-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003751–785_154-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003751–785-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ongoing research on the molecular phylogenetics of living plants appears to show that the angiosperms are a <a href="/wiki/Sister_clade" class="mw-redirect" title="Sister clade">sister clade</a> to the gymnosperms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeeCibrian-JaramilloKolokotronisKatari2011e1002411_155-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeCibrian-JaramilloKolokotronisKatari2011e1002411-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Plant_physiology">Plant physiology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Botany&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Plant physiology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Plant_physiology" title="Plant physiology">Plant physiology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plant_physiology.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A Venn diagram of the relationships between five key areas of plant physiology" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Plant_physiology.png/280px-Plant_physiology.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Plant_physiology.png/420px-Plant_physiology.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Plant_physiology.png/560px-Plant_physiology.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="626" /></a><figcaption>Five of the key areas of study within plant physiology</figcaption></figure> <p>Plant <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiology</a> encompasses all the internal chemical and physical activities of plants associated with life.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003278–279_156-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003278–279-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chemicals obtained from the air, soil and water form the basis of all <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">plant metabolism</a>. The energy of sunlight, captured by oxygenic photosynthesis and released by <a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">cellular respiration</a>, is the basis of almost all life. <a href="/wiki/Phototroph" title="Phototroph">Photoautotrophs</a>, including all green plants, algae and <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a> gather energy directly from sunlight by photosynthesis. <a href="/wiki/Heterotroph" title="Heterotroph">Heterotrophs</a> including all animals, all fungi, all completely parasitic plants, and non-photosynthetic bacteria take in organic molecules produced by photoautotrophs and respire them or use them in the construction of cells and tissues.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003280–314_157-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003280–314-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">Respiration</a> is the oxidation of carbon compounds by breaking them down into simpler structures to release the energy they contain, essentially the opposite of photosynthesis.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003315–340_158-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003315–340-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Molecules are moved within plants by transport processes that operate at a variety of <a href="/wiki/Spatial_scale" title="Spatial scale">spatial scales</a>. Subcellular transport of ions, electrons and molecules such as water and <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a> occurs across <a href="/wiki/Cell_membrane" title="Cell membrane">cell membranes</a>. Minerals and water are transported from roots to other parts of the plant in the <a href="/wiki/Transpiration_stream" title="Transpiration stream">transpiration stream</a>. <a href="/wiki/Diffusion" title="Diffusion">Diffusion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Osmosis" title="Osmosis">osmosis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Active_transport" title="Active transport">active transport</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mass_flow_(life_sciences)" title="Mass flow (life sciences)">mass flow</a> are all different ways transport can occur.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003341–372_159-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003341–372-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Examples of <a href="/wiki/Plant_nutrition" title="Plant nutrition">elements that plants need</a> to transport are <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">potassium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a>. In vascular plants, these elements are extracted from the soil as soluble ions by the roots and transported throughout the plant in the xylem. Most of the elements required for <a href="/wiki/Plant_nutrition" title="Plant nutrition">plant nutrition</a> come from the chemical breakdown of soil minerals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003373–398_160-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003373–398-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Sucrose" title="Sucrose">Sucrose</a> produced by photosynthesis is transported from the leaves to other parts of the plant in the phloem and <a href="/wiki/Plant_physiology#Plant_hormones" title="Plant physiology">plant hormones</a> are transported by a variety of processes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plant_hormones">Plant hormones</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Botany&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Plant hormones"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Phototropism_Diagram.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A diagram of the mechanism of phototropism in oat coleoptiles" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Phototropism_Diagram.svg/280px-Phototropism_Diagram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Phototropism_Diagram.svg/420px-Phototropism_Diagram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Phototropism_Diagram.svg/560px-Phototropism_Diagram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="269" /></a><figcaption> <b>1</b> An oat <a href="/wiki/Coleoptile" title="Coleoptile">coleoptile</a> with the sun overhead. <a href="/wiki/Auxin" title="Auxin">Auxin</a> (pink) is evenly distributed in its tip. <br /><b>2</b> With the sun at an angle and only shining on one side of the shoot, auxin moves to the opposite side and stimulates <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cell_elongation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cell elongation (page does not exist)">cell elongation</a> there. <br /><b>3</b> and <b>4</b> Extra growth on that side causes the shoot to <a href="/wiki/Phototropism" title="Phototropism">bend towards the sun</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMauseth2012351_161-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2012351-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Plant_hormone" title="Plant hormone">Plant hormone</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phytochrome" title="Phytochrome">Phytochrome</a></div> <p>Plants are not passive, but respond to <a href="/wiki/Signal_transduction" title="Signal transduction">external signals</a> such as light, touch, and injury by moving or growing towards or away from the stimulus, as appropriate. Tangible evidence of touch sensitivity is the almost instantaneous collapse of leaflets of <i><a href="/wiki/Mimosa_pudica" title="Mimosa pudica">Mimosa pudica</a></i>, the insect traps of <a href="/wiki/Venus_flytrap" title="Venus flytrap">Venus flytrap</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bladderwort" class="mw-redirect" title="Bladderwort">bladderworts</a>, and the pollinia of orchids.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDarwin1880129–200_162-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarwin1880129–200-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The hypothesis that plant growth and development is coordinated by <a href="/wiki/Plant_hormone" title="Plant hormone">plant hormones</a> or plant growth regulators first emerged in the late 19th century. Darwin experimented on the movements of plant shoots and roots towards <a href="/wiki/Heliotropism" title="Heliotropism">light</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDarwin1880449–492_163-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarwin1880449–492-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Geotropism" class="mw-redirect" title="Geotropism">gravity</a>, and concluded "It is hardly an exaggeration to say that the tip of the radicle . . acts like the brain of one of the lower animals . . directing the several movements".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDarwin1880573_164-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarwin1880573-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> About the same time, the role of <a href="/wiki/Auxin" title="Auxin">auxins</a> (from the Greek <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">auxein</i></span>, to grow) in control of plant growth was first outlined by the Dutch scientist <a href="/wiki/Frits_Went" title="Frits Went">Frits Went</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlant_Hormones2013_165-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlant_Hormones2013-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first known auxin, <a href="/wiki/Indole-3-acetic_acid" title="Indole-3-acetic acid">indole-3-acetic acid</a> (IAA), which promotes cell growth, was only isolated from plants about 50 years later.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWentThimann1937110–112_166-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWentThimann1937110–112-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This compound mediates the tropic responses of shoots and roots towards light and gravity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003411–412_167-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003411–412-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The finding in 1939 that plant <a href="/wiki/Callus_(cell_biology)" title="Callus (cell biology)">callus</a> could be maintained in culture containing IAA, followed by the observation in 1947 that it could be induced to form roots and shoots by controlling the concentration of growth hormones were key steps in the development of plant biotechnology and genetic modification.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESussex20081189–1198_168-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESussex20081189–1198-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Venus_Fly_Trap_Eating_Compilation_Scott%27s_Revenge_On_The_Caterpillars.ogv/280px--Venus_Fly_Trap_Eating_Compilation_Scott%27s_Revenge_On_The_Caterpillars.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="280" height="210" data-durationhint="88" data-mwtitle="Venus_Fly_Trap_Eating_Compilation_Scott's_Revenge_On_The_Caterpillars.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Venus_Fly_Trap_Eating_Compilation_Scott%27s_Revenge_On_The_Caterpillars.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/de/Venus_Fly_Trap_Eating_Compilation_Scott%27s_Revenge_On_The_Caterpillars.ogv/Venus_Fly_Trap_Eating_Compilation_Scott%27s_Revenge_On_The_Caterpillars.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Venus_Fly_Trap_Eating_Compilation_Scott%27s_Revenge_On_The_Caterpillars.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora"" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/de/Venus_Fly_Trap_Eating_Compilation_Scott%27s_Revenge_On_The_Caterpillars.ogv/Venus_Fly_Trap_Eating_Compilation_Scott%27s_Revenge_On_The_Caterpillars.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/de/Venus_Fly_Trap_Eating_Compilation_Scott%27s_Revenge_On_The_Caterpillars.ogv/Venus_Fly_Trap_Eating_Compilation_Scott%27s_Revenge_On_The_Caterpillars.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/de/Venus_Fly_Trap_Eating_Compilation_Scott%27s_Revenge_On_The_Caterpillars.ogv/Venus_Fly_Trap_Eating_Compilation_Scott%27s_Revenge_On_The_Caterpillars.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>Venus's fly trap, <i>Dionaea muscipula</i>, showing the touch-sensitive insect trap in action</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Cytokinin" title="Cytokinin">Cytokinins</a> are a class of plant hormones named for their control of cell division (especially <a href="/wiki/Cytokinesis" title="Cytokinesis">cytokinesis</a>). The natural cytokinin <a href="/wiki/Zeatin" title="Zeatin">zeatin</a> was discovered in corn, <i><a href="/wiki/Zea_mays" class="mw-redirect" title="Zea mays">Zea mays</a></i>, and is a derivative of the <a href="/wiki/Purine" title="Purine">purine</a> <a href="/wiki/Adenine" title="Adenine">adenine</a>. Zeatin is produced in roots and transported to shoots in the xylem where it promotes cell division, bud development, and the greening of chloroplasts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008827–830_169-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008827–830-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003411–413_170-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003411–413-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Gibberelins" class="mw-redirect" title="Gibberelins">gibberelins</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Gibberelic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Gibberelic acid">gibberelic acid</a> are <a href="/wiki/Diterpene" title="Diterpene">diterpenes</a> synthesised from <a href="/wiki/Acetyl-CoA_carboxylase" title="Acetyl-CoA carboxylase">acetyl CoA</a> via the <a href="/wiki/Mevalonate_pathway" title="Mevalonate pathway">mevalonate pathway</a>. They are involved in the promotion of germination and dormancy-breaking in seeds, in regulation of plant height by controlling stem elongation and the control of flowering.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaizZeiger2002461–492_171-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaizZeiger2002461–492-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Abscisic_acid" title="Abscisic acid">Abscisic acid</a> (ABA) occurs in all land plants except liverworts, and is synthesised from <a href="/wiki/Carotenoid" title="Carotenoid">carotenoids</a> in the chloroplasts and other plastids. It inhibits cell division, promotes seed maturation, and dormancy, and promotes stomatal closure. It was so named because it was originally thought to control <a href="/wiki/Abscission" title="Abscission">abscission</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaizZeiger2002519–538_172-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaizZeiger2002519–538-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ethylene#Ethylene_as_a_plant_hormone" title="Ethylene">Ethylene</a> is a gaseous hormone that is produced in all higher plant tissues from <a href="/wiki/Methionine" title="Methionine">methionine</a>. It is now known to be the hormone that stimulates or regulates fruit ripening and abscission,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELinZhongGrierson2009331–336_173-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELinZhongGrierson2009331–336-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaizZeiger2002539–558_174-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaizZeiger2002539–558-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and it, or the synthetic growth regulator <a href="/wiki/Ethephon" title="Ethephon">ethephon</a> which is rapidly metabolised to produce ethylene, are used on industrial scale to promote ripening of cotton, <a href="/wiki/Pineapple" title="Pineapple">pineapples</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Climacteric_(botany)" title="Climacteric (botany)">climacteric</a> crops. </p><p>Another class of <a href="/wiki/Phytohormone" class="mw-redirect" title="Phytohormone">phytohormones</a> is the <a href="/wiki/Jasmonate" title="Jasmonate">jasmonates</a>, first isolated from the oil of <i><a href="/wiki/Jasminum_grandiflorum" title="Jasminum grandiflorum">Jasminum grandiflorum</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDemoleLedererMercier1962675–685_175-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDemoleLedererMercier1962675–685-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which regulates wound responses in plants by unblocking the expression of genes required in the <a href="/wiki/Systemic_acquired_resistance" title="Systemic acquired resistance">systemic acquired resistance</a> response to pathogen attack.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiniFonsecaFernándezAdie2007666–671_176-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiniFonsecaFernándezAdie2007666–671-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to being the primary energy source for plants, light functions as a signalling device, providing information to the plant, such as how much sunlight the plant receives each day. This can result in adaptive changes in a process known as <a href="/wiki/Photomorphogenesis" title="Photomorphogenesis">photomorphogenesis</a>. <a href="/wiki/Phytochrome" title="Phytochrome">Phytochromes</a> are the <a href="/wiki/Photoreceptor_protein" title="Photoreceptor protein">photoreceptors</a> in a plant that are sensitive to light.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoux198425–29_177-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoux198425–29-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Plant_anatomy_and_morphology">Plant anatomy and morphology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Botany&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Plant anatomy and morphology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oryza_sativa_-_K%C3%B6hler%E2%80%93s_Medizinal-Pflanzen-232.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Colour image of a 19th-century illustration of the morphology of a rice plant" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Oryza_sativa_-_K%C3%B6hler%E2%80%93s_Medizinal-Pflanzen-232.jpg/220px-Oryza_sativa_-_K%C3%B6hler%E2%80%93s_Medizinal-Pflanzen-232.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="288" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Oryza_sativa_-_K%C3%B6hler%E2%80%93s_Medizinal-Pflanzen-232.jpg/330px-Oryza_sativa_-_K%C3%B6hler%E2%80%93s_Medizinal-Pflanzen-232.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Oryza_sativa_-_K%C3%B6hler%E2%80%93s_Medizinal-Pflanzen-232.jpg/440px-Oryza_sativa_-_K%C3%B6hler%E2%80%93s_Medizinal-Pflanzen-232.jpg 2x" data-file-width="452" data-file-height="592" /></a><figcaption>A nineteenth-century illustration showing the morphology of the roots, stems, leaves and flowers of the rice plant <i><a href="/wiki/Oryza_sativa" title="Oryza sativa">Oryza sativa</a></i></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">Plant anatomy</a> is the study of the structure of plant cells and tissues, whereas <a href="/wiki/Plant_morphology" title="Plant morphology">plant morphology</a> is the study of their external form.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERavenEvertEichhorn20059_178-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERavenEvertEichhorn20059-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All plants are multicellular eukaryotes, their DNA stored in nuclei.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003433–467_179-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003433–467-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENational_Center_for_Biotechnology_Information2004_180-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENational_Center_for_Biotechnology_Information2004-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The characteristic features of <a href="/wiki/Plant_cell" title="Plant cell">plant cells</a> that distinguish them from those of animals and fungi include a primary <a href="/wiki/Cell_wall" title="Cell wall">cell wall</a> composed of the polysaccharides <a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">cellulose</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hemicellulose" title="Hemicellulose">hemicellulose</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pectin" title="Pectin">pectin</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMauseth200362–81_181-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth200362–81-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> larger <a href="/wiki/Vacuole" title="Vacuole">vacuoles</a> than in animal cells and the presence of <a href="/wiki/Plastid" title="Plastid">plastids</a> with unique photosynthetic and biosynthetic functions as in the chloroplasts. Other plastids contain storage products such as starch (<a href="/wiki/Amyloplasts" class="mw-redirect" title="Amyloplasts">amyloplasts</a>) or lipids (<a href="/wiki/Elaioplast" title="Elaioplast">elaioplasts</a>). Uniquely, <a href="/wiki/Streptophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Streptophyte">streptophyte</a> cells and those of the green algal order <a href="/wiki/Trentepohliales" title="Trentepohliales">Trentepohliales</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELópez-BautistaWatersChapman20031715–1718_182-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELópez-BautistaWatersChapman20031715–1718-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> divide by construction of a <a href="/wiki/Phragmoplast" title="Phragmoplast">phragmoplast</a> as a template for building a <a href="/wiki/Cell_plate" title="Cell plate">cell plate</a> late in <a href="/wiki/Cell_division" title="Cell division">cell division</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewisMcCourt20041535–1556_85-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewisMcCourt20041535–1556-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1062633282" /> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div style="display:table;"> <span typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Plant.