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.ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Science_and_invention_in_Birmingham" title="Special:EditPage/Science and invention in Birmingham">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Science+and+invention+in+Birmingham%22">"Science and invention in Birmingham"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Science+and+invention+in+Birmingham%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Science+and+invention+in+Birmingham%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Science+and+invention+in+Birmingham%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Science+and+invention+in+Birmingham%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Science+and+invention+in+Birmingham%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2011</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Birmingham" title="Birmingham">Birmingham</a> is one of England's principal industrial centres and has a history of industrial and scientific innovation. It was once known as '<a href="/wiki/City_of_a_thousand_trades" class="mw-redirect" title="City of a thousand trades">city of a thousand trades</a>' and in 1791, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Young_(agriculturist)" title="Arthur Young (agriculturist)">Arthur Young</a> (the writer and commentator on British economic life) described Birmingham as "the first manufacturing town in the world".<sup id="cite_ref-Revolutionary_Players_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Revolutionary_Players-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Right up until the mid-19th century Birmingham was regarded as the prime industrial urban town in Britain and perhaps the world, the town's rivals were more specific in their trade bases. <a href="/wiki/Mill_(grinding)" title="Mill (grinding)">Mills</a> and <a href="/wiki/Foundries" class="mw-redirect" title="Foundries">foundries</a> across the world were helped along by the advances in <a href="/wiki/Steam_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Steam power">steam power</a> and <a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a> that were taking place in the city. The town offered a vast array of industries and was the world's leading manufacturer of metal ware, although this was by no means the only trade flourishing in the town.<sup id="cite_ref-Revolutionary_Players_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Revolutionary_Players-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the year 2000, of the 4,000 inventions copyrighted annually in the UK, 2,800 came from within a 35-mile radius of Birmingham. Peter Colegate of the <a href="/wiki/Patent_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="Patent Office">Patent Office</a> stated that "Every year, Birmingham amazes us by coming up with thousands of inventions. It is impossible to explain but people in the area seem to have a remarkable ability to come up with, and have the dedication to produce, ideas."<sup id="cite_ref-telegraph_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-telegraph-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the time line of industry and innovation listed below is extensive, it is by no means a comprehensive list of Birmingham's industrial and scientific achievements, more a guide to highlight the great diversity in the city's industrial might, which can still be seen today. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pre-17th_century">Pre-17th century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_invention_in_Birmingham&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Pre-17th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Deritendware_Jug_and_Sherds.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Deritendware_Jug_and_Sherds.jpg/170px-Deritendware_Jug_and_Sherds.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="299" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Deritendware_Jug_and_Sherds.jpg/255px-Deritendware_Jug_and_Sherds.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Deritendware_Jug_and_Sherds.jpg/340px-Deritendware_Jug_and_Sherds.jpg 2x" data-file-width="888" data-file-height="1564" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Deritend_ware" title="Deritend ware">Deritend ware</a></figcaption></figure><p>Birmingham's reputation for trade and innovation really begins to take off in the 12th century with the expansion of a market held there by the <a href="/wiki/De_Birmingham_family" title="De Birmingham family">De Birmingham family</a>. Around this time the <a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Bull_Ring" class="mw-redirect" title="Birmingham Bull Ring">Birmingham Bull Ring</a> begins to take shape, and with the town's markets there arises a necessity to produce items good enough to be sold elsewhere. </p><p>Medieval crafts in the town include <a href="/wiki/Textiles" class="mw-redirect" title="Textiles">textiles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leather" title="Leather">leather</a> working and <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> working, with archaeological evidence also suggesting the presence of <a href="/wiki/Pottery" title="Pottery">pottery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tile" title="Tile">tile</a> manufacture and probably the working of bone and horn. The following period sees the new town expand rapidly in highly favourable economic circumstances and there is archaeological evidence of small-scale industries taking place such as <a href="/wiki/Kiln" title="Kiln">kilns</a> producing the distinctive local <a href="/wiki/Deritend_ware" title="Deritend ware">Deritend ware</a> pottery. </p><p>The following decades, Birmingham becomes very productive in several trades <a href="/wiki/Metal_working" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal working">metal working</a>, including making small, high value items, possibly <a href="/wiki/Jewellery" title="Jewellery">jewellery</a> or metal ornaments, for Master of the <a href="/wiki/Knights_Templar" title="Knights Templar">Knights Templar</a>. They are sufficiently well known to be referred to without explanation as far away as London.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Rogers_-_Willem_van_de_Passe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/John_Rogers_-_Willem_van_de_Passe.jpg/170px-John_Rogers_-_Willem_van_de_Passe.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/John_Rogers_-_Willem_van_de_Passe.jpg/255px-John_Rogers_-_Willem_van_de_Passe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/John_Rogers_-_Willem_van_de_Passe.jpg/340px-John_Rogers_-_Willem_van_de_Passe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="358" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Rogers_(Bible_editor_and_martyr)" title="John Rogers (Bible editor and martyr)">John Rogers</a>, the compiler and editor of the 1537 <i><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Bible" title="Matthew Bible">Matthew Bible</a></i></figcaption></figure><p>Birmingham's first notable literary figure is <a href="/wiki/John_Rogers_(Bible_editor_and_martyr)" title="John Rogers (Bible editor and martyr)">John Rogers</a>, the compiler and editor of the 1537 <i><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Bible" title="Matthew Bible">Matthew Bible</a></i>, parts of which he also translates. This is the first complete authorised version of the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> to be printed in the English language<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the most influential of the early English printed Bibles, providing the basis for the later <i><a href="/wiki/Great_Bible" title="Great Bible">Great Bible</a></i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Authorized_King_James_Version" class="mw-redirect" title="Authorized King James Version">Authorized King James Version</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rogers' 1548 translation of <a href="/wiki/Philip_Melanchthon" title="Philip Melanchthon">Philip Melanchthon</a>'s <i>Weighing of the Interim</i>, possibly translated in <a href="/wiki/Deritend" title="Deritend">Deritend</a>, is the first book by a Birmingham man known to have been printed in England.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the early 16th century Birmingham has already evolved into a well established arms manufacturing town, in 1538 churchman John Leialand passes through the Midlands and writes: </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nye-Almanacke.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Nye-Almanacke.jpg/170px-Nye-Almanacke.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Nye-Almanacke.jpg/255px-Nye-Almanacke.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Nye-Almanacke.jpg/340px-Nye-Almanacke.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1004" data-file-height="1686" /></a><figcaption>Frontispiece of <a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Nye" title="Nathaniel Nye">Nye</a>'s <i>New Almanacke and Prognostication</i> for 1642</figcaption></figure> <blockquote><p><i>I came through a praty street or ever I entered Bermingham. This street, as I remember, is called Dirty (Deritend). In it dwells smiths and cutlers and there is a brooke that divides this street from Bermingham ........ There be many smiths in the towne, that use to make knives and all manner of cutting tools, and many lorimers that make bittes, and a great many naylours, so that a great part of the towne is maintained by smiths, who have their iron and sea-coal out of Staffordshire."</i><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Birmingham loses its <a href="/wiki/Lord_of_the_Manor" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord of the Manor">Lord of the Manor</a> in the 16th century,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the district as a whole remains an area of weak lordship throughout the following centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With local government remaining essentially <a href="/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">manorial</a>, the townspeoples' resulting high degree of economic and social freedom is to be a highly significant factor in Birmingham's subsequent development.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Saker.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Saker.jpg/220px-Saker.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Saker.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="145" /></a><figcaption>17th-century European <a href="/wiki/Saker_(cannon)" title="Saker (cannon)">saker</a> <a href="/wiki/Cannon" title="Cannon">cannon</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In 1642 the early Birmingham mathematician and astronomer <a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Nye" title="Nathaniel Nye">Nathaniel Nye</a> publishes <i>A New Almanacke and Prognostication calculated exactly for the faire and populous Towne of Birmicham in Warwickshire, where the Pole is elevated above the Horizon 52 degrees and 38 minutes, and may serve for any part of this Kingdome</i>. </p><p>Birmingham's principal tradesmen during the <a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">English Civil War</a> were the smiths, who were called upon to manufacture over 15,000 sword blades, these are supplied to <a href="/wiki/Roundhead" title="Roundhead">Parliamentarian</a> forces only. One of the town's leading minds, 'Nathaniel Nye' is recorded as testing a Birmingham cannon in 1643. Nye also experimented with a <a href="/wiki/Saker_(cannon)" title="Saker (cannon)">saker</a> in <a href="/wiki/Deritend" title="Deritend">Deritend</a> in 1645. From 1645 he became the master gunner to the <a href="/wiki/Roundhead" title="Roundhead">Parliamentarian</a> garrison at <a href="/wiki/Evesham" title="Evesham">Evesham</a> and in 1646 he successfully directs the artillery at the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Worcester" title="Siege of Worcester">Siege of Worcester</a>, detailing his experiences and in his 1647 book <i>The Art of Gunnery</i>, believing that war is as much a science as an art. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Snaphance_Lock,_External_View,_Cocked.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Snaphance_Lock%2C_External_View%2C_Cocked.png/220px-Snaphance_Lock%2C_External_View%2C_Cocked.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="88" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Snaphance_Lock%2C_External_View%2C_Cocked.png/330px-Snaphance_Lock%2C_External_View%2C_Cocked.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Snaphance_Lock%2C_External_View%2C_Cocked.png/440px-Snaphance_Lock%2C_External_View%2C_Cocked.png 2x" data-file-width="2800" data-file-height="1125" /></a><figcaption>External view of a cocked 17th century <a href="/wiki/Snaphance" title="Snaphance">snaphance</a> lock on <a href="/wiki/Musket" title="Musket">musket</a>, a weapon Birmingham was selling to London.</figcaption></figure> <p>The earliest known clock makers in the town arrived from London in 1667. Between 1770 and 1870 there are over 700 clock and watch makers in the town. </p><p>In 1689 Sir <a href="/wiki/Sir_Richard_Newdigate,_2nd_Baronet" title="Sir Richard Newdigate, 2nd Baronet">Richard Newdigate</a>, one of the new, local <a href="/wiki/Newdigate_baronets" title="Newdigate baronets">Newdigate baronets</a>, approaches manufacturers in the town with the notion of supplying the British Government with <a href="/wiki/Small_arms" class="mw-redirect" title="Small arms">small arms</a>. It is stressed that they would need to be of high enough calibre to equal the small arms that were being imported from abroad. After a successful trial order in 1692, the government places its first contract. On 5 January 1693, the "Officers of Ordnance" chooses five local firearms manufacturers to initially produce 200 "<a href="/wiki/Snaphance" title="Snaphance">snaphance</a> <a href="/wiki/Musket" title="Musket">musquets</a>" per month over the period of one year, paying 17 <a href="/wiki/Shilling" title="Shilling">shillings</a> per musket, plus 3 shillings per <a href="/wiki/Hundredweight" title="Hundredweight">hundredweight</a> for delivery to London. During the 18th century, Birmingham became the leading supplier of guns for the expanding British Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="18th_century">18th century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_invention_in_Birmingham&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: 18th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>1722: Richard Baddeley, <a href="/wiki/Ironmonger" class="mw-redirect" title="Ironmonger">ironmonger</a>, patents a method for "casting wheel streaks and <a href="/wiki/Clothes_pressing_iron" class="mw-redirect" title="Clothes pressing iron">box irons</a>". </p><p>1727: Birmingham is becoming a hot-bed of creative activity and local businessman and bookseller <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Warren" title="Thomas Warren">Thomas Warren</a> opens a bookshop in the Birmingham's High Street. Warren is an influential figure in Birmingham at this time. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Birmingham_Journal_1733.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Birmingham_Journal_1733.jpg/170px-Birmingham_Journal_1733.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Birmingham_Journal_1733.jpg/255px-Birmingham_Journal_1733.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Birmingham_Journal_1733.jpg/340px-Birmingham_Journal_1733.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1239" data-file-height="1697" /></a><figcaption>The only known surviving copy of the <i><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Journal_(eighteenth_century)" title="Birmingham Journal (eighteenth century)">Birmingham Journal</a></i>, dated 21 May 1733</figcaption></figure> <p>1732: The <i><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Journal_(eighteenth_century)" title="Birmingham Journal (eighteenth century)">Birmingham Journal</a></i> is founded and published from Thomas Warren's book store. This is possibly Birmingham's first weekly <a href="/wiki/Newspaper" title="Newspaper">newspaper</a>; one of its contributors is the very notable <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnson" title="Samuel Johnson">Samuel Johnson</a> of nearby <a href="/wiki/Lichfield" title="Lichfield">Lichfield</a>. </p><p>1733: Thomas Warren edits and publishes Samuel Johnson's first original writing—a translation of <a href="/wiki/Jer%C3%B3nimo_Lobo" title="Jerónimo Lobo">Jerónimo Lobo</a>'s Voyage to Abyssinia. Johnson works for the Journal while he lodges with Warren. Johnson later moves on to greater things and <a href="/wiki/James_Boswell" title="James Boswell">James Boswell</a> writes of Johnson's life: "After nine years of work, Johnson's <i><a href="/wiki/A_Dictionary_of_the_English_Language" title="A Dictionary of the English Language">A Dictionary of the English Language</a></i> was published in 1755; it had a far-reaching effect on Modern English and has been described as "one of the greatest single achievements of scholarship". The dictionary brings Johnson popularity and success. Until the completion of the <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i> 150 years later, Johnson's dictionary is among the most influential dictionaries in the history of the <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English language</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Waterframe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Waterframe.jpg/220px-Waterframe.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="314" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Waterframe.jpg/330px-Waterframe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Waterframe.jpg/440px-Waterframe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption> Model of a <a href="/wiki/Water_frame" title="Water frame">water frame</a> inspired by <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Paul" title="Lewis Paul">Lewis Paul</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Wyatt_(inventor)" title="John Wyatt (inventor)">John Wyatt</a>'s early <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cotton_spinning_mnachine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cotton spinning mnachine (page does not exist)">cotton spinning mnachine</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>1738: <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Paul" title="Lewis Paul">Lewis Paul</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Wyatt_(inventor)" title="John Wyatt (inventor)">John Wyatt</a>, of Birmingham, patent the <a href="/wiki/Spinning_wheel" title="Spinning wheel">roller spinning machine</a> and the flyer-and-bobbin system, for drawing <a href="/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton">cotton</a> to a more even thickness, using two sets of rollers that travel at different speeds. This principle later becomes the basis of <a href="/wiki/Richard_Arkwright" title="Richard Arkwright">Richard Arkwright</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Water_frame" title="Water frame">water frame</a>. </p><p>1741: <a href="/wiki/John_Wyatt_(inventor)" title="John Wyatt (inventor)">John Wyatt</a>, mechanic and inventor, designs and constructs a cart-weighing machine, later referred to as a <a href="/wiki/Compound_lever" title="Compound lever">compound lever</a> <a href="/wiki/Weighing_machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Weighing machine">weighing machine</a>; the design works by way of levers that hold in place a platform, no matter where the weight is placed the load is transferred to a central lever. Weights attached to that lever then help in obtaining a reading of accurate weight. The simplicity, efficiency and accuracy of the weighing machine prove extremely popular across England, subsequently weighing errors are reduced to approximately one pound per ton, this remains a high standard of measurement into the mid-19th century. </p><p>1741: The <a href="/wiki/Upper_Priory_Cotton_Mill" title="Upper Priory Cotton Mill">Upper Priory Cotton Mill</a> opens as the world's first <a href="/wiki/Cotton_mill" title="Cotton mill">mechanised cotton-spinning factory</a>. It is financed by local businessman <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Warren" title="Thomas Warren">Thomas Warren</a>, and opened by John Wyatt and Lewis Paul. </p><p>1742: <a href="/wiki/John_Baskerville" title="John Baskerville">John Baskerville</a> takes out a patent for making <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metal</a> <a href="/wiki/Molding_(decorative)" title="Molding (decorative)">mouldings</a>, rolling, grinding and <a href="/wiki/Japanning" title="Japanning">japanning</a> metal plates by use of weights, rollers and pickling, which Baskerville uses over the more traditional method of employing screws. This is the first patent for making metal mouldings by passing them through rolls of a certain profile. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Restored_carding_machine_at_Quarry_Bank_Mill.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Restored_carding_machine_at_Quarry_Bank_Mill.jpg/220px-Restored_carding_machine_at_Quarry_Bank_Mill.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Restored_carding_machine_at_Quarry_Bank_Mill.jpg/330px-Restored_carding_machine_at_Quarry_Bank_Mill.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Restored_carding_machine_at_Quarry_Bank_Mill.jpg/440px-Restored_carding_machine_at_Quarry_Bank_Mill.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption> A restored carding machine at <a href="/wiki/Quarry_Bank_Mill" title="Quarry Bank Mill">Quarry Bank Mill</a> in the UK.</figcaption></figure> <p>1743: A factory opens in <a href="/wiki/Northampton" title="Northampton">Northampton</a>, fifty spindles turned on five of Paul and Wyatt's machines proving more successful than their first mill. This operates until 1764. </p><p>1746: The Colmore family release land on what is later to be known as the <a href="/wiki/Jewellery_Quarter" title="Jewellery Quarter">Jewellery Quarter</a> to help satisfy the demands of an increasing population. </p><p>1746: A <a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulphuric acid</a> factory is set up at <a href="/w/index.php?title=Steelhouse_Lane&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Steelhouse Lane (page does not exist)">Steelhouse Lane</a> to use the <a href="/wiki/Lead_chamber_process" title="Lead chamber process">lead chamber process</a> invented by its co-founder <a href="/wiki/John_Roebuck" title="John Roebuck">John Roebuck</a>. Roebuck and local businessman <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Garbett" title="Samuel Garbett">Samuel Garbett</a> later relocate to <a href="/wiki/Prestonpans" title="Prestonpans">Prestonpans</a> in Scotland, taking with them several skilled men from the Birmingham factory. It is here in 1762 where Roebuck takes out a patent for making <a href="/wiki/Malleable_iron" title="Malleable iron">malleable iron</a>. </p><p>1748: Lewis Paul invents the hand driven <a href="/wiki/Carding" title="Carding">carding</a> machine. A coat of wire slips are placed around a card, which is then wrapped around a cylinder. Lewis's invention is later developed and improved by Richard Arkwright and <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Crompton" title="Samuel Crompton">Samuel Crompton</a>, although this comes about under great suspicion after a fire at <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bourn" title="Daniel Bourn">Daniel Bourn</a>'s factory in <a href="/wiki/Leominster" title="Leominster">Leominster</a> that specifically uses Paul and Wyatt's spindles. Bourn produces a similar patent in the same year. </p><p>1757: Rev John Dyer of Northampton recognises the importance of the Paul and Wyatt cotton spinning machine in poem: </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Westley---East-Prospect-of-Birmingham-1732.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Westley---East-Prospect-of-Birmingham-1732.jpg/400px-Westley---East-Prospect-of-Birmingham-1732.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Westley---East-Prospect-of-Birmingham-1732.jpg/600px-Westley---East-Prospect-of-Birmingham-1732.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Westley---East-Prospect-of-Birmingham-1732.jpg/800px-Westley---East-Prospect-of-Birmingham-1732.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1028" data-file-height="491" /></a><figcaption>Birmingham on the cusp of the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> in 1732</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><div class="poem"> <p>A circular machine, of new design<br /> In conic shape: it draws and spins a thread<br /> Without the tedious toil of needless hands.<br /> A wheel, invisible, beneath the floor,<br /> To ev'ry member of th' harmonius frame,<br /> Gives necessary motion. One, intent,<br /> O'erlooks the work; the carded wool, he says,<br /> Is smoothly lapp'd around those cylinders,<br /> Which, gently turning, yield it to yon' cirque<br /> Of upright spindles, which with rapid whirl<br /> Spin out, in long extent, an even twine. </p> </div></blockquote> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Baskerville_-_Industry_and_Genius.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Baskerville_-_Industry_and_Genius.jpg/200px-Baskerville_-_Industry_and_Genius.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Baskerville_-_Industry_and_Genius.jpg/300px-Baskerville_-_Industry_and_Genius.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Baskerville_-_Industry_and_Genius.jpg/400px-Baskerville_-_Industry_and_Genius.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2215" data-file-height="1366" /></a><figcaption><i>Industry and Genius</i>, 1990, by David Patten, sculpture dedicated to <a href="/wiki/John_Baskerville" title="John Baskerville">John Baskerville</a> in <a href="/wiki/Centenary_Square" title="Centenary Square">Centenary Square</a></figcaption></figure> <p>1757: <a href="/wiki/Baskerville" title="Baskerville">Baskerville serif</a> typeface is designed by <a href="/wiki/John_Baskerville" title="John Baskerville">John Baskerville</a> (1706–1775) in Birmingham, England. Baskerville is classified as a transitional typeface, positioned between the old style typefaces of William <a href="/wiki/Caslon" title="Caslon">Caslon</a>, and the modern styles of Giambattista <a href="/wiki/Bodoni" title="Bodoni">Bodoni</a> and Firmin <a href="/wiki/Didot_(typeface)" title="Didot (typeface)">Didot</a>. </p><p>1758: Paul and Wyatt improve their Roller Spinning machine and take out a second patent. Richard Arkwright later uses this as the model for his <a href="/wiki/Water_frame" title="Water frame">water frame</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lunar_Society.