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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abenaki_wars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Abenaki wars</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abenaki_wars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language_borrowing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language_borrowing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Language borrowing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language_borrowing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abenaki_tribes_and_confederations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abenaki_tribes_and_confederations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Abenaki tribes and confederations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abenaki_tribes_and_confederations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Abenaki_Confederation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abenaki_Confederation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.1</span> <span>Abenaki Confederation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abenaki_Confederation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Seven_Nations_of_Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Seven_Nations_of_Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.2</span> <span>Seven Nations of Canada</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Seven_Nations_of_Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eastern_Abenaki_tribes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eastern_Abenaki_tribes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.3</span> <span>Eastern Abenaki tribes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eastern_Abenaki_tribes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Eastern_Abenaki_tribal_villages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eastern_Abenaki_tribal_villages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.3.1</span> <span>Eastern Abenaki tribal villages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eastern_Abenaki_tribal_villages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Maritime_Abenaki" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maritime_Abenaki"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.4</span> <span>Maritime Abenaki</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maritime_Abenaki-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Western_Abenaki_(Sokoki)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Western_Abenaki_(Sokoki)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.5</span> <span>Western Abenaki (Sokoki)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Western_Abenaki_(Sokoki)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_names_of_Abenaki_villages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_names_of_Abenaki_villages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.6</span> <span>Other names of Abenaki villages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_names_of_Abenaki_villages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Canada</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States_federal_tribal_recognition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States_federal_tribal_recognition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>United States federal tribal recognition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States_federal_tribal_recognition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Penobscot_Indian_Nation_and_the_Passamaquoddy_Tribe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Penobscot_Indian_Nation_and_the_Passamaquoddy_Tribe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5.1</span> <span>The Penobscot Indian Nation and the Passamaquoddy Tribe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Penobscot_Indian_Nation_and_the_Passamaquoddy_Tribe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vermont" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vermont"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5.2</span> <span>Vermont</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vermont-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_Hampshire_and_minority_recognition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_Hampshire_and_minority_recognition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5.3</span> <span>New Hampshire and minority recognition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_Hampshire_and_minority_recognition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language_revitalization_efforts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language_revitalization_efforts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Language revitalization efforts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language_revitalization_efforts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dialects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dialects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Dialects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dialects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Phonology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Phonology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Vowels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Consonants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Orthography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Orthography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>Orthography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Orthography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stress" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stress"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Stress</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stress-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Morphology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Morphology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Nouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Noun_plurality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Noun_plurality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.1</span> <span>Noun plurality</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Noun_plurality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pronouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pronouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Pronouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pronouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Verbs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morphological_processes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphological_processes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Morphological processes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Morphological_processes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syntax" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syntax"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Syntax</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Syntax-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Syntax subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Syntax-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Enclitic_particles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Enclitic_particles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Enclitic particles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Enclitic_particles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Numerals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Numerals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Numerals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Numerals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-List_of_roots" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#List_of_roots"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>List of roots</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-List_of_roots-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Place_names_(Western_Abenaki)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Place_names_(Western_Abenaki)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Place names (Western Abenaki)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Place_names_(Western_Abenaki)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_words" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_words"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Other words</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_words-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Abenaki language</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 15 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-15" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">15 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abnaki_keel" title="Abnaki keel – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Abnaki keel" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_abenaki" title="Idioma abenaki – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Idioma abenaki" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abenaka_lingvo" title="Abenaka lingvo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Abenaka lingvo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ab%C3%A9naqui" title="Abénaqui – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Abénaqui" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_abnaki" title="Lingua abnaki – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Lingua abnaki" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Abenaki" title="Bahasa Abenaki – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Abenaki" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_Abenaki" title="Lingua Abenaki – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Lingua Abenaki" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abenaki_(spraok)" title="Abenaki (spraok) – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Abenaki (spraok)" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abenaki_(taal)" title="Abenaki (taal) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Abenaki (taal)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyk_abenacki" title="Język abenacki – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Język abenacki" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADngua_abenaki" title="Língua abenaki – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Língua abenaki" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B8_(%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA)" title="Абенаки (язык) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Абенаки (язык)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abenaki_language" title="Abenaki language – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Abenaki language" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link 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searchaux" style="display:none">Algonquian language</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Split plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-move" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Split-arrows.svg/50px-Split-arrows.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Split-arrows.svg/75px-Split-arrows.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Split-arrows.svg/100px-Split-arrows.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="60" data-file-height="20" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">It has been suggested that this article should be <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Splitting" title="Wikipedia:Splitting">split</a></b> into articles titled <i><a href="/wiki/Western_Abenaki_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Abenaki language">Western Abenaki language</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Abenaki_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Abenaki language">Eastern Abenaki language</a></i>. (<a href="/wiki/Talk:Abenaki_language" title="Talk:Abenaki language">discuss</a>) <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2024</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Cleanup-lang plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article should <b>specify the language</b> of its non-English content, using <span class="nowrap">{{</span><a href="/wiki/Template:Lang" title="Template:Lang">lang</a><span class="nowrap">}}</span>, <span class="nowrap">{{</span><a href="/wiki/Template:Transliteration" title="Template:Transliteration">transliteration</a><span class="nowrap">}}</span> for transliterated languages, and <span class="nowrap">{{</span><a href="/wiki/Template:IPA" title="Template:IPA">IPA</a><span class="nowrap">}}</span> for phonetic transcriptions, with an appropriate <a href="/wiki/Lists_of_ISO_639_codes" title="Lists of ISO 639 codes">ISO 639 code</a>. Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_multilingual_support_templates" title="Category:Wikipedia multilingual support templates">multilingual support templates</a> may also be used.<span class="hide-when-compact"> <a href="/wiki/Template:Lang#Rationale" title="Template:Lang">See why</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2022</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: lightskyblue;">Abenaki</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: lightskyblue;">Eastern: Alnombak, Alnôbak, Eastern Abnaki, Wawenock <br /> Western: Abenaqui, Alnombak, Saint Francis, Western Abnaki</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: lightskyblue;">Eastern: <i><span title="Eastern Abnaki-language text"><span lang="aaq">Alənαpαtəwéwαkan</span></span></i> <br /> Western: <span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">Alnôbaôdwawôgan</i></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Native to</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Region</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Brunswick" title="New Brunswick">New Brunswick</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maine" title="Maine">Maine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vermont" title="Vermont">Vermont</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Hampshire" title="New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Ethnicity</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">1,800 <a href="/wiki/Abenaki" title="Abenaki">Abenaki</a> and <a href="/wiki/Penobscot" title="Penobscot">Penobscot</a> (1982)<sup id="cite_ref-e16_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-e16-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Native speakers</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">14 Western Abenaki (2007–2012)<sup id="cite_ref-e18_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-e18-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />Last fluent speaker of Eastern Abenaki died in 1993.<sup id="cite_ref-e18_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-e18-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Algic_languages" title="Algic languages">Algic</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Algonquian_languages" title="Algonquian languages">Algonquian</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Algonquian_languages" title="Eastern Algonquian languages">Eastern Algonquian</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><b>Abenaki</b></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin script</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: lightskyblue;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Either:<br /><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/aaq" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:aaq">aaq</a></code> – Eastern Abenaki<br /><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/abe" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:abe">abe</a></code> – Western Abenaki</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><i><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></i></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/east2544">east2544</a></code>  Eastern Abenaki<br /><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/west2630">west2630</a></code>  Western Abenaki</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Lang_Status_20-CR.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Lang_Status_20-CR.svg/320px-Lang_Status_20-CR.svg.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Lang_Status_20-CR.svg/480px-Lang_Status_20-CR.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Lang_Status_20-CR.svg/640px-Lang_Status_20-CR.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="153" /></a></span><div style="text-align:left;"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Western Abenaki is classified as critically endangered by the <a href="/wiki/Endangered_Languages_Project" title="Endangered Languages Project">Endangered Languages Project</a> (ELP).</div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below noprint selfref" style="background-color:#E7E7FF;color:inherit;padding:0.3em 0.5em;text-align:left;line-height:1.3;"><b>This article contains <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> phonetic symbols.</b> Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA#Rendering_issues" title="Help:IPA">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="background:#fff6d9"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#fee8ab">People</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Abenaki" title="Abenaki">Alnôbak (Wôbanakiak)</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#fee8ab">Language</th><td class="infobox-data">Alnôbadôwawôgan</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#fee8ab">Country</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Dawnland" class="mw-redirect" title="Dawnland">Ndakinna</a><br />     <a href="/wiki/Dawnland" class="mw-redirect" title="Dawnland">Wabanaki</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aire_co-territoriale_ab%C3%A9naki.