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="A diagram of a "typical" eudicot, the most common type of plant (three-fifths of all plant species).[182] However, no plant actually looks exactly like this."><img alt="A diagram of a "typical" eudicot, the most common type of plant (three-fifths of all plant species).[182] However, no plant actually looks exactly like this." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Plant.svg/275px-Plant.svg.png" decoding="async" width="275" height="380" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Plant.svg/413px-Plant.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Plant.svg/550px-Plant.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="760" /></a></span><div class="thumbcaption" style="display:table-caption;caption-side:bottom;box-sizing:border-box;"><div style="float: left; margin-top: 0.25em; width: 11px; height: 9.5px;"><div style="position: relative; width: 0px; height: 0px; border-style: solid inset; border-width: 0 5.5px 9.5px 5.5px; border-color: transparent transparent #43d050 transparent;"></div></div><div style="padding-left: 20px">A diagram of a "typical" <a href="/wiki/Eudicot" class="mw-redirect" title="Eudicot">eudicot</a>, the most common type of plant (three-fifths of all plant species).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008630,_738_183-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008630,_738-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, no plant actually looks exactly like this.</div> </div> </div> </div> <p>The bodies of <a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">vascular plants</a> including <a href="/wiki/Lycopodiopsida" title="Lycopodiopsida">clubmosses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">ferns</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spermatophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Spermatophyte">seed plants</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">gymnosperms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Angiosperms" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiosperms">angiosperms</a>) generally have aerial and subterranean subsystems. The <a href="/wiki/Shoot_(botany)" title="Shoot (botany)">shoots</a> consist of <a href="/wiki/Plant_stem" title="Plant stem">stems</a> bearing green photosynthesising <a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">leaves</a> and reproductive structures. The underground vascularised <a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">roots</a> bear <a href="/wiki/Root_hairs" class="mw-redirect" title="Root hairs">root hairs</a> at their tips and generally lack chlorophyll.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008739_184-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008739-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Non-vascular plants, the <a href="/wiki/Marchantiophyta" title="Marchantiophyta">liverworts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hornworts" class="mw-redirect" title="Hornworts">hornworts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mosses" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosses">mosses</a> do not produce ground-penetrating vascular roots and most of the plant participates in photosynthesis.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008607–608_185-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008607–608-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Sporophyte" title="Sporophyte">sporophyte</a> generation is nonphotosynthetic in liverworts but may be able to contribute part of its energy needs by photosynthesis in mosses and hornworts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELepp2012_186-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELepp2012-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The root system and the shoot system are interdependent – the usually nonphotosynthetic root system depends on the shoot system for food, and the usually photosynthetic shoot system depends on water and minerals from the root system.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008739_184-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008739-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cells in each system are capable of creating cells of the other and producing <a href="/wiki/Adventitious" class="mw-redirect" title="Adventitious">adventitious</a> shoots or roots.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008812–814_187-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008812–814-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Stolons" class="mw-redirect" title="Stolons">Stolons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tuber" title="Tuber">tubers</a> are examples of shoots that can grow roots.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008740_188-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008740-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roots that spread out close to the surface, such as those of willows, can produce shoots and ultimately new plants.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003185–208_189-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003185–208-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the event that one of the systems is lost, the other can often regrow it. In fact it is possible to grow an entire plant from a single leaf, as is the case with plants in <a href="/wiki/Streptocarpus_sect._Saintpaulia" title="Streptocarpus sect. Saintpaulia"><i>Streptocarpus</i> sect. <i>Saintpaulia</i></a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMithilaHallVictorSaxena2003408–414_190-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMithilaHallVictorSaxena2003408–414-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or even a single <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cell</a> – which can dedifferentiate into a <a href="/wiki/Callus_(cell_biology)" title="Callus (cell biology)">callus</a> (a mass of unspecialised cells) that can grow into a new plant.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008812–814_187-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008812–814-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In vascular plants, the xylem and phloem are the conductive tissues that transport resources between shoots and roots. Roots are often adapted to store food such as sugars or <a href="/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">starch</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008739_184-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008739-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as in <a href="/wiki/Sugar_beet" title="Sugar beet">sugar beets</a> and carrots.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003185–208_189-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003185–208-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Stems mainly provide support to the leaves and reproductive structures, but can store water in succulent plants such as <a href="/wiki/Cactus" title="Cactus">cacti</a>, food as in potato <a href="/wiki/Tubers" class="mw-redirect" title="Tubers">tubers</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Vegetative_reproduction" title="Vegetative reproduction">reproduce vegetatively</a> as in the <a href="/wiki/Stolons" class="mw-redirect" title="Stolons">stolons</a> of <a href="/wiki/Strawberry#Cultivation" title="Strawberry">strawberry</a> plants or in the process of <a href="/wiki/Layering" title="Layering">layering</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008741_191-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008741-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leaves gather sunlight and carry out <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003114–153_192-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003114–153-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Large, flat, flexible, green leaves are called foliage leaves.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003154–184_193-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003154–184-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">Gymnosperms</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Conifer" title="Conifer">conifers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cycad" title="Cycad">cycads</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Ginkgo" title="Ginkgo">Ginkgo</a></i>, and <a href="/wiki/Gnetophyta" title="Gnetophyta">gnetophytes</a> are seed-producing plants with open seeds.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECapon200511_194-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECapon200511-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Angiosperms" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiosperms">Angiosperms</a> are <a href="/wiki/Spermatophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Spermatophyte">seed-producing plants</a> that produce flowers and have enclosed seeds.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003720–750_153-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003720–750-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Woody plants, such as <a href="/wiki/Azalea" title="Azalea">azaleas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oak" title="Oak">oaks</a>, undergo a secondary growth phase resulting in two additional types of tissues: wood (secondary <a href="/wiki/Xylem" title="Xylem">xylem</a>) and bark (secondary <a href="/wiki/Phloem" title="Phloem">phloem</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cork_cambium" title="Cork cambium">cork</a>). All gymnosperms and many angiosperms are woody plants.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003209–243_195-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003209–243-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some plants reproduce sexually, some asexually, and some via both means.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003244–277_196-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003244–277-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although reference to major morphological categories such as root, stem, leaf, and trichome are useful, one has to keep in mind that these categories are linked through intermediate forms so that a continuum between the categories results.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESattlerJeune1992249–269_197-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESattlerJeune1992249–269-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, structures can be seen as processes, that is, process combinations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESattler1992708–714_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESattler1992708–714-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Systematic_botany">Systematic botany</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Botany&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Systematic botany"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy (biology)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HerbPrepLG.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="photograph of a botanist preparing plant specimens for the herbarium" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/HerbPrepLG.jpg/280px-HerbPrepLG.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/HerbPrepLG.jpg/420px-HerbPrepLG.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/HerbPrepLG.jpg 2x" data-file-width="446" data-file-height="394" /></a><figcaption>A botanist preparing a plant specimen for mounting in the <a href="/wiki/Herbarium" title="Herbarium">herbarium</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Systematic botany is part of systematic biology, which is concerned with the range and diversity of organisms and their relationships, particularly as determined by their evolutionary history.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELilburnHarrisonColeGarrity2006_198-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELilburnHarrisonColeGarrity2006-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It involves, or is related to, biological classification, scientific taxonomy and <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">phylogenetics</a>. Biological classification is the method by which botanists group organisms into categories such as <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genera</a> or <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a>. Biological classification is a form of <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">scientific taxonomy</a>. Modern taxonomy is rooted in the work of <a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carl Linnaeus</a>, who grouped species according to shared physical characteristics. These groupings have since been revised to align better with the <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwinian</a> principle of <a href="/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent">common descent</a> – grouping organisms by ancestry rather than <a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">superficial characteristics</a>. While scientists do not always agree on how to classify organisms, <a href="/wiki/Molecular_phylogenetics" title="Molecular phylogenetics">molecular phylogenetics</a>, which uses <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequences" class="mw-redirect" title="DNA sequences">DNA sequences</a> as data, has driven many recent revisions along evolutionary lines and is likely to continue to do so. The dominant classification system is called <a href="/wiki/Linnaean_taxonomy" title="Linnaean taxonomy">Linnaean taxonomy</a>. It includes ranks and <a href="/wiki/Binomial_nomenclature" title="Binomial nomenclature">binomial nomenclature</a>. The nomenclature of botanical organisms is codified in the <a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_algae,_fungi,_and_plants" title="International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants">International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants</a> (ICN) and administered by the <a href="/wiki/International_Botanical_Congress" title="International Botanical Congress">International Botanical Congress</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcNeillBarrieBuckDemoulin2011Preamble,_para._7_199-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcNeillBarrieBuckDemoulin2011Preamble,_para._7-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003528–551_200-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003528–551-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kingdom <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plantae</a> belongs to <a href="/wiki/Domain_(biology)" title="Domain (biology)">Domain</a> <a href="/wiki/Eukaryota" class="mw-redirect" title="Eukaryota">Eukaryota</a> and is broken down recursively until each species is separately classified. The order is: <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)" title="Kingdom (biology)">Kingdom</a>; <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">Phylum</a> (or Division); <a href="/wiki/Class_(biology)" title="Class (biology)">Class</a>; <a href="/wiki/Order_(biology)" title="Order (biology)">Order</a>; <a href="/wiki/Family_(biology)" title="Family (biology)">Family</a>; <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">Genus</a> (plural <i>genera</i>); <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">Species</a>. The scientific name of a plant represents its genus and its species within the genus, resulting in a single worldwide name for each organism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003528–551_200-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003528–551-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the tiger lily is <i><a href="/wiki/Lilium_columbianum" title="Lilium columbianum">Lilium columbianum</a></i>. <i>Lilium</i> is the genus, and <i>columbianum</i> the <a href="/wiki/Botanical_name#Binary_name" title="Botanical name">specific epithet</a>. The combination is the name of the species. When writing the scientific name of an organism, it is proper to capitalise the first letter in the genus and put all of the specific epithet in lowercase. Additionally, the entire term is ordinarily italicised (or underlined when italics are not available).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003528–555_201-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003528–555-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Association_for_Plant_Taxonomy2006_202-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Association_for_Plant_Taxonomy2006-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESilyn-Roberts2000198_203-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESilyn-Roberts2000198-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The evolutionary relationships and heredity of a group of organisms is called its <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">phylogeny</a>. Phylogenetic studies attempt to discover phylogenies. The basic approach is to use similarities based on shared inheritance to determine relationships.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMauseth2012438–444_204-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2012438–444-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As an example, species of <i><a href="/wiki/Pereskia" title="Pereskia">Pereskia</a></i> are trees or bushes with prominent leaves. They do not obviously resemble a typical leafless <a href="/wiki/Cactus" title="Cactus">cactus</a> such as an <i><a href="/wiki/Echinocactus" title="Echinocactus">Echinocactus</a></i>. However, both <i>Pereskia</i> and <i>Echinocactus</i> have spines produced from <a href="/wiki/Areoles" class="mw-redirect" title="Areoles">areoles</a> (highly specialised pad-like structures) suggesting that the two genera are indeed related.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMauseth2012446–449_205-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2012446–449-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson200126–27_206-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson200126–27-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>205<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti" /><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:392px;max-width:392px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Two cacti of very different appearance</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:205px;max-width:205px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:135px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pereskia_aculeata5.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Pereskia_aculeata5.jpg/203px-Pereskia_aculeata5.jpg" decoding="async" width="203" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Pereskia_aculeata5.jpg/305px-Pereskia_aculeata5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Pereskia_aculeata5.jpg/406px-Pereskia_aculeata5.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2592" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><i>Pereskia aculeata</i></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:183px;max-width:183px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:135px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bogarub-echinocactus-grusonii-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Bogarub-echinocactus-grusonii-1.jpg/181px-Bogarub-echinocactus-grusonii-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="181" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Bogarub-echinocactus-grusonii-1.jpg/272px-Bogarub-echinocactus-grusonii-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Bogarub-echinocactus-grusonii-1.jpg/362px-Bogarub-echinocactus-grusonii-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="3216" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><i>Echinocactus grusonii</i></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Although <i>Pereskia</i> is a tree with leaves, it has spines and areoles like a more typical cactus, such as <i>Echinocactus</i>.