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/36/Lunar_Society.jpg/220px-Lunar_Society.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/36/Lunar_Society.jpg/330px-Lunar_Society.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/3/36/Lunar_Society.jpg 2x" data-file-width="372" data-file-height="268" /></a><figcaption>Meeting of the <a href="/wiki/Lunar_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Lunar Society">Lunar Society</a> late 18th century, possibly at <a href="/wiki/Soho_House" title="Soho House">Soho House</a></figcaption></figure> <p>1758: <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a> first travels to Birmingham "to improve and increase Acquaintance among Persons of Influence", and later returns in 1760 to conduct experiments with Boulton on <a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">electricity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sound" title="Sound">sound</a>. Franklin remains a common link among many of the early <a href="/wiki/Lunar_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Lunar Society">Lunar Society</a> members. </p><p>1759: A patent is granted to Thomas Blockley (<a href="/wiki/Locksmith" class="mw-redirect" title="Locksmith">locksmith</a>), for rolling <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> into different forms and making (metal) wheel tyres. </p><p>1762: <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Boulton" title="Matthew Boulton">Matthew Boulton</a> opens the <a href="/wiki/Soho_Foundry" title="Soho Foundry">Soho Foundry</a> engineering works, Handsworth; his partnership with Scottish engineer <a href="/wiki/James_Watt" title="James Watt">James Watt</a> makes the <a href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">steam engine</a> into the power plant for the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>. The term "<a href="/wiki/Horsepower" title="Horsepower">horsepower</a>" is coined by Watt. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sohohouse1.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Sohohouse1.JPG/220px-Sohohouse1.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Sohohouse1.JPG/330px-Sohohouse1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Sohohouse1.JPG/440px-Sohohouse1.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Soho_House" title="Soho House">Soho House</a> from the front. The house is now a museum free to patrons under 16.</figcaption></figure> <p>1765: <a href="/wiki/The_Lunar_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="The Lunar Society">The Lunar Society</a> begins life as a dinner club and informal learned society of prominent figures in the <a href="/wiki/Midlands_Enlightenment" title="Midlands Enlightenment">Midlands Enlightenment</a>, including industrialists, natural philosophers and intellectuals, who meet regularly until 1813 in Birmingham. A paper read at the Science Museum in London in 1963 claims that "of all the provincial philosophical societies it was the most important, perhaps because it was not merely provincial. All the world came to Soho to meet Boulton, Watt or Small, who were acquainted with the leading men of Science throughout Europe and America." The Midlands Enlightenment dominates the experience of the Enlightenment within England and its leading thinkers have international influence. In particular, it forms a pivotal link between the earlier <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a> and the later <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>, facilitating the exchange of ideas between experimental science, polite culture and practical technology that enables the technological preconditions for rapid economic growth to be attained. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Old_bess_steam_engine_1777.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Old_bess_steam_engine_1777.jpg/220px-Old_bess_steam_engine_1777.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Old_bess_steam_engine_1777.jpg/330px-Old_bess_steam_engine_1777.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Old_bess_steam_engine_1777.jpg/440px-Old_bess_steam_engine_1777.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2892" data-file-height="2772" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Bess_(beam_engine)" title="Old Bess (beam engine)">Old Bess</a></i>, as now preserved in the <a href="/wiki/Science_Museum,_London" title="Science Museum, London">Science Museum, London</a></figcaption></figure> <p>1767: A number of prominent Birmingham businessmen, including Matthew Boulton and others from the Lunar Society,<sup id="cite_ref-p_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-p-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> hold a public meeting in the White Swan, High Street,<sup id="cite_ref-sbcn_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sbcn-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to consider the possibility of building a canal from Birmingham to the <a href="/wiki/Staffordshire_and_Worcestershire_Canal" title="Staffordshire and Worcestershire Canal">Staffordshire and Worcestershire Canal</a> near <a href="/wiki/Wolverhampton" title="Wolverhampton">Wolverhampton</a>, taking in the coalfields of the <a href="/wiki/Black_Country" title="Black Country">Black Country</a>. They commission the <a href="/wiki/Canal_engineer" class="mw-redirect" title="Canal engineer">canal engineer</a> <a href="/wiki/James_Brindley" title="James Brindley">James Brindley</a> to propose a route. Brindley comes back with a largely level route via <a href="/wiki/Smethwick" title="Smethwick">Smethwick</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oldbury,_West_Midlands" title="Oldbury, West Midlands">Oldbury</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tipton" title="Tipton">Tipton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bilston" title="Bilston">Bilston</a> and Wolverhampton to Aldersley.<sup id="cite_ref-p_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-p-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hadfield_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hadfield-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This kick-starts what is to become the <a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Canal_Navigations" title="Birmingham Canal Navigations">Birmingham Canal Navigations</a>. </p><p>1770: James Watt applies the first <a href="/wiki/Screw_propeller" class="mw-redirect" title="Screw propeller">screw propeller</a> to an early steam engine at his Birmingham works, thus beginning the use of a hydrodynamic screw for propulsion. </p><p>1775: <a href="/wiki/Ketley%27s_Building_Society" title="Ketley's Building Society">Ketley's Building Society</a> is founded and becomes the world's first <a href="/wiki/Building_society" title="Building society">building society</a>. <a href="/wiki/Midland_Bank" title="Midland Bank">Midland Bank</a> (now owned by <a href="/wiki/HSBC" title="HSBC">HSBC</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Lloyds_Bank_(historic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lloyds Bank (historic)">Lloyds Bank</a> are also founded in Birmingham. </p><p>1777: Boulton and Watt build '<a href="/wiki/Old_Bess_(beam_engine)" title="Old Bess (beam engine)">Old Bess</a>', as described by the <a href="/wiki/Science_Museum_(London)" class="mw-redirect" title="Science Museum (London)">London science museums</a> 'an engine that stands at a crossroads in history'. </p><p>1779: <a href="/wiki/James_Keir" title="James Keir">James Keir</a> takes out a patent for a compound metal that is capable of being <a href="/wiki/Forging" title="Forging">forged</a> when hot or cold more fit for the making of bolts, nails, and sheathing for ships prior to anything before. This metal uses the same compounds and similar quantities of metals as the <a href="/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">patent</a> of <a href="/wiki/Muntz_metal" title="Muntz metal">Muntz metal</a>, which appears at the same time. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lloyds_Bank,_Five_Ways,_Birmingham.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Lloyds_Bank%2C_Five_Ways%2C_Birmingham.jpg/220px-Lloyds_Bank%2C_Five_Ways%2C_Birmingham.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Lloyds_Bank%2C_Five_Ways%2C_Birmingham.jpg/330px-Lloyds_Bank%2C_Five_Ways%2C_Birmingham.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Lloyds_Bank%2C_Five_Ways%2C_Birmingham.jpg/440px-Lloyds_Bank%2C_Five_Ways%2C_Birmingham.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>Birmingham became a town of commerce with two of the <a href="/wiki/Big_Four_(banking)" title="Big Four (banking)">big four</a> banks founded in the town. <a href="/wiki/Lloyds_TSB" class="mw-redirect" title="Lloyds TSB">Lloyds bank</a> was founded in 1765, the world's first <a href="/wiki/Building_society" title="Building society">building society</a> <a href="/wiki/Ketley%27s_Building_Society" title="Ketley's Building Society">Ketley's</a> was founded in 1775, and <a href="/wiki/Midland_Bank" title="Midland Bank">Midland Bank</a> (now owned by <a href="/wiki/HSBC" title="HSBC">HSBC</a> was founded in 1836). Pictured is the Edgbaston branch of Lloyds Bank, <a href="/wiki/Five_Ways,_Birmingham" title="Five Ways, Birmingham">Five Ways, Birmingham</a></figcaption></figure> <p>1779: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Matthew_Wasbrough&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Matthew Wasbrough (page does not exist)">Matthew Wasbrough</a> designs and builds the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pickard_Engine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pickard Engine (page does not exist)">Pickard Engine</a> (first crank engine) for <a href="/wiki/James_Pickard" title="James Pickard">James Pickard</a> of <a href="/wiki/Snowhill" title="Snowhill">Snow Hill</a>, this is defined as 'the first atmospheric engine in the world to directly achieve rotary motion by the use of a <a href="/wiki/Crank_(mechanism)" title="Crank (mechanism)">crank</a> and <a href="/wiki/Flywheel" title="Flywheel">flywheel</a>.'<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>1779: James Watt patents a copying press or 'letter copying machine' to deal with the mass of paper work at his business; he also invents an <a href="/wiki/Ink" title="Ink">ink</a> to work with it. This is the first widely used copy machine for offices and is a commercial success, being used for over a century. This letter copying press is considered to be the original <a href="/wiki/Photocopier" title="Photocopier">photocopier</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sun_and_planet_gear_science_museum.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Sun_and_planet_gear_science_museum.JPG/220px-Sun_and_planet_gear_science_museum.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Sun_and_planet_gear_science_museum.JPG/330px-Sun_and_planet_gear_science_museum.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Sun_and_planet_gear_science_museum.JPG/440px-Sun_and_planet_gear_science_museum.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1974" data-file-height="2172" /></a><figcaption>Boulton & Watt engine of 1788. The '<a href="/wiki/Sun_and_planet_gear" title="Sun and planet gear">sun and planet gear</a>' (also called the 'planet and sun gear') was a method of converting reciprocal motion to <a href="/wiki/Rotary_motion" class="mw-redirect" title="Rotary motion">rotary motion</a> and was utilised in a reciprocating steam engine</figcaption></figure> <p>1781: James Watt markets his <a href="/wiki/Rotation_around_a_fixed_axis" title="Rotation around a fixed axis">rotary-motion</a> steam engine. The earlier steam engine's vertical movement was ideal for operating <a href="/wiki/Water_pump" class="mw-redirect" title="Water pump">water pumps</a> but the new <a href="/wiki/Engine" title="Engine">engine</a> can be adapted to drive all sorts of machinery. <a href="/wiki/Richard_Arkwright" title="Richard Arkwright">Richard Arkwright</a> pioneers its use in his cotton mills and within 15 years there are 500+ Boulton & Watt steam engines in British factories and mines. Boulton also arranges, in 1775, an <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="Act of Parliament">act of Parliament</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too vague attribution or weasel words. (February 2025)">which?</span></a></i>]</sup> extending the term of Watt's 1769 patent to 1799. </p><p>1784: <a href="/wiki/James_Watt" title="James Watt">James Watt</a> refers to a two-speed transmission in patent No. 1432, which relates to <a href="/wiki/Steam_carriage" class="mw-redirect" title="Steam carriage">steam carriages</a>: The concept of changing speed (or a variable velocity) in <a href="/wiki/Gear_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="Gear ratio">gearing</a>, which could arguably be the seed of thought for all subsequent gearing systems. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"Motion [from a steam engine] is communicated to the axle-tree of one or more wheels of the carriage by means of the "circulating rotative to machinery" formerly patented by the inventor. Two or more loose wheels of different diameters are placed to be locked on the axle and impart extra power for bad roads or steep ascents."</p></blockquote> <p>1785: <a href="/wiki/William_Withering" title="William Withering">William Withering</a> publishes <i>An Account of the <a href="/wiki/Digitalis_purpurea" title="Digitalis purpurea">Foxglove</a> and some of its Medical Uses</i>, pioneering its use as a <a href="/wiki/Heart" title="Heart">cardiac</a> drug, <a href="/wiki/Digitalis" title="Digitalis">Digitalis</a>. </p><p>1785: James Watt and <a href="/wiki/William_Murdoch" title="William Murdoch">William Murdoch</a> invent the <a href="/wiki/Oscillating_cylinder" class="mw-redirect" title="Oscillating cylinder">oscillating cylinder</a> and <a href="/wiki/Double-acting_cylinder" class="mw-redirect" title="Double-acting cylinder">double action engine</a>. Around this time James Watt creates a governor and <a href="/wiki/Throttle" title="Throttle">throttle</a> <a href="/wiki/Valve" title="Valve">valve</a> for automatically regulating the supply of <a href="/wiki/Steam" title="Steam">steam</a> to an <a href="/wiki/Engine" title="Engine">engine</a> although no patents for this are taken out by Watt. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MurraysMillsOldDeckerMill.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/MurraysMillsOldDeckerMill.jpg/220px-MurraysMillsOldDeckerMill.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/MurraysMillsOldDeckerMill.jpg/330px-MurraysMillsOldDeckerMill.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/MurraysMillsOldDeckerMill.jpg/440px-MurraysMillsOldDeckerMill.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1238" data-file-height="1050" /></a><figcaption>The first steam powered <a href="/wiki/Cotton_Mill" class="mw-redirect" title="Cotton Mill">Cotton Mills</a> such as this <a href="/wiki/Murrays%27_Mills" title="Murrays' Mills">Murrays'</a> Mill in <a href="/wiki/Greater_Manchester" title="Greater Manchester">Greater Manchester</a> were powered by 40 hp Boulton and Watt beam engines. <a href="/wiki/Richard_Arkwright" title="Richard Arkwright">Richard Arkwright</a> pioneered Watt's <a href="/wiki/Rotation_around_a_fixed_axis" title="Rotation around a fixed axis">rotary-motion</a> steam engine in his cotton mills and within 15 years there were 500+ Boulton & Watt steam engines in British factories and mines.</figcaption></figure> <p>1788: Boulton and Watt build the <a href="/wiki/Reciprocating_engine" title="Reciprocating engine">rotative steam engine</a> also known as a <a href="/wiki/Piston_engine" class="mw-redirect" title="Piston engine">piston engine</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Watt_steam_engine#Later_improvements" title="Watt steam engine">improved steam engine</a> whose smooth reciprocating action enable it to drive a variety of rotary machinery. </p><p>1790: W. Richardson publishes <i>The Chemical Principles of the Metallic Arts: designed chiefly for the use of Manufacturers</i>, which is used to help with diseases associated with the metal working industry. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Soho-mint-mark-cartwheel-2-.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Soho-mint-mark-cartwheel-2-.jpg/220px-Soho-mint-mark-cartwheel-2-.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Soho-mint-mark-cartwheel-2-.jpg/330px-Soho-mint-mark-cartwheel-2-.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Soho-mint-mark-cartwheel-2-.jpg/440px-Soho-mint-mark-cartwheel-2-.jpg 2x" data-file-width="794" data-file-height="663" /></a><figcaption>Soho mint mark on a cartwheel twopence. The <a href="/wiki/Soho_Mint" title="Soho Mint">Soho Mint</a> pioneered mass production methods of coin manufacture around the world, with eight machines, driven by a steam engine, each capable of striking 70 to 84 coins per minute and worked by children.</figcaption></figure> <p>1794: <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Heaton" class="mw-redirect" title="Ralph Heaton">Ralph Heaton</a> patents a steam powered machine for mass-producing <a href="/wiki/Button" title="Button">button</a> shanks. This is one of the earliest forms of mechanical mass production and steam powered machine tool operation. </p><p>Around this time William Futrell (a well known Birmingham <a href="/wiki/Pugilist" class="mw-redirect" title="Pugilist">pugilist</a>) becomes publisher of possibly the first British <a href="/wiki/Boxing" title="Boxing">boxing</a> paper. </p><p>1797: <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Boulton" title="Matthew Boulton">Matthew Boulton</a> erects at Soho a complete <a href="/wiki/Coining_(mint)" title="Coining (mint)">coining</a> plant with which he strikes coins for the <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a> and <a href="/wiki/East_India" title="East India">East India</a> companies and for Russia, and produces a new <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> <a href="/wiki/Coin" title="Coin">coinage</a> for Britain. Also in 1797, he takes out a British patent in connection with raising water on the principle of the <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_ram" title="Hydraulic ram">hydraulic ram</a> although one of a similar nature appears in France at around the same time. </p><p>1799: The first <a href="/wiki/Bellcrank" title="Bellcrank">bellcrank</a> engine is patented by <a href="/wiki/William_Murdoch" title="William Murdoch">William Murdoch</a> while working for Boulton and Watt. It is the first compact, self-contained engine. </p><p>Among the products <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Boulton" title="Matthew Boulton">Matthew Boulton</a> seeks to make in his new facility are <a href="/wiki/Sterling_silver" title="Sterling silver">sterling</a> <a href="/wiki/Silver_plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Silver plate">silver plate</a> for those able to afford it, and <a href="/wiki/Sheffield_plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Sheffield plate">Sheffield plate</a>, silver-plated copper, for those less well off. Boulton and his father make small silver items throughout the 18th century, and there is no record of large items in either <a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silver</a> or Sheffield plate being made in Birmingham before Boulton does so. To make items such as <a href="/wiki/Candlestick" title="Candlestick">candlesticks</a> more cheaply than the London competition, the firm makes many items out of thin, die-stamped sections, which are shaped and joined. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Birmingham_Assay_Office_-_Newhall_Street_-_Birmingham_-_2005-10-13.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Birmingham_Assay_Office_-_Newhall_Street_-_Birmingham_-_2005-10-13.jpg/220px-Birmingham_Assay_Office_-_Newhall_Street_-_Birmingham_-_2005-10-13.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Birmingham_Assay_Office_-_Newhall_Street_-_Birmingham_-_2005-10-13.jpg/330px-Birmingham_Assay_Office_-_Newhall_Street_-_Birmingham_-_2005-10-13.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Birmingham_Assay_Office_-_Newhall_Street_-_Birmingham_-_2005-10-13.jpg/440px-Birmingham_Assay_Office_-_Newhall_Street_-_Birmingham_-_2005-10-13.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2016" data-file-height="1512" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Assay_Office" title="Birmingham Assay Office">Birmingham Assay Office</a> was fought for by Boulton and it changed the fortunes of <a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silver</a> making in the town and can still be visited today.</figcaption></figure> <p>One impediment to Boulton's work is the lack of an <a href="/wiki/Assay_office" title="Assay office">assay office</a> in Birmingham. The silver toys long made by the family firm are generally too light to require assaying, but silver plate has to be sent over 70 miles (110 km) to the nearest assay office, at <a href="/wiki/Chester" title="Chester">Chester</a>, to be assayed and <a href="/wiki/Hallmark" title="Hallmark">hallmarked</a>, with the attendant risks of damage and loss. Alternatively they can be sent to London, but this exposes them to the risk of being copied by competitors. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Merfamily_wedgewood_cut_steel_f%26b_smaller_back_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Merfamily_wedgewood_cut_steel_f%26b_smaller_back_2.jpg/200px-Merfamily_wedgewood_cut_steel_f%26b_smaller_back_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Merfamily_wedgewood_cut_steel_f%26b_smaller_back_2.jpg/300px-Merfamily_wedgewood_cut_steel_f%26b_smaller_back_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Merfamily_wedgewood_cut_steel_f%26b_smaller_back_2.jpg/400px-Merfamily_wedgewood_cut_steel_f%26b_smaller_back_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1071" data-file-height="674" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Wedgwood" title="Wedgwood">Wedgwood</a> button with <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Boulton" title="Matthew Boulton">Boulton</a> cut steels, depicting a <a href="/wiki/Mermaid" title="Mermaid">mermaid</a> and family, England, circa 1760.</figcaption></figure> <p>Boulton writes in 1771: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"I am very desirous of becoming a great <a href="/wiki/Silversmith" title="Silversmith">silversmith</a>, yet I am determined not to take up that branch in the large way I intended, unless powers can be obtained to have a marking hall [assay office] at Birmingham."</p></blockquote> <p>Boulton petitions <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Great_Britain" title="Parliament of Great Britain">Parliament</a> for the establishment of an assay office in Birmingham. Though the petition is bitterly opposed by London <a href="/wiki/Goldsmith" title="Goldsmith">goldsmiths</a>, he is successful in getting Parliament to pass an act of Parliament<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too vague attribution or weasel words. (February 2025)">which?</span></a></i>]</sup> establishing assay offices in Birmingham and Sheffield, whose silversmiths face similar difficulties in transporting their wares. The act is passed in March 1773, to grant Birmingham and Sheffield the right to assay silver. </p><p>1773: The <a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Assay_Office" title="Birmingham Assay Office">Birmingham Assay Office</a> opens on 31 August and the town becomes a leading manufacturer of all types of silver ware spanning three centuries. The assay office can still be visited today by appointment and is situated near to the city's well renowned <a href="/wiki/Jewellery_Quarter" title="Jewellery Quarter">Jewellery Quarter</a>. </p><p>1793: "A gentleman of the name of Hand" in Birmingham obtains a patent for preparing flexible <a href="/wiki/Leather" title="Leather">leather</a> having a <a href="/wiki/Glaze_(metallurgy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Glaze (metallurgy)">glaze</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polishing" title="Polishing">polish</a> that renders it impervious to water and needing only be wiped with a sponge to restore it to its original lustre. This is later recognised as <a href="/wiki/Patent_leather" title="Patent leather">patent leather</a> and is further improved by other inventors. </p><p>At some time around the late 18th or early 19th century a stand-alone cooking range or <a href="/wiki/Stove" title="Stove">stove</a> is invented by John Heard (joiner), capable of roasting, boiling, baking and of course heating a room. The products of combustion are carried off by means of a flue leading to the chimney, the inventor mentions it is particularly suitable for use on board ships. This is possibly the first of its kind, as earlier stoves such as the <a href="/wiki/Franklin_stove" title="Franklin stove">Franklin stove</a> do not appear to have flues attached and require a hearth and chimney to function, also it is not until the turn of the 19th century that other stoves begin appearing for cooking as well as heating a room. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="19th_century">19th century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_invention_in_Birmingham&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: 19th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gas_lighting_at_Lincoln%27s_Inn.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Gas_lighting_at_Lincoln%27s_Inn.jpg/220px-Gas_lighting_at_Lincoln%27s_Inn.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="337" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Gas_lighting_at_Lincoln%27s_Inn.jpg/330px-Gas_lighting_at_Lincoln%27s_Inn.