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Aire_co-territoriale_ab%C3%A9naki.png/220px-Aire_co-territoriale_ab%C3%A9naki.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="286" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Aire_co-territoriale_ab%C3%A9naki.png/330px-Aire_co-territoriale_ab%C3%A9naki.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Aire_co-territoriale_ab%C3%A9naki.png/440px-Aire_co-territoriale_ab%C3%A9naki.png 2x" data-file-width="1255" data-file-height="1633" /></a><figcaption>Western Abenaki territory</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Abenaki</b> (Eastern: <i><span title="Eastern Abnaki-language text"><span lang="aaq">Alənαpαtəwéwαkan</span></span></i>, Western: <span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">Alnôbaôdwawôgan</i></span>), also known as <b>Wôbanakiak</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is an endangered <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Algonquian_languages" title="Eastern Algonquian languages">Eastern Algonquian language</a> of <a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a> and the northern states of <a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a>. The language has Eastern and Western forms which differ in vocabulary and <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonology</a> and are sometimes considered distinct languages. </p><p>Western Abenaki was spoken in New Hampshire, Vermont, north-western Massachusetts, and southern Quebec.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeSourd2015_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeSourd2015-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Odanak, Quebec is a First Nations reserve located near the Saint-François River—these peoples were referred to as Saint Francis Indians by English writers after the 1700s.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDay1994a-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The few remaining speakers of Western Abenaki live predominantly in Odanak and the last fully fluent speaker, Cécile (Wawanolett) Joubert died in 2006.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeSourd2015_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeSourd2015-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A revitalization effort was started in Odanak in 1994; however, as of 2004 younger generations are not learning the language and the remaining speakers are elderly, making Western Abenaki nearly extinct.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeach2004_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeach2004-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Eastern Abenaki languages are spoken by several peoples, including the <a href="/wiki/Penobscot" title="Penobscot">Penobscot</a> of what is now <a href="/wiki/Maine" title="Maine">Maine</a>. The last known natively fluent speaker of Penobscot Abenaki, Madeline Shay, died in 1993.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, several Penobscot elders still speak Penobscot, and there is an ongoing effort to preserve it and teach it in the local schools;<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> much of the language was preserved by <a href="/wiki/Frank_Siebert" title="Frank Siebert">Frank Siebert</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other speakers of Eastern Abenaki included tribes such as the <a href="/wiki/Androscoggin_people" title="Androscoggin people">Amoscocongon</a> who spoke the Arosagunticook dialect,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Norridgewock" title="Norridgewock">Caniba</a>, which are documented in French-language materials from the colonial period. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki_language&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Importance_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section may contain information <b>not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not#Encyclopedic_content" title="Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not">important or relevant</a> to the article's subject.</b><span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abenaki_language&action=edit">improve this section</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Reflections_in_Bullough%27s_Pond" title="Reflections in Bullough's Pond">Reflections in Bullough's Pond</a></i>, historian <a href="/wiki/Diana_Muir" class="mw-redirect" title="Diana Muir">Diana Muir</a> argues that Abenaki neighbors, the pre-contact <a href="/wiki/Iroquois" title="Iroquois">Iroquois</a>, were an imperialist, expansionist culture whose cultivation of the <a href="/wiki/Three_Sisters_(agriculture)" title="Three Sisters (agriculture)">corn/beans/squash agricultural complex</a> enabled them to support a large population. They made war primarily against neighboring <a href="/wiki/Algonquian_peoples" title="Algonquian peoples">Algonquian peoples</a>, including the Abenaki. Muir uses archaeological data to argue that the Iroquois expansion onto Algonquian lands was checked by the Algonquian adoption of agriculture, which enabled them to support populations large enough to raise sufficient warriors to defend against the threat of Iroquois conquest.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (September 2013)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In 1614, six years before the <i><a href="/wiki/Mayflower" title="Mayflower">Mayflower</a></i> arrived in New England, English explorer and slaver Captain Thomas Hunt captured 24 indigenous people, including <a href="/wiki/Wampanoag" title="Wampanoag">Wampanoag</a> member <a href="/wiki/Squanto" title="Squanto">Tisquantum</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Patuxet_tribe" class="mw-redirect" title="Patuxet tribe">Patuxet tribe</a> in what would later become <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a>, and took them to <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> to sell as <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Spain" title="Slavery in Spain">slaves</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, when the <i>Mayflower</i> landed and English settlers began to establish colonies in the southern end of Abenaki territory, relations between the settlers and natives remained guarded. The religious leaders of the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Bay_Colony" title="Massachusetts Bay Colony">Massachusetts Bay Colony</a> discouraged social interaction with the natives. </p><p>By contrast, the French had already planted the colonies of <a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">New France</a> in the northern part of Abenaki territory, and maintained reasonably cordial relations with the natives. Intermarriage between the French and natives gave rise to the <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9tis" title="Métis">Métis</a> people. Over the next hundred years, conflicts between the French and the English often included their colonies and their respective native allies. The French treated their Abenaki allies with some respect; in 1706, <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XIV of France">Louis XIV</a> knighted Chief <a href="/wiki/Nescambious" title="Nescambious">Assacumbuit</a> for his service, thus elevating him as a member of the French nobility. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Abenakis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Abenakis.jpg/220px-Abenakis.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Abenakis.jpg/330px-Abenakis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Abenakis.jpg/440px-Abenakis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="926" data-file-height="1055" /></a><figcaption>Abenaki couple, 18th-century</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wohngebiet_Oestlicheabenaki.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Wohngebiet_Oestlicheabenaki.png/220px-Wohngebiet_Oestlicheabenaki.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="306" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Wohngebiet_Oestlicheabenaki.png/330px-Wohngebiet_Oestlicheabenaki.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Wohngebiet_Oestlicheabenaki.png/440px-Wohngebiet_Oestlicheabenaki.png 2x" data-file-width="1247" data-file-height="1732" /></a><figcaption>Eastern Abenaki territory</figcaption></figure> <p>Around 1669, the Abenaki started to emigrate to Quebec due to conflicts with English colonists and <a href="/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic">epidemics</a> of new infectious diseases. The governor of <a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">New France</a> allocated two <a href="/wiki/Seigneurial_system_of_New_France" title="Seigneurial system of New France">seigneuries</a> (large self-administered areas similar to feudal fiefs). The first was on the <a href="/wiki/Saint-Fran%C3%A7ois_River" title="Saint-François River">Saint Francis River</a> and is now known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Odanak" title="Odanak">Odanak</a></i> Indian Reservation; the second was founded near <a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9cancour,_Quebec" title="Bécancour, Quebec">Bécancour</a> and is called the <i><a href="/wiki/Wolinak" class="mw-redirect" title="Wolinak">Wolinak</a></i> Indian Reservation.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abenaki_wars">Abenaki wars</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki_language&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Abenaki wars"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_Wars" title="French and Indian Wars">French and Indian Wars</a></div> <p>When the <a href="/wiki/Wampanoag" title="Wampanoag">Wampanoag</a> under <a href="/wiki/Metacomet" title="Metacomet">Metacomet</a>, also called "King Philip", fought the English colonists in <a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a> in 1675 in <a href="/wiki/King_Philip%27s_War" title="King Philip's War">King Philip's War</a>, the Abenaki joined the Wampanoag. For three years there was fighting along the Maine frontier in the <a href="/wiki/First_Abenaki_War" title="First Abenaki War">First Abenaki War</a>. The Abenaki pushed back the line of white settlement by devastating raids on scattered farmhouses and small villages. The war was settled by a peace treaty in 1678. </p><p>During <a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_War" title="Queen Anne's War">Queen Anne's War</a> in 1702, the Abenaki were allied with the French; they raided numerous small villages in Maine from <a href="/wiki/Wells,_Maine" title="Wells, Maine">Wells</a> to <a href="/wiki/Portland,_Maine" title="Portland, Maine">Casco</a>, killing about 300 settlers over ten years. The raids stopped when the war ended. Some captives were adopted into the <a href="/wiki/Mohawk_people" title="Mohawk people">Mohawk</a> and Abenaki tribes; older captives were generally ransomed, and the colonies carried on a brisk trade.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Third Abenaki War (1722–1725), called <a href="/wiki/Dummer%27s_War" title="Dummer's War">Dummer's War</a>, erupted when the French <a href="/wiki/Jesuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesuit">Jesuit</a> missionary <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9bastien_Rale" title="Sébastien Rale">Sébastien Rale</a> (or Rasles, 1657?–1724) encouraged the Abenaki to halt the spread of <a href="/wiki/New_England_Colonies" title="New England Colonies">Yankee</a> settlements. When the Massachusetts militia tried to seize Rasles, the Abenaki raided the settlements at <a href="/wiki/Brunswick,_Maine" title="Brunswick, Maine">Brunswick</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arrowsic,_Maine" title="Arrowsic, Maine">Arrowsick</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Merrymeeting_Bay" title="Merrymeeting Bay">Merry-Meeting Bay</a>. The Massachusetts government then declared war, and bloody battles were fought at <a href="/wiki/Norridgewock" title="Norridgewock">Norridgewock</a> (1724), where Rasles was killed, and at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pequawket" title="Battle of Pequawket">a daylong battle</a> at Pequawket, an Indian village near present-day <a href="/wiki/Fryeburg,_Maine" title="Fryeburg, Maine">Fryeburg, Maine</a>, on the upper <a href="/wiki/Saco_River" title="Saco River">Saco River</a> (1725). </p><p>Peace conferences at <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a> and <a href="/wiki/Casco_Bay" title="Casco Bay">Casco Bay</a> brought an end to the war. After Rale died, the Abenaki moved to a settlement on the St. Francis River.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Abenaki from St. Francois continued to raid British colonial settlements in their former homelands along the New England frontier during <a href="/wiki/Father_Le_Loutre%27s_War" title="Father Le Loutre's War">Father Le Loutre's War</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Northeast_Coast_Campaign_(1750)" class="mw-redirect" title="Northeast Coast Campaign (1750)">Northeast Coast Campaign (1750)</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_War" title="French and Indian War">French and Indian War</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Language_borrowing">Language borrowing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki_language&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Language borrowing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Due to French and English contact with Western Abenaki people in the 1640s and earlier, many loan words were quickly incorporated into Western Abenaki and have stayed for nearly four centuries. During the latter half of the 19th century, word borrowing increased due to many Western Abenaki people being in close contact with summer resorts in Vermont and New Hampshire, as well as continued contact with French-Canadians. Notably, plural English nouns were borrowed into Western Abenaki as a singular form that were then made plural by adding Abenaki plural endings. For example, the word oxen was borrowed as <i>asken</i> 'an ox' that was pluralized into <i>aksenak</i>. Similarly, the word potatoes was borrowed as <i>badades</i> 'potato' that was pluralized into <i>badadesak</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDay1994a-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abenaki_tribes_and_confederations">Abenaki tribes and confederations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki_language&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Abenaki tribes and confederations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Abenaki_Confederation">Abenaki Confederation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki_language&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Abenaki Confederation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Amaseconti, <a href="/wiki/Androscoggin_people" title="Androscoggin people">Androscoggin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kennebec_tribe" class="mw-redirect" title="Kennebec tribe">Kennebec</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maliseet" class="mw-redirect" title="Maliseet">Maliseet</a>, Ouarastegouiak, <a href="/wiki/Passamaquoddy" title="Passamaquoddy">Passamaquoddy</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Patsuiket&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Patsuiket (page does not exist)">Patsuiket</a>, <a href="/wiki/Penobscot" title="Penobscot">Penobscot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pigwacket" class="mw-redirect" title="Pigwacket">Pigwacket</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocameca&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocameca (page does not exist)">Rocameca</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sokoni&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sokoni (page does not exist)">Sokoni</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wewenoc&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wewenoc (page does not exist)">Wewenoc</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Seven_Nations_of_Canada">Seven Nations of Canada</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki_language&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Seven Nations of Canada"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Seven mission orientated communities along the <a href="/wiki/St._Lawrence_River" title="St. Lawrence River">St. Lawrence River</a> in 1750: Caughnawaga (Mohawk), Lake of the Two Mountains (Iroquois and Nipissing), St. Francois (<a href="/wiki/Sokoki" class="mw-redirect" title="Sokoki">Sokoki</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pennacook" title="Pennacook">Pennacook</a>, and New England <a href="/wiki/Algonquian_peoples" title="Algonquian peoples">Algonquin</a>, <a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9cancour,_Quebec" title="Bécancour, Quebec">Becancour</a> (<a href="/wiki/Eastern_Abenaki" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Abenaki">Eastern Abenaki</a>), <a href="/wiki/Oswegatchie_people" title="Oswegatchie people">Oswegatchie</a> (<a href="/wiki/Onondaga_people" title="Onondaga people">Onondaga</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oneida_people" title="Oneida people">Oneida</a>), Lorette (Huron), and St. Regis (Mohawk). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Eastern_Abenaki_tribes">Eastern Abenaki tribes</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki_language&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Eastern Abenaki tribes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Amaseconti (between upper <a href="/wiki/Kennebec_River" title="Kennebec River">Kennebec River</a> and <a href="/wiki/Androscoggin_River" title="Androscoggin River">Androscoggin River</a>, western Maine) <a href="/wiki/Androscoggin_people" title="Androscoggin people">Androscoggin</a> (Amariscoggin, Ameriscoggin, Anasaguniticook, Arosaguntacook, Asschincantecook). Important note - Main village, on the river of the same name was called Arosaguntacook Town. Arosaguntacook is sometimes applied in error to the St. Francois Indians. Kennebec (Caniba, Sagadahoc, Kanibesinnoak, Norridgewock, Nurhantsuak) lived along the Kennebec River in northern Maine. </p><p>Penobscot (Pentagoet, Panaomeska). Meaning "rocky place", or "ledge place". Penobscot Tribe subdivisions and villages included: Moosehead Lake area tribes were known as "Moosehead Lake Indians". Villages: Agguncia, Asnela, Catawamtek, Kenduskeag, Mattawamkeag, Meecombe, Negas, Olamon, Oldtown, Passadumkeag, Pentagouet, Precaute, Segocket, and Wabigganus. Pigwacket (Pegouakki, Peguaki, Pequawket). Main village called Pequawket Town was located on the upper Saco River. Rocameca Upper Androscoggin River. Wewenoc (Ouanwinak, Sheepscot, Wawenock, Wawnock) Coastal areas of southern Maine. Wolinak (Becancour) Trois-Rivieres, Quebec. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Eastern_Abenaki_tribal_villages">Eastern Abenaki tribal villages</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki_language&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Eastern Abenaki tribal villages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Amaseconti (Amesokanti, Anmissoukanti), Norridgewock (Naridgewalk, Neridgewok, Noronjawoke), Kennebec, and Sagadahoc. </p><p>Ossipee: located on a lake of the same name in east-central New Hampshire. Other names associated with the eastern Abenaki are Arsikantegou, Kwupahag (Kwapahag). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Maritime_Abenaki">Maritime Abenaki</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki_language&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Maritime Abenaki"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Closer in language and culture to the Micmac, the Maliseet and Passamaquoddy have been listed as Abenaki for historical reasons. The French usually referred to both tribes as the Etchemin. Maliseet (Aroostook, Malecite, Malicite, St. John's Indians). From the <a href="/wiki/Mi%27kmaq_language" title="Mi'kmaq language">Mi'kmaq</a> word <span title="Mi'kmaq-language text"><i lang="mic">malisit</i></span> meaning <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">broken talker</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>. Their own name <span title="Mi'kmaq-language text"><i lang="mic">Wulastegniak</i></span> means <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">good river people</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>. They were located along the St. John River in northeastern Maine and western New Brunswick. Devon, Kingsclear, Madawaska, Mary's, Medoctec (Medoktek, Meductic), Okpaak, Oromocto, St. Anne, St. Basile, The Brothers (Micmac), Tobique, Viger, and Woodstock. </p><p>Passamaquoddy (Machias Tribe, Opanango, Pesmokant, Quoddy, Scotuks, Scootuck, St. Croix Indians, Unchechauge, Unquechauge). The name means <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">pollock spearing place</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> with their villages were located on Passamaquoddy Bay, the St. Croix River, and Schoodic Lake. Villages: Gunasquamekook, Imnarkuan, Machias, Sebaik, and Sipayik. There were other towns at Lewis Island and Calais in Maine with a few locations on the Canadian side of the St. Croix River. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Western_Abenaki_(Sokoki)"><span id="Western_Abenaki_.28Sokoki.29"></span>Western Abenaki (Sokoki)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki_language&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Western Abenaki (Sokoki)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Originally composed of Abenaki tribes in Vermont and New Hampshire west of the White Mountains, Sokoki means <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">people who separated</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>. Various forms of Sokoki are: Assokwekik, Ondeake, Onejagese, Sakukia, Sokokiois, Sokoquios, Sokoquis, Sokokquis, Sokoni, Sokwaki, Soquachjck, and Zooquagese. Some accounts include groups of the western Pennacook as Sokoki: Amoskeag, Naamkeek, Nashaway, Souheyan, and Winnipesaukee. </p><p>Sokoki is often confused with the Saco, a name given to eastern Abenaki who lived near the Saco River (a combination of Pigwacket, Kennebec, and Androscoggin). Cowasuck (Cahass, Cohassiac, Coos, Coosuc, Koes). Hoosac was a mixed settlement with the Mahican. Missisquoi (Mazipskoik, Misiskuoi, Missiassik, Missique, Missisco) means <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">place of flint</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>. It was located on the eastern shore of Lake Champlain. Schaghticoke. Mixed Mahican and New England Algonquin on the Hudson River north of Albany, New York. Squakheag (Squaeg, Squawkeag). Mixed population and probably at various times was occupied by any of these tribes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_names_of_Abenaki_villages">Other names of Abenaki villages</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki_language&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Other names of Abenaki villages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Aquadocta, Cobbosseecontee, Ebenecook, Ketangheanycke, Mascoma, Masherosqueck, Mecadacut, Moshoquen, Muscongus, Negusset, Ossaghrage, Ouwerage, Pasharanack, Pauhuntanuc, Pemaquid, Pocopassum, Sabino, Sagadahoc, Satquin, Segotago, Sowocatuck, Taconnet, Unyjaware, and Wacoogo. ...end of section needing more work--> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Canada">Canada</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki_language&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Canada"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The development of tourism projects has allowed the Canadian Abenaki to develop a modern economy while preserving their culture and traditions. For example, since 1960, the Odanak Historical Society has managed the first and one of the largest aboriginal museums in Quebec, a few miles from the <a href="/wiki/Quebec_City" title="Quebec City">Quebec</a>-<a href="/wiki/Montreal" title="Montreal">Montreal</a> axis. Over 5,000 people visit the Abenaki Museum annually. Several Abenaki companies include: in Wôlinak, General Fiberglass Engineering employs a dozen natives, with annual sales of more than $3 million Canadian dollars. Odanak is now active in transportation and distribution. Notable Abenaki from this area include the documentary filmmaker <a href="/wiki/Alanis_Obomsawin" title="Alanis Obomsawin">Alanis Obomsawin</a> (<a href="/wiki/National_Film_Board_of_Canada" title="National Film Board of Canada">National Film Board of Canada</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States_federal_tribal_recognition">United States federal tribal recognition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki_language&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: United States federal tribal recognition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_Penobscot_Indian_Nation_and_the_Passamaquoddy_Tribe">The Penobscot Indian Nation and the Passamaquoddy Tribe</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki_language&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: The Penobscot Indian Nation and the Passamaquoddy Tribe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>These two tribes are officially listed <a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="List of federally recognized tribes">federally recognized</a> as tribes in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Passamaquoddy" title="Passamaquoddy">Passamaquoddy</a> Tribe of Maine was recognized by the federal courts as a tribe, but not having a land trust with the government<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> since never entering into a formal treaty. This launched the very long legal battle that paved the way for many other tribes across America to file suits regarding asset mismanagement. After winning the landmark case, similar cases were filed in 2006 by 60 tribes from throughout the United States. Among the Passamaquoddy's assets was $13.5 million in federal funds that were allocated to the tribe in 1980 through the Maine Indian Claims Settlement Act, which was settled for $81.5 million.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vermont">Vermont</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki_language&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Vermont"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many Abenaki living in Vermont have been <a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">assimilated</a>, and only small remnants remained on reservations during and after the <a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_War" title="French and Indian War">French and Indian War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Eugenics_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eugenics-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Facing annihilation, many Abenaki had begun emigrating to Canada, then under French control, around 1669. The Abenaki who chose to remain in the United States did not fare as well as their Canadian counterparts. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Missisquoi_Abenaki_Tribe" title="Missisquoi Abenaki Tribe">Missisquoi Abenaki Tribe</a> (also called the "Sokoki-St. Francis Band of the Abenaki Nation") organized a tribal council in 1976 at <a href="/wiki/Swanton_(town),_Vermont" class="mw-redirect" title="Swanton (town), Vermont">Swanton, Vermont</a>. Vermont granted recognition of the council the same year, but later withdrew it. In 1982, the band applied for federal recognition, which is still pending. Four Abenaki communities are located in Vermont. In 2006, the state of <a href="/wiki/Vermont" title="Vermont">Vermont</a> officially recognized the Abenaki as a people, but not a tribe. The <a href="/wiki/Vermont" title="Vermont">Vermont</a> Elnu (<a href="/wiki/Jamaica,_Vermont" title="Jamaica, Vermont">Jamaica</a>) and Nulhegan (<a href="/wiki/Brownington,_Vermont" title="Brownington, Vermont">Brownington</a>) bands' applications for official recognition were recommended and referred to the <a href="/wiki/Vermont_General_Assembly" title="Vermont General Assembly">Vermont General Assembly</a> by the Vermont Commission on Native American Affairs on January 19, 2011, as a result of a process established by the Vermont legislature in 2010. Recognition allows applicants to seek scholarship funds reserved for American Indians and to receive federal "native made" designation for the bands' arts and crafts.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On May 7, 2012, the Abenaki Nation at Missisquoi and the Koasek of the Koas Abenaki Traditional Band received recognition by the State of Vermont. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="New_Hampshire_and_minority_recognition">New Hampshire and minority recognition</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki_language&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: New Hampshire and minority recognition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In New Hampshire the Abenaki, along with other Native American groups, have proposed legislation for recognition as a minority group. This bill was debated in 2010 in the <a href="/wiki/New_Hampshire_General_Court" title="New Hampshire General Court">state legislature</a>. The bill would have created a state commission on Native American relations, which would act as an advisory group to the <a href="/wiki/Governor_of_New_Hampshire" title="Governor of New Hampshire">governor</a> and the state government in general.<sup id="cite_ref-HB_1610_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HB_1610-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Abenaki want to gain formal state recognition as a people. </p><p>Opponents of the bill feared it could lead to Abenaki land claims for property now owned and occupied by European Americans. Others worried that the Abenaki may use recognition as a step toward opening a casino. But the bill specifically says that "this act shall not be interpreted to provide any Native American or Abenaki person with any other special rights or privileges that the state does not confer on or grant to other state residents." New Hampshire has considered expanding gambling separate from the Native Americans.<sup id="cite_ref-Gambling_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gambling-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The council would be under the Department of Cultural Resources,<sup id="cite_ref-HB_1610_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HB_1610-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> so it would be in the same department as the State Council on the Arts. The bill would allow for the creation and sale of goods to be labeled as native-made to create a source of income for the natives in New Hampshire. </p><p>The numerous groups of natives in the state have created a New Hampshire Inter-tribal Council, which holds statewide meetings and <a href="/wiki/Powwow" title="Powwow">powwows</a>. Dedicated to preserving the culture of the natives in New Hampshire, the group is one of the chief supporters of the HB 1610; the Abenaki, the main tribe in the state, are the only people named specifically in the bill.<sup id="cite_ref-NHITC_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NHITC-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Language_revitalization_efforts">Language revitalization efforts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki_language&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Language revitalization efforts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A new generation is actively preserving and revitalizing the language.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The late Joseph Elie Joubert from the Odanak reservation and fluent speaker, <a href="/wiki/Jesse_Bruchac" title="Jesse Bruchac">Jesse Bruchac</a>, lead partial immersion classes in the language across the <a href="/wiki/Northeastern_United_States" title="Northeastern United States">Northeastern United States</a>. They have created several Abenaki books, audio, video, and web-based media to help others learn the language.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In July 2013, the Penobscot Nation, the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Maine" title="University of Maine">University of Maine</a> and the <a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a> received a grant from the <a href="/wiki/National_Endowment_for_the_Humanities" title="National Endowment for the Humanities">National Endowment for the Humanities</a> to expand and publish the first Penobscot Dictionary.<sup id="cite_ref-bangordailynewsjuly2013_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bangordailynewsjuly2013-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Middlebury_College" title="Middlebury College">Middlebury College</a> in Vermont, in collaboration with Bruchac, opened its School of Abenaki in 2020, which offers a two-week <a href="/wiki/Language_immersion" title="Language immersion">immersion</a> program in the summer.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As with most Indigenous languages, due to residential schooling and colonialism, and with the fading of generations, the number of speakers has declined. Abenaki had as few as twelve native speakers in 2015, but with recent focus and extra efforts in the Abenaki community, this number seems to be growing. Today, there are some passionate Abenaki, like <a href="/wiki/Jeanne_Brink" title="Jeanne Brink">Jeanne Brink</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and non-Abenaki people who are trying to revitalize Abenaki culture, including their language and basket-making traditions. Currently, there are about 12,000 people of varying Abenaki heritage in the Canadian and New England regions. In <a href="/wiki/Maine" title="Maine">Maine</a>, there are about 3,000 <a href="/wiki/Penobscot" title="Penobscot">Penobscot</a> Native Americans, and this group is a large driving force of the language resurrection.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to Brink and others, Jesse Bruchac is a loud voice in the Abenaki culture. Along with writing and publishing various Abenaki books, he created a movie and sound piece telling the <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native American</a> side of Thanksgiving, spoken in Abenaki. In this film, <i><a href="/wiki/Saints_%26_Strangers" title="Saints & Strangers">Saints & Strangers</a></i>, the three actors not only memorized their lines in Abenaki but also learned the syntax behind the language.