</div></div></div></div> <p>Judging relationships based on shared characters requires care, since plants may resemble one another through <a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">convergent evolution</a> in which characters have arisen independently. Some <a href="/wiki/Euphorbia" title="Euphorbia">euphorbias</a> have leafless, rounded bodies adapted to water conservation similar to those of globular cacti, but characters such as the structure of their flowers make it clear that the two groups are not closely related. The <a href="/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">cladistic method</a> takes a systematic approach to characters, distinguishing between those that carry no information about shared evolutionary history – such as those evolved separately in different groups (<a href="/wiki/Homoplasies" class="mw-redirect" title="Homoplasies">homoplasies</a>) or those left over from ancestors (<a href="/wiki/Plesiomorphies" class="mw-redirect" title="Plesiomorphies">plesiomorphies</a>) – and derived characters, which have been passed down from innovations in a shared ancestor (<a href="/wiki/Apomorphies" class="mw-redirect" title="Apomorphies">apomorphies</a>). Only derived characters, such as the spine-producing areoles of cacti, provide evidence for descent from a common ancestor. The results of cladistic analyses are expressed as <a href="/wiki/Cladogram" title="Cladogram">cladograms</a>: tree-like diagrams showing the pattern of evolutionary branching and descent.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMauseth2012442–450_207-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2012442–450-207"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>206<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From the 1990s onwards, the predominant approach to constructing phylogenies for living plants has been <a href="/wiki/Molecular_phylogenetics" title="Molecular phylogenetics">molecular phylogenetics</a>, which uses molecular characters, particularly <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> sequences, rather than morphological characters like the presence or absence of spines and areoles. The difference is that the genetic code itself is used to decide evolutionary relationships, instead of being used indirectly via the characters it gives rise to. <a href="/wiki/Clive_A._Stace" title="Clive A. Stace">Clive Stace</a> describes this as having "direct access to the genetic basis of evolution."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStace2010a104_208-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStace2010a104-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>207<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a simple example, prior to the use of genetic evidence, fungi were thought either to be plants or to be more closely related to plants than animals. Genetic evidence suggests that the true evolutionary relationship of multicelled organisms is as shown in the cladogram below – fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMauseth2012453_209-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2012453-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="float: left; margin-right: 15px;"><div class="clade"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1261294616">body.skin-vector-2022 .mw-parser-output div.clade,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output div.clade{overflow-x:auto;overflow-y:hidden}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output div.clade p{font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output table.clade{border-spacing:0;margin:0;font-size:100%;line-height:100%;border-collapse:separate;width:auto;display:table}.mw-parser-output table.clade table.clade{width:100%;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label{min-width:0.2em;width:0.2em;padding:0.1em 0.25em;vertical-align:bottom;text-align:center;border-left:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label::before,.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel::before{content:"\2060 "}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-fixed-width{overflow:hidden;text-overflow:ellipsis}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-fixed-width:hover{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label.first{border-left:none;border-right:none}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label.reverse{border-left:none;border-right:1px solid}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel{padding:0.1em 0.25em;vertical-align:top;text-align:center;border-left:1px solid;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel:hover{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel.last{border-left:none;border-right:none}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel.reverse{border-left:none;border-right:1px solid}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-bar{vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;padding:0 0.5em;position:relative}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-bar.reverse{text-align:right;position:relative}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf{border:0;padding:0;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf p{padding-right:5px;padding-left:2px}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leafR{border:0;padding:0;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leafR p{padding-left:5px;padding-right:2px}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf.reverse{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf.reverse p{padding-left:5px;padding-right:2px}.mw-parser-output table.clade:hover span.linkA{background-color:yellow}.mw-parser-output table.clade:hover span.linkB{background-color:green}</style> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616" /> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><b>plants</b> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616" /> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><b>fungi</b> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><b>animals</b> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </div> <p>In 1998, the <a href="/wiki/Angiosperm_Phylogeny_Group" title="Angiosperm Phylogeny Group">Angiosperm Phylogeny Group</a> published a <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">phylogeny</a> for flowering plants based on an analysis of DNA sequences from most families of flowering plants. As a result of this work, many questions, such as which families represent the earliest branches of <a href="/wiki/Angiosperms" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiosperms">angiosperms</a>, have now been answered.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurger2013_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurger2013-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Investigating how plant species are related to each other allows botanists to better understand the process of evolution in plants.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChase_et_al.2003399–436_210-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChase_et_al.2003399–436-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the study of model plants and increasing use of DNA evidence, there is ongoing work and discussion among taxonomists about how best to classify plants into various <a href="/wiki/Taxon" title="Taxon">taxa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECapon2005223_211-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECapon2005223-211"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Technological developments such as computers and <a href="/wiki/Electron_microscope" title="Electron microscope">electron microscopes</a> have greatly increased the level of detail studied and speed at which data can be analysed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorton1981459–459_212-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorton1981459–459-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>211<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Symbols">Symbols</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Botany&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Symbols"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A few symbols are in current use in botany. A number of others are obsolete; for example, Linnaeus used planetary symbols <span class="nowrap">⟨♂⟩</span> (Mars) for biennial plants, <span class="nowrap">⟨♃⟩</span> (Jupiter) for herbaceous perennials and <span class="nowrap">⟨♄⟩</span> (Saturn) for woody perennials, based on the planets' orbital periods of 2, 12 and 30 years; and Willd used <span class="nowrap">⟨♄⟩</span> (Saturn) for neuter in addition to <span class="nowrap">⟨☿⟩</span> (Mercury) for hermaphroditic.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELindley1848_213-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindley1848-213"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>212<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The following symbols are still used:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimpson2010_214-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimpson2010-214"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>213<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <dl><dd>♀ female</dd> <dd>♂ male</dd> <dd>⚥ <a href="/wiki/Hermaphrodite#Plants" title="Hermaphrodite">hermaphrodite/bisexual</a></dd> <dd>⚲ vegetative (asexual) reproduction</dd> <dd>◊ sex unknown</dd> <dd>☉ annual</dd> <dd>⚇ <a href="/wiki/Biennial_plant" title="Biennial plant">biennial</a></dd> <dd>♾ <a href="/wiki/Perennial_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Perennial plant">perennial</a></dd> <dd>☠ poisonous</dd> <dd>🛈 further information</dd> <dd>× crossbred hybrid</dd> <dd>+ grafted hybrid</dd></dl> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Botany&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115" /><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 17em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Branches_of_botany" title="Branches of botany">Branches of botany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of plants">Evolution of plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_botanical_terms" title="Glossary of botanical terms">Glossary of botanical terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_plant_morphology" title="Glossary of plant morphology">Glossary of plant morphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_botany_journals" title="List of botany journals">List of botany journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_botanists" title="List of botanists">List of botanists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_botanical_gardens" title="List of botanical gardens">List of botanical gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_botanists_by_author_abbreviation" class="mw-redirect" title="List of botanists by author abbreviation">List of botanists by author abbreviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_domesticated_plants" title="List of domesticated plants">List of domesticated plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_flowers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of flowers">List of flowers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_systems_of_plant_taxonomy" title="List of systems of plant taxonomy">List of systems of plant taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_botany" title="Outline of botany">Outline of botany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_British_botany" title="Timeline of British botany">Timeline of British botany</a></li></ul> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Leaf_1_web.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Leaf_1_web.jpg/40px-Leaf_1_web.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="24" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Leaf_1_web.jpg/60px-Leaf_1_web.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Leaf_1_web.jpg/120px-Leaf_1_web.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Plants" title="Portal:Plants">Plants portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Issoria_lathonia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/32px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="23" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/48px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/64px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="629" data-file-height="445" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Biology" title="Portal:Biology">Biology portal</a></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Botany&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chlorophyll <i>b</i> is also found in some cyanobacteria. A bunch of other chlorophylls exist in <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a> and certain algal groups, but none of them are found in land plants.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKimArchibald20091–39_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKimArchibald20091–39-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoweBarbrookNisbetLockhart20082675–2685_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoweBarbrookNisbetLockhart20082675–2685-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETakaichi20111101–1118_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETakaichi20111101–1118-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Botany&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Botany&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 16em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i>, s.v. “<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/3982157073">botany (n.), sense 1.a</a>,” September 2024, "<i>The branch of science concerned with the study of plants, esp. as observed in the field, and in their taxonomic, morphological, anatomical, and ecological aspects</i>."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERGB_Kew2016-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERGB_Kew2016_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRGB_Kew2016">RGB Kew 2016</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_Plant_List2013-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThe_Plant_List2013_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThe_Plant_List2013">The Plant List & 2013</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and 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href="#CITEREFSimpson2010">Simpson 2010</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Botany&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAcharyaAnshu2008" class="citation book cs1">Acharya, Deepak; Anshu, Shrivastava (2008). <i>Indigenous Herbal Medicines: Tribal Formulations and Traditional Herbal Practices</i>. 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Botanical Gardens Conservation International. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bgci.org/education/article/414/">the original</a> on May 23, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 8,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Natural+Science+Institute+in+Botany+and+Ecology+for+Elementary+Teachers&rft.pub=Botanical+Gardens+Conservation+International&rft.date=2003-12&rft.aulast=Addelson&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bgci.org%2Feducation%2Farticle%2F414%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABotany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAnderson2001" class="citation book cs1">Anderson, Edward F. (2001). <i>The Cactus Family</i>. 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London: Unwin Hyman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-04-580013-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-04-580013-1"><bdi>978-0-04-580013-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Processes+of+Vegetation+Change&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Unwin+Hyman&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-04-580013-1&rft.aulast=Burrows&rft.aufirst=W.J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcropgeneticresou0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABotany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFButz2007" class="citation book cs1">Butz, Stephen D. (2007). <i>Science of Earth Systems</i> (2 ed.). Clifton Park, NY: Delmar Cengage Learning. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4180-4122-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4180-4122-9"><bdi>978-1-4180-4122-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+of+Earth+Systems&rft.place=Clifton+Park%2C+NY&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Delmar+Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4180-4122-9&rft.aulast=Butz&rft.aufirst=Stephen+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABotany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCampbellReeceUrryCain2008" class="citation book cs1">Campbell, Neil A.; Reece, Jane B.; Urry, Lisa Andrea; Cain, Michael L.; Wasserman, Steven Alexander; Minorsky, Peter V.; Jackson, Robert Bradley (2008). <i>Biology</i> (8 ed.). San Francisco: Pearson – Benjamin Cummings. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-321-54325-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-321-54325-7"><bdi>978-0-321-54325-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biology&rft.place=San+Francisco&rft.edition=8&rft.pub=Pearson+%E2%80%93+Benjamin+Cummings&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-321-54325-7&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=Neil+A.&rft.au=Reece%2C+Jane+B.&rft.au=Urry%2C+Lisa+Andrea&rft.au=Cain%2C+Michael+L.&rft.au=Wasserman%2C+Steven+Alexander&rft.au=Minorsky%2C+Peter+V.&rft.au=Jackson%2C+Robert+Bradley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABotany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFde_Candolle2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alphonse_Pyramus_de_Candolle" title="Alphonse Pyramus de Candolle">de Candolle, Alphonse</a> (2006). <i>Origin of Cultivated Plants</i>. 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"The Kingdoms of Organisms". <i>Quarterly Review of Biology</i>. <b>13</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">383–</span>420. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F394568">10.1086/394568</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:84634277">84634277</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Quarterly+Review+of+Biology&rft.atitle=The+Kingdoms+of+Organisms&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E383-%3C%2Fspan%3E420&rft.date=1938&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F394568&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A84634277%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Copeland&rft.aufirst=Herbert+Faulkner&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABotany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCostaShaw2007" class="citation journal cs1">Costa, Silvia; Shaw, Peter (March 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131215042638/http://cromatina.icb.ufmg.br/biomol/seminarios/outros/grupo_open.pdf">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Open Minded' Cells: How Cells Can Change Fate"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Trends in Cell Biology</i>. <b>17</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">101–</span>106. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tcb.2006.12.005">10.1016/j.tcb.2006.12.005</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17194589">17194589</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cromatina.icb.ufmg.br/biomol/seminarios/outros/grupo_open.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2013-12-15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Cell+Biology&rft.atitle=%27Open+Minded%27+Cells%3A+How+Cells+Can+Change+Fate&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E101-%3C%2Fspan%3E106&rft.date=2007-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tcb.2006.12.005&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17194589&rft.aulast=Costa&rft.aufirst=Silvia&rft.au=Shaw%2C+Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcromatina.icb.ufmg.br%2Fbiomol%2Fseminarios%2Foutros%2Fgrupo_open.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABotany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCousensMortimer1995" class="citation book cs1">Cousens, Roger; Mortimer, Martin (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0qw24PtWGQAC&pg=PA243"><i>Dynamics of Weed Populations</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-49969-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-49969-9"><bdi>978-0-521-49969-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230210172544/https://books.google.com/books?id=0qw24PtWGQAC&pg=PA243">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-02-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-06-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dynamics+of+Weed+Populations&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-521-49969-9&rft.aulast=Cousens&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft.au=Mortimer%2C+Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0qw24PtWGQAC%26pg%3DPA243&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABotany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDallal2010" class="citation book cs1">Dallal, Ahmad (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=97l0L7zKagkC&q=Ab%C5%AB%20%E1%B8%A4an%C4%ABfa%20D%C4%ABnawar%C4%AB&pg=PT197"><i>Islam, Science, and the Challenge of History</i></a>. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-15911-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-15911-0"><bdi>978-0-300-15911-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230210172545/https://books.google.com/books?id=97l0L7zKagkC&q=Ab%C5%AB%20%E1%B8%A4an%C4%ABfa%20D%C4%ABnawar%C4%AB&pg=PT197">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-02-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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London: Murray. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161014012228/http://darwin-online.org.uk/converted/pdf/1880_Movement_F1325.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2016-10-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-07-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Power+of+Movement+in+Plants&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Murray&rft.date=1880&rft.aulast=Darwin&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdarwin-online.org.uk%2Fconverted%2Fpdf%2F1880_Movement_F1325.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABotany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDemoleLedererMercier1962" class="citation journal cs1">Demole, E.; Lederer, E.; Mercier, D. (1962). 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London: Academic Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-508380-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-508380-5"><bdi>978-0-12-508380-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Botanical+Science%3A+An+Account+of+the+Development+of+Botany+from+Ancient+Times+to+the+Present+Day&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-12-508380-5&rft.aulast=Morton&rft.aufirst=Alan+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofbotanic0000mort&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABotany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNeedhamLuHuang1986" class="citation book cs1">Needham, Joseph; Lu, Gwei-djen; Huang, Hsing-Tsung (1986). <i>Science and Civilisation in China, Vol. 6 Part 1 Botany</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Civilisation+in+China%2C+Vol.+6+Part+1+Botany&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft.au=Lu%2C+Gwei-djen&rft.au=Huang%2C+Hsing-Tsung&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABotany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNobel1983" class="citation book cs1">Nobel, P.S. (1983). <i>Biophysical Plant Physiology and Ecology</i>. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-1447-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-1447-7"><bdi>978-0-7167-1447-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biophysical+Plant+Physiology+and+Ecology&rft.place=San+Francisco&rft.pub=W.H.+Freeman&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-1447-7&rft.aulast=Nobel&rft.aufirst=P.S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABotany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFOberlies1998" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Oberlies, Thomas (1998). <i>Die Religion des Rgveda</i> (in German). Wien: Sammlung De Nobili. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-900271-31-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-900271-31-2"><bdi>978-3-900271-31-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+Religion+des+Rgveda&rft.place=Wien&rft.pub=Sammlung+De+Nobili&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-3-900271-31-2&rft.aulast=Oberlies&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABotany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPadmanabhanDinesh-Kumar2010" class="citation journal cs1">Padmanabhan, Meenu S.; Dinesh-Kumar, S.P. 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Bologna: Mimesis Edizioni. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-8483-107-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-8483-107-1"><bdi>978-88-8483-107-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ideologies+as+Intercultural+Phenomena%3A+Proceedings+of+the+Third+Annual+Symposium+of+the+Assyrian+and+Babylonian+Intellectual+Heritage+Project%2C+Held+in+Chicago%2C+October+27%E2%80%9331%2C+2000&rft.place=Bologna&rft.pub=Mimesis+Edizioni&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-88-8483-107-1&rft.aulast=Panaino&rft.aufirst=Antonio&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.elamit.net%2Fmelammu%2Fmelammu2000panaino.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABotany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPorleyHodgetts2005" class="citation book cs1">Porley, Ron; Hodgetts, Nick (2005). <i>Mosses and Liverworts</i>. 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"Chloroplast Replication and Chloroplast DNA Synthesis in Spinach Leaves". <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</i>. <b>193</b> (1112): <span class="nowrap">295–</span>305. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1976RSPSB.193..295P">1976RSPSB.193..295P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.1976.0047">10.1098/rspb.1976.0047</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2691108">2691108</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Royal+Society+B%3A+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=Chloroplast+Replication+and+Chloroplast+DNA+Synthesis+in+Spinach+Leaves&rft.volume=193&rft.issue=1112&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E295-%3C%2Fspan%3E305&rft.date=1976-05-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A2691108%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frspb.1976.0047&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1976RSPSB.193..295P&rft.aulast=Possingham&rft.aufirst=J.V.&rft.au=Rose%2C+R.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABotany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFProctorYeo1973" class="citation book cs1">Proctor, M.; Yeo, P. 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Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4398-5336-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4398-5336-8"><bdi>978-1-4398-5336-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230210173342/https://books.google.com/books?id=T2ueAopatF0C&pg=PA118">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-02-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Stace">Stace, Clive A.</a> (2010a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110726104027/https://www.watsonia.org.uk/Wats28p103.pdf">"Classification by molecules: What's in it for field botanists?"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Watsonia</i>. <b>28</b>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.watsonia.org.uk/Wats28p103.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2011-07-26<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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International Association for Plant Taxonomy. 2006. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210126040330/https://ibot.sav.sk/icbn/frameset/0065Ch7OaGoNSec1a60.htm#recF">Archived</a> from the original on January 26, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84246-628-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84246-628-5"><bdi>978-1-84246-628-5</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://stateoftheworldsplants.com/report/sotwp_2016.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2016-09-28<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-09-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+State+of+the+World%27s+Plants+Report+%E2%80%93+2016.&rft.pub=Royal+Botanic+Gardens%2C+Kew.&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-84246-628-5&rft.au=RBG+Kew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fstateoftheworldsplants.com%2Freport%2Fsotwp_2016.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABotany" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Botany&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Biology_nav" title="Template talk:Biology nav"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Biology_nav" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Biology nav"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Biology858" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li>Introduction (<a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_genetics" title="Introduction to genetics">Genetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_evolution" title="Introduction to evolution">Evolution</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_biology" title="Outline of biology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry" title="Timeline of biology and organic chemistry">Timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_biology_articles" title="Index of biology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">Life</a></li> <li>Properties (<a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism"> Energy processing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Growth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Structure#Biological" title="Structure">Order</a>, <a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">Regulation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reproduction" title="Reproduction">Reproduction</a> (<a href="/wiki/Self-replication" title="Self-replication">Self-replication</a>), <a href="/wiki/Stimulus_(physiology)" title="Stimulus (physiology)">Response to environment</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_organisation" title="Biological organisation">Hierarchy of life</a> (<a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atom</a> > <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecule</a> > <a href="/wiki/Organelle" title="Organelle">Organelle</a> > <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">Cell</a> > <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">Tissue</a> > <a href="/wiki/Organ_(biology)" title="Organ (biology)">Organ</a> > <a href="/wiki/Biological_system" title="Biological system">Organ system</a> > <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">Organism</a> > <a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a> > <a href="/wiki/Biocoenosis" title="Biocoenosis">Community</a> > <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a> > <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism#In_science" title="Reductionism">Reductionistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence"> Emergent property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical philosophy">Mechanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_rank" title="Taxonomic rank">Taxonomic rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory"> Theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law"> Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review">Peer review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biology_journals" title="List of biology journals">Biology journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_name" title="Common name">Common name</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chemical basis</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">Amino acids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">Carbohydrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">Chemical bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">Chemical element</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipid" title="Lipid">Lipids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">Matter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_biology" title="Quantum biology">Quantum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monomer" title="Monomer">Monomer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid" title="Nucleic acid">Nucleic acids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">Organic compounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">Polymer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">Proteins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">Water</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">Cells</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">ATP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_cycle" title="Cell cycle">Cell cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_theory" title="Cell theory">Cell theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_signaling" title="Cell signaling">Cell signaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">Cellular respiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy transformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">Enzyme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fermentation" title="Fermentation">Fermentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">Metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">Meiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">Mitosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">Prokaryote</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">Gene expression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation_of_gene_expression" title="Regulation of gene expression">Gene regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">Genomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendelian inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-transcriptional_modification" title="Post-transcriptional modification">Post-transcriptional modification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest known life forms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Function_(biology)" title="Function (biology)">Function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">Genetic drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_flow" title="Gene flow">Gene flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">History of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroevolution" title="Macroevolution">Macroevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microevolution" title="Microevolution">Microevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Diversity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryote</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alga" class="mw-redirect" title="Alga">Alga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">Fungus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">Protist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">Virus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plant form <br /> and function</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(botany)" title="Epidermis (botany)">Epidermis (botany)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flower" title="Flower">Flower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_tissue" title="Ground tissue">Ground tissue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">Leaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phloem" title="Phloem">Phloem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_stem" title="Plant stem">Plant stem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoot_(botany)" title="Shoot (botany)">Shoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">Vascular plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_tissue" title="Vascular tissue">Vascular tissue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xylem" title="Xylem">Xylem</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Animal form <br />and function</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breathing" title="Breathing">Breathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">Circulatory system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endocrine_system" title="Endocrine system">Endocrine system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_digestive_system" title="Human digestive system">Digestive system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">Homeostasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">Immune system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_environment" title="Internal environment">Internal environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscular_system" title="Muscular system">Muscular system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">Nervous system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_system" title="Reproductive system">Reproductive system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system" title="Respiratory system">Respiratory system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">Biogeochemical cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction" title="Biological interaction">Biological interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">Biomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_ecology" title="Ecosystem ecology">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">Habitat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">niche</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiome" title="Microbiome">Microbiome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">Population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_(biology)" title="Resource (biology)">Resources</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg/140px-Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg/210px-Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg/280px-Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1804" data-file-height="2856" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_research_methods_in_biology" title="List of research methods in biology">Research <br /> methods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Laboratory <br /> techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformation_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transformation (genetics)">Transformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gel_electrophoresis" title="Gel electrophoresis">Gel electrophoresis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">Chromatography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrifugation" title="Centrifugation">Centrifugation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_culture" title="Cell culture">Cell culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">DNA sequencing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_microarray" title="DNA microarray">DNA microarray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_fluorescent_protein" title="Green fluorescent protein">Green fluorescent protein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_(molecular_biology)" title="Vector (molecular biology)">vector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enzyme_assay" title="Enzyme assay">Enzyme assay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein_purification" title="Protein purification">Protein purification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_blot" title="Western blot">Western blot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_blot" title="Northern blot">Northern blot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_blot" title="Southern blot">Southern blot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restriction_enzyme" title="Restriction enzyme">Restriction enzyme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction">Polymerase chain reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-hybrid_screening" title="Two-hybrid screening">Two-hybrid screening</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_vivo" title="In vivo">in vivo</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro">in vitro</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_silico" title="In silico">in silico</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Field techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belt_transect" title="Belt transect">Belt transect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_and_recapture" title="Mark and recapture">mark and recapture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_discovery_curve" title="Species discovery curve">species discovery curve</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerobiology" title="Aerobiology">Aerobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrostology" title="Agrostology">Agrostology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriology" title="Bacteriology">Bacteriology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeology" title="Biogeology">Biogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Biological engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomechanics" title="Biomechanics">Biomechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosemiotics" title="Biosemiotics">Biosemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></li> <li>Botany</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_microbiology" title="Cellular microbiology">Cellular microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">Chemical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronobiology" title="Chronobiology">Chronobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_biology" title="Cognitive biology">Cognitive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">Computational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryobiology" title="Cryobiology">Cryobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">Embryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biology" title="Freshwater