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Gas_lighting_at_Lincoln%27s_Inn.jpg/440px-Gas_lighting_at_Lincoln%27s_Inn.jpg 2x" data-file-width="653" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gas_lighting" title="Gas lighting">Gas lighting</a> was pioneered in Birmingham, and subsequently spread around the world. Gas lamps were later replaced with electric fittings.</figcaption></figure> <p>1802: The exterior of the <a href="/wiki/Soho_Foundry" title="Soho Foundry">Soho Foundry</a> is lit with <a href="/wiki/Gas_lighting" title="Gas lighting">gas lighting</a> by <a href="/wiki/William_Murdoch" title="William Murdoch">William Murdoch</a>. Murdoch, its developer, worked for <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Boulton" title="Matthew Boulton">Matthew Boulton</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_Watt" title="James Watt">James Watt</a> at Soho. This becomes the basis for Birmingham's immense gas industry, which incorporates many products and trades that rely on gas to work. </p><p>1811: <a href="/wiki/Henry_James" title="Henry James">Henry James</a> takes out a patent for propelling vessels by steam, via a <a href="/wiki/Paddle_wheel" title="Paddle wheel">paddle wheel</a> fixed in the middle of the stern and steered by two fins to relieve <a href="/wiki/Legger" class="mw-redirect" title="Legger">leggers</a> from the arduous duty of pushing boats through canal tunnels. </p><p>1814: Thomas Dobbs (actor) invents a <a href="/wiki/Reaping_machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Reaping machine">reaping machine</a>, which consists of a circular saw or sickle; the grain is drawn or fed up to the saw by means of a pair of rollers. This predates William Bell's <a href="/w/index.php?title=Straw_cutting&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Straw cutting (page does not exist)">straw cutting</a> machine. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cadbury%27s_Cocoa_advert_with_rower_1885.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Cadbury%27s_Cocoa_advert_with_rower_1885.jpg/200px-Cadbury%27s_Cocoa_advert_with_rower_1885.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="329" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Cadbury%27s_Cocoa_advert_with_rower_1885.jpg/300px-Cadbury%27s_Cocoa_advert_with_rower_1885.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Cadbury%27s_Cocoa_advert_with_rower_1885.jpg/400px-Cadbury%27s_Cocoa_advert_with_rower_1885.jpg 2x" data-file-width="622" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cadbury" title="Cadbury">Cadbury</a>'s was founded in Birmingham and later became a household name in Britain, selling <a href="/wiki/Cocoa_bean" title="Cocoa bean">cocoa</a> based foods and drink and pioneering mass food manufacture techniques as well as major advances in the well-being of employees by providing homes and encouraging fitness through sport.</figcaption></figure> <p>1821: Emanuel Heaton, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gun_finisher&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gun finisher (page does not exist)">gun finisher</a>, takes out a patent for a watertight pan for <a href="/wiki/Gun_lock" class="mw-redirect" title="Gun lock">gun locks</a>. </p><p>1823: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Francis_Deakin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Francis Deakin (page does not exist)">Francis Deakin</a> improves a method of stringing the <a href="/wiki/Piano" title="Piano">piano</a> by employing the screw and nut as opposed to the previously used wooden peg, thus allowing a greater tension and strength of wire. </p><p>1824: American inventor <a href="/wiki/William_Church_(inventor)" title="William Church (inventor)">William Church</a> patents a <a href="/wiki/Printing_machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Printing machine">printing machine</a> in his Birmingham works, which positions the paper sheets more accurately. He is a prolific inventor, taking out numerous patents for methods of button making, nail making, metal working, smelting iron, spinning and other branches of engineering. </p><p>1824: <a href="/wiki/John_Cadbury" title="John Cadbury">John Cadbury</a> begins selling <a href="/wiki/Tea" title="Tea">tea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coffee" title="Coffee">coffee</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Drinking_chocolate" class="mw-redirect" title="Drinking chocolate">drinking chocolate</a>, which he produces himself, at Bull Street. He later moves into the production of a variety of <a href="/wiki/Cocoa_bean" title="Cocoa bean">cocoa</a> and drinking chocolates, made in a factory in Bridge Street and sold mainly to the wealthy because of the high cost of production. John Cadbury becomes a partner with his brother Benjamin and the company they form is called 'Cadbury Brothers of Birmingham'.<sup id="cite_ref-birm_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-birm-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The brothers open an office in London and in 1854 they receive the <a href="/wiki/Royal_warrant_of_appointment_(United_Kingdom)" title="Royal warrant of appointment (United Kingdom)">royal warrant</a> as manufacturers of chocolate and cocoa to <a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria" title="Queen Victoria">Queen Victoria</a>. In the 1850s the industry receives a much needed boost, with the reduction in the high import taxes on cocoa, allowing chocolate to be more affordable to everybody. Cadbury's later becomes one of the largest chocolate manufacturers in the world and is still in production across the world today with a major production plant in <a href="/wiki/Bournville" title="Bournville">Bournville</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:291-packag.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/291-packag.jpg/230px-291-packag.jpg" decoding="async" width="230" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/291-packag.jpg/345px-291-packag.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/291-packag.jpg/460px-291-packag.jpg 2x" data-file-width="708" data-file-height="542" /></a><figcaption>By the 1850s, <a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Pen_Trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Birmingham Pen Trade">Birmingham Pen Trade</a> existed as a world centre for steel pen and steel nib manufacture; more than half the steel-nib pens manufactured in the world at this time were made in Birmingham.</figcaption></figure><p>1828: <a href="/wiki/Josiah_Mason" title="Josiah Mason">Josiah Mason</a> improves a cheap, efficient slip-in <a href="/wiki/Nib_(pen)" title="Nib (pen)">nib</a> that can be added to a <a href="/wiki/Fountain_pen" title="Fountain pen">fountain pen</a>. </p><p>1830: With the invention of a new machine, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Gillott" title="Joseph Gillott">William Joseph Gillott</a>, John Mitchell and <a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Stephen_Perry&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="James Stephen Perry (page does not exist)">James Stephen Perry</a> devise a way to mass-produce robust, cheap steel <a href="/wiki/Pen_nib" class="mw-redirect" title="Pen nib">pen nibs</a>. This boosts the <a href="/wiki/Birmingham_pen_trade" title="Birmingham pen trade">Birmingham pen trade</a> and by the 1850s, Birmingham exists as a world centre for steel pen and steel nib manufacture; more than half the steel-nib pens manufactured in the world are made in Birmingham. Thousands of skilled craftsmen and -women are employed in the industry. Many new manufacturing techniques are perfected, enabling the city's factories to mass-produce their pens cheaply and efficiently. These are sold worldwide to many who previously cannot afford to write, thus encouraging the development of education and literacy. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cutty_sark_detail.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Cutty_sark_detail.jpg/175px-Cutty_sark_detail.jpg" decoding="async" width="175" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Cutty_sark_detail.jpg/263px-Cutty_sark_detail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Cutty_sark_detail.jpg/350px-Cutty_sark_detail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1185" data-file-height="1743" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Muntz_metal" title="Muntz metal">Muntz metal</a> was used in maritime vessels such as the hull of the <i><a href="/wiki/Cutty_Sark" title="Cutty Sark">Cutty Sark</a></i>, Its original application was as a replacement for <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> sheathing placed on the bottom of boats and is still used today for corrosion resistant machine parts.</figcaption></figure> <p>1830s: <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Ridgway" title="Thomas Ridgway">Thomas Ridgway</a> begins trading in the <a href="/wiki/Bull_Ring,_Birmingham" title="Bull Ring, Birmingham">Bull Ring</a>, selling <a href="/wiki/Tea" title="Tea">tea</a>. Ridgway later goes bankrupt. Setting up business in London, he pays back all of his creditors and continues his tea trade, becoming one of the first English tea companies to hygienically prepack tea so as to avoid adulteration. In 1876, <a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria" title="Queen Victoria">Queen Victoria</a> commands House of Ridgways to create a blend for her own personal use. </p><p>1832: <a href="/wiki/Muntz_metal" title="Muntz metal">Muntz metal</a> is patented, an <a href="/wiki/Alpha-beta_brass" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha-beta brass">alpha-beta brass</a> with about 40% zinc and 60% copper. Its original use is as a replacement for the <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> lining placed on the bottom of boats as it maintains the anti-fouling abilities of the pure form. </p><p>It costs around two-thirds that of pure copper and has identical properties for this application, it becomes the material of choice and Muntz makes his fortune. A notable use of Muntz Metal is in the hull of the <a href="/wiki/Cutty_Sark" title="Cutty Sark">Cutty Sark</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HecetaHeadLighthouse.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/HecetaHeadLighthouse.jpg/220px-HecetaHeadLighthouse.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/HecetaHeadLighthouse.jpg/330px-HecetaHeadLighthouse.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/HecetaHeadLighthouse.jpg/440px-HecetaHeadLighthouse.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1210" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Heceta_Head_Light" title="Heceta Head Light">Heceta Head Lighthouse</a> in Oregon. The Chance Brothers <a href="/wiki/Fresnel_lens" title="Fresnel lens">Fresnel lens</a>, built in the early 1890s, is still in operation at this historic light station. Chances became one of the foremost glass makers in the world, pioneering the use of glass in items such as <a href="/wiki/UV" class="mw-redirect" title="UV">UV</a> <a href="/wiki/Lens_(optics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lens (optics)">lenses</a> and <a href="/wiki/Glass" title="Glass">glass</a> <a href="/wiki/Syringe" title="Syringe">syringes</a>. Another famous lighthouse <a href="/wiki/Split_Point_Lighthouse" title="Split Point Lighthouse">Split Point Lighthouse</a> in Australia uses a Birmingham-made Fresnel lens but the factory was bombed during war-time and the essential formulae for making the unique lens crystal were lost</figcaption></figure> <p>1832: William Chance, owner of a Birmingham iron merchants, invests in his brothers failing glass works in nearby <a href="/wiki/Smethwick" title="Smethwick">Smethwick</a>. After saving the company, this partnership later becomes the <a href="/wiki/Chance_Brothers_and_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Chance Brothers and Company">Chance Brothers</a>. The company relies on local workers, and at one stage is known as "... the greatest glass manufacturer in Britain", taking advantage of the Birmingham Canal Navigations and the Industrial Revolution in the region. Great advances in glass manufacture take place such as perfection of the earliest <a href="/wiki/Optical_lens" class="mw-redirect" title="Optical lens">optical lenses</a> to block the harmful <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> rays of the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">sun</a> and improvements in <a href="/wiki/Lighthouse" title="Lighthouse">lighthouse</a> <a href="/wiki/Illumination_(lighting)" class="mw-redirect" title="Illumination (lighting)">illumination</a>. The company is responsible for glazing the original <a href="/wiki/The_Crystal_Palace" title="The Crystal Palace">Crystal Palace</a> to house the <a href="/wiki/Great_Exhibition" title="Great Exhibition">Great Exhibition</a> of 1851, and the <a href="/wiki/Houses_of_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="Houses of Parliament">Houses of Parliament</a> (built 1840–1860). At that time it is the only firm that is able to make the opal glass for the four faces of the Westminster Clock Tower that houses the famous bell, <a href="/wiki/Big_Ben" title="Big Ben">Big Ben</a>. The ornamental windows for the <a href="/wiki/White_House" title="White House">White House</a> in America are also made at Chances. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Webley_1868_RIC.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Webley_1868_RIC.JPG/220px-Webley_1868_RIC.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Webley_1868_RIC.JPG/330px-Webley_1868_RIC.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Webley_1868_RIC.JPG/440px-Webley_1868_RIC.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1728" data-file-height="1138" /></a><figcaption>An 1868 <a href="/wiki/Webley_%26_Scott" title="Webley & Scott">Webley & Scott</a> Revolver. Birmingham has a long history of arms manufacture. By the 19th century, the introduction of the percussion system combined with the adoption of modern production methods led to Birmingham becoming the dominant producer in British firearms with its own <a href="/wiki/Gun_Quarter" title="Gun Quarter">Gun Quarter</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>1832: A form of <a href="/wiki/Nickel_silver" title="Nickel silver">German silver</a> is invented by Charles Askins, this is used to make spoons and <a href="/wiki/Cutlery" title="Cutlery">cutlery</a> specifically in the Birmingham area. </p><p>1837: Bird's Custard is first formulated and cooked by <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Bird" title="Alfred Bird">Alfred Bird</a>, because his wife is <a href="/wiki/Allergy" title="Allergy">allergic</a> to <a href="/wiki/Egg_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egg (food)">eggs</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the key ingredient used to thicken traditional custard. Bird's custard powder later becomes famous around the world. </p><p>1838: Charles Green patents an original and unique method of producing solid, seamless <a href="/wiki/Brass" title="Brass">brass</a> and <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> tubes, around this time much development takes place in Birmingham and <a href="/wiki/Manchester" title="Manchester">Manchester</a> with regard to copper tubing and printing plates. </p><p>1839: After many years of research, innovation and campaigning, <a href="/wiki/Rowland_Hill" title="Rowland Hill">Rowland Hill</a> (of Kidderminster and later Birmingham) is given a two-year contract to run his new postal system. Hill is an English teacher, inventor and <a href="/wiki/Reform_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Reform movement">social reformer</a>. He campaigns for a comprehensive reform of the <a href="/wiki/Postal_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Postal system">postal system</a>, based on the concept of <a href="/wiki/Uniform_Penny_Post" title="Uniform Penny Post">penny postage</a> and his solution of prepayment facilitates the safe, speedy and cheap transfer of letters. Hill later serves as a government postal official, and he is usually credited with originating the basic concepts of the modern <a href="/wiki/Postal_service" class="mw-redirect" title="Postal service">postal service</a>, including the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Postage_stamp" title="Postage stamp">postage stamp</a> (his brother <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Hill_(engineer)" title="Edwin Hill (engineer)">Edwin Hill</a> helps the service with further innovations). </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Elkingtonvanda.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Elkingtonvanda.jpg/220px-Elkingtonvanda.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Elkingtonvanda.jpg/330px-Elkingtonvanda.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Elkingtonvanda.jpg/440px-Elkingtonvanda.jpg 2x" data-file-width="737" data-file-height="498" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/George_Elkington" class="mw-redirect" title="George Elkington">George and Henry Elkington</a> were awarded the first patents for electroplating in 1840. These two then founded the <a href="/wiki/Electroplating" title="Electroplating">electroplating</a> industry in Birmingham from where it spread around the world.</figcaption></figure> <p>1839: <a href="/wiki/Edward_Thomason" title="Edward Thomason">Sir Edward Thomason</a> improves the gun lock by making the cock detachable by the thumb and finger as well as making improvements to prevent misfires. </p><p><a href="/wiki/George_Elkington" class="mw-redirect" title="George Elkington">George Elkington</a> and Henry Elkington found the English <a href="/wiki/Electroplating" title="Electroplating">electroplating</a> industry in the early 19th century. In 1840, they aid <a href="/wiki/John_Wright_(inventor)" title="John Wright (inventor)">John Wright</a>, who discovers that <a href="/wiki/Potassium_cyanide" title="Potassium cyanide">potassium cyanide</a> is a suitable <a href="/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">electrolyte</a> for gold and silver electroplating. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Carl_Wilhelm_Siemens" title="Carl Wilhelm Siemens">Carl Wilhelm Siemens</a> has several meetings with George Elkington, and makes speeches on 'Science and Industry,' to the <a href="/wiki/Birmingham_and_Midland_Institute" title="Birmingham and Midland Institute">Birmingham and Midland Institute</a>, he later sets up a works in Birmingham and carries out experiments on metals and <a href="/wiki/Telegraphy" title="Telegraphy">telegraphy</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Heraldics_for_royal_train.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Heraldics_for_royal_train.JPG/170px-Heraldics_for_royal_train.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Heraldics_for_royal_train.JPG/255px-Heraldics_for_royal_train.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Heraldics_for_royal_train.JPG/340px-Heraldics_for_royal_train.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1944" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>One of <a href="/wiki/William_Stroudley" title="William Stroudley">William Stroudley</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Locomotive" title="Locomotive">locomotives</a>. Stroudley spent seven years studying in Birmingham under <a href="/wiki/John_Inshaw" title="John Inshaw">John Inshaw</a> before becoming one of Britain's most famous steam locomotive engineers.</figcaption></figure> <p>1845: During the late 1830s, canal steam boats begin operating with limited success but in 1845, Birmingham engineer <a href="/wiki/John_Inshaw" title="John Inshaw">John Inshaw</a> builds the first <a href="/w/index.php?title=Twin-screw&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Twin-screw (page does not exist)">twin-screw</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Canal_steamer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Canal steamer (page does not exist)">canal steamers</a>. Inshaw finds great success through his engineering and in 1859 the owners of the <a href="/wiki/Ashby_Canal" title="Ashby Canal">Ashby Canal</a> ban his steamer "Pioneer", claiming it erodes the canal banks. It is later allowed to run no faster than 4 mph, thus begin speed limits on <a href="/w/index.php?title=British_waterways&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="British waterways (page does not exist)">British waterways</a>. Inshaw's "Pioneer" is successful and later inspires other steam boats such as those built for the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Junction_Canal" title="Grand Junction Canal">Grand Junction Canal</a>. Inshaw is also consulted by <a href="/wiki/George_Stephenson" title="George Stephenson">George Stephenson</a> on the design of wheels for steam locomotives. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:First-weather-map.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/91/First-weather-map.png/220px-First-weather-map.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="364" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/91/First-weather-map.png 1.5x" data-file-width="245" data-file-height="405" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sir_Francis_Galton" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Francis Galton">Sir Francis Galton</a> created some of the first <a href="/wiki/History_of_surface_weather_analysis" title="History of surface weather analysis">weather maps</a> in order to devise a theory on storm systems. These proved popular with the British public when first printed in newspapers.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>1847: <a href="/wiki/William_Stroudley" title="William Stroudley">William Stroudley</a> joins Birmingham engineer <a href="/wiki/John_Inshaw" title="John Inshaw">John Inshaw</a> as one of his most successful pupils. Stroudley later becomes one of Britain's most famous steam locomotive engineers of the 19th century, working principally for the <a href="/wiki/London,_Brighton_and_South_Coast_Railway" title="London, Brighton and South Coast Railway">London, Brighton and South Coast Railway</a> (LB&SCR). He designs some of the most famous and longest-lived steam locomotives of his era. </p><p>Birmingham <a href="/wiki/Glass" title="Glass">glassworks</a> are among the early mass-producers of <a href="/wiki/Uranium_glass" title="Uranium glass">uranium glass</a>. Manufacturers include Bacchus, Green & Green (later <a href="/wiki/George_Bacchus_%26_Sons" title="George Bacchus & Sons">George Bacchus & Sons</a>), Union Glassworks, in the 1840s, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lloyd_%26_Summerfield&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lloyd & Summerfield (page does not exist)">Lloyd & Summerfield</a> in the 1850s, who are the first to use uranium in glass commercially. </p><p>1849: <a href="/wiki/William_Tranter" title="William Tranter">William Tranter</a> takes out the first of many patents for his improvements in manufacture of the <a href="/wiki/Firearm" title="Firearm">firearm</a>. </p><p>The use of weather charts in a modern sense begins in the middle portion of the 19th century. Weather map pioneers include William Charles Redfield, William Reid, Elias Loomis, and Birmingham's <a href="/wiki/Sir_Francis_Galton" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Francis Galton">Sir Francis Galton</a>, who creates the first <a href="/wiki/History_of_surface_weather_analysis" title="History of surface weather analysis">weather maps</a> in order to devise a theory on storm systems. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fingerprint_Arch.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Fingerprint_Arch.jpg/175px-Fingerprint_Arch.jpg" decoding="async" width="175" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Fingerprint_Arch.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="256" data-file-height="240" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sir_Francis_Galton" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Francis Galton">Sir Francis Galton</a> studied <a href="/wiki/Fingerprint" title="Fingerprint">fingerprints</a> for ten years, publishing a detailed statistical model of fingerprint analysis and identification and encouraged its use in forensic science.</figcaption></figure> <p>Galton formulates (and later coins the term for) <a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">eugenics</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Questionnaire" title="Questionnaire">questionnaires</a> and many important tools in <a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">statistics</a>. Galton avidly supports the theories of his cousin <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>, and also furthers the most important advances in <a href="/wiki/Fingerprinting" class="mw-redirect" title="Fingerprinting">fingerprinting</a>. </p><p>1851: <a href="/wiki/John_Nettlefold" class="mw-redirect" title="John Nettlefold">John Nettlefold</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Screw_manufacturer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Screw manufacturer (page does not exist)">screw manufacturer</a>, attends the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Paris_exhibition&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Paris exhibition (page does not exist)">Paris exhibition</a>. He later buys exclusive rights to use <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sloan" title="Thomas Sloan">Thomas Sloan</a>'s machine for making screws, which is in the show. With adaptation of the machine for their Birmingham premises and inspiration of Birmingham mass production methods, Nettlefold & Chamberlain become Britain's leading screw-making firm. </p><p>1854: Birmingham <a href="/wiki/Chemist" title="Chemist">chemist</a> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Allcock" title="Thomas Allcock">Thomas Allcock</a> invents the porous <a href="/wiki/Plaster" title="Plaster">plaster</a> for the relief of pain in New York after fighting as a <a href="/wiki/General" class="mw-redirect" title="General">General</a> for the New York Heavy Artillery during the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a> after emigrating in 1845 aged 20. </p><p>1857: <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Sturge" title="Joseph Sturge">Joseph Sturge</a> buys the Elberton Sugar Estate and converts it into a lime production plant. The <a href="/wiki/Montserrat" title="Montserrat">Montserrat</a> Co. Ltd. is formed in Edgbaston by J.