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This revitalization of the famous <a href="/wiki/Thanksgiving" title="Thanksgiving">Thanksgiving</a> story from a new tongue and perspective offered a more original and full version of what Thanksgiving might have really been like so many years ago. </p><p>In his novel, <i>L8dwaw8gan Wji Abaznodakaw8gan: The Language of Basket Making</i>, Bruchac notes that Abenaki is a polysynthetic language, which allows for virtually unlimited means to express oneself. Abenaki consists of both dependent and independent grammar which addresses the gender of the speaker. Abenaki has nouns, pronouns, verbs, and adjectives. The structure of the sentence or phrase varies depending on whether the noun is animate or inanimate.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although written primarily in English, <i>Aln8bak News</i> helped to preserve the Abenaki language through the inclusion of Abenaki words and their translations. <i>Aln8bak News</i> was a quarterly newsletter that discussed cultural, historical, and contemporary information regarding the Cowasuck Band of the Pennacook Abenaki. It was started in 1993 by Paul Pouilot, Sagamo of the Cowasuck Band of the Pennacook Abenaki.<sup id="cite_ref-Dawnland_Voices_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dawnland_Voices-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The word <i>Aln8bak/Alnôbak</i> (pronounced: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/'al.nɔ̃.bak/</span>) is often used as a synonym to <a href="/wiki/Abenaki" title="Abenaki">Abenaki</a>. Initially the newsletter was called <i>Aln8ba8dwa National News</i> (<i>Aln8ba8dwa</i> or <i>Alnôbaôdwa</i> means 'Speaking Abenaki').<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Issues of the quarterly newsletter from 2003–2010 were published by the Cowasuck Band of the Pennacook Abenaki on their website.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to a statement made by the Band, after 2010, they stopped publishing the newsletter on their website due to a lack of financial support from online readers.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Aln8bak News</i> included community-related information such as updates on governance issues, notices of social events, and obituaries. The newsletter also included Band history, genealogy, language lessons, recipes, plant and animal studies, books reviews, and writings by Band members.<sup id="cite_ref-Dawnland_Voices_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dawnland_Voices-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The English word <i><a href="/wiki/Skunk" title="Skunk">skunk</a></i>, attested in <a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a> in the 1630s, is probably borrowed from the Abenaki <i>segôkw</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> About 500 Penobscot words are still being used in the community in everyday language such as <i>Muhmum</i> for 'grandpa' and <i>nolke</i> for 'deer'.<sup id="cite_ref-bangordailynewsjuly2013_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bangordailynewsjuly2013-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 2015 <a href="/wiki/National_Geographic_Channel" class="mw-redirect" title="National Geographic Channel">National Geographic Channel</a> miniseries <i><a href="/wiki/Saints_%26_Strangers" title="Saints & Strangers">Saints & Strangers</a></i> told the story of the founding of <a href="/wiki/Plymouth_Colony" title="Plymouth Colony">Plymouth Plantation</a> and the celebration of the "First Thanksgiving". It contained a considerable amount of dialogue in Western Abenaki. Several actors, including <a href="/wiki/Tatanka_Means" title="Tatanka Means">Tatanka Means</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hobbamock" title="Hobbamock">Hobbamock</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Raoul_Trujillo" title="Raoul Trujillo">Raoul Trujillo</a> (<a href="/wiki/Massasoit" title="Massasoit">Massasoit</a>) spoke the language exclusively throughout the series, and Kalani Qweypo (<a href="/wiki/Squanto" title="Squanto">Squanto</a>) spoke both Abenaki and English. Western Abenaki language teacher <a href="/wiki/Jesse_Bruchac" title="Jesse Bruchac">Jesse Bruchac</a> of Ndakinna Education Center was hired as a language consultant on the film.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dialects">Dialects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki_language&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Dialects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abenaki_language&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2015</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Abenaki_language" title="Special:EditPage/Abenaki language">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Eastern Abenaki dialects include Penobscot, Norridgewock, Caniba, Androscoggin, and Pequawket. </p><p>Western Abenaki dialects are Arsigantegok, Missisquoi, Sokoki, Pennacook, and Odanak. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki_language&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki_language&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Vowels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td align="center"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-front unrounded vowel">ɪ</a></span>~<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td rowspan="2" align="center"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a></span>~<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-back_rounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-back rounded vowel">ʊ</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a> </th> <td align="center"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a></span> </td> <td align="center"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ə</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_mid_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Open mid vowel">Open-mid nasal</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td align="center"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_vowel" title="Nasal vowel">ɔ̃</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td> </td> <td colspan="2" align="center"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a></span>~<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open back unrounded vowel">ɑ</a></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>[a] is a <a href="/wiki/Open_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open back unrounded vowel">low back unrounded vowel</a>; before /m/ in a final syllable it becomes close to [u] in English 'goose'<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDay1994a-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>[ə] is a <a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">mid-central unrounded vowel</a>; normally pronounced like in the English word 'label'; occurs only in the middle of a word between consonants, except for three words––<i>enni</i> 'which', <i>enna</i> 'who' and <i>enigakw</i> 'a spear'––[e] in these words is pronounced like in the English word 'end'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDay1994a-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>[i] is a lower-high <a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">front vowel</a>; normally pronounced between the English words 'peat' and 'pit', it varies between the high front tense vowel [i] and the mid front lax vowel [e].<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDay1994a-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeach2004_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeach2004-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>[o] is a higher mid-back vowel pronounced like in the English word 'poke', however some speakers pronounce it like [ʊ].<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDay1994a-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>[ɔ̃] is a rounded <a href="/wiki/Nasal_vowel" title="Nasal vowel">nasalized vowel</a> and is sometimes written as ⟨ô⟩ or simply as “8”.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeach2004_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeach2004-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBach2014_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBach2014-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Historically, it was common for speakers to drop h between vowels and to drop w before the nasal vowel [ɔ̃].<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDay1994a-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki_language&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Consonants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Both the Eastern and Western dialects of Abenaki have 18 consonant sounds in total.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeach2004_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeach2004-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVoorhis1979_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVoorhis1979-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>  </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Bilabial_consonant" title="Bilabial consonant">Bilabial</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Labialized_velar_consonant" title="Labialized velar consonant">Labio-<br />velar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Plosive_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Plosive consonant">Plosive</a> </th> <td style="text-align:center;"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a></span>  <span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a></span>  <span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a></span> </td> <td>  </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a></span>  <span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">kʷ</a></span>  <span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">ɡʷ</a></span> </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Affricate_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricate consonant">Affricate</a> </th> <td> </td> <td align="center"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolar affricate">t͡s</a></span>  <span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiced alveolar affricate">d͡z</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">Fricative</a> </th> <td>  </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a></span>  <span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a></span> </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td> </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Nasal_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasal stop">Nasal</a> </th> <td style="text-align:center;"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a></span> </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td> </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Lateral_consonant" title="Lateral consonant">Lateral approximant</a> </th> <td>  </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a></span> </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td> </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Semivowel" title="Semivowel">Semivowel</a> </th> <td align="center"> </td> <td> </td> <td align="center"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td align="center"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a></span> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>In Western Abenaki there is a distinction between <a href="/wiki/Fortis_and_lenis" title="Fortis and lenis">fortis consonants</a> (always voiceless and aspirated) represented as [p, t, k, s, ts], and <a href="/wiki/Fortis_and_lenis" title="Fortis and lenis">lenis consonants</a> (<a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a> between <a href="/wiki/Sonorant" title="Sonorant">resonants</a>, voiceless in word-initial and word-final positions and before a fortis consonant, unaspirated but become aspirated when they close a strongly accented syllable, which includes all final syllables) represented as [b, d, g, z, dz].<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDay1994a-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeach2004_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeach2004-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The lenis consonants generally exist between vowels and at the end of words but rarely next to each other or at the beginning of words.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDay1994a-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>[b] is a lax <a href="/wiki/Bilabial_stop" title="Bilabial stop">bilabial stop</a>; between [a, e, i, o, j, m, n, l] it is voiced and pronounced like in the English word 'habit'; beginning a word it is voiceless and pronounced like a weak English /p/ but unaspirated; at the end of a word it is voiceless and made long by the stress assigned on the final syllable.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDay1994a-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>[ts] is a tense <a href="/wiki/Apico-alveolar" class="mw-redirect" title="Apico-alveolar">apico-alveolar</a> <a href="/wiki/Affricate" title="Affricate">affricate</a> that is voiceless in all positions and pronounced by most speakers like /ts/ in English 'hats'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDay1994a-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>[d] is a lax <a href="/wiki/Apico-alveolar" class="mw-redirect" title="Apico-alveolar">apico-alveolar</a> stop that is voiced between <a href="/wiki/Sonorant" title="Sonorant">resonants</a> and pronounced like in English word 'body'; at the start of a word it is voiceless and pronounced that a weak English /t/ but unaspirated; at the end of a word is it voiceless and made long and tense by the stress assigned on the final syllable, pronounced like in English 'hit'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDay1994a-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>[g] is a lax <a href="/wiki/Velar_stop" title="Velar stop">velar stop</a>; between resonants is it pronounced like in English 'ago'; beginning a word it is pronounced like a weak unaspirated /k/; at the end of a word it is voiceless and made long and tense by the stress assigned on the final syllable, pronounced like /k/ in 'score'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDay1994a-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>[h] occurs only before a vowel or /l/ and is pronounced like in English word 'heel', 'hat', or 'hit'; lax consonants before it become voiceless; when is it between vowels it is usually dropped by speakers in most words.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDay1994a-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>[dz] is an <a href="/wiki/Apico-alveolar" class="mw-redirect" title="Apico-alveolar">apico-alveolar</a> <a href="/wiki/Affricate" title="Affricate">affricate</a> pronounced between <a href="/wiki/Sonorant" title="Sonorant">resonants</a> like the /dz/ in English word 'adze'; at the start of a word it is pronounced like /ts/ in the English word 'lets'; at the end of a word it is pronounced like the /ts/ in 'hats'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDay1994a-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>[k] is a tense, <a href="/wiki/Dorso-velar" class="mw-redirect" title="Dorso-velar">dorso-velar</a> stop, long, voiceless and unaspirated in all positions and pronounced like /k/ in English word 'score'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDay1994a-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>[l] is a lateral sonorant; it is pronounced with a lot of tongue tension and is influenced by the vowel which follows it, or, in syllable-final position, by the vowel that precedes it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDay1994a-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>[m] is a <a href="/wiki/Bilabial_consonant" title="Bilabial consonant">bilabial</a> nasal <a href="/wiki/Sonorant" title="Sonorant">sonorant</a> pronounced in all positions like English /m/.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDay1994a-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>[n] is an <a href="/wiki/Apico-alveolar" class="mw-redirect" title="Apico-alveolar">apico-alveolar</a> <a href="/wiki/Sonorant" title="Sonorant">sonorant</a> pronounced in all positions like English /n/.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDay1994a-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>[p] is a <a href="/wiki/Bilabial_stop" title="Bilabial stop">bilabial stop</a>, tense, voiceless, unaspirated, and long in all positions; it is similar to the combined sounds of a /p/ ending a word and beginning the next, like in 'stop payment'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDay1994a-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>[s] is a tense <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar fricative">alveolar fricative</a> that is always voiceless and long, much like the English /s/ in all positions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDay1994a-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>[t] is a tense <a href="/wiki/Apico-alveolar" class="mw-redirect" title="Apico-alveolar">apico-alveolar</a> stop that is always voiceless and long, longer than the English /t/, similarly to the Western Abenaki [p].</li> <li>[w] is a <a href="/wiki/Mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Mid back rounded vowel">mid-back rounded</a> non-syllabic with a similar sound to [o]; occurs before or after a vowel; at the end of a word after /k/ or /g/ it becomes a <a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">voiceless fricative</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDay1994a-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>[y] is a high front non-syllabic with a similar sound to [i] but is pronounced before a vowel with greater tongue tension than [i].