biology">Freshwater biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative biology">Generative biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontology" title="Gerontology">Gerontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herpetology" title="Herpetology">Herpetology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">Histology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_biology" title="Human biology">Human biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyology" title="Ichthyology">Ichthyology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipidology" title="Lipidology">Lipidology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammalogy" title="Mammalogy">Mammalogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">Marine biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_and_theoretical_biology" title="Mathematical and theoretical biology">Mathematical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycology" title="Mycology">Mycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neontology" title="Neontology">Neontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_science" title="Nutritional science">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ornithology" title="Ornithology">Ornithology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteology" title="Osteology">Osteology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitology" title="Parasitology">Parasitology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">Pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photobiology" title="Photobiology">Photobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">Physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomology" title="Pomology">Pomology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proteomics" title="Proteomics">Proteomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protistology" title="Protistology">Protistology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_biology" title="Quantum biology">Quantum biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Relational biology">Relational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_biology" title="Reproductive biology">Reproductive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_biology" title="Structural biology">Structural biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_biology" title="Synthetic biology">Synthetic biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">Systems biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teratology" title="Teratology">Teratology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicology" title="Toxicology">Toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virology" title="Virology">Virology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virophysics" title="Virophysics">Virophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenobiology" title="Xenobiology">Xenobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">Zoology</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Glossaries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_biology" title="Glossary of biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_botanical_terms" title="Glossary of botanical terms">Botanical terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_ecology" title="Glossary of ecology">Ecological terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_plant_morphology" title="Glossary of plant morphology">Plant morphology terms</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Issoria_lathonia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/17px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg" decoding="async" width="17" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/26px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/34px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="629" data-file-height="445" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Biology" title="Portal:Biology">Biology portal</a></span></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Biology" title="Category:Biology">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Biology" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Biology">Commons</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Biology" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Biology">WikiProject</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Branches_of_biology59" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Branches_of_biology" title="Template:Branches of biology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Branches_of_biology" title="Template talk:Branches of biology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Branches_of_biology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Branches of biology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Branches_of_biology59" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_biology#Branches" title="Outline of biology">Branches of biology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerobiology" title="Aerobiology">Aerobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrostology" title="Agrostology">Agrostology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriology" title="Bacteriology">Bacteriology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeology" title="Biogeology">Biogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Biological engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomechanics" title="Biomechanics">Biomechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosemiotics" title="Biosemiotics">Biosemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Botany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_microbiology" title="Cellular microbiology">Cellular microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">Chemical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronobiology" title="Chronobiology">Chronobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_biology" title="Cognitive biology">Cognitive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">Computational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryobiology" title="Cryobiology">Cryobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">Embryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biology" title="Freshwater biology">Freshwater biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative biology">Generative biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontology" title="Gerontology">Gerontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herpetology" title="Herpetology">Herpetology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">Histology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_biology" title="Human biology">Human biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyology" title="Ichthyology">Ichthyology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipidology" title="Lipidology">Lipidology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammalogy" title="Mammalogy">Mammalogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">Marine biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_and_theoretical_biology" title="Mathematical and theoretical biology">Mathematical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycology" title="Mycology">Mycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neontology" title="Neontology">Neontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_science" title="Nutritional science">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ornithology" title="Ornithology">Ornithology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteology" title="Osteology">Osteology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitology" title="Parasitology">Parasitology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">Pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photobiology" title="Photobiology">Photobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">Physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomology" title="Pomology">Pomology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proteomics" title="Proteomics">Proteomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protistology" title="Protistology">Protistology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_biology" title="Quantum biology">Quantum biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Relational biology">Relational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_biology" title="Reproductive biology">Reproductive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_biology" title="Structural biology">Structural biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_biology" title="Synthetic biology">Synthetic biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">Systems biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teratology" title="Teratology">Teratology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicology" title="Toxicology">Toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virology" title="Virology">Virology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virophysics" title="Virophysics">Virophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenobiology" title="Xenobiology">Xenobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">Zoology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">History of biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry" title="Timeline of biology and organic chemistry">Timeline of biology and organic chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Botany862" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #C3EEC3;;background: #90EE90;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Botany" title="Template:Botany"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Botany" title="Template talk:Botany"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Botany" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Botany"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Botany862" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Botany</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #C3EEC3;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_botany" title="History of botany">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_botany" title="Outline of botany">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Branches_of_botany" title="Branches of botany">Subdisciplines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeobotany" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeobotany">Archaeobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobotany" title="Astrobotany">Astrobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryology" title="Bryology">Bryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnobotany" title="Ethnobotany">Ethnobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleobotany" title="Paleobotany">Paleobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytochemistry" title="Phytochemistry">Phytochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytogeography" title="Phytogeography">Phytogeography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geobotanical_prospecting" title="Geobotanical prospecting">Geobotany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">Plant anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_ecology" title="Plant ecology">Plant ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_intelligence" title="Plant intelligence">Plant intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_pathology" title="Plant pathology">Plant pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_physiology" title="Plant physiology">Plant physiology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plant</a> groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">Algae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeplastida" title="Archaeplastida">Archaeplastida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryophyte" title="Bryophyte">Bryophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-vascular_plant" title="Non-vascular plant">Non-vascular plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">Vascular plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">Fern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycophyte" title="Lycophyte">Lycophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spermatophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Spermatophyte">Spermatophytes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">Gymnosperm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">Angiosperm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">Plant anatomy</a> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_morphology" title="Plant morphology">Plant morphology</a><br /><span class="nobold">(<a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_plant_morphology" title="Glossary of plant morphology">glossary</a>)</span></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_cell" title="Plant cell">Plant cells</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cell_wall" title="Cell wall">Cell wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phragmoplast" title="Phragmoplast">Phragmoplast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastid" title="Plastid">Plastid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmodesma" title="Plasmodesma">Plasmodesma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuole" title="Vacuole">Vacuole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">Tissues</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cork_cambium" title="Cork cambium">Cork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_tissue" title="Ground tissue">Ground tissue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leaf#Mesophyll" title="Leaf">Mesophyll</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meristem" title="Meristem">Meristem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_organ" title="Storage organ">Storage organs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_tissue" title="Vascular tissue">Vascular tissue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_bundle" title="Vascular bundle">Vascular bundle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">Wood</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%">Vegetative</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bulb" title="Bulb">Bulb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizoid" title="Rhizoid">Rhizoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizome" title="Rhizome">Rhizome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoot_(botany)" title="Shoot (botany)">Shoot</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bud" title="Bud">Bud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">Leaf</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cataphyll" title="Cataphyll">Cataphyll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petiole_(botany)" title="Petiole (botany)">Petiole</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sessility_(botany)" title="Sessility (botany)">Sessility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_stem" title="Plant stem">Stem</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproductive_morphology" title="Plant reproductive morphology">Reproductive</a><br />(incl. Flower)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archegonium" title="Archegonium">Archegonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antheridium" title="Antheridium">Antheridium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen" title="Stamen">Androecium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">Pollen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen" title="Stamen">Stamen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anther" class="mw-redirect" title="Anther">Anther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen#Morphology_and_terminology" title="Stamen">Filament</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staminode" title="Staminode">Staminode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapetum_(botany)" title="Tapetum (botany)">Tapetum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flower" title="Flower">Flower</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aestivation_(botany)" title="Aestivation (botany)">Aestivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ABC_model_of_flower_development" title="ABC model of flower development">Flower development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_diagram" title="Floral diagram">Floral diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_formula" title="Floral formula">Floral formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_symmetry" title="Floral symmetry">Floral symmetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whorl_(botany)" title="Whorl (botany)">Whorl</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">Fruit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fruit_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Fruit anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berry_(botany)" title="Berry (botany)">Berry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capsule_(fruit)" title="Capsule (fruit)">Capsule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nut_(fruit)" title="Nut (fruit)">Nut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrena" title="Pyrena">Pyrena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seed" title="Seed">Seed</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seed_dispersal" title="Seed dispersal">Dispersal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endosperm" title="Endosperm">Endosperm</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gametophyte" title="Gametophyte">Gametophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Column_(botany)" title="Column (botany)">Gynandrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gynoecium" title="Gynoecium">Gynoecium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carpel" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpel">Carpel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ovary_(botany)" title="Ovary (botany)">Ovary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Locule" title="Locule">Locule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovule" title="Ovule">Ovule</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stigma_(botany)" title="Stigma (botany)">Stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Style_(botany)" title="Style (botany)">Style</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypanthium" title="Hypanthium">Hypanthium (Floral cup)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflorescence" title="Inflorescence">Inflorescence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bract" title="Bract">Bract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedicel_(botany)" title="Pedicel (botany)">Pedicellate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raceme" title="Raceme">Raceme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbel" title="Umbel">Umbel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perianth" title="Perianth">Perianth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tepal" title="Tepal">Tepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petal" title="Petal">Petal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sepal" title="Sepal">Sepal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryo#Plant_embryos" title="Embryo">Plant embryo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Receptacle_(botany)" title="Receptacle (botany)">Receptacle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporophyll" title="Sporophyll">Sporophyll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporophyte" title="Sporophyte">Sporophyte</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%">Surface structures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_cuticle" title="Plant cuticle">Cuticle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicuticular_wax" title="Epicuticular wax">Epicuticular wax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(botany)" title="Epidermis (botany)">Epidermis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nectar" title="Nectar">Nectar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoma" title="Stoma">Stoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorns,_spines,_and_prickles" title="Thorns, spines, and prickles">Thorns, spines, and prickles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trichome" title="Trichome">Trichome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_physiology" title="Plant physiology">Plant physiology</a><br />Materials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleurone" title="Aleurone">Aleurone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apical_dominance" title="Apical dominance">Apical dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulk_movement" title="Bulk movement">Bulk flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">Cellulose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_nutrition" title="Plant