& E. Sturge. Lime juice is produced in the city and then exported for use in the manufacture of <a href="/wiki/Citric_acid" title="Citric acid">citric acid</a>. The failure of <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a>'s lemon crop at this time results in an opening in the market, which <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Sturge#The_Montserrat_connection" title="Edmund Sturge">Sturge</a> takes great advantage of utilizing their extensive <a href="/wiki/Chemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical">chemical</a> works based in Edgbaston. He also tries to prove that <a href="/wiki/Free_labour" class="mw-redirect" title="Free labour">Free labour</a> can be made profitable (the Sturge family are instrumental in the <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Abolitionism in the United Kingdom">anti-slavery movement</a>). A company is set up by the Sturge and Albright families who fund the development of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Montserrat_estates&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Montserrat estates (page does not exist)">Montserrat estates</a> in 1867. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Great_eastern_launch_attempt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Great_eastern_launch_attempt.jpg/220px-Great_eastern_launch_attempt.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Great_eastern_launch_attempt.jpg/330px-Great_eastern_launch_attempt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Great_eastern_launch_attempt.jpg/440px-Great_eastern_launch_attempt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="468" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Isambard_Kingdom_Brunel" title="Isambard Kingdom Brunel">Isambard Kingdom Brunel</a> turned to <a href="/wiki/Richard_Tangye" title="Richard Tangye">Richard Tangye</a> to help launch the <a href="/wiki/SS_Great_Eastern" title="SS Great Eastern">SS <i>Great Eastern</i></a> in 1858. Tangye later designed, built and exported all types of engines, jacks and pulleys across the world.</figcaption></figure> <p>1858: After several failed attempts of launching the <a href="/wiki/SS_Great_Eastern" title="SS Great Eastern">SS <i>Great Eastern</i></a> <a href="/wiki/Steam_ship" class="mw-redirect" title="Steam ship">steam ship</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isambard_Kingdom_Brunel" title="Isambard Kingdom Brunel">Isambard Kingdom Brunel</a> turns to <a href="/wiki/Richard_Tangye" title="Richard Tangye">Richard Tangye</a>'s more powerful <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lifting_jacks&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lifting jacks (page does not exist)">hydraulic rams</a>, which are successfully employed in the launch.<sup id="cite_ref-brunel2c_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brunel2c-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Richard Tangye's company then acquires the patent of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Differential_pulley-block&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Differential pulley-block (page does not exist)">differential pulley-block</a> in 1859, and in 1862 he invents the Tangye Patent <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_jack" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydraulic jack">hydraulic jack</a>. This results in the 1862 purchase and demolition of Soho-located Smethwick Hall, on the site of which is built the Cornwall Works. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Peer_Vs_Chakvetadze.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Peer_Vs_Chakvetadze.JPG/225px-Peer_Vs_Chakvetadze.JPG" decoding="async" width="225" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Peer_Vs_Chakvetadze.JPG/338px-Peer_Vs_Chakvetadze.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Peer_Vs_Chakvetadze.JPG/450px-Peer_Vs_Chakvetadze.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1943" data-file-height="1472" /></a><figcaption>The modern game of <a href="/wiki/Lawn_tennis" class="mw-redirect" title="Lawn tennis">lawn tennis</a> was invented in <a href="/wiki/Edgbaston" title="Edgbaston">Edgbaston</a> by <a href="/wiki/Augurio_Perera" title="Augurio Perera">Augurio Perera</a> and <a href="/wiki/Harry_Gem" title="Harry Gem">Harry Gem</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>1867: The patent for a new type of direct-acting <a href="/wiki/Steam_pump" class="mw-redirect" title="Steam pump">steam pump</a> is acquired, in 1869 Tangye Ltd is commissioned to design the hydraulic systems for the UK's first <a href="/wiki/Funicular" title="Funicular">funicular</a> cliff railway in <a href="/wiki/Scarborough,_North_Yorkshire" title="Scarborough, North Yorkshire">Scarborough</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_Yorkshire" title="North Yorkshire">North Yorkshire</a> and in 1870 the company commences the manufacture of <a href="/wiki/Steam_engines" class="mw-redirect" title="Steam engines">steam engines</a>. Richard Tangye and his brother George found the <a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Art_Gallery" class="mw-redirect" title="Birmingham Art Gallery">Birmingham Art Gallery</a> in 1885, which today has a collection of international importance covering fine art, ceramics, metalwork, jewellery, archaeology, ethnography, local history and industrial history. They also found the <a href="/wiki/Birmingham_School_of_Art" title="Birmingham School of Art">Birmingham School of Art</a>. </p><p>1859: The first ever game of <a href="/wiki/Lawn_tennis" class="mw-redirect" title="Lawn tennis">lawn tennis</a> is played in <a href="/wiki/Edgbaston" title="Edgbaston">Edgbaston</a>, international tennis is still played at Edgbaston's Priory Club. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Film_strip.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Film_strip.jpg/220px-Film_strip.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Film_strip.jpg/330px-Film_strip.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Film_strip.jpg/440px-Film_strip.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Celluloid" title="Celluloid">Celluloid</a> as a bulk material for forming objects was invented in 1856 by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Parkes" title="Alexander Parkes">Alexander Parkes</a>, it was later described as generally the first <a href="/wiki/Plastic" title="Plastic">plastic</a> and is used in various subsequent inventions, most notably <a href="/wiki/Movie" class="mw-redirect" title="Movie">movie</a> <a href="/wiki/Film_stock" title="Film stock">film</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The first <a href="/wiki/Celluloid" title="Celluloid">celluloid</a> as a bulk material for forming objects is invented in 1856 by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Parkes" title="Alexander Parkes">Alexander Parkes</a>. Many years later, and with the recognition of celluloid as a format for making photographic film, an American court declares Parkes as the true inventor of celluloid. </p><p>1862: the <a href="/wiki/Thermoplastic" title="Thermoplastic">thermoplastic</a> <a href="/wiki/Parkesine" class="mw-redirect" title="Parkesine">Parkesine</a> is showcased at the <a href="/wiki/World%27s_Fair" class="mw-redirect" title="World's Fair">Great International Exhibition</a> in London. Invented by Alexander Parkes, this celluloid is credited by the <a href="/wiki/London_Science_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="London Science Museum">London Science Museum</a> to be "generally accepted as the first plastic". (This presumably refers to synthetic plastic formed into objects: it is predated by the 1848 <a href="/wiki/Collodion" title="Collodion">collodion</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Nitrocellulose" title="Nitrocellulose">nitrocellulose</a>-based solution that dries to a celluloid-like film but is useless for industrial purposes, (as well as several natural plastics). </p><p>1862: <a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Moore_Clements&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="James Moore Clements (page does not exist)">James Moore Clements</a> of Livery Street, who has already invented an improved machine for making <a href="/wiki/Buttonhole" title="Buttonhole">buttonholes</a>, is granted a patent for a new arrangement of 'stitching the hole'. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WIRE.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/WIRE.JPG/200px-WIRE.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/WIRE.JPG/300px-WIRE.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/WIRE.JPG/400px-WIRE.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption>Birmingham has a long history of wire and cable manufacture, the industry set various international standards for <a href="/wiki/Wire_gauge" title="Wire gauge">wire gauges</a> and the city became one of the foremost producers of wire for musical instruments in Europe. In 1865 the first successful <a href="/wiki/Transatlantic_telegraph_cable" title="Transatlantic telegraph cable">Transatlantic telegraph cable</a> was made by <a href="/wiki/Webster_and_Horsfall" class="mw-redirect" title="Webster and Horsfall">Webster and Horsfall</a>, who also improved the manufacture of piano wire (giving them a near monopoly).</figcaption></figure> <p>1863: William Sumner (founder of <a href="/wiki/Typhoo_tea" class="mw-redirect" title="Typhoo tea">Typhoo</a>) publishes "A Popular Treatise on Tea". In 1870, Sumner starts a pharmacy/grocery business on the High Street, Birmingham. This grows and forces Sumner to move to new premises on Castle Street and then on to Bordesley Street at the canalside. Typhoo tea later becomes one of the largest <a href="/wiki/Teabag" class="mw-redirect" title="Teabag">teabag</a> makers in Britain. The brand is now based in <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Wirral" title="Metropolitan Borough of Wirral">Wirral</a>. </p><p>1865: The steel wire, some 16,000 miles long, for sheathing the first successful <a href="/wiki/Transatlantic_telegraph_cable" title="Transatlantic telegraph cable">Transatlantic telegraph cable</a> is made by <a href="/wiki/Webster_and_Horsfall" class="mw-redirect" title="Webster and Horsfall">Webster and Horsfall</a>, Birmingham.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>1865: <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Hinks" title="Joseph Hinks">Joseph Hinks</a> sets up James Hinks & Son, of 91-96 Great Hampton Street and 66 Hockley Street. He patents improvements to oil lamps, marketing the resultant <a href="/wiki/Duplex_Lamp" class="mw-redirect" title="Duplex Lamp">Duplex Lamp</a>, which is later used across the world and becomes a popular choice for railway workers. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Skateboard.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Skateboard.JPG/220px-Skateboard.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Skateboard.JPG/330px-Skateboard.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Skateboard.JPG/440px-Skateboard.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Skateboard" title="Skateboard">Skateboard</a> wheels owe their existence to William Bown and Joseph Henry Hughes, who patented a design for the wheels of <a href="/wiki/Roller_skates" title="Roller skates">roller skates</a> that kept the two bearing surfaces of an axle, fixed and moving, apart. This technique is still used today in automobiles and machinery.</figcaption></figure> <p>1868: <a href="/w/index.php?title=C._H._Gould&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="C. H. Gould (page does not exist)">C. H. Gould</a> patents a British <a href="/wiki/Stapler" title="Stapler">stapler</a>, although it remains unclear as to how different this is from U.S. patents of the same age. </p><p>1868: <a href="/wiki/John_Barnes_Linnett" title="John Barnes Linnett">John Barnes Linnett</a> patents the world's first <a href="/wiki/Flip_book" title="Flip book">flip book</a>. </p><p>1873: <a href="/wiki/William_Westley_Richards" title="William Westley Richards">William Westley Richards</a>, gunmakers, takes out the first of many patents relating to the firearm, for which <a href="/wiki/Gold_medal" title="Gold medal">gold medals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Royal_warrant_of_appointment_(United_Kingdom)" title="Royal warrant of appointment (United Kingdom)">royal warrants</a> were awarded. </p><p>1875: <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lucas" title="Joseph Lucas">Joseph Lucas</a> begins making <a href="/wiki/Lantern" title="Lantern">lamps</a> for ships, concentrating on the new types of lamp burning <a href="/wiki/Kerosene" title="Kerosene">paraffin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">petroleum</a> for which there is considerable demand. The business becomes <a href="/wiki/Lucas_Industries" title="Lucas Industries">Lucas Industries</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Acme_Thunder.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Acme_Thunder.jpg/200px-Acme_Thunder.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Acme_Thunder.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="287" data-file-height="183" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Hudson_(inventor)" title="Joseph Hudson (inventor)">Joseph Hudson</a> invented the world's most successful whistle to date, the 'Acme Thunderer' (the first ever pea whistle). Other firsts for Hudson include the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Referee_(association_football)" title="Referee (association football)">football referee</a> whistle and the <a href="/wiki/Police" title="Police">police</a> whistle.</figcaption></figure> <p>1876: <a href="/w/index.php?title=William_Bown&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="William Bown (page does not exist)">William Bown</a> patents a design for the wheels of <a href="/wiki/Roller_skating" title="Roller skating">roller skates</a> that embodies his effort to keep the two <a href="/wiki/Bearing_(mechanical)" title="Bearing (mechanical)">bearing</a> surfaces of an <a href="/wiki/Axle" title="Axle">axle</a>, fixed and moving, apart. Bown works closely with <a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_Henry_Hughes_(Inventor)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Joseph Henry Hughes (Inventor) (page does not exist)">Joseph Henry Hughes</a>, who draws up the patent for a ball or <a href="/wiki/Roller_bearing" class="mw-redirect" title="Roller bearing">roller bearing</a> race for bicycle and <a href="/wiki/Carriage" title="Carriage">carriage</a> wheels that includes all the elements of an adjustable system in 1877. </p><p>1878: <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Hudson_(inventor)" title="Joseph Hudson (inventor)">Joseph Hudson</a> makes the first <a href="/wiki/Whistle" title="Whistle">whistle</a> ever to be used by a <a href="/wiki/Referee_(association_football)" title="Referee (association football)">football referee</a>. It is used for the first time at a game held at <a href="/wiki/Nottingham_Forest" class="mw-redirect" title="Nottingham Forest">Nottingham Forest</a>, this replaces the referee's use of the handkerchief to attract footballers attention. Later, in 1883 Hudson invents and manufactures the first police whistle for the <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Police" title="Metropolitan Police">Metropolitan Police</a> force, prior to this police use hand rattles,<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whistles are usually used as musical instruments or toys. His whistle is still used by the force and many others today. In 1884 Hudson invents the world's most successful whistle to date, the 'Acme Thunderer' (the first ever pea whistle). The whistle is used as an alarm or attention instrument by all manner of industries, sports and revelers. It continues to sell in great quantities throughout the world. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sparadrap_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Sparadrap_3.jpg/200px-Sparadrap_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Sparadrap_3.jpg/300px-Sparadrap_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Sparadrap_3.jpg/400px-Sparadrap_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2007" data-file-height="1503" /></a><figcaption>Dr Joseph Sampson Gamgee pioneered the use of <a href="/wiki/Cotton_wool" title="Cotton wool">cotton wool</a> in the first medical context as <a href="/wiki/Gamgee_Tissue" title="Gamgee Tissue">Gamgee Tissue</a> and his cottonwool gauze is still essential in the treatment of wounds today. The common <a href="/wiki/Band-Aid" title="Band-Aid">sticking plaster</a> (invented by <a href="/wiki/Earle_Dickson" title="Earle Dickson">Earle Dickson</a> of New York in 1924) was based on Gamgee's gauze, however, Birmingham <a href="/wiki/Chemist" title="Chemist">chemist</a> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Allcock" title="Thomas Allcock">Thomas Allcock</a> invented a <a href="/wiki/Porous" class="mw-redirect" title="Porous">porous</a> plaster for the relief of pain in New York as early as 1854.</figcaption></figure> <p>1880: <a href="/wiki/Gamgee_Tissue" title="Gamgee Tissue">Gamgee Tissue</a>, a surgical dressing with a thick layer of absorbent cotton wool between two layers of absorbent gauze, is invented by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Sampson_Gamgee" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Sampson Gamgee">Joseph Sampson Gamgee</a>. It represents the <a href="/wiki/Cotton_wool" title="Cotton wool">first use of cotton wool in a medical context</a>, and is a major advancement in the prevention of infection of surgical wounds. It is still the basis for many modern surgical dressings. Gamgee also invents the <a href="/wiki/Aseptic_technique" class="mw-redirect" title="Aseptic technique">aseptic technique</a>, a procedure that is performed under sterile conditions. This includes medical and laboratory techniques, such as with microbiological cultures. It includes techniques like flame sterilization. The largest example of aseptic techniques is in hospital operating theatres. J. R. R. Tolkien later bases <a href="/wiki/The_Lord_of_the_Rings" title="The Lord of the Rings">The Lord of the Rings</a> character '<a href="/wiki/Sam_Gamgee" class="mw-redirect" title="Sam Gamgee">Sam Gamgee</a>' on this character as they live near to Mr Gamgee. </p><p>During the late 19th century, Birmingham companies such as <a href="/wiki/Lucas_Industries" title="Lucas Industries">Joseph Lucas & Sons</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Powell_%26_Hammer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Powell & Hammer (page does not exist)">Powell & Hammer</a> pioneered the production of <a href="/wiki/Bicycle_lighting" title="Bicycle lighting">bicycle lamps</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lantern" title="Lantern">lanterns</a> for ships, capitalising on the advances in using <a href="/wiki/Acetylene_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Acetylene gas">acetylene gas</a>. The Birmingham lamps were exported around the world, with the Lucas company later becoming famous for manufacturing components related to the <a href="/wiki/Motor_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Motor industry">motor industry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aerospace" title="Aerospace">aerospace</a> industry.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Bissell_Prosser" title="Richard Bissell Prosser">Richard Bissell Prosser</a> (1838–1918) writes 58 lives for the <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Dictionary of National Biography</a></i>, and supplies much material for the <i><a href="/wiki/New_English_Dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="New English Dictionary">New English Dictionary</a></i>. Prosser also writes Birmingham Inventors and Inventions, 1881 and is a pioneer of the study of technical history, his published biographies and manuscript records are an incomparable source for present-day researchers. His father Richard Prosser (1804–1854), engineer and inventor, was heavily involved with the introduction of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Patent_Law_Amendment_Act_1852&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Patent Law Amendment Act 1852 (page does not exist)">Patent Law Amendment Act 1852</a>, and his 700-volume library, combined with that of <a href="/wiki/Bennet_Woodcroft" title="Bennet Woodcroft">Bennet Woodcroft</a> forms the basis of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Patent_Office_Library&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Patent Office Library (page does not exist)">Patent Office Library</a>. </p><p>1879: <a href="/wiki/Lucas_Industries" title="Lucas Industries">Harry Lucas</a> designs a <a href="/wiki/Bicycle_lighting" title="Bicycle lighting">hub lamp</a> for use in a <a href="/w/index.php?title=High_bicycle&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="High bicycle (page does not exist)">high bicycle</a> and names the oil lamp "King of the Road". </p><p>1881: Birmingham businessman <a href="/wiki/John_Skirrow_Wright" title="John Skirrow Wright">John Skirrow Wright</a> invents the <a href="/wiki/Postal_orders_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Postal orders of the United Kingdom">postal order</a> and its use subsequently spreads across the world. Skirrow becomes one of the prominent pioneers and social improvers of the 19th century. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Opel-1935-03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Opel-1935-03.jpg/220px-Opel-1935-03.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Opel-1935-03.jpg/330px-Opel-1935-03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Opel-1935-03.jpg/440px-Opel-1935-03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1796" data-file-height="1232" /></a><figcaption>The bicycle bell was invented by <a href="/wiki/John_Richard_Dedicoat" title="John Richard Dedicoat">John Richard Dedicoat</a> and his patents appear as early as 1877.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/John_Richard_Dedicoat" title="John Richard Dedicoat">John Richard Dedicoat</a> invents a <a href="/wiki/Bicycle_bell" title="Bicycle bell">bicycle bell</a>, his patents for bicycle bells appear as early as 1877. Apprenticed to James Watt, Dedicoat goes on to become a bicycle manufacturer and makes and sells the "Pegasus" bicycle.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>1883: <a href="/wiki/Surgeon" title="Surgeon">Surgeon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gynaecologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Gynaecologist">gynaecologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Lawson_Tait" title="Lawson Tait">Lawson Tait</a>, pioneer of several surgical procedures, carries out the world's first successful operation on a ruptured <a href="/wiki/Ectopic_pregnancy" title="Ectopic pregnancy">ectopic pregnancy</a>. </p><p>1884: <a href="/wiki/John_Berry_Haycraft" title="John Berry Haycraft">John Berry Haycraft</a> has been actively engaged in research and published papers on the <a href="/wiki/Coagulation" title="Coagulation">coagulation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Blood" title="Blood">blood</a> and in 1884, he discovers that the <a href="/wiki/Leech" title="Leech">leech</a> secretes a powerful <a href="/wiki/Anticoagulant" title="Anticoagulant">anticoagulant</a>, which he names <a href="/wiki/Hirudin" title="Hirudin">hirudin</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AstonVilla1893-4.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/AstonVilla1893-4.jpg/250px-AstonVilla1893-4.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/AstonVilla1893-4.jpg/375px-AstonVilla1893-4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/AstonVilla1893-4.jpg/500px-AstonVilla1893-4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="377" /></a><figcaption>The world's first <a href="/wiki/Football_League" class="mw-redirect" title="Football League">Football League</a> was founded in Birmingham by <a href="/wiki/William_McGregor_(football)" title="William McGregor (football)">William McGregor</a> in 1885, McGregor was a director of <a href="/wiki/Aston_Villa" class="mw-redirect" title="Aston Villa">Aston Villa</a> (pictured in their 1883-4 strip). Villa were very successful around this time, before money and international players dictated top flight success.</figcaption></figure> <p>1885: <a href="/wiki/Birmingham_School_of_Art" title="Birmingham School of Art">Birmingham School of Art</a> becomes the first <a href="/wiki/Municipal" class="mw-redirect" title="Municipal">municipal</a> school of art. It later becomes the leading centre for the <a href="/wiki/Arts_and_Crafts_movement" title="Arts and Crafts movement">Arts and Crafts movement</a>. </p><p>1885: The world's first professional <a href="/wiki/Football_League" class="mw-redirect" title="Football League">football league</a> is founded at a meeting in <a href="/wiki/Aston" title="Aston">Aston</a> under the auspices of <a href="/wiki/William_McGregor_(football)" title="William McGregor (football)">William McGregor</a>, a director of <a href="/wiki/Aston_Villa" class="mw-redirect" title="Aston Villa">Aston Villa</a>. </p><p>1889: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Charles_Pinkney&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Charles Pinkney (page does not exist)">Charles Pinkney</a> of <a href="/wiki/Richard_Tangye" title="Richard Tangye">Tangyes</a> perfects a <a href="/wiki/Gas_engine" title="Gas engine">gas engine</a>, this comes about through his experimentation with a <a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbon" title="Hydrocarbon">hydrocarbon</a> gas producer and a <a href="/wiki/Bituminous" class="mw-redirect" title="Bituminous">bituminous</a> <a href="/wiki/Coal_gas" title="Coal gas">coal gas</a> <a href="/wiki/Producer_gas" title="Producer gas">generator</a>. The engine proves to be more economical that an earlier <a href="/wiki/Four-stroke_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Four-stroke cycle">Four-stroke Otto cycle</a> engine. </p><p>1891: The <a href="/wiki/Dunlop_Rubber_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Dunlop Rubber Company">Dunlop Rubber Company</a> co-founded by <a href="/wiki/John_Boyd_Dunlop" title="John Boyd Dunlop">John Boyd Dunlop</a> established its Birmingham factory <a href="/wiki/Fort_Dunlop" title="Fort Dunlop">Fort Dunlop</a>, later to become the focus of Dunlop as one of the largest multinational manufacturers of automotive and aeronautical tyres. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lanchester-1895.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Lanchester-1895.jpg/270px-Lanchester-1895.jpg" decoding="async" width="270" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Lanchester-1895.jpg/405px-Lanchester-1895.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Lanchester-1895.jpg/540px-Lanchester-1895.jpg 2x" data-file-width="760" data-file-height="444" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Frederick_William_Lanchester" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederick William Lanchester">Frederick William Lanchester</a> and his brother built the first petrol driven four-wheeled <a href="/wiki/Automobile" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobile">car</a> in Britain. The <a href="/wiki/Lanchester_Motor_Company" title="Lanchester Motor Company">Lanchester Motor Company</a> went on to pioneer many advances in engineering.</figcaption></figure> <p>1894: Richard Norris, a doctor of medicine and professor of physiology at Queen's College, Birmingham, brings out a new patent of <a href="/wiki/Dry_plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Dry plate">dry plate</a> used in photography and is generally credited with the first development of the <a href="/wiki/Collodion" title="Collodion">collodion</a> dry plate in the 1860s. </p><p>1895: <a href="/wiki/Frederick_William_Lanchester" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederick William Lanchester">Frederick William Lanchester</a> and his brother build the first petrol driven four-wheeled car in Britain. Lanchester also experiments with the wick <a href="/wiki/Carburetor" title="Carburetor">carburetor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fuel_injection" title="Fuel injection">fuel injection</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turbochargers" class="mw-redirect" title="Turbochargers">turbochargers</a> and invents the <a href="/wiki/Accelerator_pedal" class="mw-redirect" title="Accelerator pedal">accelerator pedal</a> and first uses the <a href="/wiki/Pendulum_governor" class="mw-redirect" title="Pendulum governor">pendulum governor</a> for controlling the speed of a car engine. In 1893 he designs and builds his first engine (a vertical single cylinder) that is fitted to the first British <a href="/wiki/Motorboat" title="Motorboat">motorboat</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lanchester-99.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Lanchester-99.jpg/250px-Lanchester-99.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Lanchester-99.jpg/375px-Lanchester-99.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Lanchester-99.jpg/500px-Lanchester-99.jpg 2x" data-file-width="638" data-file-height="599" /></a><figcaption>During the late 19th century, Birmingham, <a href="/wiki/Coventry" title="Coventry">Coventry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wolverhampton" title="Wolverhampton">Wolverhampton</a> and <a href="/wiki/West_Bromwich" title="West Bromwich">West Bromwich</a> engineering companies were at the forefront of the burgeoning automobile and <a href="/wiki/Motocycle" title="Motocycle">motocycle</a> industries. Early horseless carriages such as the 1899 Lanchester Phaeton (pictured) were made possible in the region thanks to an existent array of metalwork and engineering skills that were mainly evolving out of the bicycle industry.</figcaption></figure> <p>1895: <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Austin" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbert Austin">Herbert Austin</a>, an employee at <a href="/wiki/Wolseley_Sheep_Shearing_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Wolseley Sheep Shearing Company">Wolseley Sheep Shearing Company</a>, becomes interested in engines and automobiles. During the winter of 1895–96 he makes his own version of a design by <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Boll%C3%A9e" title="Léon Bollée">Léon Bollée</a> that he has seen in Paris. Later he finds that another British group have bought the rights, therefore Austin has to come up with a design of his own. </p><p>Two years later, the second <a href="/wiki/Wolseley_Motors" title="Wolseley Motors">Wolseley</a> car is revealed. It is a three-wheeled design featuring independent rear suspension, mid-engine and back-to-back seating for two adults. Four years later the Wolseley Gasoline Carriage is built featuring a steering wheel instead of a tiller. Austin manages the new Wolseley company for a short time before resigning to form his own concern, the <a href="/wiki/Austin_Motor_Company" title="Austin Motor Company">Austin Motor Company</a>, in 1905. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:X-ray_by_Wilhelm_R%C3%B6ntgen_of_Albert_von_K%C3%B6lliker%27s_hand_-_18960123-02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/X-ray_by_Wilhelm_R%C3%B6ntgen_of_Albert_von_K%C3%B6lliker%27s_hand_-_18960123-02.jpg/180px-X-ray_by_Wilhelm_R%C3%B6ntgen_of_Albert_von_K%C3%B6lliker%27s_hand_-_18960123-02.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="282" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/X-ray_by_Wilhelm_R%C3%B6ntgen_of_Albert_von_K%C3%B6lliker%27s_hand_-_18960123-02.jpg/270px-X-ray_by_Wilhelm_R%C3%B6ntgen_of_Albert_von_K%C3%B6lliker%27s_hand_-_18960123-02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/X-ray_by_Wilhelm_R%C3%B6ntgen_of_Albert_von_K%C3%B6lliker%27s_hand_-_18960123-02.jpg/360px-X-ray_by_Wilhelm_R%C3%B6ntgen_of_Albert_von_K%C3%B6lliker%27s_hand_-_18960123-02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="471" data-file-height="738" /></a><figcaption>An early radiograph. The first <a href="/wiki/Radiography" title="Radiography">radiograph</a> used to assist in <a href="/wiki/Surgery" title="Surgery">surgery</a> was taken by the pioneer of medical <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-rays</a>, Major <a href="/wiki/John_Hall-Edwards" title="John Hall-Edwards">John Hall-Edwards</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Wolseley later becomes a successful car and engine maker selling upmarket cars, and even opens a lavish showroom, Wolseley House, in <a href="/wiki/Piccadilly" title="Piccadilly">Piccadilly</a> London (next to <a href="/wiki/The_Ritz_London_Hotel" class="mw-redirect" title="The Ritz London Hotel">the Ritz Hotel</a>, now housing a restaurant called The Wolseley). The company is later merged in other motor car companies. </p><p>1896: The first <a href="/wiki/Radiography" title="Radiography">radiograph</a> used to assist in <a href="/wiki/Surgery" title="Surgery">surgery</a> is taken in Birmingham by the British pioneer of medical <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-rays</a>, Major <a href="/wiki/John_Hall-Edwards" title="John Hall-Edwards">John Hall-Edwards</a> thus kick-starting a whole new field of medical science. </p><p>1896: A new building is built in <a href="/wiki/Corporation_Street,_Birmingham" title="Corporation Street, Birmingham">Corporation Street</a> to house <a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Henry_Cook&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="James Henry Cook (page does not exist)">James Henry Cook</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Vegetarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Vegetarian">vegetarian</a> <a href="/wiki/Restaurant" title="Restaurant">restaurant</a>, one of the first in England. In 1898, '<a href="/wiki/The_Pitman_Vegetarian_Hotel" title="The Pitman Vegetarian Hotel">The Pitman Vegetarian Hotel</a>', named after the famous vegetarian <a href="/wiki/Sir_Isaac_Pitman" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Isaac Pitman">Sir Isaac Pitman</a>, opens on the same site, and the proprietors subsequently open a long-running <a href="/wiki/Health_food_store" title="Health food store">health food store</a>. </p><p>1896: The first 'public' trial in Birmingham of a "horseless carriage" or motor car takes place at <a href="/wiki/Cannon_Hill_Park" title="Cannon Hill Park">Cannon Hill Park</a>. </p><p>1897: <a href="/wiki/John_Benjamin_Stone" title="John Benjamin Stone">John Benjamin Stone</a> founds the <a href="/wiki/National_Photographic_Record_Association" title="National Photographic Record Association">National Photographic Record Association</a>, of which he becomes president. The <a href="/wiki/National_Portrait_Gallery_(London)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Portrait Gallery (London)">National Portrait Gallery</a> holds 62 of his portraits and many photographs of people and places in and around <a href="/wiki/Westminster" title="Westminster">Westminster</a>. His career culminates in 1911 with his appointment as official photographer to the <a href="/wiki/Coronation_of_King_George_V" class="mw-redirect" title="Coronation of King George V">coronation of King George V</a>. Stone travels widely in pursuit of his hobby, taking 26,000 photographs, and writing books as he travels. He publishes works and invaluable records of the folk customs and traditions of the British Isles, which later influence photographers of note, such as <a href="/wiki/Tony_Ray-Jones" title="Tony Ray-Jones">Tony Ray-Jones</a>. </p><p>1897: <a href="/wiki/Reynolds_Technology" title="Reynolds Technology">The Reynolds Tube Company</a> patents the process for making butted bicycle tubes, which are thicker at the ends than in the middle, this allows frame builders to create frames that are both strong and lightweight. Reynolds continues to develop lightweight bicycle frames into the 20th century picking up many awards for wins in races such as the <a href="/wiki/Tour_de_France" title="Tour de France">Tour de France</a>, the company still makes lightweight frames in the city today. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="20th_century">20th century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_invention_in_Birmingham&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: 20th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BSA_Type_A_770_cc_1921.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/BSA_Type_A_770_cc_1921.jpg/250px-BSA_Type_A_770_cc_1921.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/BSA_Type_A_770_cc_1921.jpg/375px-BSA_Type_A_770_cc_1921.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/BSA_Type_A_770_cc_1921.jpg/500px-BSA_Type_A_770_cc_1921.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Out of Birmingham's bicycle manufacturers, there emerged a plethora of cutting edge automobile and motorcycle brands. Motorcycles from <a href="/wiki/New_Hudson_(company)" title="New Hudson (company)">New Hudson</a>, Revere, <a href="/wiki/Beardmore_Precision_Motorcycles" title="Beardmore Precision Motorcycles">Beardmore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sun_(motorcycle)" title="Sun (motorcycle)">Sun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ariel_Motorcycles" title="Ariel Motorcycles">Ariel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norton_Motorcycle_Company" title="Norton Motorcycle Company">Norton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rex-Acme" title="Rex-Acme">Rex-Acme</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alldays_%26_Onions" title="Alldays & Onions">Alldays & Onions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Velocette" title="Velocette">Velocette</a> and <a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Small_Arms" class="mw-redirect" title="Birmingham Small Arms">BSA</a> made Birmingham into an international hub for motorcycle manufacture. At its peak, BSA was the largest motorcycle producer in the world and engineers such as <a href="/wiki/James_Lansdowne_Norton" title="James Lansdowne Norton">James Lansdowne Norton</a> pioneered engineering in the city, helping Birmingham-made motorbikes to win many awards for speed and quality.</figcaption></figure> <p>Bicycles have been manufactured in the Midlands (mainly Birmingham and <a href="/wiki/Coventry" title="Coventry">Coventry</a>) since the mid 19th century. By 1900 Birmingham has the largest number of bicycle makers and component manufacturers in Britain. Several advances in the development of the bicycle take place, one of the longer established high quality manufacturers being the <a href="/wiki/Quadrant_Cycle_Company" title="Quadrant Cycle Company">Quadrant Cycle Company</a> of Sheepcote Street, which later manufactures motorbikes (as do many cycle makers). </p><p>Other notable firms are <a href="/wiki/Reynolds_Technology" title="Reynolds Technology">Reynolds</a> (still manufacturing in the city), <a href="/wiki/New_Hudson_(company)" title="New Hudson (company)">New Hudson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rudge-Whitworth" title="Rudge-Whitworth">Rudge-Whitworth</a> (also of Coventry), <a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Small_Arms" class="mw-redirect" title="Birmingham Small Arms">BSA</a>, CWS, <a href="/wiki/Dawes_Cycles" title="Dawes Cycles">Dawes</a>, Grundle, <a href="/wiki/James_Cycle_Co" title="James Cycle Co">James Cycle Co</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ariel_Motorcycles" title="Ariel Motorcycles">Ariel</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Armstrong_Cycles&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Armstrong Cycles (page does not exist)">Armstrong Cycles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phillips_Cycles" title="Phillips Cycles">Phillips Cycles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Excelsior_Motor_Company" title="Excelsior Motor Company">Excelsior</a> (originally of Coventry), <a href="/wiki/Sun_(motorcycle)" title="Sun (motorcycle)">Sun Cycle & Fittings Co</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pashley_Cycles" title="Pashley Cycles">Pashley Cycles</a> (now manufactured in <a href="/wiki/Stratford-upon-Avon" title="Stratford-upon-Avon">Stratford-upon-Avon</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Hercules_Cycle_and_Motor_Company" title="Hercules Cycle and Motor Company">Hercules Cycle and Motor Company</a>. </p><p>Through the 20th century, many of Birmingham's bicycle manufacturers evolve into automobile and motorcycle brands, creating one of the busiest and most productive engineering hubs in the world. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Reynolds_531_special_lightweight_race_frame.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/45/Reynolds_531_special_lightweight_race_frame.jpg/225px-Reynolds_531_special_lightweight_race_frame.jpg" decoding="async" width="225" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/45/Reynolds_531_special_lightweight_race_frame.jpg/338px-Reynolds_531_special_lightweight_race_frame.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/45/Reynolds_531_special_lightweight_race_frame.jpg/450px-Reynolds_531_special_lightweight_race_frame.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2269" data-file-height="1698" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Reynolds_Technology" title="Reynolds Technology">Reynolds</a> bicycle frames are extremely lightweight and have been used in several winning <a href="/wiki/Tour_de_France" title="Tour de France">Tour de France</a> bikes. Reynolds still manufactures frames in the city today.</figcaption></figure> <p>Motor engineering brands such as <a href="/wiki/Wolseley_Sheep_Shearing_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Wolseley Sheep Shearing Company">Wolseley</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_William_Lanchester" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederick William Lanchester">Lanchester</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metro-Cammell" title="Metro-Cammell">Metro-Cammell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Austin_Motor_Company" title="Austin Motor Company">Austin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Morris_Motors" title="Morris Motors">Morris</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vickers-Armstrongs" title="Vickers-Armstrongs">Vickers-Armstrongs</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Hudson_(company)" title="New Hudson (company)">New Hudson</a>, Revere, <a href="/wiki/Beardmore_Precision_Motorcycles" title="Beardmore Precision Motorcycles">Beardmore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sun_(motorcycle)" title="Sun (motorcycle)">Sun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ariel_Motorcycles" title="Ariel Motorcycles">Ariel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norton_Motorcycle_Company" title="Norton Motorcycle Company">Norton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rex-Acme" title="Rex-Acme">Rex-Acme</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alldays_%26_Onions" title="Alldays & Onions">Alldays & Onions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Velocette" title="Velocette">Velocette</a>, <a href="/wiki/Midland_Red" title="Midland Red">Midland Red</a> and <a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Small_Arms" class="mw-redirect" title="Birmingham Small Arms">BSA</a> either originate or have substantial factories in Birmingham, manufacturing motorbikes, buses, tractors, cars, tanks and aeroplanes. </p><p>Other diverse engineering companies develop to feed the supply chain of the motoring industry such as <a href="/wiki/Webster_and_Horsfall" class="mw-redirect" title="Webster and Horsfall">Webster and Horsfall</a> (pioneering wire for aircraft and cars), <a href="/wiki/Dunlop_Rubber" title="Dunlop Rubber">Dunlop Rubber</a> (supplying rubber and tyres), <a href="/wiki/Lucas_Industries" title="Lucas Industries">Lucas Industries</a> (pioneering electric and lighting), <a href="/wiki/Accles_%26_Pollock" title="Accles & Pollock">Accles & Pollock</a> (producing tubular sections for aircraft) and Pockley Electric (manufacturing car lights). </p><p>1900: <a href="/wiki/Bournville_Village_Trust" title="Bournville Village Trust">Bournville Village Trust</a> is founded by <a href="/wiki/George_Cadbury" title="George Cadbury">George Cadbury</a>, this is to make many improvements and set high standards of living and leisure pastimes for factory workers across Britain. <a href="/wiki/Cadbury%27s" class="mw-redirect" title="Cadbury's">Cadbury's</a> still makes chocolate in the city today and Bournville remains a sought after area to live in. </p><p>1900: John Wright invents a much-improved <a href="/wiki/Gas_fire" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas fire">gas fire</a>, which uses fretted columns of fireclay, rather than tufted <a href="/wiki/Asbestos" title="Asbestos">asbestos</a>, to radiate the heat. The Wright design of gas fire heating endures throughout the century, however, electric fires improve at a similar pace.<sup id="cite_ref-Walker_1999_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walker_1999-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PCCB_Wiki_9949.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/PCCB_Wiki_9949.jpg/220px-PCCB_Wiki_9949.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/PCCB_Wiki_9949.jpg/330px-PCCB_Wiki_9949.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/PCCB_Wiki_9949.jpg/440px-PCCB_Wiki_9949.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4256" data-file-height="2832" /></a><figcaption>Porsche Carrera S composite ceramic brake, perfected over one hundred years after the original patent is taken out by <a href="/wiki/Frederick_William_Lanchester" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederick William Lanchester">Frederick William Lanchester</a></figcaption></figure> <p>1902: The first caliper-type automobile <a href="/wiki/Disc_brake" title="Disc brake">disc brake</a> is patented by <a href="/wiki/Frederick_William_Lanchester" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederick William Lanchester">Frederick William Lanchester</a> in his <a href="/wiki/Birmingham" title="Birmingham">Birmingham</a> factory and used successfully on <a href="/wiki/Lanchester_Motor_Company" title="Lanchester Motor Company">Lanchester</a> cars. However, the limited choice of metals in this period means that he has to use copper as the braking medium acting on the disc. The poor state of the roads at this time — no more than dusty, rough tracks — means that the copper wears quickly, making the disc brake system non-viable. It is not until 1929, in the same city that manufacturers <a href="/wiki/Girling_brakes" class="mw-redirect" title="Girling brakes">Girling</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_Hudson_(company)" title="New Hudson (company)">New Hudson</a> further develop disc brakes, which are very successful on racing cars from the early 1950s to the 1970s.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Girling brakes have the quirk of using <a href="/wiki/Natural_rubber" title="Natural rubber">natural rubber</a> (later <a href="/wiki/Nitrile" title="Nitrile">nitrile</a>) seals. Girling still manufacture disc brakes in Birmingham today. </p><p>1902: <a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Andrew_Darby&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="George Andrew Darby (page does not exist)">George Andrew Darby</a> patents the first electrical <a href="/wiki/Heat_detector" title="Heat detector">heat detector</a> and <a href="/wiki/Smoke_detector" title="Smoke detector">smoke detector</a>. </p><p>1903: Birmingham-born patent lawyer <a href="/wiki/Bertram_Hopkinson" title="Bertram Hopkinson">Bertram Hopkinson</a> is elected to the <a href="/wiki/Professor_of_Engineering,_Cambridge_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Professor of Engineering, Cambridge University">Cambridge chair in mechanism and applied mechanics</a>, where he carries out early research on tank armour plating. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Electric_glow_discharge_schematic.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Electric_glow_discharge_schematic.png/300px-Electric_glow_discharge_schematic.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Electric_glow_discharge_schematic.png/450px-Electric_glow_discharge_schematic.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Electric_glow_discharge_schematic.png/600px-Electric_glow_discharge_schematic.png 2x" data-file-width="922" data-file-height="383" /></a><figcaption>An electric glow discharge tube featuring its most important characteristics: (a) An <a href="/wiki/Anode" title="Anode">anode</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cathode" title="Cathode">cathode</a> at each end (b) Aston Dark Space (c) Cathode glow (d) Cathode dark space (also called Crookes dark space, or Hittorf dark space) (e) Negative glow (f) Faraday space (g) Positive column (h) Anode glow (i) Anode dark space.</figcaption></figure> <p>Hopkinson builds a team of researchers, one of whom is <a href="/wiki/Harry_Ricardo" title="Harry Ricardo">Harry Ricardo</a>, the engineer who makes his name for his pioneering work on <a href="/wiki/Internal_combustion_engines" class="mw-redirect" title="Internal combustion engines">internal combustion engines</a>. Hopkinson encourages Ricardo to work on engines. </p><p>1903: Brummie <a href="/wiki/Francis_William_Aston" title="Francis William Aston">Francis William Aston</a> wins a <a href="/wiki/Scholarship" title="Scholarship">scholarship</a> to the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Birmingham" title="University of Birmingham">University of Birmingham</a> and in his studies of electronic discharge tubes he discovers the phenomenon now known as the <a href="/wiki/Aston_Dark_Space" class="mw-redirect" title="Aston Dark Space">Aston Dark Space</a>. He later moves to the <a href="/wiki/Cavendish_Laboratory" title="Cavendish Laboratory">Cavendish Laboratory</a> in <a href="/wiki/Cambridge" title="Cambridge">Cambridge</a>, where he uses a method of electromagnetic focusing to invent the <a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrograph" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass spectrograph">mass spectrograph</a>, which rapidly allows him to identify no fewer than 212 of the 287 naturally occurring <a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">isotopes</a>. His work on isotopes also leads to his formulation of the <a href="/wiki/Whole_Number_Rule" class="mw-redirect" title="Whole Number Rule">Whole Number Rule</a>, which is later used extensively in the development of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">nuclear energy</a>. In 1922 he wins the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Nobel Prize in Chemistry</a> for the invention of the mass spectrometer. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Austin_Seven_Box_Saloon_1933.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Austin_Seven_Box_Saloon_1933.jpg/250px-Austin_Seven_Box_Saloon_1933.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Austin_Seven_Box_Saloon_1933.jpg/375px-Austin_Seven_Box_Saloon_1933.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Austin_Seven_Box_Saloon_1933.jpg/500px-Austin_Seven_Box_Saloon_1933.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="523" /></a><figcaption>In 1905 <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Austin" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbert Austin">Herbert Austin</a> began making cars at his new <a href="/wiki/Longbridge_plant" title="Longbridge plant">Longbridge plant</a>, seventeen years later the <a href="/wiki/Austin_7" title="Austin 7">Austin 7</a> went into production, it was one of the most popular cars ever produced for the British market, its effect on the British market was similar to that of the Model T Ford in the USA. It was also licensed and copied by companies all over the world. The very first successful <a href="/wiki/BMW" title="BMW">BMW</a> car, the <a href="/wiki/BMW_Dixi" title="BMW Dixi">BMW Dixi</a>, was a licensed Austin 7. In Japan <a href="/wiki/Nissan" title="Nissan">Nissan</a> also used the 7 design as the basis for their original cars. Many Austin 7s were rebuilt as "specials" after the Second World War, including the first <a href="/wiki/Lotus_Cars" title="Lotus Cars">Lotus</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Lotus_Mk1" class="mw-redirect" title="Lotus Mk1">Lotus Mk1</a>, which was based on an Austin 7.