<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDay1994a-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>[z] is a lax <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">alveolar fricative</a> that is voiced, and between resonants is pronounced like English /z/; voiceless when it is at the beginning of a word, both voiceless and long when it is at the end of a word.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDay1994a-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>It is important to note that historically Western Abenaki speakers varied in the ways they pronounced the <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">alveolar</a> <a href="/wiki/Affricate" title="Affricate">affricate</a> phonemes /ts/ and /dz/. More than half of the population pronounced ⟨c⟩ like /ts/ and ⟨j⟩ like /dz/ and the rest pronounced ⟨c⟩ like /ʃ/ and ⟨j⟩ like /ʒ/.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDay1994a-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Orthography">Orthography</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki_language&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Orthography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There is not one Western Abenaki <a href="/wiki/Orthography" title="Orthography">orthography</a> that is generally accepted by linguists or Abenaki speakers, but speakers typically do understand the orthographies of <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Laurent" title="Joseph Laurent">Joseph Laurent</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henry_Lorne_Masta" title="Henry Lorne Masta">Henry Lorne Masta</a>––Western Abenaki writers who taught the language at <a href="/wiki/Odanak" title="Odanak">Odanak</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDay1994a-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Masta and Laurent's orthographies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeach2004_6-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeach2004-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">Phoneme</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Allophone" title="Allophone">Allophone</a> </th> <th>Masta </th> <th>Laurent </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">p </td> <td>'p </td> <td>ph </td> <td>-- </td></tr> <tr> <td>p </td> <td>p </td> <td>p / pp </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">b </td> <td>p </td> <td>p </td> <td>p </td></tr> <tr> <td>b </td> <td>p / b </td> <td>b </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">t </td> <td>'t </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>t </td> <td>t / tt </td> <td>t </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">d </td> <td>t </td> <td>t </td> <td>t </td></tr> <tr> <td>d </td> <td>t / d </td> <td>d </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">k </td> <td>'k </td> <td>kh </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>k </td> <td>k / kk </td> <td>k </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">g </td> <td>k </td> <td>k </td> <td>k </td></tr> <tr> <td>g </td> <td>k / g </td> <td>g </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">s </td> <td>'s </td> <td>sh </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>s </td> <td>s / ss </td> <td>s </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">z </td> <td>s </td> <td>s </td> <td>s </td></tr> <tr> <td>z </td> <td>s / z </td> <td>z </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">c </td> <td>'c </td> <td>ch </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>c </td> <td>c / ts </td> <td>ch </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">j </td> <td>c </td> <td>c / ts </td> <td>c </td></tr> <tr> <td>j </td> <td>c / j / dz </td> <td>j </td></tr> <tr> <td>m </td> <td>m </td> <td>m </td> <td>m </td></tr> <tr> <td>n </td> <td>n </td> <td>n </td> <td>n </td></tr> <tr> <td>h </td> <td>h </td> <td>h </td> <td>h </td></tr> <tr> <td>w </td> <td>w </td> <td>w / u </td> <td>w / u / ' </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">l </td> <td>l </td> <td>l </td> <td>l </td></tr> <tr> <td>'l </td> <td>lh </td> <td>hl </td></tr> <tr> <td>i (ɛ) </td> <td>i (ɛ) </td> <td>i </td> <td>i </td></tr> <tr> <td>ə </td> <td>ə </td> <td>e </td> <td>e / u </td></tr> <tr> <td>a </td> <td>a </td> <td>a </td> <td>a </td></tr> <tr> <td>ɔ̃ </td> <td>ɔ̃ </td> <td>8 </td> <td>ô </td></tr> <tr> <td>o </td> <td>o </td> <td>o / w </td> <td>o </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stress">Stress</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki_language&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Stress"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Stress within words in Western Abenaki is based on an alternating stress rule: </p> <ul><li>Stress is initially assigned to the final syllable and then to every other syllable from right to left.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeach2004_6-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeach2004-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarne1975_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarne1975-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yet this assignment skips the vowel <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ə/</span> and falls to the next syllable, even if the <a href="/wiki/Nucleus_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleus (linguistics)">nucleus</a> of that syllable is also /ə/.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeach2004_6-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeach2004-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In fact, the presence of the unstressed <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ə/</span> results instead in a lengthening of the preceding consonant and the vowel is often deleted in writing and rapid speech.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDay1994a-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarne1975_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarne1975-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Personal prefixes ne-, ke-, we- are not stressed, thus in words containing these prefixes, the stress shift with <i>not</i> occur on the syllable to the right.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarne1975_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarne1975-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>As of 2004, linguists are unsure if a minimum syllable count is present in order for a word to be stressed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeach2004_6-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeach2004-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Stress within sentences:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeSourd2011_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeSourd2011-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>In a <a href="/wiki/Sentence_(linguistics)" title="Sentence (linguistics)">declarative sentence</a>, the pitch goes from high-low.</li> <li>Questions have a low-high pitch at the end of the sentence, yet the entire sentence is generally said with a higher pitch.</li> <li>Stressed syllables that exist in the middle of a sentence tend to be pronounced at a standard pitch level.</li></ul> <p>When a word is pronounced on its own, its stressed final syllable is typically high pitched. However, this is not necessarily characteristic of the specific word, because as stated above, declarative sentences end on a low pitch.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeSourd2011_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeSourd2011-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Morphology">Morphology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki_language&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Morphology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The words of Western Abenaki are generally made up of a central core (the <a href="/wiki/Root_(linguistics)" title="Root (linguistics)">root</a>) with <a href="/wiki/Affix" title="Affix">affixes</a> attached. Often a single word will translate to a phrase in English. The affixes themselves typically do not translate to just one word either. Western Abenaki utilizes both <a href="/wiki/Suffix" title="Suffix">suffixes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prefix" title="Prefix">prefixes</a>, often in combination (prefix-…-suffix; …-suffix -suffix; etc).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBach2014_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBach2014-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The affixes tend to be quite short compared to the root of the word. With these observations in mind, Western Abenaki can be considered a <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_language" title="Synthetic language">synthetic</a> <a href="/wiki/Agglutinative_language" title="Agglutinative language">agglutinative</a> language. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nouns">Nouns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki_language&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Nouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Like all Algonquin languages, the <a href="/wiki/Animacy" title="Animacy">animacy</a> of <a href="/wiki/Noun" title="Noun">nouns</a> is important to distinguish in Western Abenaki. Animate nouns refer to animals, people, and other living or powerful things. Inanimate nouns refer to lifeless things. This is necessary to know because the animacy of a noun plays a large role in what form the endings of other words connected to them will take. However, some classifications are arbitrary. For example, the word <span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">zegweskimen</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">raspberry</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> is animate while the word <span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">zata</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">blueberry</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> is inanimate. So the animacy of certain nouns must be learned individually.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBach2014_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBach2014-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Noun_plurality">Noun plurality</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki_language&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Noun plurality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The plural <a href="/wiki/Suffix" title="Suffix">suffixes</a> of both noun forms: </p> <ul><li>Animate: <span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">-ak, -ik, -ok, -k</i></span></li> <li>Inanimate: <span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">-al, -il, -ol, -l</i></span></li></ul> <p>Each suffix is used according to the final sound of the noun: </p> <ul><li><span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">-ik</i></span> after <span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">d, t</i></span>; both <span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">-dik</i></span> and <span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">-tik</i></span> become <span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">-jik</i></span></li> <li><span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">-il</i></span> after <span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">g, k</i></span></li> <li><span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">-ok, -ol</i></span> after <span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">-gw, -kw</i></span> and the w drops (also sometimes words ending in <span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">m</i></span> or <span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">n</i></span>)</li> <li><span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">-k, -l</i></span> after <span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">a, ô</i></span></li> <li><span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">-ak, -al</i></span> after other consonants and the vowels <span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">o, i</i></span></li></ul> <p>There are a few exceptions to these rules that have to be learned individually. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pronouns">Pronouns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki_language&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Pronouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In most Western Abenaki sentences, <a href="/wiki/Pronoun" title="Pronoun">pronouns</a> are expressed as <a href="/wiki/Affix" title="Affix">affixes</a> attached to other words. However, separate words are sometimes used to emphasize the pronoun in use.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBach2014_40-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBach2014-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Pronoun </th> <th>English </th> <th>Term </th> <th>Possessive Pronoun Affixes </th></tr> <tr> <td>nia </td> <td>I, me </td> <td>1st person singular </td> <td>n- / nd- </td></tr> <tr> <td>kia </td> <td>you (singular) </td> <td>2nd person singular </td> <td>k- / kd- </td></tr> <tr> <td>agma </td> <td>he, she, him, her </td> <td>3rd person singular </td> <td>w- (o-) / wd- </td></tr> <tr> <td>niona </td> <td>we, us (exclusive) </td> <td>1st person plural exclusive </td> <td>n- / nd- ... -na(w) </td></tr> <tr> <td>kiona </td> <td>we, us (inclusive) </td> <td>1st person plural inclusive </td> <td>k- / kd- ... -na(w) </td></tr> <tr> <td>kiowô </td> <td>you (plural) </td> <td>2nd person plural </td> <td>k- / kd- ... -(o)wô </td></tr> <tr> <td>agmôwô </td> <td>they, them </td> <td>3rd person plural </td> <td>w- (o-) / wd- ... -(o)wô </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The first person plural exclusive and inclusive pronouns are very important distinctions in Western Abenaki. The inclusive form means you are including the person you are talking to in the "we" or "us". While the exclusive form means you are excluding them from the "we" or "us". </p><p>The form of the <a href="/wiki/Possessive_pronoun" class="mw-redirect" title="Possessive pronoun">possessive pronoun</a> affix you must use depends on the sound it is supposed to attach to. The forms <span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">nd-, kd-, wd-</i></span> are used if the word begins with a vowel. The <span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">w-</i></span> forms become <span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">o-</i></span> in front of consonants. If a <span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">k-</i></span> form needs to be attached to a word that begins with <span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">g-</i></span> or <span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">k-</i></span>, they fuse into a single <span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">k-</i></span> as the prefix. Possessive pronoun prefixes are written with an apostrophe before the word (as shown in examples below). </p><p>Note that <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a>/</span> is pronounced as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a>/</span> when it appears at the beginning or end of a word before a consonant or between two consonants. It is sometimes written as <span class="nowrap">⟨o⟩</span> in these situations and is still considered a consonant. </p><p>Examples of the possessive pronoun affixes on an animate and inanimate noun: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th>Possessed animate noun<br /><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">cow</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> </th> <th>Possessed inanimate noun<br /><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">gun</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">my </th> <td><span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">n'kaozem</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">my cow</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> </td> <td><span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">n'paskhigan</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">my gun</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">thy </th> <td><span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">k'kaozem</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">thy cow</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> </td> <td><span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">k'paskhigan</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">thy gun</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">his </th> <td><span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">w'kaozema</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">his cow</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> </td> <td><span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">w'paskhigan</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">his gun</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">our </th> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="exclusive person">excl</abbr> </th> <td><span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">n'kaozemna</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">our cow</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> </td> <td><span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">n'paskhiganna</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">our