nutrition">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">Chlorophyll</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytomelanin" title="Phytomelanin">Phytomelanin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_hormone" title="Plant hormone">Plant hormones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system#Plants" title="Respiratory system">Respiration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_exchange#Plants" title="Gas exchange">Gas Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">Cellular respiration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sap" title="Sap">Sap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">Starch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">Sugar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transpiration" title="Transpiration">Transpiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turgor_pressure" title="Turgor pressure">Turgor pressure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%">Plant growth<br />and habit</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habit_(biology)#Structure" title="Habit (biology)">Habit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cushion_plant" title="Cushion plant">Cushion plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosette_(botany)" title="Rosette (botany)">Rosettes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shrub" title="Shrub">Shrubs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prostrate_shrub" title="Prostrate shrub">Prostrate shrubs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subshrub" title="Subshrub">Subshrubs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succulent_plant" title="Succulent plant">Succulent plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree" title="Tree">Trees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vine" title="Vine">Vines</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liana" title="Liana">Lianas</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbaceous_plant" title="Herbaceous plant">Herbaceous plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_growth" title="Secondary growth">Secondary growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woody_plant" title="Woody plant">Woody plants</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproduction" title="Plant reproduction">Reproduction</a> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_evolution" title="Plant evolution">Evolution</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_ecology" title="Plant ecology">Ecology</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternation_of_generations" title="Alternation of generations">Alternation of generations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_fertilization" title="Double fertilization">Double fertilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Plant evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Evolutionary history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_plant_evolution" title="Timeline of plant evolution">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora" title="Flora">Flora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germination" title="Germination">Germination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollination" title="Pollination">Pollination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_pollination" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial pollination">Artificial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollinator" title="Pollinator">Pollinators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollen_tube" title="Pollen tube">Pollen tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-pollination" title="Self-pollination">Self</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporangium" title="Sporangium">Sporangium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microsporangia" class="mw-redirect" title="Microsporangia">Microsporangia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microspore" title="Microspore">Microspore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporangium" title="Sporangium">Megasporangium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megaspore" title="Megaspore">Megaspore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">Spore</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_taxonomy" title="Plant taxonomy">Plant taxonomy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Biological classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_nomenclature" title="Botanical nomenclature">Botanical nomenclature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_name" title="Botanical name">Botanical name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correct_name" title="Correct name">Correct name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Author_citation_(botany)" title="Author citation (botany)">Author citation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_algae,_fungi,_and_plants" title="International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants">International Code of Nomenclature (ICN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_Cultivated_Plants" title="International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants">ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultivated_plant_taxonomy" title="Cultivated plant taxonomy">Cultivated plant taxonomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Citrus_taxonomy" title="Citrus taxonomy">Citrus taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultigen" title="Cultigen">Cultigen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultivar" title="Cultivar">Cultivar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultivar_group" title="Cultivar group">Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grex_(horticulture)" title="Grex (horticulture)">Grex</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_plant_systematics" title="History of plant systematics">History of plant systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbarium" title="Herbarium">Herbarium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_for_Plant_Taxonomy" title="International Association for Plant Taxonomy">International Association for Plant Taxonomy</a> (IAPT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_systems_of_plant_taxonomy" title="List of systems of plant taxonomy">Plant taxonomy systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_rank" title="Taxonomic rank">Taxonomic rank</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%">Practice</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floriculture" title="Floriculture">Floriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horticulture" title="Horticulture">Horticulture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytochemical" title="Phytochemical">Phytochemical</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Lists</li><li>Related topics</li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_botanical_terms" title="Glossary of botanical terms">Botanical terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_botanists" title="List of botanists">Botanists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_botanists_by_author_abbreviation_(W%E2%80%93Z)" title="List of botanists by author abbreviation (W–Z)">by author abbreviation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_expeditions" title="Botanical expeditions">Botanical expeditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_individual_trees" title="List of individual trees">Individual trees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_plants" title="Lists of plants">Plants</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #C3EEC3;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Botany" title="Category:Botany">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_botany255" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_botany" title="Template:History of botany"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_botany" title="Template talk:History of botany"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_botany" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of botany"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_botany255" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_botany" title="History of botany">History of botany</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fields and<br /> disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryology" title="Bryology">Bryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">Cladistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_anatomy" title="Comparative anatomy">Comparative anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytology" class="mw-redirect" title="Cytology">Cytology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_botany" title="Economic botany">Economic botany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnobotany" title="Ethnobotany">Ethnobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floristics" title="Floristics">Floristics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horticulture" title="Horticulture">Horticulture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lichenology" title="Lichenology">Lichenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_phylogenetics" title="Molecular phylogenetics">Molecular phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycology" title="Mycology">Mycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">Natural history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerical_taxonomy" title="Numerical taxonomy">Numerical taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleobotany" title="Paleobotany">Paleobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palynology" title="Palynology">Palynology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytochemistry" title="Phytochemistry">Phytochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytogeography" title="Phytogeography">Phytogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">Plant anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_ecology" title="Plant ecology">Plant ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_genetics" title="Plant genetics">Plant genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_morphology" title="Plant morphology">Plant morphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_pathology" title="Plant pathology">Plant pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_physiology" title="Plant physiology">Plant physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pteridology" class="mw-redirect" title="Pteridology">Pteridology</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Teofrasto_Orto_botanico_detail.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Theophrastus"><img alt="Theophrastus" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Teofrasto_Orto_botanico_detail.jpg/60px-Teofrasto_Orto_botanico_detail.jpg" decoding="async" width="60" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Teofrasto_Orto_botanico_detail.jpg/90px-Teofrasto_Orto_botanico_detail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Teofrasto_Orto_botanico_detail.jpg/120px-Teofrasto_Orto_botanico_detail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Institutions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jardin_des_Plantes" class="mw-redirect" title="Jardin des Plantes">Jardin des Plantes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_History_Museum,_London" title="Natural History Museum, London">Natural History Museum, London</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orto_botanico_di_Padova" title="Orto botanico di Padova">Orto botanico di Padova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orto_botanico_di_Pisa" title="Orto botanico di Pisa">Orto botanico di Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rothamsted_Research" title="Rothamsted Research">Rothamsted Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Botanic_Gardens,_Kew" title="Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew">Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Publications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historia_Plantarum_(Theophrastus)" title="Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus)"><i>Historia Plantarum</i></a> and <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Causes_of_Plants&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Causes of Plants (page does not exist)">Causes of Plants</a></i> of Theophrastus c. 300 BC</li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Plants" title="On Plants"><i>De Plantis</i></a> of Nicolaus of Damascus c. 1st century BC</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Materia_Medica" class="mw-redirect" title="De Materia Medica">De Materia Medica</a></i> of Dioscorides c. 60 AD</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)" title="Natural History (Pliny)"><i>Naturalis Historia</i></a> 77–79 AD</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=De_Vegetabilibus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="De Vegetabilibus (page does not exist)">De Vegetabilibus</a></i> of Albertus Magnus c. 1256</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Herbarum_Vivae_Icones&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Herbarum Vivae Icones (page does not exist)">Herbarum Vivae Icones</a></i> 1530</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Libellus_De_Re_Herbaria_Novus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Libellus De Re Herbaria Novus (page does not exist)">Libellus De Re Herbaria Novus</a></i> 1538</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kre%C3%BCtterbuch" class="mw-redirect" title="Kreütterbuch">Kreütterbuch</a></i> of Hieronymus Bock 1539</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_plantis_libri_XVI" class="mw-redirect" title="De plantis libri XVI">De plantis libri XVI</a></i> of Caesalpino 1583</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stirpium_Historiae&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Stirpium Historiae (page does not exist)">Stirpium Historiae</a></i> 1583</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Herball,_or_Generall_Historie_of_Plantes" class="mw-redirect" title="Herball, or Generall Historie of Plantes">Herball, or Generall Historie of Plantes</a></i> 1597</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prodromus_Theatrici_Botanici&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Prodromus Theatrici Botanici (page does not exist)">Prodromus Theatrici Botanici</a></i> 1620</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pinax_theatri_botanici&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pinax theatri botanici (page does not exist)">Pinax theatri botanici</a></i> 1623</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anatome_Plantarum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anatome Plantarum (page does not exist)">Anatome Plantarum</a></i> 1675</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Anatomy_of_Plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatomy of Plants">Anatomy of Plants</a></i> 1682</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historia_Plantarum_(Ray)" class="mw-redirect" title="Historia Plantarum (Ray)"><i>Historia Plantarum</i></a> of John Ray 1686–1704</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=De_Sexu_Plantarum_Epistola&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="De Sexu Plantarum Epistola (page does not exist)">De Sexu Plantarum Epistola</a></i> 1694</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=%C3%89l%C3%A9ments_de_botanique&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Éléments de botanique (page does not exist)">Éléments de botanique</a></i> 1694</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vegetable_Staticks" class="mw-redirect" title="Vegetable Staticks">Vegetable Staticks</a></i> 1727</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Systema_Naturae" title="Systema Naturae">Systema Naturae</a></i> 1735</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Genera_Plantarum" title="Genera Plantarum">Genera Plantarum</a></i> 1737</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Philosophia_Botanica" title="Philosophia Botanica">Philosophia Botanica</a></i> 1751</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Species_Plantarum" title="Species Plantarum">Species Plantarum</a></i> 1753</li> <li><a href="/wiki/10th_edition_of_Systema_Naturae" title="10th edition of Systema Naturae"><i>Systema Naturae, 10th ed.</i></a> 1758–59</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Familles_des_Plantes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Familles des Plantes (page does not exist)">Familles des Plantes</a></i> 1763–64</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Experiments_Upon_Vegetables&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Experiments Upon Vegetables (page does not exist)">Experiments Upon Vegetables</a></i> 1779</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Die_Metamorphose_der_Pflantzen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Die Metamorphose der Pflantzen (page does not exist)">Die Metamorphose der Pflantzen</a></i> 1790</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trait%C3%A9_d%27Anatomie_et_de_Physiologie_V%C3%A9g%C3%A9tale&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Traité d'Anatomie et de Physiologie Végétale (page does not exist)">Traité d'Anatomie et de Physiologie Végétale</a></i> 1802</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Recherches_Chimiques_sur_la_V%C3%A9g%C3%A9tation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Recherches Chimiques sur la Végétation (page does not exist)">Recherches Chimiques sur la Végétation</a></i> 1804</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Beytr%C3%A4ge_zur_Anatomie_der_Pflanzen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Beyträge zur Anatomie der Pflanzen (page does not exist)">Beyträge zur Anatomie der Pflanzen</a></i> 1812</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Prodromus_Systematis_Naturalis_Regni_Vegetabilis" title="Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis">Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis</a></i> 1824–1873 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nepenthaceae_(1873_monograph)" title="Nepenthaceae (1873 monograph)">Nepenthaceae</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Die_Vegetabilische_Zelle&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Die Vegetabilische Zelle (page does not exist)">Die Vegetabilische Zelle</a></i> 1851</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vergleichende_Untersuchungen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vergleichende Untersuchungen (page does not exist)">Vergleichende Untersuchungen</a></i> 1851</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i> 1859</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Experiments_on_Plant_Hybridization" title="Experiments on Plant Hybridization">Experiments on Plant Hybridization</a></i> 1865</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Die_Vegetation_der_Erde&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Die Vegetation der Erde (page does not exist)">Die Vegetation der Erde</a></i> 1872</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plantesamfund" title="Plantesamfund">Plantesamfund</a></i> 1895</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pflanzengeographie_auf_Physiologischer_Grundlage&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pflanzengeographie auf Physiologischer Grundlage (page does not exist)">Pflanzengeographie auf Physiologischer Grundlage</a></i> 1898</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Variation_and_Evolution_in_Plants" title="Variation and Evolution in Plants">Variation and Evolution in Plants</a></i> 1950</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontogeny_and_Phylogeny_(book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ontogeny and Phylogeny (book)"><i>Ontogeny and Phylogeny</i></a> 1977</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=An_Integrated_System_of_Classification_of_Flowering_Plants&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants (page does not exist)">An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants</a></i> 1981</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories and<br /> concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternation_of_generations" title="Alternation of generations">Alternation of generations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_theory" title="Cell theory">Cell theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_of_diversity" class="mw-redirect" title="Center of diversity">Center of diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_nomenclature" title="Phylogenetic nomenclature">Phylogenetic nomenclature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_generation" title="Spontaneous generation">Spontaneous generation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultrastructure" title="Ultrastructure">Ultrastructure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Influential<br /> figures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a> c. 371–287 