</figcaption></figure> <p>1905: A manually powered domestic <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_cleaner" title="Vacuum cleaner">vacuum cleaner</a> is invented by manufacturer Walter Griffiths of 72, Conybere Street, Highgate. It is originally patented as 'Griffiths' Improved Vacuum Apparatus for Removing Dust from Carpets'. Although an electric cleaner is patented in 1901 by <a href="/wiki/H._Cecil_Booth" class="mw-redirect" title="H. Cecil Booth">H. Cecil Booth</a>, Griffiths' design is more similar to modern portable cleaners than Booth's cart-mounted device. </p><p>1905: <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Austin" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbert Austin">Herbert Austin</a> begins making cars at <a href="/wiki/Longbridge_plant" title="Longbridge plant">Longbridge</a>, many improvements in mass car manufacture and production later arise from these car works. Seventeen years later the <a href="/wiki/Austin_7" title="Austin 7">Austin 7</a> goes into production, it becomes one of the most popular cars ever produced for the British market, its effect on the British market is similar to that of the <a href="/wiki/Model_T_Ford" class="mw-redirect" title="Model T Ford">Model T Ford</a> in the USA. Austin's designs and production help set up other car brands around the world that later become famous in their own right, such as <a href="/wiki/BMW" title="BMW">BMW</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nissan" title="Nissan">Nissan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lotus_Cars" title="Lotus Cars">Lotus</a>. </p><p>1905: <a href="/wiki/Accles_%26_Pollock" title="Accles & Pollock">Accles & Pollock</a> Produces the first tubular box spanners.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Best_of_British_Engineering_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Best_of_British_Engineering-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Glock_20.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Glock_20.jpg/220px-Glock_20.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Glock_20.jpg/330px-Glock_20.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Glock_20.jpg/440px-Glock_20.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="664" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Glock_pistol" class="mw-redirect" title="Glock pistol">Glock 20</a> pistol with a black <a href="/wiki/Parkerized" class="mw-redirect" title="Parkerized">Parkerized</a> topcoat. Parkerizing (also called phosphating and phosphatizing) is a method of protecting a steel surface from corrosion and increasing its resistance to wear. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_Watts_Coslett&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thomas Watts Coslett (page does not exist)">Thomas Watts Coslett</a> was a pioneer in this field.</figcaption></figure> <p>1906: The earliest work on the <a href="/wiki/Parkerizing" class="mw-redirect" title="Parkerizing">parkerizing</a> processes is developed by British inventors William Alexander Ross, in 1869, and by Thomas Watts Coslett, in 1906. Coslett, of Birmingham, subsequently files a patent based on this same process in America in 1907. It essentially provides an iron <a href="/wiki/Phosphating" class="mw-redirect" title="Phosphating">phosphating</a> process, using <a href="/wiki/Phosphoric_acid" title="Phosphoric acid">phosphoric acid</a>. Parkerizing (also called phosphating and phosphatizing) is a method of protecting a steel surface from corrosion and increasing its resistance to wear. Parkerizing is commonly used on firearms. </p><p>1907: <a href="/wiki/Accles_%26_Pollock" title="Accles & Pollock">Accles & Pollock</a> produce the first tubular sections for aircraft and the first tubular furniture.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Best_of_British_Engineering_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Best_of_British_Engineering-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>1908: Pockley Automobile Electric Lighting Syndicate markets the world's first electric <a href="/wiki/Headlamp" title="Headlamp">car lights</a> to be sold as a set, which consist of headlights, sidelights and tail lights and are powered by an 8 volt battery.<sup id="cite_ref-Walker_1999_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walker_1999-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SE5A_at_Old_Warden.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/SE5A_at_Old_Warden.jpg/250px-SE5A_at_Old_Warden.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/SE5A_at_Old_Warden.jpg/375px-SE5A_at_Old_Warden.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/SE5A_at_Old_Warden.jpg/500px-SE5A_at_Old_Warden.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2389" data-file-height="1679" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Royal_Aircraft_Factory_S.E.5" title="Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5">S.E.5 biplane fighter</a> was built by <a href="/wiki/Austin_Motor_Company" title="Austin Motor Company">Austin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wolseley_Motors" title="Wolseley Motors">Wolseley Motors</a> in Birmingham. The city produced 2081 S.E.5s. Brum also produced <a href="/wiki/Spitfire" class="mw-redirect" title="Spitfire">Spitfires</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hawker_Hurricane" title="Hawker Hurricane">Hawker Hurricanes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fairey_Battle" title="Fairey Battle">Fairey Battle</a> light bombers, Mercury and Pegasus aero engines, Short Stirling four-engined heavy bombers and <a href="/wiki/Avro_Lancaster" title="Avro Lancaster">Avro Lancasters</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a>.</figcaption></figure><p> Birmingham's ingenuity and expertise in metal working aids the early production of lightweight tubing used in the construction of successful airplanes. Engineering firms pioneer advances in aircraft engines also such as <a href="/wiki/Austin_Motor_Company" title="Austin Motor Company">Austin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wolseley_Motors" title="Wolseley Motors">Wolseley Motors</a>, who later build hundreds of early aircraft for the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Air_Force" title="Royal Air Force">British Air force</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Aircraft_Factory_S.E.5" title="Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5">S.E.5 biplane fighter</a>. Wolseley help to set <a href="/wiki/Vickers" title="Vickers">Vickers</a> on their path to motor and engine development for aircraft at <a href="/w/index.php?title=Adderly_Park&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Adderly Park (page does not exist)">Adderly Park</a>, with a new engine ready for production by 1909. The <a href="/wiki/Wolseley_Viper" title="Wolseley Viper">Wolseley Viper</a> engine is applied to many aircraft around this time and is developed out of the <a href="/wiki/Hispano-Suiza_8" title="Hispano-Suiza 8">Hispano-Suiza 8</a>. Several other small engineering firms design and build early aircraft engines such as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Maxfield_%26_Co&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Maxfield & Co (page does not exist)">Maxfield & Co</a>, who test an early monoplane in 1909 at Castle Bromwich,<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Butterfield Brothers also make an experimental aircraft engine in 1911. Birmingham engineering works later diversify with all manner of industries relating to the development and manufacture of aircraft components including assembly of whole planes during war years such as <a href="/wiki/Spitfire" class="mw-redirect" title="Spitfire">Spitfires</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hawker_Hurricane" title="Hawker Hurricane">Hawker Hurricanes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fairey_Battle" title="Fairey Battle">Fairey Battle</a> light bombers, Mercury and Pegasus aero engines, Short Stirling four-engined heavy bombers and <a href="/wiki/Avro_Lancaster" title="Avro Lancaster">Avro Lancasters</a> (towards the end of World War II). </p><p>1910: <a href="/wiki/J._R._R._Tolkien" title="J. R. R. Tolkien">J. R. R. Tolkien</a> begins to construct his first <a href="/wiki/Elvish_languages_(Middle-earth)" class="mw-redirect" title="Elvish languages (Middle-earth)">Elfin tongue</a> whilst a pupil at <a href="/wiki/King_Edward%27s_School,_Birmingham" title="King Edward's School, Birmingham">King Edward's School, Birmingham</a>. He later calls it Qenya (c. 1915). Tolkien is already familiar with Latin, Greek, Spanish, and several ancient Germanic languages, Gothic, Old Norse and Old English. Tolkien's parents are from Birmingham and he himself grows up, and studies in and around Birmingham (Tolkien also meets his wife in the town and considers himself a 'West Midlander').<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The enduring popularity of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Lord_of_the_Rings" title="The Lord of the Rings">The Lord of the Rings</a></i> later leads to numerous references in popular culture, the founding of many societies by <a href="/wiki/Tolkien_fandom" title="Tolkien fandom">fans of Tolkien's works</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the publication of many books about Tolkien and his works. <i>The Lord of the Rings</i> <a href="/wiki/Works_inspired_by_J._R._R._Tolkien" class="mw-redirect" title="Works inspired by J. R. R. Tolkien">continues to inspire</a> artwork, music, films and television, <a href="/wiki/Middle-earth_in_video_games" title="Middle-earth in video games">video games</a> and subsequent literature, including reference in the Oxford English Dictionary. Award-winning <a href="/wiki/Adaptations_of_The_Lord_of_the_Rings" title="Adaptations of The Lord of the Rings">adaptations of <i>The Lord of the Rings</i></a> are later made for radio, theatre and <a href="/wiki/The_Lord_of_the_Rings_(film_series)" title="The Lord of the Rings (film series)">film</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mills_N%C2%B036_SGM-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Mills_N%C2%B036_SGM-2.jpg/175px-Mills_N%C2%B036_SGM-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="175" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Mills_N%C2%B036_SGM-2.jpg/263px-Mills_N%C2%B036_SGM-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Mills_N%C2%B036_SGM-2.jpg/350px-Mills_N%C2%B036_SGM-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1146" data-file-height="1443" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mills_bomb" title="Mills bomb">Mills bomb</a> 36M, dating from 1942. The Mills bomb was adopted by the British Army as its standard hand grenade in 1915 and underwent many developments.</figcaption></figure> <p>1910: <a href="/wiki/Lucas_Industries" title="Lucas Industries">Oliver Lucas</a>'s company design and make an electric car <a href="/wiki/Vehicle_horn" title="Vehicle horn">vehicle horn</a>, which becomes industry standard; an electric motorcycle horn is manufactured the following year. </p><p>1913: <a href="/wiki/Accles_%26_Pollock" title="Accles & Pollock">Accles & Pollock</a> is granted a patent for seamless tapered steel <a href="/wiki/Golf_club" title="Golf club">golf shafts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Best_of_British_Engineering_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Best_of_British_Engineering-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>1914: Oliver Lucas and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Breeden" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Breeden">Charles Breeden</a> carry out pioneering work on the design of the <a href="/wiki/Dynamo" title="Dynamo">dynamo</a> and electric equipment for <a href="/wiki/Motorcycle" title="Motorcycle">motorcycles</a> and by 1914 they are already manufacturing these items. </p><p>1914 Birmingham, by now, is supplying the world with 28 million mass-produced <a href="/wiki/Pen_nib" class="mw-redirect" title="Pen nib">pen nibs</a> per week. </p><p>1915: <a href="/wiki/William_Mills_(inventor)" title="William Mills (inventor)">William Mills</a> develops the first "safe <a href="/wiki/Grenade" title="Grenade">grenade</a>" meaning it is safe for the soldier throwing it rather than his opponent. It is named the <a href="/wiki/Mills_bomb" title="Mills bomb">Mills bomb</a>, and is adopted by the <a href="/wiki/British_Army" title="British Army">British Army</a> as its standard hand grenade in 1915. 75,000,000 grenades are supplied during <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">The Great War</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sunbeam_1000HP.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Sunbeam_1000HP.jpg/250px-Sunbeam_1000HP.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Sunbeam_1000HP.jpg/375px-Sunbeam_1000HP.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Sunbeam_1000HP.jpg/500px-Sunbeam_1000HP.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>The first car in the world to travel at over 200 mph was built in nearby <a href="/wiki/Wolverhampton" title="Wolverhampton">Wolverhampton</a> and held the ground thanks to <a href="/wiki/Dunlop_Tyres" title="Dunlop Tyres">Dunlop</a>'s Birmingham-made tyres. Dunlop tyres were used on subsequent record breaking vehicles and became a popular choice for racing cars such as <a href="/wiki/Formula_1" class="mw-redirect" title="Formula 1">Formula 1</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>1918: Much work is carried out by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Oliver_Lucas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Oliver Lucas (page does not exist)">Oliver Lucas</a>'s company on the design and improvement of the military search light, he also designs a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Signalling_lamp&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Signalling lamp (page does not exist)">signalling lamp</a> after experiences at the <a href="/wiki/Somme_(department)" title="Somme (department)">Somme</a> and the design is later used by the <a href="/wiki/British_Army" title="British Army">British Army</a>. </p><p>1919: The <a href="/wiki/Airbag" title="Airbag">airbag</a> "for the covering of aeroplane and other vehicle parts" traces its origins to a United States patent submitted in 1919 by two Birmingham dentists, Harold Round & Arthur Parrott,<sup id="cite_ref-BDH_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BDH-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and approved in 1920.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>1920: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Henry_Foyle" title="Charles Henry Foyle">Charles Henry Foyle</a> invents the <a href="/wiki/Folding_carton" title="Folding carton">folding carton</a> and is founder of Boxfoldia. However, an American process is developed by accident prior to this. </p><p>1921: A British patent for <a href="/wiki/Windscreen_wiper" title="Windscreen wiper">windscreen wipers</a> is registered by Mills Munitions. Several other patents take place for windscreen wipers around the world. </p><p>1922: Birmingham rubber manufacturer <a href="/wiki/Dunlop_Rubber" title="Dunlop Rubber">Dunlop</a> invents a <a href="/wiki/Tire" title="Tire">tyre</a> with steel rods and a canvas casing that lasts three times longer than any other tyre, this is a milestone in tyre manufacture. The following year their tyres help <a href="/wiki/Henry_Segrave" title="Henry Segrave">Henry Segrave</a> win a <a href="/wiki/Grand_Prix_motor_racing" title="Grand Prix motor racing">Grand Prix</a> title in a <a href="/wiki/Sunbeam_Motor_Car_Company" title="Sunbeam Motor Car Company">Sunbeam</a> racing car, and are then used on a <a href="/wiki/Bentley" title="Bentley">Bentley</a> to help win the <a href="/wiki/24_Hours_of_Le_Mans" title="24 Hours of Le Mans">24 Hours of Le Mans</a> race. </p><p> By 1927 Dunlop tyres have already helped <a href="/wiki/Malcolm_Campbell" title="Malcolm Campbell">Malcolm Campbell</a> reach a British land speed record and in this year, they help Henry Segrave achieve the world <a href="/wiki/Land_speed_record" title="Land speed record">land speed record</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Sunbeam_1000_hp" title="Sunbeam 1000 hp">Sunbeam 1000 hp</a> at <a href="/wiki/Daytona_Beach_Road_Course" class="mw-redirect" title="Daytona Beach Road Course">Daytona Beach Road Course</a>, USA. </p><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Telefunken_electric_appliance_water_boiling_Oct-2011_HK.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Telefunken_electric_appliance_water_boiling_Oct-2011_HK.jpg/175px-Telefunken_electric_appliance_water_boiling_Oct-2011_HK.jpg" decoding="async" width="175" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Telefunken_electric_appliance_water_boiling_Oct-2011_HK.jpg/263px-Telefunken_electric_appliance_water_boiling_Oct-2011_HK.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Telefunken_electric_appliance_water_boiling_Oct-2011_HK.jpg/350px-Telefunken_electric_appliance_water_boiling_Oct-2011_HK.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1936" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Electric_kettle" class="mw-redirect" title="Electric kettle">electric kettle</a> has changed little since the invention of an immersed heating resistor and the safety valve both by Birmingham firms.</figcaption></figure><p>In 1931 Dunlop tyres help <a href="/wiki/Malcolm_Campbell" title="Malcolm Campbell">Malcolm Campbell</a> achieve a new <a href="/wiki/Land_speed_record" title="Land speed record">land speed record</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Campbell-Napier-Railton_Blue_Bird" title="Campbell-Napier-Railton Blue Bird">Blue Bird</a> at <a href="/wiki/Daytona_Beach_Road_Course" class="mw-redirect" title="Daytona Beach Road Course">Daytona Beach Road Course</a>, USA. In 1935 Dunlop helps <a href="/wiki/Malcolm_Campbell" title="Malcolm Campbell">Malcolm Campbell</a> achieve yet another new <a href="/wiki/Land_speed_record" title="Land speed record">land speed record</a> in the USA. <a href="/wiki/Foam_rubber" title="Foam rubber">Foam rubber</a> is also invented at the Dunlop Latex Development Laboratories, <a href="/wiki/Fort_Dunlop" title="Fort Dunlop">Fort Dunlop</a> in 1929. Dunlop continues to pioneer advances in tyre manufacture and becomes industry standard for many prestigious car makers and its tyres have been used, and continue to be used, on cars achieving victory in motor rallies and racing championships such as <a href="/wiki/Formula_1" class="mw-redirect" title="Formula 1">Formula 1</a> and touring. </p><p>1923: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Arthur_L._Large&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arthur L. Large (page does not exist)">Arthur L. Large</a> invents the immersed heating <a href="/wiki/Resistor" title="Resistor">resistor</a>, a major advancement in the <a href="/wiki/Electric_kettle" class="mw-redirect" title="Electric kettle">electric kettle</a>. A <a href="/wiki/Safety_valve" title="Safety valve">safety valve</a> is introduced by kettle maker Walter H. Bullpitt, also from Birmingham, in 1931. These two advances in electrical water heating are to have profound effects on water heating and become the basis of the modern day electric kettle. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Brylcreem-new-n-old.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Brylcreem-new-n-old.jpg/250px-Brylcreem-new-n-old.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Brylcreem-new-n-old.jpg/375px-Brylcreem-new-n-old.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Brylcreem-new-n-old.jpg/500px-Brylcreem-new-n-old.jpg 2x" data-file-width="709" data-file-height="482" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Brylcreem" title="Brylcreem">Brylcreem</a> led the way with hair styling products throughout the mid 20th century, becoming standard choice for emerging UK fashions such as <a href="/wiki/Teddy_Boy" class="mw-redirect" title="Teddy Boy">Teddy Boy</a>.</figcaption></figure><p>1926: <a href="/wiki/Camera" title="Camera">Cameras</a> have been made in Birmingham since 1880, by companies such as <a href="/wiki/J._Lancaster_%26_Son" title="J. Lancaster & Son">J. Lancaster & Son</a> and in 1926 <a href="/wiki/Coronet_Camera_Company" title="Coronet Camera Company">Coronet</a> begin manufacturing cameras in the city. Coronet eventually mass-produce cheap, but affordable cameras. Coronet have close links with other Birmingham camera makers such as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Standard_Cameras_Ltd&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Standard Cameras Ltd (page does not exist)">Standard Cameras Ltd</a> (featured in the <a href="/wiki/National_Media_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="National Media Museum">National Media Museum</a>) and <a href="/w/index.php?title=E_Elliott_Ltd&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="E Elliott Ltd (page does not exist)">E Elliott Ltd</a>, who manufacture the unique and now collectible <a href="/w/index.php?title=V._P._Twin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="V. P. Twin (page does not exist)">V. P. Twin</a> (featured in the Museum of early consumer electronics and 1st achievements).<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>1928: Brummie, <a href="/wiki/Oscar_Deutsch" title="Oscar Deutsch">Oscar Deutsch</a> opens his first <a href="/wiki/Odeon_Cinemas" title="Odeon Cinemas">Odeon Cinema</a> in nearby Brierley Hill. By 1930, "Odeon" is a household name and the cinemas are known for their maritime-inspired <a href="/wiki/Art_Deco" title="Art Deco">Art Deco</a> architecture. This style is first used in 1930 on the cinema at <a href="/wiki/Perry_Barr" title="Perry Barr">Perry Barr</a> in Birmingham, which is bought by Deutsch to expand the chain. He likes the style so much that he commissions the architect, Harry Weedon, to design his future buildings.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Odeon cinema chain later becomes one of the largest cinema chains in Europe. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Speed_in_the_Workshops_-_Speed_in_the_Air_-_Geo_Tucker_Eyelet_Co_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Speed_in_the_Workshops_-_Speed_in_the_Air_-_Geo_Tucker_Eyelet_Co_01.jpg/170px-Speed_in_the_Workshops_-_Speed_in_the_Air_-_Geo_Tucker_Eyelet_Co_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Speed_in_the_Workshops_-_Speed_in_the_Air_-_Geo_Tucker_Eyelet_Co_01.jpg/255px-Speed_in_the_Workshops_-_Speed_in_the_Air_-_Geo_Tucker_Eyelet_Co_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Speed_in_the_Workshops_-_Speed_in_the_Air_-_Geo_Tucker_Eyelet_Co_01.jpg/340px-Speed_in_the_Workshops_-_Speed_in_the_Air_-_Geo_Tucker_Eyelet_Co_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2591" data-file-height="3486" /></a><figcaption><i>Speed in the Workshops - Speed in the Air</i>, March 1944 Geo Tucker Eyelet Co. advert for pop rivets, featuring <a href="/wiki/Supermarine_Spitfire" title="Supermarine Spitfire">Spitfire</a> aircraft </figcaption></figure> <p>1928: The George Tucker Eyelet company, of Birmingham, England, produced a type of "cup" rivet. This is later developed as the "<a href="/wiki/POP_rivet" class="mw-redirect" title="POP rivet">POP rivet</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-Grace-Tucker_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grace-Tucker-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stanley_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanley-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>1929: <a href="/wiki/Brylcreem" title="Brylcreem">Brylcreem</a> (made famous by the <a href="/wiki/Teddy_Boy" class="mw-redirect" title="Teddy Boy">Teddy Boy</a>) is invented in the city and later gives rise to other hair styling products. </p><p>First production run of <a href="/wiki/Midland_Red" title="Midland Red">Birmingham and Midland Motor Omnibus Company</a> (Midland Red) buses takes place during the 1920s—one of the first British buses to have <a href="/wiki/Pneumatic_tyre" class="mw-redirect" title="Pneumatic tyre">pneumatic tyres</a>. BMMO later develop petrol and diesel engines during the 1930s, with experimental rear-engined buses being built. By the 1940s experiments with, and production of under-floor engined single-deck buses take place. Experiments and developments of independent front suspension, air suspension, rubber suspension, glass fibre construction and disc brakes take place during the 1950s. 1959 sees the introduction of a turbocharged coach capable of almost 100 mph, for non-stop motorway services. High speed (motorway) buses are developed with passenger toilets. During the 1960s BMMO becomes the first British bus company to make wide-scale use of computers in compiling bus schedules and staff rosters. </p><p>1932: The <a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Sound_Reproducers" title="Birmingham Sound Reproducers">Birmingham Sound Reproducers</a> company is set up in the West Midlands. In the early 1950s, Samuel Margolin begins buying auto-changing <a href="/wiki/Phonograph" title="Phonograph">turntables</a> from BSR, using them as the basis of his <a href="/wiki/Dansette" title="Dansette">Dansette</a> record player. Over the next twenty years, "Dansette" becomes a household word in Britain. By 1957, BSR has grown to employ 2,600 workers. In addition to manufacturing their own brand of player—the Monarch Automatic Record Changer that could select and play 7", 10" and 12" records at 33<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">3</span></span>, 45 or 78 rpm, changing between the various settings automatically—BSR McDonald supplied turntables and autochangers to most of the world's record player manufacturers, eventually gaining 87% of the market. By 1977, BSR's various factories produced over 250,000 units a week. </p><p>1932: <a href="/wiki/Leonard_Parsons" title="Leonard Parsons">Leonard Parsons</a> is the first to use <a href="/wiki/Chemical_synthesis" title="Chemical synthesis">synthetic</a> <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_C" title="Vitamin C">vitamin C</a> as treatment for <a href="/wiki/Scurvy" title="Scurvy">scurvy</a> in children.