gun</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="inclusive person">incl</abbr> </th> <td><span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">k'kaozemna</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">our cow</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> </td> <td><span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">k'paskhiganna</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">our gun</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">your </th> <td><span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">k'kaozemwô</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">your cow</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> </td> <td><span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">k'paskiganowô</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">your gun</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">their </th> <td><span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">w'kaozemwô</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">their cow</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> </td> <td><span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">w'paskhiganowô</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">their gun</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verbs">Verbs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki_language&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Verbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Two main verb distinctions in Western Abenaki are intransitive verbs and transitive verbs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBach2014_40-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBach2014-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intransitive_verb" title="Intransitive verb">Intransitive verbs</a> only need one participant that is doing the action or has the quality, such as <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">to run</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>, <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">to jump</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>, or <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">to be angry</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>. Western Abenaki examples are <span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">abi</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">to sit</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> and <span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">aloka</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">to work</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transitive_verb" title="Transitive verb">Transitive verbs</a> need two participants: one doing the action (<a href="/wiki/Subject_(grammar)" title="Subject (grammar)">subject</a>) and one being acted on (<a href="/wiki/Object_(grammar)" title="Object (grammar)">object</a>), such as <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">to hit</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>, <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">to see</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>, <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">to love</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>. Western Abenaki examples are <span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">namiha</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">to see</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> and <span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">wawtam</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">to understand something</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>.</li></ul> <p>In thinking about these two verb types along with Western Abenaki's distinction between animate and inanimate things, this results in a split of four different types of verbs in Western Abenaki (which is true of all <a href="/wiki/Algonquian_languages" title="Algonquian languages">Algonquian</a> languages). </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <caption>Transitivity and Animacy in Western Abenaki </caption> <tbody><tr> <th></th> <th>Inanimate</th> <th>Animate </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Intransitive </th> <td><span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">wligen</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">it is good</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span></td> <td><span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">nd’abi</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">I sit</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">gezabeda</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">it is hot</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span></td> <td><span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">kd’aloka-ji</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">you will work</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Transitive </th> <td><span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">giktawa</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">to listen to someone</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span></td> <td><span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">agida</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">to read</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">n’namiô</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">I see him/her</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span></td> <td><span title="Western Abnaki-language text"><i lang="abe">miji</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">to eat</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Morphological_processes">Morphological processes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki_language&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Morphological processes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are seven morphological processes in Western Abenaki. These processes are used to describe the changes to affixes that occur when they are combined in different ways.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeach2004_6-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeach2004-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Vowel truncation –– the initial vowel of a suffix is deleted when it follows a vowel. The only exception is -wi followed by peripheral formatives, here the initial vowel of the suffix is not deleted.  </li> <li>Final glide delegation –– suffix-final glide w is deleted after a vowel when the suffix is word-final.</li> <li>Vocalization –– glide w changes to a vowel o when the glide becomes the nucleus of a syllable due to affixation.</li> <li>Coalescence of aw+e –– the combination of aw+e results in a single vowel o or 8.</li> <li>Coalescence of aw+a –– the preterit -ob is created from the combination of aw+ab(ani).</li> <li>Coalescence of a+a –– long /a:/ becomes nasalized ɔ̃ in some instances such as -ba+ab(ani).</li> <li>Coalescence of wV –– w coalescence that explains why the plural peripheral formative -ak occasionally becomes -ok.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Syntax">Syntax</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki_language&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Syntax"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In general, the sentence structure appears to be SOV (Subject-Object-Verb), but word order is largely free, being mainly dependent on pragmatic factors.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeach2004_6-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeach2004-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeSourd2011_43-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeSourd2011-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the verb phrase tends to not have a common, basic order, there are still <a href="/wiki/Complementizer_phrase" class="mw-redirect" title="Complementizer phrase">complementizer phrases</a> and inflectional phrases that are more clear.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeSourd2011_43-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeSourd2011-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Abenaki, there are no apparent complementizers, but it is assumed that wh-words (who, what, when, why) start complementizer phrases, while <a href="/wiki/Declarative_sentence" class="mw-redirect" title="Declarative sentence">declarative sentences</a> are assumed to be inflectional phrases.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeSourd2011_43-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeSourd2011-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Enclitic_particles">Enclitic particles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki_language&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Enclitic particles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Enclitic particles function in a syntactically interesting way. In Western Abenaki, there are ten enclitic particles.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeSourd2011_43-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeSourd2011-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <td>=ahto 'probably' </td> <td>=ka 'focus' </td></tr> <tr> <td>=a<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">kʷ</a></span>a 'they say, it is said' </td> <td>=nawa 'then, therefore' </td></tr> <tr> <td>=ci 'future' </td> <td>=pa 'conditional' </td></tr> <tr> <td>=hki 'contrast, focus' </td> <td>=ta 'emphasis' </td></tr> <tr> <td>=hp<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ə</a></span><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">kʷ</a></span>a 'in fact' </td> <td>=tahki 'but, however' </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>These are also known as 'second-position' <a href="/wiki/Clitic" title="Clitic">clitics</a> because they come after the first word within the complementizer phrase or inflectional phrase.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeSourd2011_43-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeSourd2011-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, clitics do not always simply follow the first word of a sentence. Clitics can also attach to clause-initial <a href="/wiki/Conjunction_(grammar)" title="Conjunction (grammar)">conjunctions</a>, such as tta 'and', ni 'and then', and ala 'or' or to the word that follows the conjunction.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeSourd2011_43-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeSourd2011-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A focused <a href="/wiki/Noun_phrase" title="Noun phrase">noun phrase</a> sometimes appears between a conjunction and the word that could potentially host the clitic, in this case the clitic will not be attached to the conjunction, but to the word after the noun phrase.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeSourd2011_43-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeSourd2011-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In general, though they may typically exist in the second word of the sentence, clitics are mainly clause dependent, and are situated according to what clauses are functioning in a sentence and where, according to conjunctions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeSourd2011_43-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeSourd2011-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Numerals">Numerals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki_language&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Numerals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>pazekw</i> = one<br /> <i>nis</i> = two<br /> <i>nas</i> = three<br /> <i>iaw</i> = four<br /> <i>nôlan</i> = five<br /> <i>ngwedôz</i> = six<br /> <i>tôbawôz</i> = seven<br /> <i>nsôzek</i> = eight<br /> <i>noliwi</i> = nine<br /> <i>mdala</i> = ten </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="List_of_roots">List of roots</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki_language&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: List of roots"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A root is an element in a <a href="/wiki/Word_stem" title="Word stem">stem</a>; it does not have <a href="/wiki/Lexical_semantics" title="Lexical semantics">lexical</a> meaning like a stem does. In other words, a root is dependent on other pieces of meaning to create a word. </p><p>This list is just a handful of Western Abenaki roots. Roots attached to the front of a stem are written with a hyphen at the front (typically refer people or parts of the body), roots that are attached to the end of a stem are written with a hyphen at the end, and roots that constitute the only element of a stem are written without a hyphen.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDay1994a-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>adag</i>- 'dishonest, uncertain, unreliable' </p><p><i>akika</i> 'sow, plant' </p><p><i>alem</i>- 'continuing, going farther' </p><p><i>aodi</i>- 'fight as in battle, make war' </p><p><i>azow</i>- 'change, exchange, trade' </p><p><i>basoj</i>- 'near in space or time' </p><p>-<i>beskwan</i> 'the back of the body' </p><p><i>bid</i>- 'unintentional, accidental, by mistake' </p><p><i>cegas</i>- 'ignite, kindle, burn' </p><p><i>cik</i>- 'sweep' </p><p><i>cow</i>- 'must, certain, need, want' </p><p><i>dab</i>- 'enough' </p><p><i>dok</i>- 'wake' </p><p>-<i>don</i> 'mouth' </p><p><i>gata</i>- 'ready, prepared' </p><p><i>gelo</i>- 'speak, talk' </p><p><i>gwesi</i>- 'respect, honor' </p><p>-<i>ilalo</i> 'tongue' </p><p><i>jajal</i>- 'incapable' </p><p>-<i>jat</i> 'sinew, tendon' </p><p><i>jig</i>- 'let, allow' </p><p>-<i>kezen</i> 'shoe, moccasin' </p><p><i>kwaji</i>- 'outside, outdoors' </p><p><i>la</i> 'be true' </p><p><i>lakann</i>- 'travel' </p><p><i>legwas</i>- 'dream' </p><p><i>lina</i>- 'seem, feel, appear like' </p><p><i>mad</i>- 'bad' </p><p><i>msk</i>- 'grass' </p><p><i>nakwh</i>- 'sneeze' </p><p>-<i>nijôn</i> 'child' </p><p><i>nsp</i>- 'with' </p><p><i>odana</i> 'village' </p><p><i>ômilka</i> 'smoke dry meat' </p><p>-<i>ôwigan</i> 'spine, backbone' </p><p><i>pkwam</i>- 'ice' </p><p><i>pôlôba</i>- 'proud, vain' </p><p><i>segag</i>- 'vomit' </p><p><i>skoôb</i>- 'wait and watch' </p><p><i>spôz</i>- 'early, in the morning' </p><p><i>tekwen</i>- 'arrest, make prisoner' </p><p>-<i>tôgan</i> 'Adam's apple' </p><p><i>waja</i>- 'kiss' </p><p><i>wazas</i>- 'slippery' </p><p><i>wôgas</i> 'bear's den' </p><p>-<i>zegwes</i> 'mother-in-law' </p><p><i>zowi</i> 'sour' </p><p><i>zôkwta</i> 'exhaust, run out of' </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Place_names_(Western_Abenaki)"><span id="Place_names_.28Western_Abenaki.29"></span>Place names (Western Abenaki)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki_language&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Place names (Western Abenaki)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>bitawabagwizibo</i> 'Lake Champlain River' </p><p><i>masisoliantegw</i> 'Sorel River' </p><p><i>masipskwbi</i> 'Missisquoi Bay' </p><p><i>baliten</i> 'Burlington' </p><p>Source:<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_words">Other words</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki_language&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Other words"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>sanôba</i> = man<br /> <i>phanem</i> * = woman<br /> <i>kwai</i> = hello (casual)<br /> <i>pahakwinôgwezian</i> = hello; lit. you appear new to me (after long separations) </p><p><small>* letters in square brackets often lost in vowel <a href="/wiki/Syncope_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Syncope (phonetics)">syncope</a>.