BC</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> 23–79 AD</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedanius_Dioscorides" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedanius Dioscorides">Pedanius Dioscorides</a> c. 40–90 AD</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Brunfels" title="Otto Brunfels">Otto Brunfels</a> 1464–1534</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hieronymus_Bock" title="Hieronymus Bock">Hieronymus Bock</a> 1498–1554</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Cordus" title="Valerius Cordus">Valerius Cordus</a> 1515–1544</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Turner_(naturalist)" title="William Turner (naturalist)">William Turner</a> 1515–1568</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rembert_Dodoens" title="Rembert Dodoens">Rembert Dodoens</a> 1517–1585</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrea_Cesalpino" title="Andrea Cesalpino">Andrea Cesalpino</a> 1519–1603</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crist%C3%B3bal_Acosta" title="Cristóbal Acosta">Cristóbal Acosta</a> 1525–1594</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaspard_Bauhin" title="Gaspard Bauhin">Gaspard Bauhin</a> 1560–1624</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joachim_Jungius" title="Joachim Jungius">Joachim Jungius</a> 1587–1657</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ray" title="John Ray">John Ray</a> 1623–1705</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nehemiah_Grew" title="Nehemiah Grew">Nehemiah Grew</a> 1628–1711</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcello_Malpighi" title="Marcello Malpighi">Marcello Malpighi</a> 1628–1694</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Pitton_de_Tournefort" title="Joseph Pitton de Tournefort">Joseph Pitton de Tournefort</a> 1656–1708</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Jakob_Camerarius" title="Rudolf Jakob Camerarius">Rudolf Jakob Camerarius</a> 1665–1721</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hales" title="Stephen Hales">Stephen Hales</a> 1677–1761</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_de_Jussieu" title="Bernard de Jussieu">Bernard de Jussieu</a> 1699–1777</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carolus Linnaeus</a> 1707–1778</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Adanson" title="Michel Adanson">Michel Adanson</a> 1727–1806</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Ingenhousz" title="Jan Ingenhousz">Jan Ingenhousz</a> 1730–1799</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Celestino_Mutis" title="José Celestino Mutis">José Celestino Mutis</a> 1732–1808</li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_de_Azara" title="Félix de Azara">Félix de Azara</a> 1742–1821</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Banks" title="Joseph Banks">Joseph Banks</a> 1743–1820</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Johann Wolfgang von Goethe</a> 1749–1832</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Ludwig_Willdenow" title="Carl Ludwig Willdenow">Carl Ludwig Willdenow</a> 1765–1812</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas-Th%C3%A9odore_de_Saussure" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicolas-Théodore de Saussure">Nicolas-Théodore de Saussure</a> 1767–1845</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt" title="Alexander von Humboldt">Alexander von Humboldt</a> 1769–1859</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aim%C3%A9_Bonpland" title="Aimé Bonpland">Aimé Bonpland</a> 1773–1858</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nuttall" title="Thomas Nuttall">Thomas Nuttall</a> 1786–1859</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joakim_Frederik_Schouw" title="Joakim Frederik Schouw">Joakim Frederik Schouw</a> 1789–1852</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthias_Jakob_Schleiden" title="Matthias Jakob Schleiden">Matthias Jakob Schleiden</a> 1804–1881</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Braun" title="Alexander Braun">Alexander Braun</a> 1805–1877</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Engelmann" title="George Engelmann">George Engelmann</a> 1809–1884</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asa_Gray" title="Asa Gray">Asa Gray</a> 1810–1888</li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_Grisebach" title="August Grisebach">August Grisebach</a> 1814–1879</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Dalton_Hooker" title="Joseph Dalton Hooker">Joseph Hooker</a> 1817–1911</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregor_Mendel" title="Gregor Mendel">Gregor Mendel</a> 1822–1884</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathanael_Pringsheim" title="Nathanael Pringsheim">Nathanael Pringsheim</a> 1823–1894</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Hofmeister" title="Wilhelm Hofmeister">Wilhelm Hofmeister</a> 1824–1877</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_von_Sachs" title="Julius von Sachs">Julius von Sachs</a> 1832–1897</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenius_Warming" title="Eugenius Warming">Eugenius Warming</a> 1841–1924</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Gilson_Farlow" title="William Gilson Farlow">William Gilson Farlow</a> 1844–1919</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andreas_Franz_Wilhelm_Schimper" title="Andreas Franz Wilhelm Schimper">Andreas Franz Wilhelm Schimper</a> 1856–1901</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Vavilov" title="Nikolai Vavilov">Nikolai Vavilov</a> 1887–1943</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_McClintock" title="Barbara McClintock">Barbara McClintock</a> 1902–1992</li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._Ledyard_Stebbins" title="G. Ledyard Stebbins">G. Ledyard Stebbins</a> 1906–2000</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Odum" title="Eugene Odum">Eugene Odum</a> 1913–2002</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Cronquist" title="Arthur Cronquist">Arthur Cronquist</a> 1919–1992</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_garden" title="Botanical garden">Botanical garden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbal" title="Herbal">Herbal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_taxonomy" title="Plant taxonomy">Plant taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_plant_systematics" title="History of plant systematics">History of plant systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_systems_of_plant_taxonomy" title="List of systems of plant taxonomy">Systems of plant taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbalism">Herbalism</a></li> 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href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">History of medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_biology" title="History of molecular biology">History of molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_evolution" title="History of molecular evolution">History of molecular evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_paleontology" title="History of paleontology">History of paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_phycology" title="History of phycology">History of phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">Natural philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Philosophy of biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry" title="Timeline of biology and organic chemistry">Timeline of biology and organic 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Plant_classification" title="Template:Plant classification"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Plant_classification" title="Template talk:Plant classification"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Plant_classification" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Plant classification"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Classification_of_Archaeplastida_or_Plantae_s.l.1558" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Classification of <a href="/wiki/Archaeplastida" title="Archaeplastida">Archaeplastida</a> or <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plantae <span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="sensu lato; in the broad sense"><i>s.l.</i></span></a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #C3EEC3;"><div><div class="hlist"> <dl><dt><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Domain_(biology)" title="Domain (biology)">Domain</a></span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Archaea_classification" title="Template:Archaea classification">Archaea</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Bacteria_classification" title="Template:Bacteria classification">Bacteria</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Eukaryota" title="Template:Eukaryota">Eukaryota</a></dd> <dt><span class="nobold">(major groups</span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Excavata" title="Template:Excavata">Excavata</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Diaphoretickes" title="Diaphoretickes">Diaphoretickes</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Hacrobia" title="Template:Hacrobia">Hacrobia</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Cryptista" title="Template:Cryptista">Cryptista</a></dd></dl></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Rhizaria" title="Template:Rhizaria">Rhizaria</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Alveolata" title="Template:Alveolata">Alveolata</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Stramenopile" title="Template:Stramenopile">Stramenopiles</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Plant_classification" title="Template:Plant classification">Plants</a></dd></dl></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Amorphea" title="Amorphea">Amorphea</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Amoebozoa" title="Template:Amoebozoa">Amoebozoa</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Opisthokont_protists" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Opisthokont protists">Opisthokonta</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Animalia" title="Template:Animalia">Animals</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Fungi_classification" title="Template:Fungi classification">Fungi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Mesomycetozoea" title="Template:Mesomycetozoea">Mesomycetozoea</a>)</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> </div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Archaeplastida230" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.0em; background: #D4EED4;"><span style="margin:-40px; display: inline-block; -webkit-transform: rotate(270deg); -moz-transform: rotate(270deg); -ms-transform: rotate(270deg); -o-transform: rotate(270deg);transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Archaeplastida" title="Archaeplastida">Archaeplastida</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><a href="/wiki/Picozoa" title="Picozoa">Picozoa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Picomonas" class="mw-redirect" title="Picomonas">Picomonas</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><a href="/wiki/Rhodelphis" title="Rhodelphis">Rhodelphidia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Rhodelphis" title="Rhodelphis">Rhodelphis</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><a href="/wiki/Red_algae" title="Red algae">Rhodophyta</a><br /><span class="nobold">(red algae)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyanidiophyceae" title="Cyanidiophyceae">Cyanidiophyceae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proteorhodophytina" title="Proteorhodophytina">Proteorhodophytina</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Porphyridiophyceae" title="Porphyridiophyceae">Porphyridiophyceae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stylonematophyceae" title="Stylonematophyceae">Stylonematophyceae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compsopogonophyceae" title="Compsopogonophyceae">Compsopogonophyceae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodellophyceae" title="Rhodellophyceae">Rhodellophyceae</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurhodophytina" class="mw-redirect" title="Eurhodophytina">Eurhodophytina</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bangiophyceae" title="Bangiophyceae">Bangiophyceae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florideophyceae" title="Florideophyceae">Florideophyceae</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><a href="/wiki/Glaucophyte" title="Glaucophyte">Glaucophyta</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glaucophyte" title="Glaucophyte">Glaucocystophyceae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><i>incertae sedis</i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algospongia" title="Algospongia">Algospongia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><a href="/wiki/Viridiplantae" title="Viridiplantae">Viridiplantae</a> <br /> <span class="nobold">or <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plantae <span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="sensu stricto; in the strict sense"><i>s.s.</i></span></a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Green_algae" title="Green algae">green algae</a> &<br /> land plants)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Prasinodermophyta21" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><a href="/wiki/Prasinodermophyta" title="Prasinodermophyta">Prasinodermophyta</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prasinoderma" title="Prasinoderma">Prasinodermophyceae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmophyllophyceae" title="Palmophyllophyceae">Palmophyllophyceae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><span style="margin:-29px;display: inline-block;-webkit-transform: rotate(270deg);-moz-transform: rotate(270deg);-ms-transform: rotate(270deg);-o-transform: rotate(270deg);transform: rotate(270deg);"> <a href="/wiki/Chlorophyta" title="Chlorophyta">Chlorophyta</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;">Prasinophytina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mamiellophyceae" title="Mamiellophyceae">Mamiellophyceae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyramimonadophyceae" title="Pyramimonadophyceae">Pyramimonadophyceae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;">Chlorophytina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nephroselmidaceae" title="Nephroselmidaceae">Nephroselmidophyceae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picocystis" title="Picocystis">Picocystophyceae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chloropicophyceae" class="mw-redirect" title="Chloropicophyceae">Chloropicophyceae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedinophyceae" title="Pedinophyceae">Pedinophyceae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorodendrales" title="Chlorodendrales">Chlorodendrophyceae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UTC_clade" title="UTC clade">UTC clade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ulvophyceae" title="Ulvophyceae">Ulvophyceae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trebouxiophyceae" title="Trebouxiophyceae">Trebouxiophyceae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorophyceae" title="Chlorophyceae">Chlorophyceae</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><span style="margin:-29px;display: inline-block;-webkit-transform: rotate(270deg);-moz-transform: rotate(270deg);-ms-transform: rotate(270deg);-o-transform: rotate(270deg);transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Streptophyta" title="Streptophyta">Streptophyta</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mesostigmatophyceae" title="Mesostigmatophyceae">Mesostigmatophyceae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorokybophyceae" class="mw-redirect" title="Chlorokybophyceae">Chlorokybophyceae</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Spirotaenia" title="Spirotaenia">Spirotaenia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klebsormidiales" title="Klebsormidiales">Klebsormidiophyceae</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Phragmoplastophyta22" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><a href="/wiki/Phragmoplastophyta" title="Phragmoplastophyta">Phragmoplastophyta</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charophyceae" title="Charophyceae">Charophyceae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coleochaetophyceae" title="Coleochaetophyceae">Coleochaetophyceae</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;">Anydrophyta</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zygnematophyceae" title="Zygnematophyceae">Zygnematophyceae</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><a href="/wiki/Embryophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Embryophyta">Embryophyta</a><br /><span class="nobold">(land plants)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>(see below↓)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #C3EEC3;"><div id="Embryophytes_or_Plantae_sensu_strictissimo1558" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Embryophyte" title="Embryophyte">Embryophytes</a> or <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plantae <span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="in the strictest sense"><i>sensu strictissimo</i></span></a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Bryophytes228" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><span style="margin: -25px; display: inline-block; -webkit-transform: rotate(270deg); -moz-transform: rotate(270deg); -ms-transform: rotate(270deg); -o-transform: rotate(270deg); transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Bryophyte" title="Bryophyte">Bryophytes</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><a href="/wiki/Marchantiophyta" title="Marchantiophyta">Marchantiophyta</a><br /><span class="nobold">(liverworts)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haplomitriopsida" title="Haplomitriopsida">Haplomitriopsida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marchantiopsida" title="Marchantiopsida">Marchantiopsida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jungermanniopsida" title="Jungermanniopsida">Jungermanniopsida</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><a href="/wiki/Hornwort" title="Hornwort">Anthocerotophyta</a><br /><span class="nobold">(hornworts)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leiosporoceros" title="Leiosporoceros">Leiosporocerotopsida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hornwort" title="Hornwort">Anthocerotopsida</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><a href="/wiki/Moss" title="Moss">Bryophyta</a><br /><span class="nobold">(mosses)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Takakia" title="Takakia">Takakiopsida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sphagnopsida" title="Sphagnopsida">Sphagnopsida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andreaeobryum" title="Andreaeobryum">Andreaeobryopsida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andreaeaceae" title="Andreaeaceae">Andreaeopsida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oedipodium" title="Oedipodium">Oedipodiopsida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetraphidaceae" title="Tetraphidaceae">Tetraphidopsida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytrichaceae" title="Polytrichaceae">Polytrichopsida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryopsida" title="Bryopsida">Bryopsida</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><span style="margin: -55px; display: inline-block; -webkit-transform: rotate(270deg); -moz-transform: rotate(270deg); -ms-transform: rotate(270deg); -o-transform: rotate(270deg); transform: rotate(270deg);"> <a href="/wiki/Polysporangiophyte" title="Polysporangiophyte">Polysporangiophytes</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="†Protracheophytes*90" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><span class="nobold">†</span>Protracheophytes*</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>†<a href="/wiki/Horneophytopsida" title="Horneophytopsida">Horneophytopsida</a></li> <li>†<i><a href="/wiki/Aglaophyton" title="Aglaophyton">Aglaophyton</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><span style="margin: -25px; display: inline-block; -webkit-transform: rotate(270deg); -moz-transform: rotate(270deg); -ms-transform: rotate(270deg); -o-transform: rotate(270deg); transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">Tracheophytes</a><br /><span class="nobold">(vascular plants)</span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="†Paratracheophytes*91" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><span class="nobold">†</span>Paratracheophytes*</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>†<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cooksoniopsida&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cooksoniopsida (page does