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>1933: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Credenda_Conduit_Co._Ltd&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Credenda Conduit Co. Ltd (page does not exist)">Credenda Conduit Co. Ltd</a> of Birmingham patent a Credastat automatic oven <a href="/wiki/Thermostat" title="Thermostat">thermostat</a>, which is fitted to Creda electric cookers. This is an early advancement in electric cookers and a feature that eventually becomes standard on all electric cookers. An example of this cooker is on display at the <a href="/wiki/London_Science_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="London Science Museum">London Science Museum</a>. </p><p>1934: <a href="/wiki/Reynolds_Technology" title="Reynolds Technology">The Reynolds Tube Company</a> introduces the <a href="/wiki/Reynolds_531" title="Reynolds 531">double-butted tube-set 531</a> for high strength but lightweight bicycle frames. Reynolds 531 remains for many years at the forefront of alloy steel tubing technology and is used to form the front subframes on the <a href="/wiki/Jaguar_E-Type" title="Jaguar E-Type">Jaguar E-Type</a> during the 1960s. Before the introduction of more exotic materials such as <a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Titanium" title="Titanium">titanium</a> or <a href="/wiki/Composite_material" title="Composite material">composites</a>, Reynolds is considered the dominant maker of high end materials for bicycle frames. According to the company, 27 winners of the <a href="/wiki/Tour_de_France" title="Tour de France">Tour de France</a> have won riding on Reynolds tubing. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ray_Flying_Legends_2005-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Ray_Flying_Legends_2005-1.jpg/225px-Ray_Flying_Legends_2005-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="225" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Ray_Flying_Legends_2005-1.jpg/338px-Ray_Flying_Legends_2005-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Ray_Flying_Legends_2005-1.jpg/450px-Ray_Flying_Legends_2005-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>During the Second World War, <a href="/wiki/Castle_Bromwich_Assembly" title="Castle Bromwich Assembly">Castle Bromwich Aircraft Factory</a> was the largest <a href="/wiki/Spitfire" class="mw-redirect" title="Spitfire">Spitfire</a> factory in the UK, producing a maximum of 320 aircraft per month, it built over half of the approximately 20,000 aircraft of this type. Despite being bombed, <a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Small_Arms_Company" title="Birmingham Small Arms Company">BSA</a> made nearly 500,000 <a href="/wiki/Browning_Arms_Company" title="Browning Arms Company">Browning</a> guns during the Second World War, many of which were fitted to Spitfires.<sup id="cite_ref-BBC_Article_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBC_Article-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </figcaption></figure> <p>1935: Birmingham has a long history of toy and trinket manufacture and in 1935 the biggest toy makers in England, <a href="/wiki/Chad_Valley_(toy_brand)" title="Chad Valley (toy brand)">Chad Valley</a>, are appointed Toy Makers to the Queen of the United Kingdom. During their existence Chad Valley carry out several improvements and practices in the manufacture of toys during their production between the late 19th and mid-20th centuries, constantly striving to develop new <a href="/wiki/Board_game" title="Board game">board games</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jigsaw_puzzle" title="Jigsaw puzzle">jigsaws</a> and toys. </p><p>1937: Professor <a href="/wiki/Norman_Haworth" title="Norman Haworth">Norman Haworth</a> is awarded the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_for_Chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel Prize for Chemistry">Nobel Prize for Chemistry</a> for his pioneering work on <a href="/wiki/Carbohydrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbohydrates">carbohydrates</a> and synthetic vitamin C. </p><p>1939: Dr <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mary_Evans_(chemist)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mary Evans (chemist) (page does not exist)">Mary Evans</a> and Dr <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wilfred_Gaisford&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wilfred Gaisford (page does not exist)">Wilfred Gaisford</a> begin trials of the world's first <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">antibiotic</a> <a href="/wiki/May_%26_Baker" title="May & Baker">M&B</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sulfapyridine" title="Sulfapyridine">sulfapyridine</a>) as treatment for <a href="/wiki/Lobar_pneumonia" title="Lobar pneumonia">lobar pneumonia</a>. </p><p>Birmingham becomes the major British manufacturer of the <a href="/wiki/Phenolic_resin" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenolic resin">phenolic</a> plastic <a href="/wiki/Bakelite" title="Bakelite">Bakelite</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Weather_radar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Weather_radar.jpg/200px-Weather_radar.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Weather_radar.jpg/300px-Weather_radar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Weather_radar.jpg/400px-Weather_radar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1088" data-file-height="1172" /></a><figcaption>Major advances in <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a> take place at the University of Birmingham during the Second World War</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Magnetron" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetron">magnetron</a>, the core component in the development of <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a>, and the first <a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">microwave</a> power oscillators are developed at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Birmingham" title="University of Birmingham">University of Birmingham</a> during World War II (the <a href="/wiki/Microwave_oven" title="Microwave oven">microwave oven</a> owes its existence to these developments). </p><p>1940: After initial teething problems with management, <a href="/wiki/Castle_Bromwich_Assembly" title="Castle Bromwich Assembly">Castle Bromwich Aircraft Factory</a> started production of the <a href="/wiki/Spitfire" class="mw-redirect" title="Spitfire">Spitfire</a> fighter plane. By the time production ended at Castle Bromwich in June 1945, a total of 12,129 Spitfires (921 Mk IIs, 4489 Mk Vs, 5665 Mk IXs and 1054 Mk XVIs) had been built. CBAF became the largest and most successful plant of its type during the 1939–45 conflict. As the largest Spitfire factory in the UK, by producing up to 320 aircraft per month, it built over half of the approximately 20,000 aircraft of this type. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nagasakibomb.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Nagasakibomb.jpg/200px-Nagasakibomb.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Nagasakibomb.jpg/300px-Nagasakibomb.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Nagasakibomb.jpg/400px-Nagasakibomb.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3245" data-file-height="3877" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Frisch%E2%80%93Peierls_memorandum" title="Frisch–Peierls memorandum">Frisch–Peierls memorandum</a> is the first document to set out a process by which an atomic explosion could be generated.</figcaption></figure><p> 1940: The <a href="/wiki/Frisch%E2%80%93Peierls_memorandum" title="Frisch–Peierls memorandum">Frisch–Peierls memorandum</a> is finalised by <a href="/wiki/Otto_Frisch" class="mw-redirect" title="Otto Frisch">Otto Frisch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Peierls" title="Rudolf Peierls">Rudolf Peierls</a> while both working at <a href="/wiki/Birmingham_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Birmingham University">Birmingham University</a>—this is the first document to set out a process by which an atomic explosion could be generated. </p><p>1944: <a href="/wiki/Anthony_E._Pratt" title="Anthony E. Pratt">Anthony Ernest Pratt</a> takes out his first patent for a board game named 'Murder', this is later to become the world-renowned murder mystery game '<a href="/wiki/Cluedo" title="Cluedo">Cluedo</a>'. </p><p>1946: <a href="/wiki/Chance_Brothers" title="Chance Brothers">Chance Brothers</a> produce the first all-glass <a href="/wiki/Syringe" title="Syringe">syringe</a> with interchangeable barrel and plunger, thereby allowing mass sterilisation of components without the need for matching them. </p><p>1947: Dunlop tyres help <a href="/wiki/John_Cobb_(racing_driver)" title="John Cobb (racing driver)">John Cobb</a> raise the world land speed record to 630 km/h in the <a href="/wiki/Railton_Special" title="Railton Special">Railton Special</a>, which is now displayed in Birmingham's <a href="/wiki/Thinktank_museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Thinktank museum">Thinktank museum</a>. </p><p>Between 1947 and 1951 Professor <a href="/wiki/Peter_Medawar" title="Peter Medawar">Peter Medawar</a> pioneers research on <a href="/wiki/Skin_graft" class="mw-redirect" title="Skin graft">skin graft</a> rejection at Birmingham University, this leads to the discovery of a substance that aids <a href="/wiki/Nerves" class="mw-redirect" title="Nerves">nerves</a> to reunite and the discovery of acquired <a href="/wiki/Immunological" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunological">immunological</a> tolerance, Medawar is awarded the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_for_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel Prize for Medicine">Nobel Prize for Medicine</a> in 1960 for his work during this time. </p><p>1950: In February, the first operation in England for 'hole-in-the-heart' (congenital <a href="/wiki/Atrial_septal_defect" title="Atrial septal defect">atrial septal defect</a>) is performed at <a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Children%27s_Hospital" title="Birmingham Children's Hospital">Birmingham Children's Hospital</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Conway_Berners-Lee" title="Conway Berners-Lee">Conway Berners-Lee</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Mathematician" title="Mathematician">mathematician</a> and <a href="/wiki/Computer_scientist" title="Computer scientist">computer scientist</a> from Birmingham, works in the team that develops the <a href="/wiki/Ferranti_Mark_1" title="Ferranti Mark 1">Ferranti Mark 1</a>, the world's first commercial stored program <a href="/wiki/Electronic_computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronic computer">electronic computer</a>. Berners-Lee is demobilized from the British Army in 1947 with the rank of Major. By the late 1960s Berners-Lee leads the Medical Development Team of ICT and then ICL and is involved in some of the earliest developments in the applications of computers in medicine, and his text compression ideas are taken up by an early electronic patient record system. Berners-Lee later marries <a href="/wiki/Mary_Lee_Woods" title="Mary Lee Woods">Mary Lee Woods</a> (also from Birmingham). Woods studies at Birmingham University and later works in the team that develop programs for the <a href="/wiki/Manchester_Mark_1" title="Manchester Mark 1">Manchester Mark 1</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ferranti_Mark_1" title="Ferranti Mark 1">Ferranti Mark 1</a> and Mark 1 Star computers. In 1955 the Berners-Lees become parents to <a href="/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee" title="Tim Berners-Lee">Tim Berners-Lee</a>, who invents the <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a>, making the first proposal for it in March 1989. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mini_Cooper_S_1964_(AJB_44B)_-_2016.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Mini_Cooper_S_1964_%28AJB_44B%29_-_2016.jpg/250px-Mini_Cooper_S_1964_%28AJB_44B%29_-_2016.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Mini_Cooper_S_1964_%28AJB_44B%29_-_2016.jpg/375px-Mini_Cooper_S_1964_%28AJB_44B%29_-_2016.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Mini_Cooper_S_1964_%28AJB_44B%29_-_2016.jpg/500px-Mini_Cooper_S_1964_%28AJB_44B%29_-_2016.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3576" data-file-height="2571" /></a><figcaption>The original <a href="/wiki/Mini" title="Mini">Mini</a> is considered a British icon of the 1960s and has since been voted the second most influential <a href="/wiki/Car_of_the_Century" title="Car of the Century">car of the 20th century</a>, behind the <a href="/wiki/Ford_Model_T" title="Ford Model T">Ford Model T</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>1952: Professor <a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Anderson" title="Charlotte Anderson">Charlotte Anderson</a> (Leonard Parsons Professor of Paediatrics and Child Health) is one of the team who prove that the <a href="/wiki/Gluten" title="Gluten">glutens</a> in <a href="/wiki/Wheat" title="Wheat">wheat</a> cause <a href="/wiki/Coeliac_disease" title="Coeliac disease">coeliac disease</a>, from this gluten-free diets are introduced. </p><p>1954: The <a href="/wiki/Stewart_platform" title="Stewart platform">Stewart platform</a> (a parallel robot) first comes into use. Stewart platforms have applications in machine tool technology, crane technology, underwater research, air-to-sea rescue, <a href="/wiki/Satellite_dish" title="Satellite dish">satellite dish</a> positioning, telescopes and orthopedic surgery but are better known for <a href="/wiki/Flight_simulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Flight simulation">flight simulation</a>. </p><p>1950–1959: Essential research and development on <a href="/wiki/Heart_pacemaker" class="mw-redirect" title="Heart pacemaker">heart pacemakers</a> and plastic <a href="/wiki/Heart_valve" title="Heart valve">heart valves</a> is carried out by <a href="/wiki/Leon_Abrams" title="Leon Abrams">Leon Abrams</a> at Birmingham University. </p><p>1959: The <a href="/wiki/Mini" title="Mini">Mini</a> car begins production at Birmingham's <a href="/wiki/Longbridge_plant" title="Longbridge plant">Longbridge plant</a>. The original is considered a British icon of the 1960s,<sup id="cite_ref-reed1_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reed1-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-reed2_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reed2-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-clausager_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-clausager-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and its space-saving front-wheel-drive layout (which allowed 80% of the area of the car's <a href="/wiki/Floorpan" title="Floorpan">floorpan</a> to be used for passengers and luggage) influenced a generation of car makers.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1999 the Mini was voted the second most influential <a href="/wiki/Car_of_the_Century" title="Car of the Century">car of the 20th century</a>, behind the <a href="/wiki/Ford_Model_T" title="Ford Model T">Ford Model T</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-nytimes_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nytimes-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-auto.howstuffworks.com_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto.howstuffworks.com-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DNA_animation.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/DNA_animation.gif" decoding="async" width="181" height="313" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="181" data-file-height="313" /></a><figcaption>The structure of part of a DNA <a href="/wiki/Double_helix" class="mw-redirect" title="Double helix">double helix</a>. Birmingham raised and educated, <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Wilkins" title="Maurice Wilkins">Maurice Wilkins</a> received the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> for his work on <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> structure, he is one of three who became known as the Code Breakers.</figcaption></figure> <p>1962: <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Wilkins" title="Maurice Wilkins">Maurice Wilkins</a>, New Zealand born and Birmingham raised, receives the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> for his work on <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> structure, he is one of three who become known as the Code Breakers. Wilkins is educated at <a href="/wiki/King_Edward%27s_School,_Birmingham" title="King Edward's School, Birmingham">King Edward's School</a> (and St John's College, Cambridge), he receives a <a href="/wiki/PhD" class="mw-redirect" title="PhD">PhD</a> for the study of <a href="/wiki/Phosphor" title="Phosphor">phosphors</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Birmingham" title="University of Birmingham">University of Birmingham</a>, where he works on <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a> display screens and <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a> <a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">isotope</a> separation before moving to the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mellotron.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Mellotron.jpg/220px-Mellotron.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="331" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Mellotron.jpg/330px-Mellotron.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Mellotron.jpg/440px-Mellotron.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2332" data-file-height="3504" /></a><figcaption>The Birmingham-made <a href="/wiki/Mellotron" title="Mellotron">Mellotron</a> has played a vital part in popular music since the 1960s, being used by artists such as <a href="/wiki/The_Beatles" title="The Beatles">The Beatles</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Rolling_Stones" title="The Rolling Stones">The Rolling Stones</a> and <a href="/wiki/Led_Zeppelin" title="Led Zeppelin">Led Zeppelin</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>1962: Bill Fransen of American company Chamberlins brings two of their musical instruments to England to search for someone who could manufacture 70 matching tape heads for future Chamberlin keyboards. Fransen approaches a UK company that is skilled enough to develop the idea further and a deal is struck with Bradmatic Ltd. The first <a href="/wiki/Mellotron" title="Mellotron">Mellotron</a> sample keyboards are manufactured in Aston and are to enjoy great longevity in the music industry. Alongside the <a href="/wiki/Hammond_organ" title="Hammond organ">Hammond organ</a>, the Mellotron later becomes a seminal musical instrument for music genres such as <a href="/wiki/Rock_music" title="Rock music">rock</a> and <a href="/wiki/Psychedelia" title="Psychedelia">psychedelia</a>, it is also crucial to shaping the sound of the <a href="/wiki/Progressive_rock" title="Progressive rock">progressive rock</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hard_rock" title="Hard rock">hard rock</a> groups of the 1970s as well as inspiring further development of the sample keyboard, most notably the <a href="/wiki/Fairlight_(company)" title="Fairlight (company)">Fairlight</a>, which, in turn, inspired sample modules such as the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Akai_Sampler&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Akai Sampler (page does not exist)">Akai Sampler</a> range; synonymous with <a href="/wiki/Hip_hop" class="mw-redirect" title="Hip hop">hip hop</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dance_music" title="Dance music">dance music</a>. </p><p>Some of the more notable songs that make use of the signature Mellotron sound include <a href="/wiki/Nights_In_White_Satin" class="mw-redirect" title="Nights In White Satin">Nights In White Satin</a> by <a href="/wiki/The_Moody_Blues" title="The Moody Blues">The Moody Blues</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tomorrow_Never_Knows" title="Tomorrow Never Knows">Tomorrow Never Knows</a> and <a href="/wiki/Strawberry_Fields_Forever" title="Strawberry Fields Forever">Strawberry Fields Forever</a> by <a href="/wiki/The_Beatles" title="The Beatles">The Beatles</a>, <a href="/wiki/2000_Light_Years_from_Home" title="2000 Light Years from Home">2000 Light Years from Home</a> and <a href="/wiki/We_Love_You" title="We Love You">We Love You</a> by <a href="/wiki/The_Rolling_Stones" title="The Rolling Stones">The Rolling Stones</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hole_In_My_Shoe" class="mw-redirect" title="Hole In My Shoe">Hole In My Shoe</a> by <a href="/wiki/Traffic_(band)" title="Traffic (band)">Traffic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mercy_Mercy_Me" class="mw-redirect" title="Mercy Mercy Me">Mercy Mercy Me</a> by <a href="/wiki/Marvin_Gaye" title="Marvin Gaye">Marvin Gaye</a>, <a href="/wiki/Days_(The_Kinks_song)" title="Days (The Kinks song)">Days</a> by <a href="/wiki/The_Kinks" title="The Kinks">The Kinks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Space_Oddity" title="Space Oddity">Space Oddity</a> by <a href="/wiki/David_Bowie" title="David Bowie">David Bowie</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stairway_to_Heaven" title="Stairway to Heaven">Stairway to Heaven</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Rain_Song" title="The Rain Song">The Rain Song</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kashmir_(song)" title="Kashmir (song)">Kashmir</a> by <a href="/wiki/Led_Zeppelin" title="Led Zeppelin">Led Zeppelin</a>. </p><p>1965: <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Birmingham_Press_and_Mail&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Birmingham Press and Mail (page does not exist)">The Birmingham Press and Mail</a></i> installs the GEC <a href="/wiki/PABX" class="mw-redirect" title="PABX">PABX</a> 4 ACD, the earliest example of a <a href="/wiki/Call_centre" title="Call centre">call centre</a> in the UK.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Already the hallmarks of the call centre can be seen in the rows of agents with individual phone terminals, taking and making calls. </p><p>1969–1970: <a href="/wiki/Heavy_metal_music" title="Heavy metal music">Heavy metal music</a> begins to take shape in Britain and America. Of the earliest influential bands that are later to be described as Heavy Metal, several of the most notable artists arise from the mid to late 1960s <a href="/wiki/Brum_Beat" title="Brum Beat">Brum Beat</a> music scene, such as: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Plant" title="Robert Plant">Robert Plant</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Bonham" title="John Bonham">John Bonham</a> of <a href="/wiki/Led_Zeppelin" title="Led Zeppelin">Led Zeppelin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ozzy_Osbourne" title="Ozzy Osbourne">Ozzy Osbourne</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tony_Iommi" title="Tony Iommi">Tony Iommi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geezer_Butler" title="Geezer Butler">Geezer Butler</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bill_Ward_(musician)" title="Bill Ward (musician)">Bill Ward</a> of <a href="/wiki/Black_Sabbath" title="Black Sabbath">Black Sabbath</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rob_Halford" title="Rob Halford">Rob Halford</a> and <a href="/wiki/Glenn_Tipton" title="Glenn Tipton">Glenn Tipton</a> of <a href="/wiki/Judas_Priest" title="Judas Priest">Judas Priest</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Audio_%26_Design%27s_Ambisonic_Mastering_System.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Audio_%26_Design%27s_Ambisonic_Mastering_System.jpg/250px-Audio_%26_Design%27s_Ambisonic_Mastering_System.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Audio_%26_Design%27s_Ambisonic_Mastering_System.jpg/375px-Audio_%26_Design%27s_Ambisonic_Mastering_System.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Audio_%26_Design%27s_Ambisonic_Mastering_System.jpg 2x" data-file-width="456" data-file-height="272" /></a><figcaption>Birmingham inventor <a href="/wiki/Michael_Gerzon" title="Michael Gerzon">Michael Gerzon</a> co-invents the <a href="/wiki/Soundfield_microphone" title="Soundfield microphone">Soundfield microphone</a> and later played a large part in the invention of <a href="/wiki/Ambisonics" title="Ambisonics">Ambisonics</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>During the later half of the 20th century the first trials of the <a href="/wiki/Combined_oral_contraceptive_pill" title="Combined oral contraceptive pill">combined oral contraceptive pill</a> outside the USA take place at Birmingham University and extensive research into advanced <a href="/wiki/Allergy" title="Allergy">allergy</a> <a href="/wiki/Vaccine" title="Vaccine">vaccines</a> and the synthesis of <a href="/wiki/Artificial_blood" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial blood">artificial blood</a> take place. </p><p> 1975: Birmingham inventor <a href="/wiki/Michael_Gerzon" title="Michael Gerzon">Michael Gerzon</a> co-invents the <a href="/wiki/Soundfield_microphone" title="Soundfield microphone">Soundfield microphone</a>. Gerzon studies at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">University of Oxford</a>, and is inspired by <a href="/wiki/Alan_Blumlein" title="Alan Blumlein">Alan Blumlein</a>'s landmark 1933 development of <a href="/wiki/Stereophonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Stereophonic">stereophonic</a> recording and reproduction. The Soundfield range of microphones are now considered the ultimate microphones for recording both stereophonic and <a href="/wiki/Surround_sound" title="Surround sound">multichannel</a> surround formats. </p><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Balti_gosht.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Balti_gosht.jpg/200px-Balti_gosht.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Balti_gosht.jpg/300px-Balti_gosht.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Balti_gosht.jpg/400px-Balti_gosht.