</small> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki_language&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abenaki" title="Abenaki">Abenaki</a> people</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki_language&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-e16-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-e16_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/16/show_language/aaq">Eastern Abenaki</a> at <i><a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a></i> (16th ed., 2009) <span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Paywall" title="closed access publication – behind paywall"><img alt="Closed access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/9px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/14px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/18px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-e18-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-e18_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-e18_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/18/language/aaq/">Eastern Abenaki</a> at <i><a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a></i> (18th ed., 2015) <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(subscription required)</span><br /><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/18/language/abe/">Western Abenaki</a> at <i><a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a></i> (18th ed., 2015) <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(subscription required)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBruchac2006" class="citation journal cs1">Bruchac, Margaret (2006). "Malian's Song–Abenaki Language Glossary". <i>Vermont Folklife Center</i> (152). <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.14332%2F1418">20.500.14332/1418</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Vermont+Folklife+Center&rft.atitle=Malian%27s+Song%E2%80%93Abenaki+Language+Glossary&rft.issue=152&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F20.500.14332%2F1418&rft.aulast=Bruchac&rft.aufirst=Margaret&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbenaki+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeSourd2015-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeSourd2015_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeSourd2015_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLeSourd2015">LeSourd 2015</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDay1994a-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-19"><sup><i><b>t</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-20"><sup><i><b>u</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-21"><sup><i><b>v</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-22"><sup><i><b>w</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-23"><sup><i><b>x</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-24"><sup><i><b>y</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-25"><sup><i><b>z</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-26"><sup><i><b>aa</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay1994a_5-27"><sup><i><b>ab</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDay1994a">Day 1994a</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeach2004-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeach2004_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeach2004_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeach2004_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeach2004_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeach2004_6-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeach2004_6-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeach2004_6-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeach2004_6-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeach2004_6-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeach2004_6-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeach2004_6-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeach2004">Beach 2004</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.native-languages.org/penobscot.htm">"Penobscot"</a>. <i>Native Languages of the Americas</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 25,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Native+Languages+of+the+Americas&rft.atitle=Penobscot&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.native-languages.org%2Fpenobscot.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbenaki+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/16/show_language/aaq">Abenaki language</a> at <i><a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a></i> (16th ed., 2009) <span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Paywall" title="closed access publication – behind paywall"><img alt="Closed access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/9px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/14px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/18px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160320153919/http://www.abbemuseum.org/headline-news/Language/HeadlineNewsLanguage%20Penobscot.html">"Penobscot"</a>. <i>Abbe Museum</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.abbemuseum.org/headline-news/Language/HeadlineNewsLanguage%20Penobscot.html">the original</a> on March 20, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 21,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Abbe+Museum&rft.atitle=Penobscot&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.abbemuseum.org%2Fheadline-news%2FLanguage%2FHeadlineNewsLanguage%2520Penobscot.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbenaki+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGregory2021" class="citation magazine cs1">Gregory, Alice (April 19, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210412110531/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2021/04/19/how-did-a-self-taught-linguist-come-to-own-an-indigenous-language">"How did a self-taught linguist come to own an indigenous language?"</a>. <i>The New Yorker</i>. 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Linguistics Department Faculty Publication Series. Amherst: University of Massachusetts.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=W%C3%B4banaki%C3%B4dwaw%C3%B4gan%3A+Sketch+of+Western+Abenaki+Grammar&rft.place=Amherst&rft.series=Linguistics+Department+Faculty+Publication+Series&rft.pub=University+of+Massachusetts&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Bach&rft.aufirst=Emmon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarworks.umass.edu%2Flinguist_faculty_pubs%2F134%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbenaki+language" class="Z3988"></span> — this paper has been withdrawn</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeach2004" class="citation thesis cs1">Beach, Jesse (2004). <i>The Morphology of Modern Western Abenaki</i> (Thesis). Dartmouth College.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=The+Morphology+of+Modern+Western+Abenaki&rft.inst=Dartmouth+College&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Beach&rft.aufirst=Jesse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbenaki+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDay1994a" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Day, Gordon M. (1994a). <i>Western Abenaki Dictionary</i>. Vol. 1: Abenaki to English. Hull, QC: Canadian Museum of Civilization. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-660-14024-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-660-14024-7"><bdi>978-0-660-14024-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Western+Abenaki+Dictionary&rft.place=Hull%2C+QC&rft.pub=Canadian+Museum+of+Civilization&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-660-14024-7&rft.aulast=Day&rft.aufirst=Gordon+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbenaki+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDay1994b" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Day, Gordon M. (1994b). <i>Western Abenaki Dictionary</i>. Vol. 2: English to Abenaki. Hull: Canadian Museum of Civilization. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-660-14030-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-660-14030-8"><bdi>978-0-660-14030-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Western+Abenaki+Dictionary&rft.place=Hull&rft.pub=Canadian+Museum+of+Civilization&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-660-14030-8&rft.aulast=Day&rft.aufirst=Gordon+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbenaki+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarvey" class="citation web cs1">Harvey, Chris. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.languagegeek.com/algon/abenaki/abenaki.html">"Abenaki"</a>. Language Geek<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 12,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Abenaki&rft.pub=Language+Geek&rft.aulast=Harvey&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.languagegeek.com%2Falgon%2Fabenaki%2Fabenaki.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbenaki+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeald2014" class="citation book cs1">Heald, B. (2014). <i>A History of the New Hampshire Abenaki</i>. Charleston, SC: The History Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+New+Hampshire+Abenaki&rft.place=Charleston%2C+SC&rft.pub=The+History+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Heald&rft.aufirst=B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbenaki+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaurent2006" class="citation book cs1">Laurent, Joseph (2006) [1884, Quebec, Joseph Laurent]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/newfamiliaraben00laurgoog"><i>New Familiar Abenakis</i></a>. Vancouver: Global Language Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9738924-7-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-9738924-7-1"><bdi>0-9738924-7-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Familiar+Abenakis&rft.place=Vancouver&rft.pub=Global+Language+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-9738924-7-1&rft.aulast=Laurent&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnewfamiliaraben00laurgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbenaki+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeSourd2011" class="citation journal cs1">LeSourd, Philip S. (June 2011). "Enclitic Particles in Western Abenaki: The Syntax of Second Position". <i>Anthropological Linguistics</i>. <b>53</b> (2): 91–131. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fanl.2011.0009">10.1353/anl.2011.0009</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Anthropological+Linguistics&rft.atitle=Enclitic+Particles+in+Western+Abenaki%3A+The+Syntax+of+Second+Position&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=91-131&rft.date=2011-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fanl.2011.0009&rft.aulast=LeSourd&rft.aufirst=Philip+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbenaki+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeSourd2015" class="citation journal cs1">LeSourd, Philip S. (July 2015). "Enclitic Particles in Western Abenaki: Form and Function". <i>International Journal of American Linguistics</i>. <b>81</b> (3): 301–335. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F681577">10.1086/681577</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:141980112">141980112</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+American+Linguistics&rft.atitle=Enclitic+Particles+in+Western+Abenaki%3A+Form+and+Function&rft.volume=81&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=301-335&rft.date=2015-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F681577&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A141980112%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=LeSourd&rft.aufirst=Philip+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbenaki+language" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: date and year (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_date_and_year" title="Category:CS1 maint: date and year">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMasta2008" class="citation book cs1">Masta, Henry Lorne (2008) [1932; Victoriaville, QC; La Voix des Bois-Franes]. <i>Abenaki Legends, Grammar and Place Names</i>. Toronto: Global Language Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-897367-18-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-897367-18-6"><bdi>978-1-897367-18-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Abenaki+Legends%2C+Grammar+and+Place+Names&rft.place=Toronto&rft.pub=Global+Language+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-897367-18-6&rft.aulast=Masta&rft.aufirst=Henry+Lorne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbenaki+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVoorhis1979" class="citation book cs1">Voorhis, Paul (October 1979). <i>Grammatical Notes on the Penobscot Language from Frank Speck's Penobscot Transformer Tales</i>. University of Manitoba Anthropology Papers. Vol. 24. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1993%2F18305">1993/18305</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Grammatical+Notes+on+the+Penobscot+Language+from+Frank+Speck%27s+Penobscot+Transformer+Tales&rft.series=University+of+Manitoba+Anthropology+Papers&rft.date=1979-10&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1993%2F18305&rft.aulast=Voorhis&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbenaki+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWarne1975" class="citation thesis cs1">Warne, Janet (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://escholarship.mcgill.ca/concern/theses/fn107049h"><i>A historical phonology of Abenaki</i></a> (MA thesis). McGil University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=A+historical+phonology+of+Abenaki&rft.degree=MA&rft.inst=McGil+University&rft.date=1975&rft.aulast=Warne&rft.aufirst=Janet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fescholarship.mcgill.ca%2Fconcern%2Ftheses%2Ffn107049h&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbenaki+language" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki_language&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Abenaki_language" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Abenaki language">Abenaki language</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.westernabenaki.com/">Western Abenaki Online Dictionary and Radio</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130814034028/http://www.amphilsoc.org/exhibit/natamaudio/abenaki">"Native American Audio Collections: Abenaki"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amphilsoc.org/exhibit/natamaudio/abenaki">the original</a> on August 14, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 20,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Philosophical+Society&rft.atitle=Native+American+Audio+Collections%3A+Abenaki&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.amphilsoc.org%2Fexhibit%2Fnatamaudio%2Fabenaki&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbenaki+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130302035008/https://www.amphilsoc.org/exhibit/natamaudio/penobscot">"Native American Audio Collections: Penobscot"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amphilsoc.org/exhibit/natamaudio/penobscot">the original</a> on March 2, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 20,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Philosophical+Society&rft.atitle=Native+American+Audio+Collections%3A+Penobscot&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.amphilsoc.org%2Fexhibit%2Fnatamaudio%2Fpenobscot&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbenaki+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.languagegeek.com/algon/abenaki/abenaki.html">Abenaki orthography and phonology</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.native-languages.org/abna.htm">Abenaki-Penobscot</a> at Native-languages.org</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.native-languages.org/penobscot.htm">Penobscot</a> at Native-languages.org</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160419101221/http://people.umass.edu/ebach/papers/alnoprdm.htm">Western Abenaki grammar sketch</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111225212530/http://portfolio.splendidnoise.com/media/Abenaki%20Thesis%20Final%20Print.pdf">Western Abenaki morphology</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://vcnaa.vermont.gov">Vermont Commission on Native American Affairs</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output 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.mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Algic_languages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Algic_languages" title="Template:Algic languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Algic_languages" title="Template talk:Algic languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Algic_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Algic languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Algic_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Algic_languages" title="Algic languages">Algic languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Algonquian_languages" title="Algonquian languages">Algonquian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Arapahoan_languages" title="Arapahoan languages">Arapahoan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arapaho_language" title="Arapaho language">Arapaho</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Besawunena_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Besawunena language">Besawunena</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gros_Ventre_language" title="Gros Ventre language">Gros Ventre</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nawathinehena_language" title="Nawathinehena language">Nawathinehena</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cree_language" title="Cree language">Cree–Montagnais–Naskapi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cree_language" title="Cree language">Cree</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Cree" title="East Cree">East Cree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moose_Cree_language" title="Moose Cree language">Moose Cree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plains_Cree_language" title="Plains Cree language">Plains Cree</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Michif" title="Michif">Michif</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swampy_Cree_language" title="Swampy Cree language">Swampy Cree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woods_Cree" title="Woods Cree">Woods Cree</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atikamekw_language" title="Atikamekw language">Atikamekw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innu-aimun" title="Innu-aimun">Innu-aimun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naskapi_language" title="Naskapi language">Naskapi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Algonquian_languages" title="Eastern Algonquian languages">Eastern Algonquian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southern New England</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Loup_language" title="Loup language">Loup</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusett_language" title="Massachusett language">Massachusett</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Massachusett_Pidgin" title="Massachusett Pidgin">Massachusett