not exist)">Cooksoniopsida</a></li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/Rhyniophyte" title="Rhyniophyte">Rhyniopsida</a></li> <li>†<a href="/w/index.php?title=Renaliales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Renaliales (page does not exist)">Renaliales</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><span style="margin: -40px; display: inline-block; -webkit-transform: rotate(270deg); -moz-transform: rotate(270deg); -ms-transform: rotate(270deg); -o-transform: rotate(270deg); transform: rotate(270deg);">Eutracheophytes</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Lycophytes14" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><a href="/wiki/Lycophyte" title="Lycophyte">Lycophytes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>†<a href="/wiki/Barinophyte" title="Barinophyte">Barinophytopsida</a></li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/Zosterophyll" title="Zosterophyll">Zosterophyllopsida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycopodiopsida" title="Lycopodiopsida">Lycopodiopsida</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lycopodiaceae" title="Lycopodiaceae">clubmosses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Selaginella" title="Selaginella">spikemosses</a> & <a href="/wiki/Isoetes" title="Isoetes">quillworts</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><span style="margin: -35px; display: inline-block; -webkit-transform: rotate(270deg); -moz-transform: rotate(270deg); -ms-transform: rotate(270deg); -o-transform: rotate(270deg); transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Euphyllophyte" title="Euphyllophyte">Euphyllophytes</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>†<a href="/wiki/Eophyllophyton" title="Eophyllophyton">Eophyllophytopsida</a></li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/Trimerophytopsida" title="Trimerophytopsida">Trimerophytopsida</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Moniliformopses15" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;">Moniliformopses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>†<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ibykales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ibykales (page does not exist)">Ibykales</a></li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/Cladoxylopsida" title="Cladoxylopsida">Cladoxylopsida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">Polypodiopsida</a> (ferns and <a href="/wiki/Equisetum" title="Equisetum">horsetails</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><span style="margin: -30px; display: inline-block; -webkit-transform: rotate(270deg); -moz-transform: rotate(270deg); -ms-transform: rotate(270deg); -o-transform: rotate(270deg); transform: rotate(270deg);">Lignophytes</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="†Progymnosperms*92" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><span class="nobold">†</span><a href="/wiki/Progymnosperm" title="Progymnosperm">Progymnosperms</a>*</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>†<a href="/w/index.php?title=Noeggerathiopsida&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Noeggerathiopsida (page does not exist)">Noeggerathiopsida</a></li> <li>†<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aneurophytopsida&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aneurophytopsida (page does not exist)">Aneurophytopsida</a></li> <li>†<a href="/w/index.php?title=Archaeopteridopsida&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Archaeopteridopsida (page does not exist)">Archaeopteridopsida</a></li> <li>†<a href="/w/index.php?title=Protopityales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Protopityales (page does not exist)">Protopityales</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><span style="margin: -25px; display: inline-block; -webkit-transform: rotate(270deg); -moz-transform: rotate(270deg); -ms-transform: rotate(270deg); -o-transform: rotate(270deg); transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Spermatophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Spermatophyte">Spermatophytes</a><br /><span class="nobold">(seed plants)</span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><span class="nobold">†</span><a href="/wiki/Pteridospermatophyta" title="Pteridospermatophyta">Pteridosperms</a><span class="nobold">*</span><br /><span class="nobold">(seed ferns)<br />and other extinct<br /> seed plant groups</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>†<a href="/wiki/Bennettitales" title="Bennettitales">Bennettitales</a></li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/Calamopityales" class="mw-redirect" title="Calamopityales">Calamopityales</a></li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/Callistophytales" title="Callistophytales">Callistophytales</a></li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/Caytoniales" title="Caytoniales">Caytoniales</a></li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/Cordaitales" title="Cordaitales">Cordaitales</a></li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/Corystospermaceae" title="Corystospermaceae">Corystospermales</a></li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/Czekanowskiales" title="Czekanowskiales">Czekanowskiales</a></li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/Gigantopteridales" class="mw-redirect" title="Gigantopteridales">Gigantopteridales</a></li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/Glossopteridales" title="Glossopteridales">Glossopteridales</a></li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/Lyginopteridales" title="Lyginopteridales">Lyginopteridopsida</a></li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/Medullosales" title="Medullosales">Medullosales</a></li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/Peltaspermales" title="Peltaspermales">Peltaspermopsida</a></li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/Pentoxylales" title="Pentoxylales">Pentoxylopsida</a></li> <li>†<a href="/w/index.php?title=Petriellales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Petriellales (page does not exist)">Petriellales</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><a href="/wiki/Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">Acrogymnospermae</a><br /><span class="nobold">(living gymnosperms)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cycad" title="Cycad">Cycadopsida (cycads)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ginkgoales" title="Ginkgoales">Ginkgoales (<i>Ginkgo</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conifer" title="Conifer">Pinopsida (conifers)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnetophyta" title="Gnetophyta">Gnetopsida</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">Angiospermae</a><br /><span class="nobold">(flowering plants)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basal_angiosperms" title="Basal angiosperms">Basal angiosperms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesangiospermae" title="Mesangiospermae">Core angiosperms</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magnoliids" title="Magnoliids">Magnoliids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monocotyledon" title="Monocotyledon">Monocots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudicots" title="Eudicots">Eudicots</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #C3EEC3;"><div> <ul><li>*<a href="/wiki/Paraphyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Paraphyletic">paraphyletic</a> groups</li> <li>† = <a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">extinct</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/List_of_plant_orders" title="List of plant orders">List of plant orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant#Current_definitions_of_Plantae" title="Plant">Current definitions of Plantae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q441#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1902" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q441#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1902" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" 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href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4007842-5">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85015976">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Botanique"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119460542">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Botanique"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119460542">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00572140">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="botanika"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph114191&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Botánica"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX525084">Spain</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007283825105171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/008257">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10640470">NARA</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    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<script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.eqiad.main-58c4b96c94-nb88z","wgBackendResponseTime":394,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"2.908","walltime":"3.358","ppvisitednodes":{"value":26711,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":823788,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":23746,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":24,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":19,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":558354,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 2656.998 1 -total"," 21.02% 558.519 222 Template:Sfn"," 16.79% 446.048 68 Template:Cite_journal"," 12.52% 332.635 32 Template:Navbox"," 11.78% 313.035 63 Template:Cite_book"," 7.95% 211.288 23 Template:Cite_web"," 6.06% 160.889 2 Template:Reflist"," 5.82% 154.669 1 Template:TopicTOC-Biology"," 5.66% 150.333 1 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"," 3.90% 103.687 7 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[\"CITEREFCapon2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCavalier-Smith2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChaffey2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChapman_et_al.2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChase_et_al.2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChiniFonsecaFernándezAdie2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCleveland_Museum_of_Natural_History2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCocking1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConeVedova2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCopeland1938\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCostaShaw2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCousensMortimer1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDallal2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDarwin1880\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDemoleLedererMercier1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDensmore1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDevosGale2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEhrhardtFrommer2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEreshefsky1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFairon-Demaret1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFerroSalviRivière-RollandVermat2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFinney1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlorosNewsomeFisher2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFry1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGlynnMiyagishimaYoderOsteryoung2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGordhHeadrick2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGowikWesthoff2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGraySargent1889\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreene1909\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrimeHodgson1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGust1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaberlandt1902\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHancock2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarris2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeinhorstCannon1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHerreraPellmyr2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHill1915\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoekMannJahns2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoweBarbrookNisbetLockhart2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHunter2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFInternational_Association_for_Plant_Taxonomy2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJanzenForrestSpougeHajibabaei2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJasechkoSharpGibsonBirks2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJeffreys2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJuddCampbellKelloggStevens2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKarp2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKenrickCrane1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKimArchibald2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKlemmHeubleinFinkBohn2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKolattukudy1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKressWurdackZimmerWeigt2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuhnleinTurner1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeeCibrian-JaramilloKolokotronisKatari2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeonelliCharnleyWebbBastow2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLepp2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevey1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewisMcCourt2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiddellScott1940\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLilburnHarrisonColeGarrity2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLinZhongGrierson2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLindley1848\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLunn2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLópez-BautistaWatersChapman2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLüttge2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMann1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFManniche2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMauseth2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMauseth2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCutcheonEllisHancockTowers1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcNeillBarrieBuckDemoulin2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMedbury1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMissouri_Botanical_Garden2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMithilaHallVictorSaxena2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorgensen1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorton1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNational_Center_for_Biotechnology_Information2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNational_Museum_of_Wales2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNational_Science_Foundation1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeedhamLuHuang1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNobel1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOberlies1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOnline_Etymology_Dictionary2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPadmanabhanDinesh-Kumar2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPanaino2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPlant_Hormones2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPorleyHodgetts2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPossinghamRose1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFProctorYeo1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRGB_Kew2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRavenEvertEichhorn2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReed1942\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReik2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRennerRicklefs1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRochaixGoldschmidt-ClermontMerchant1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoss2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoux1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRussinEvertVanderveerSharkey1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSattler1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSattlerJeune1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSavidan2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScharf2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScharlemannLaurance2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchellVan_Montagu1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchnurrShockeyDe_BoerBrowse2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchoening2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSilyn-Roberts2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimpson2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmall2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSobotkaSákováCurn2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpector2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpragueSprague1939\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStace2010a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStace2010b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStarr2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStewartRothwell1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStoverSimmonds1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSumner2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSunForouharLi_HmTu2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSussex2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaizZeiger2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTakaichi2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTansley1935\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylorTaylorKrings2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTeachEthnobotany2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThe_Plant_List2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThompsonFry2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUniversity_of_California-Davis2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUniversity_of_Maryland_Medical_Center2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWaggoner2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWashington_Post_18_Aug_2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWentThimann1937\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWillis1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoese_et_al.1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYanivBachrach2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYatesMather1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZoharyHopf2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_Candolle2006\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Angbr\"] = 5,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Biology nav\"] = 1,\n [\"Botany\"] = 1,\n [\"Branches of biology\"] = 1,\n [\"C3\"] = 1,\n [\"C4\"] = 2,\n [\"CO2\"] = 1,\n [\"Cbignore\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 2,\n [\"Citation\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 63,\n [\"Cite dictionary\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 68,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 23,\n [\"Clade\"] = 3,\n [\"Clear\"] = 2,\n [\"Commons category-inline\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 2,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 2,\n [\"Efn\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 6,\n [\"Good article\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvid\"] = 1,\n [\"History of botany\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 7,\n [\"Main\"] = 6,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 2,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Plain image with caption\"] = 2,\n [\"Plant classification\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect-several\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 222,\n [\"SfnRef\"] = 14,\n [\"Sfnref\"] = 3,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"TopicTOC-Biology\"] = 1,\n [\"Transl\"] = 1,\n [\"Transliteration\"] = 1,\n [\"Use British English\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikiquote\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","340","19.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","200","11.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","140","7.9"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","140","7.9"],["recursiveClone 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