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>The Balti rose to fame in Birmingham</figcaption></figure><p> Gerzon later plays a large role in the invention of <a href="/wiki/Ambisonics" title="Ambisonics">Ambisonics</a>, which is a series of recording and replay techniques using multichannel mixing technology that can be used live or in the studio. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Balti_(food)" title="Balti (food)">Balti cuisine</a> becomes nationally renowned, after initial growth in the city during the late 1980s. Today Balti restaurants are extremely popular throughout Britain and abroad. </p><p>Sir <a href="/wiki/John_Robert_Vane" class="mw-redirect" title="John Robert Vane">John Robert Vane</a>, winner of a <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a> in 1982 for his work on <a href="/wiki/Aspirin" title="Aspirin">aspirin</a>, is educated at <a href="/wiki/King_Edward%27s_School,_Birmingham" title="King Edward's School, Birmingham">King Edward's School</a> and studies <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">Chemistry</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Birmingham" title="University of Birmingham">University of Birmingham</a>. </p><p>1991: <a href="/wiki/Derek_McMinn" title="Derek McMinn">Derek McMinn</a> begins the first successful modern metal-on-metal hip resurfacing operations and the instrumentation and surgical technique to implant it. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="21st_century">21st century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_invention_in_Birmingham&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: 21st century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/University_of_Birmingham" title="University of Birmingham">University of Birmingham</a> has become one of the significant UK research centres for <a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">nanotechnology</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>As of 2013, <a href="/wiki/Aston_University" title="Aston University">Aston University</a> was also carrying out research, including a micro-<a href="/wiki/Robotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Robotic">robotic</a> drill for use in <a href="/wiki/Surgery" title="Surgery">surgery</a>, and the use of <a href="/wiki/Fibre_optics" class="mw-redirect" title="Fibre optics">fibre optics</a> instead of electric <a href="/wiki/Sensor" title="Sensor">sensors</a> in aircraft <a href="/wiki/Fuel_tank" title="Fuel tank">fuel tanks</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-BL-3953048_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BL-3953048-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_invention_in_Birmingham&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific revolution">Scientific revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_revolution" title="Chemical revolution">Chemical revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewellery_Quarter" title="Jewellery Quarter">Jewellery Quarter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_Quarter" title="Gun Quarter">Gun Quarter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_pen_trade" title="Birmingham pen trade">Birmingham pen trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textile_manufacture_during_the_Industrial_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution">Textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Birmingham" title="History of Birmingham">History of Birmingham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_trade_and_industry_in_Birmingham" title="History of trade and industry in Birmingham">History of trade and industry in Birmingham</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_invention_in_Birmingham&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Revolutionary_Players-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Revolutionary_Players_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Revolutionary_Players_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.search.revolutionaryplayers.org.uk/engine/resource/exhibition/standard/default.asp?resource=2879">"Revolutionary Players"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 November</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Revolutionary+Players&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.search.revolutionaryplayers.org.uk%2Fengine%2Fresource%2Fexhibition%2Fstandard%2Fdefault.asp%3Fresource%3D2879&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+invention+in+Birmingham" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-telegraph-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-telegraph_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcIlroy2000" class="citation news cs1">McIlroy, A J (27 December 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1379400/Why-Birmingham-is-mother-of-invention.html">"Why Birmingham is mother of invention"</a>. <i>The Telegraph</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 September</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Telegraph&rft.atitle=Why+Birmingham+is+mother+of+invention&rft.date=2000-12-27&rft.aulast=McIlroy&rft.aufirst=A+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fuknews%2F1379400%2FWhy-Birmingham-is-mother-of-invention.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+invention+in+Birmingham" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolt1986">Holt 1986</a>, p. 8; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGooder1978" class="citation cs2">Gooder, E. A. (1978), "Birmingham Pieces", <i>Transactions, Birmingham and Warwickshire Archaeological Society</i>, <b>88</b>: 135, <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0140-4202">0140-4202</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions%2C+Birmingham+and+Warwickshire+Archaeological+Society&rft.atitle=Birmingham+Pieces&rft.volume=88&rft.pages=135&rft.date=1978&rft.issn=0140-4202&rft.aulast=Gooder&rft.aufirst=E.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+invention+in+Birmingham" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChester1861" class="citation book cs1">Chester, Joseph Lemuel (1861). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/johnrogerscompil1861ches"><i>John Rogers: the Compiler of the First Authorised English Bible</i></a>. London: Longman, Green, Longman, and Roberts. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/johnrogerscompil1861ches/page/n514">18</a>–62. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/257597540">257597540</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 February</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Rogers%3A+the+Compiler+of+the+First+Authorised+English+Bible&rft.place=London&rft.pages=18-62&rft.pub=Longman%2C+Green%2C+Longman%2C+and+Roberts&rft.date=1861&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F257597540&rft.aulast=Chester&rft.aufirst=Joseph+Lemuel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjohnrogerscompil1861ches&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+invention+in+Birmingham" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrice2004" class="citation book cs1">Price, David (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eyOWfplHLVQC&pg=PA49"><i>Let it Go Among Our People: An Illustrated History of the English Bible from John Wyclif to the King James Version</i></a>. James Clarke & Co. pp. <span class="nowrap">49–</span>50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7188-3042-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7188-3042-3"><bdi>0-7188-3042-3</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 February</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Let+it+Go+Among+Our+People%3A+An+Illustrated+History+of+the+English+Bible+from+John+Wyclif+to+the+King+James+Version&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E49-%3C%2Fspan%3E50&rft.pub=James+Clarke+%26+Co.&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-7188-3042-3&rft.aulast=Price&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeyOWfplHLVQC%26pg%3DPA49&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+invention+in+Birmingham" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHill1907" class="citation book cs1">Hill, Joseph (1907). <i>The book makers of old Birmingham; authors, printers, and book sellers</i>. Birmingham: Printed at the Shakespeare Press for Cornish Bros. pp. <span class="nowrap">6–</span>7. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/3773421">3773421</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+book+makers+of+old+Birmingham%3B+authors%2C+printers%2C+and+book+sellers&rft.place=Birmingham&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E6-%3C%2Fspan%3E7&rft.pub=Printed+at+the+Shakespeare+Press+for+Cornish+Bros.&rft.date=1907&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F3773421&rft.aulast=Hill&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+invention+in+Birmingham" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rifleman.org.uk/Birmingham_Small_Arms_Co.htm">"The Birmingham Small Arms Company"</a>. Rifleman.org.uk<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 May</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Birmingham+Small+Arms+Company&rft.pub=Rifleman.org.uk&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frifleman.org.uk%2FBirmingham_Small_Arms_Co.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+invention+in+Birmingham" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPelham1950" class="citation cs2">Pelham, R. A. (1950), "The Growth of Settlement and Industry c.1100 – c.1700", in Kinvig, R. H.; Smith, J. G.; Wise, M. J. (eds.), <i>Birmingham and its Regional Setting: A Scientific Survey</i>, S. R. Publishers Limited (published 1970), p. 152, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85409-607-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85409-607-7"><bdi>978-0-85409-607-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Growth+of+Settlement+and+Industry+c.1100+%E2%80%93+c.1700&rft.btitle=Birmingham+and+its+Regional+Setting%3A+A+Scientific+Survey&rft.pages=152&rft.pub=S.+R.+Publishers+Limited&rft.date=1950&rft.isbn=978-0-85409-607-7&rft.aulast=Pelham&rft.aufirst=R.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+invention+in+Birmingham" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJones2009">Jones 2009</a>, p. 62</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJones2009">Jones 2009</a>, p. 62; <a href="#CITEREFPelham1950">Pelham 1950</a>, p. 142</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSatia2019" class="citation book cs1">Satia, Priya (29 October 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/1178769516"><i>Empire of Guns : The Violent Making of the Industrial Revolution</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5036-1082-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5036-1082-8"><bdi>978-1-5036-1082-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1178769516">1178769516</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empire+of+Guns+%3A+The+Violent+Making+of+the+Industrial+Revolution&rft.date=2019-10-29&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1178769516&rft.isbn=978-1-5036-1082-8&rft.aulast=Satia&rft.aufirst=Priya&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1178769516&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+invention+in+Birmingham" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-p-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-p_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-p_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaget-Tomlinson2006" class="citation book cs1">Paget-Tomlinson, Edward W. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 May</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Steam+Engines+of+the+Eighteenth+Century+-+The+Pickard+Engine&rft.date=2007-09-29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.btinternet.com%2F~historical.engines%2Fpickard.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+invention+in+Birmingham" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-birm-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-birm_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.birminghamuk.com/cadburyhistory.htm">"The history of Cadbury Schweppes"</a>. Birminghamuk.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 March</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=University+of+Birmingham+to+unveil+new+%27blue+plaque%27+celebrating+the+work+of+two+innovative+dentists&rft.pub=Birmingham+Dental+Hospital&rft.date=2019-03-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.birmingham.ac.uk%2Funiversity%2Fcolleges%2Fmds%2Fnews%2F2019%2F03%2Fdentistry-blue-plaque.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+invention+in+Birmingham" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><span class="citation patent" id="CITEREFHarold_Arthur_RoundArthur_Parrott"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US1331359">US 1331359</a>, Harold Arthur Round & Arthur Parrott, "Air cushion", published 1920-20-17</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Apatent&rft.number=1331359&rft.cc=US&rft.title=Air+cushion&rft.inventor=Harold+Arthur+Round&rft.pubdate=1920-20-17"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rewindmuseum.com/vintageelectronics.htm">"Museum of early consumer electronics and 1st achievements"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 December</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Museum+of+early+consumer+electronics+and+1st+achievements&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rewindmuseum.com%2Fvintageelectronics.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+invention+in+Birmingham" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4158/is_19980811/ai_n14171913">"Cinema History For Sale At First Odeon"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090506021312/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4158/is_19980811/ai_n14171913/">Archived</a> 2009-05-06 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <i>The Independent</i> (Republished by Find Articles), August 11, 1998. Retrieved May 18, 2007</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grace-Tucker-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Grace-Tucker_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gracesguide.co.uk/George_Tucker_Eyelet_Co">"George Tucker Eyelet Co"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Graces_Guide" class="mw-redirect" title="Graces Guide">Graces Guide</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 July</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=George+Tucker+Eyelet+Co&rft.pub=Graces+Guide&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gracesguide.co.uk%2FGeorge_Tucker_Eyelet_Co&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+invention+in+Birmingham" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stanley-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stanley_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.emhart.eu/eu-en/about-emhart/history.php">"Company History"</a>. Stanley Engineered Fastening<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 July</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Company+History&rft.pub=Stanley+Engineered+Fastening&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.emhart.eu%2Feu-en%2Fabout-emhart%2Fhistory.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+invention+in+Birmingham" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFP_M_Dunn" class="citation web cs1">P M Dunn. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fn.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/86/1/F65">"Sir Leonard Parsons of Birmingham (1879–1950) and antenatal paediatrics - Dunn 86 (1): F65 - ADC - Fetal and Neonatal Edition"</a>. Fn.bmjjournals.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 May</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sir+Leonard+Parsons+of+Birmingham+%281879%E2%80%931950%29+and+antenatal+paediatrics+-+Dunn+86+%281%29%3A+F65+-+ADC+-+Fetal+and+Neonatal+Edition&rft.pub=Fn.bmjjournals.com&rft.au=P+M+Dunn&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffn.bmjjournals.com%2Fcgi%2Fcontent%2Ffull%2F86%2F1%2FF65&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+invention+in+Birmingham" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BBC_Article-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BBC_Article_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-15652440">"Spitfire redux: The WWII guns firing after 70 years buried in peat"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. 10 November 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 November</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Spitfire+redux%3A+The+WWII+guns+firing+after+70+years+buried+in+peat&rft.date=2011-11-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fmagazine-15652440&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+invention+in+Birmingham" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-reed1-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-reed1_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReed,_Chris2003" class="citation book cs1">Reed, Chris (2003). <i>Complete Classic Mini 1959–2000</i>. Orpington: Motor Racing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-899870-60-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-899870-60-1"><bdi>1-899870-60-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Complete+Classic+Mini+1959%E2%80%932000&rft.place=Orpington&rft.pub=Motor+Racing&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=1-899870-60-1&rft.au=Reed%2C+Chris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+invention+in+Birmingham" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-reed2-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-reed2_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReed,_Chris1994" class="citation book cs1">Reed, Chris (1994). <i>Complete Mini: 35 Years Of Production History, Model Changes, Performance Data</i>. Croydon: MRP. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-947981-88-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-947981-88-8"><bdi>0-947981-88-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Complete+Mini%3A+35+Years+Of+Production+History%2C+Model+Changes%2C+Performance+Data&rft.place=Croydon&rft.pub=MRP&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-947981-88-8&rft.au=Reed%2C+Chris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+invention+in+Birmingham" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-clausager-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-clausager_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClausager,_Anders1997" class="citation book cs1">Clausager, Anders (1997). <i>Essential Mini Cooper</i>. Bideford, Devon: Bay View Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-870979-86-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-870979-86-9"><bdi>1-870979-86-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essential+Mini+Cooper&rft.place=Bideford%2C+Devon&rft.pub=Bay+View+Books&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=1-870979-86-9&rft.au=Clausager%2C+Anders&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+invention+in+Birmingham" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin_Buckley_&_Chris_Rees2006" class="citation book cs1">Martin Buckley & Chris Rees (2006). <i>Cars: An encyclopedia of the world's most fabulous automobiles</i>. Hermes House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84309-266-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-84309-266-2"><bdi>1-84309-266-2</bdi></a>. <q>The BMC Mini, launched in 1959, is Britain's most influential car ever. It defined a new genre. Other cars used <a href="/wiki/Front-wheel_drive" title="Front-wheel drive">front-wheel drive</a> and transverse engines before but none in such a small space.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cars%3A+An+encyclopedia+of+the+world%27s+most+fabulous+automobiles&rft.pub=Hermes+House&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=1-84309-266-2&rft.au=Martin+Buckley+%26+Chris+Rees&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+invention+in+Birmingham" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nytimes-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-nytimes_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E02E1DF1439F937A15751C1A96F958260">"This Just In: Model T Gets Award"</a>, James G. Cobb, <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>, 24 December 1999</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto.howstuffworks.com-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-auto.howstuffworks.com_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrickland2007" class="citation web cs1">Strickland, Jonathan (21 March 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://auto.howstuffworks.com/mini-cooper.htm">"HowStuffWorks "How the MINI Cooper Works"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. Auto.howstuffworks.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 July</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=HowStuffWorks+%22How+the+MINI+Cooper+Works%22&rft.pub=Auto.howstuffworks.com&rft.date=2007-03-21&rft.aulast=Strickland&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fauto.howstuffworks.com%2Fmini-cooper.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+invention+in+Birmingham" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.callcentrehelper.com/the-history-of-the-call-centre-15085.htm">"The history of the call centre"</a>. Callcentrehelper.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 May</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+history+of+the+call+centre&rft.pub=Callcentrehelper.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.callcentrehelper.com%2Fthe-history-of-the-call-centre-15085.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+invention+in+Birmingham" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BL-3953048-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BL-3953048_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.business-live.co.uk/enterprise/science-minister-lord-drayson-hails-3953048">"Science Minister Lord Drayson hails Birmingham's innovation"</a>. <i>Business Live</i>. 6 November 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 July</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Business+Live&rft.atitle=Science+Minister+Lord+Drayson+hails+Birmingham%27s+innovation&rft.date=2008-11-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.business-live.co.uk%2Fenterprise%2Fscience-minister-lord-drayson-hails-3953048&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+invention+in+Birmingham" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_invention_in_Birmingham&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolt1986" class="citation cs2">Holt, Richard (1986), <i>The early history of the town of Birmingham, 1166–1600</i>, Dugdale Society Occasional papers, vol. 30, Oxford: Printed for the Dugdale Society by D. Stanford, Printer to the University, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85220-062-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85220-062-9"><bdi>978-0-85220-062-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+early+history+of+the+town+of+Birmingham%2C+1166%E2%80%931600&rft.place=Oxford&rft.series=Dugdale+Society+Occasional+papers&rft.pub=Printed+for+the+Dugdale+Society+by+D.+Stanford%2C+Printer+to+the+University&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-85220-062-9&rft.aulast=Holt&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+invention+in+Birmingham" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones2009" class="citation cs2">Jones, Peter M. (2009), <i>Industrial Enlightenment: Science, technology and culture in Birmingham and the West Midlands, 1760–1820</i>, Manchester University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-7770-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-7770-8"><bdi>978-0-7190-7770-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Industrial+Enlightenment%3A+Science%2C+technology+and+culture+in+Birmingham+and+the+West+Midlands%2C+1760%E2%80%931820&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-7190-7770-8&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Peter+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+invention+in+Birmingham" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><i>Edwardian Inventions</i>;, Rodney Dale & Joan Gray, Star Books, 1979, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-352-30345-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-352-30345-X">0-352-30345-X</a></li> <li><i>Victorian and Edwardian Birmingham</i>, B. T. Batsford Ltd, 1973, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7134-0128-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-7134-0128-1">0-7134-0128-1</a></li> <li><i>Workshop Of The World</i>, Ray Shill, Sutton Publishing LTD, 2006, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7509-3503-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-7509-3503-0">0-7509-3503-0</a></li> <li><i>Birmingham's Industrial Heritage 1900–2000</i>, Ray Shill, Sutton Publishing LTD, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7509-2593-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-7509-2593-0">0-7509-2593-0</a></li> <li><i>Birmingham Inventors And Inventions</i>, Richard B. Prosser, H.M. Patent Office (originally 1881) later published by S.R. Publishers 1970, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85409-578-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-85409-578-0">0-85409-578-0</a></li> <li><i>Watch & Clockmakers Of The British Isles</i>, Birmingham, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-871252-00-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-871252-00-8">1-871252-00-8</a></li> <li><i>A Pictorial History Of Boxing</i>, Sam Andre and Nat Fleischer, Hamlyn, 1988, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-600-50288-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-600-50288-0">0-600-50288-0</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_invention_in_Birmingham&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.astoninventions.com">Inventions from Aston University</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bham.ac.uk/news_and_events_details.asp?section=00010001000900100007&id=2104">Innovators and inventors from the University of Birmingham</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output 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