Pidgin</a></i><sup><small>1</small></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Massachusett_Pidgin_English" title="Massachusett Pidgin English">Massachusett Pidgin English</a></i><sup><small>1</small></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mohegan-Pequot_language" title="Mohegan-Pequot language">Mohegan–Pequot</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Narragansett_language" title="Narragansett language">Narragansett</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Quiripi_language" title="Quiripi language">Quiripi–Naugatuck–Unquachog</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Delawaran</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Delaware_languages" title="Delaware languages">Delaware</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Munsee_language" title="Munsee language">Munsee</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Unami_language" title="Unami language">Unami</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Pidgin_Delaware" title="Pidgin Delaware">Pidgin Delaware</a></i><sup><small>1</small></sup></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mohican_language" title="Mohican language">Mahican</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i>Nanticockan</i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Nanticoke_language" title="Nanticoke language">Nanticoke</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Piscataway_language" title="Piscataway language">Piscataway</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Abenaki</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Carolina_Algonquian_language" title="Carolina Algonquian language">Carolina Algonquian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Etchemin_language" title="Etchemin language">Etchemin</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maliseet-Passamaquoddy_language" title="Maliseet-Passamaquoddy language">Maliseet–Passamaquoddy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mi%27kmaq_language" title="Mi'kmaq language">Mi'kmaq</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Powhatan_language" title="Powhatan language">Powhatan</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fox_language" title="Fox language">Mesquakie–Sauk–Kickapoo</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fox_language" title="Fox language">Mesquakie–Sauk</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sauk_language" title="Sauk language">Sauk</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kickapoo_language" title="Kickapoo language">Kickapoo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ojibwe_language" title="Ojibwe language">Ojibwa</a>–<a href="/wiki/Potawatomi_language" title="Potawatomi language">Potawatomi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ojibwe_language" title="Ojibwe language">Ojibwa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algonquin_language" title="Algonquin language">Algonquin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berens_River_Ojibwe_dialect" title="Berens River Ojibwe dialect">Berens River Ojibwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Border_Lakes_Ojibwe_dialect" title="Border Lakes Ojibwe dialect">Border Lakes Ojibwa</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Broken_Oghibbeway" title="Broken Oghibbeway">Broken Oghibbeway</a></i><sup><small>1</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Ojibwa_language" title="Central Ojibwa language">Central Ojibwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chippewa_language" title="Chippewa language">Chippewa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Ojibwa_language" title="Eastern Ojibwa language">Eastern Ojibwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nipissing_Ojibwe_dialect" title="Nipissing Ojibwe dialect">Nipissing Ojibwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_of_Superior_Ojibwe_dialect" title="North of Superior Ojibwe dialect">North of Superior Ojibwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwestern_Ojibwa" title="Northwestern Ojibwa">Northwestern Ojibwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oji-Cree_language" title="Oji-Cree language">Oji-Cree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottawa_dialect" title="Ottawa dialect">Ottawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Ojibwa_language" title="Western Ojibwa language">Western Ojibwa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Potawatomi_language" title="Potawatomi language">Potawatomi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Potawatomi_language" title="Potawatomi language">Potawatomi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Algonquian%E2%80%93Basque_pidgin" title="Algonquian–Basque pidgin">Algonquian–Basque pidgin</a></i><sup><small>1</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackfoot_language" title="Blackfoot language">Blackfoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheyenne_language" title="Cheyenne language">Cheyenne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menominee_language" title="Menominee language">Menominee</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Miami%E2%80%93Illinois_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Miami–Illinois language">Miami–Illinois</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shawnee_language" title="Shawnee language">Shawnee</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Wiyot_language" title="Wiyot language">Wiyot</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yurok_language" title="Yurok language">Yurok</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Uncertain</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Nansemond_language" title="Nansemond language">Nansemond</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pamunkey_language" title="Pamunkey language">Pamunkey</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Proto-languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Algic_language" title="Proto-Algic language">Proto-Algic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Algonquian_language" title="Proto-Algonquian language">Proto-Algonquian</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span style="position: relative; top: 0.2em;"><sup><small>1</small></sup></span> <a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">Creole</a>/<a href="/wiki/Pidgin" title="Pidgin">Pidgin</a>/<a href="/wiki/Mixed_language" title="Mixed language">Mixed</a> language •  <i>Italics</i> indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Languages_of_Canada" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Languages_of_Canada" title="Template:Languages of Canada"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Languages_of_Canada" title="Template talk:Languages of Canada"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Languages_of_Canada" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Languages of Canada"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Languages_of_Canada" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Canada" title="Languages of Canada">Languages of Canada</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Official languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_English" title="Canadian English">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_language_in_Canada" title="French language in Canada">French</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indigenous languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Algonquian_languages" title="Algonquian languages">Algonquian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Abenaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algonquin_language" title="Algonquin language">Algonquin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackfoot_language" title="Blackfoot language">Blackfoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cree_language" title="Cree language">Cree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innu_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Innu language">Innu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malecite-Passamaquoddy_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Malecite-Passamaquoddy language">Malecite-Passamaquoddy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mi%EA%9E%8Ckmaq_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Miꞌkmaq language">Miꞌkmaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munsee_language" title="Munsee language">Munsee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naskapi_language" title="Naskapi language">Naskapi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ojibwe_language" title="Ojibwe language">Ojibwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottawa_dialect" title="Ottawa dialect">Ottawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potawatomi_language" title="Potawatomi language">Potawatomi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Athabaskan_languages" title="Athabaskan languages">Athabaskan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Babine-Witsuwit%CA%BCen_language" title="Babine-Witsuwitʼen language">Babine-Witsuwitʼen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrier_language" title="Carrier language">Carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsilhqot%CA%BCin_language" title="Tsilhqotʼin language">Chilcotin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chipewyan_language" title="Chipewyan language">Chipewyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogrib_language" title="Dogrib language">Dogrib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gwich%CA%BCin_language" title="Gwichʼin language">Gwichʼin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C3%A4n_language" title="Hän language">Hän</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaska_language" title="Kaska language">Kaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicola_language" title="Nicola language">Nicola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sekani_language" title="Sekani language">Sekani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavey_language" title="Slavey language">Slavey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagish_language" title="Tagish language">Tagish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahltan_language" title="Tahltan language">Tahltan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsuut%CA%BCina_language" title="Tsuutʼina language">Tsuutʼina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tutchone_language" title="Tutchone language">Tutchone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Inuit_languages" title="Inuit languages">Inuit</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inuinnaqtun" title="Inuinnaqtun">Inuinnaqtun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inuktitut" title="Inuktitut">Inuktitut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inupiat_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Inupiat language">Inupiaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inuvialuktun" title="Inuvialuktun">Inuvialuktun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Iroquoian_languages" title="Iroquoian languages">Iroquoian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cayuga_language" title="Cayuga language">Cayuga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohawk_language" title="Mohawk language">Mohawk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oneida_language" title="Oneida language">Oneida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onondaga_language" title="Onondaga language">Onondaga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_language" title="Seneca language">Seneca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuscarora_language" title="Tuscarora language">Tuscarora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wyandot_language" title="Wyandot language">Wyandot</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Salishan_languages" title="Salishan languages">Salishan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bella_Coola_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Bella Coola language">Bella Coola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comox_language" title="Comox language">Comox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halkomelem" title="Halkomelem">Halkomelem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lillooet_language" title="Lillooet language">Lillooet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okanagan_language" title="Okanagan language">Okanagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saanich_dialect" title="Saanich dialect">Saanich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sh%C3%ADsh%C3%A1lh_language" title="Shíshálh language">shíshálh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuswap_language" title="Shuswap language">Shuswap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squamish_language" title="Squamish language">Squamish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thompson_language" title="Thompson language">Thompson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wakashan_languages" title="Wakashan languages">Wakashan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ditidaht_language" title="Ditidaht language">Ditidaht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haisla_language" title="Haisla language">Haisla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heiltsuk-Oowekyala_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Heiltsuk-Oowekyala language">Heiltsuk-Oowekyala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwak%CA%BCwala" title="Kwakʼwala">Kwakʼwala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuu-chah-nulth_language" title="Nuu-chah-nulth language">Nuu-chah-nulth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Siouan_languages" title="Siouan languages">Siouan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stoney_language" title="Stoney language">Stoney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sioux_language" title="Sioux language">Sioux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assiniboine_language" title="Assiniboine language">Assiniboine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beothuk_language" title="Beothuk language">Beothuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haida_language" title="Haida language">Haida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kutenai_language" title="Kutenai language">Kutenai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tlingit_language" title="Tlingit language">Tlingit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coast_Tsimshian_dialect" title="Coast Tsimshian dialect">Coast Tsimshian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pidgins, creoles and mixed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algonquian%E2%80%93Basque_pidgin" title="Algonquian–Basque pidgin">Algonquian–Basque pidgin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broken_Slavey" class="mw-redirect" title="Broken Slavey">Broken Slavey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bungi_Creole" class="mw-redirect" title="Bungi Creole">Bungee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinook_Jargon" title="Chinook Jargon">Chinook Jargon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labrador_Inuit_Pidgin_French" title="Labrador Inuit Pidgin French">Labrador Inuit Pidgin French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michif" title="Michif">Michif</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Minority languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mandarin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandarin language">Mandarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Cantonese language">Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_language" title="Punjabi language">Punjabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagalog_language" title="Tagalog language">Tagalog (Filipino)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Gaelic" title="Canadian Gaelic">Canadian Gaelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hutterite_German" title="Hutterite German">Hutterite German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doukhobor_Russian" title="Doukhobor Russian">Doukhobor Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_language_in_Newfoundland" title="Irish language in Newfoundland">Newfoundland Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_German" class="mw-redirect" title="Pennsylvania German">Pennsylvania German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plautdietsch" title="Plautdietsch">Plautdietsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Ukrainian" title="Canadian Ukrainian">Ukrainian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sign languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">American Sign Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quebec_Sign_Language" title="Quebec Sign Language">Quebec Sign Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_Sign_Language" title="Inuit Sign Language">Inuk Sign Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plains_Indian_Sign_Language" title="Plains Indian Sign Language">Plains Indian Sign Language</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Maritime_Sign_Language" title="Maritime Sign Language">Maritime Sign Language</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Canada#Canadian_style_guides" title="Bibliography of Canada">Canadian style guides</a> - <a href="/wiki/List_of_Canadian_English_dictionaries" title="List of Canadian English dictionaries">Canadian dictionaries </a>‎</b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" 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