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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Origins</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Origins-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Origins subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Origins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Viharas_as_pleasure_centers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Viharas_as_pleasure_centers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Viharas as pleasure centers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Viharas_as_pleasure_centers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Viharas_as_monasteries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Viharas_as_monasteries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Viharas as monasteries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Viharas_as_monasteries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Architecture</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Architecture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Architecture subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Variants_in_rock-cut_viharas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Variants_in_rock-cut_viharas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Variants in rock-cut viharas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Variants_in_rock-cut_viharas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Viharas_as_a_source_of_major_Buddhist_traditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Viharas_as_a_source_of_major_Buddhist_traditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Viharas as a source of major Buddhist traditions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Viharas_as_a_source_of_major_Buddhist_traditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Viharas_of_the_Pāla_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Viharas_of_the_Pāla_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Viharas of the Pāla era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Viharas_of_the_Pāla_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Southeast_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Southeast_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Southeast Asia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Southeast_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Image_gallery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Image_gallery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Image gallery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Image_gallery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Vihāra</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 47 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-47" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">47 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%8A%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A7" title="فيهارا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فيهارا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vixar" title="Vixar – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Vixar" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8C%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0" title="বৌদ্ধ বিহার – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বৌদ্ধ বিহার" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bihara" title="Bihara – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Bihara" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Banjar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-map-bms mw-list-item"><a href="https://map-bms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vihara" title="Vihara – Banyumasan" lang="jv-x-bms" hreflang="jv-x-bms" data-title="Vihara" data-language-autonym="Basa Banyumasan" data-language-local-name="Banyumasan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Banyumasan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vihara" title="Vihara – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Vihara" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vih%C3%A1ra" title="Vihára – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Vihára" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vihara" title="Vihara – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Vihara" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vihaara" title="Vihaara – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Vihaara" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vihara" title="Vihara – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Vihara" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bik%C5%9Duejo" title="Bikŝuejo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Bikŝuejo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A7" title="ویهارا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ویهارا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vihara" title="Vihara – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Vihara" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B9%84%ED%95%98%EB%9D%BC" title="비하라 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="비하라" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0" title="विहार – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="विहार" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wihara" title="Wihara – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Wihara" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%95%D7%99%D7%94%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%94" title="ויהארה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ויהארה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiyara" title="Wiyara – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Wiyara" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B9%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B0" title="ವಿಹಾರ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ವಿಹಾರ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Вихара – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Вихара" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vihara" title="Vihara – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Vihara" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vihara" title="Vihara – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Vihara" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vih%C3%A1ra" title="Vihára – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Vihára" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vihara" title="Vihara – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Vihara" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0" title="विहार – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="विहार" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vihara" title="Vihara – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Vihara" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%B4" title="Хийд – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Хийд" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9D%E1%80%AD%E1%80%9F%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9B" title="ဝိဟာရ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဝိဟာရ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vihara" title="Vihara – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Vihara" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B2%BE%E8%88%8E" title="精舎 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="精舎" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vihara" title="Vihara – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Vihara" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vihara" title="Vihara – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Vihara" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DB%81%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="وہار – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="وہار" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%96%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9F%87%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%A0%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9A" title="ព្រះវិហារ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ព្រះវិហារ" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wihara" title="Wihara – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wihara" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viara" title="Viara – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Viara" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Вихара – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Вихара" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vihara" title="Vihara – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Vihara" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vihara" title="Vihara – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Vihara" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wihara" title="Wihara – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Wihara" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="புத்த விகாரம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="புத்த விகாரம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3" title="วิหาร – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="วิหาร" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vihara" title="Vihara – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Vihara" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%96%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Вігара – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Вігара" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DB%81%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="وہار – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="وہار" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%E1%BB%8Bnh_x%C3%A1" title="Tịnh xá – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tịnh xá" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B2%BE%E8%88%8D" title="精舍 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="精舍" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Sanskrit and Pāli term for a residence, monastery usually Buddhist</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Vihāra</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:290px;max-width:290px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:155px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Plan_cave_19_Nasik.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Plan_cave_19_Nasik.jpg/288px-Plan_cave_19_Nasik.jpg" decoding="async" width="288" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Plan_cave_19_Nasik.jpg/432px-Plan_cave_19_Nasik.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Plan_cave_19_Nasik.jpg/576px-Plan_cave_19_Nasik.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1158" data-file-height="625" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Kanha_(Satavahana_dynasty)" title="Kanha (Satavahana dynasty)">Kanha</a> Cave vihara in the <a href="/wiki/Nasik_Caves" title="Nasik Caves">Nasik Caves</a>, 1st century BCE, is one of the earliest.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:290px;max-width:290px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:192px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:060_Cave_4,_Main_Shrine_(34280369085).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/060_Cave_4%2C_Main_Shrine_%2834280369085%29.jpg/288px-060_Cave_4%2C_Main_Shrine_%2834280369085%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="288" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/060_Cave_4%2C_Main_Shrine_%2834280369085%29.jpg/432px-060_Cave_4%2C_Main_Shrine_%2834280369085%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/060_Cave_4%2C_Main_Shrine_%2834280369085%29.jpg/576px-060_Cave_4%2C_Main_Shrine_%2834280369085%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">5th century Cave 4 at the <a href="/wiki/Ajanta_Caves" title="Ajanta Caves">Ajanta Caves</a> with a Buddha statue in the centre shrine cell.</div></div></div></div></div> <p><b>Vihāra</b> generally refers to a <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_temple" title="Buddhist temple">Buddhist temple</a> or <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_monastery" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist monastery">Buddhist monastery</a> for <a href="/wiki/Bhikkhu" title="Bhikkhu">Buddhist renunciates</a>, mostly in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>. The concept is ancient and in early <a href="/wiki/Pali" title="Pali">Pali</a> texts, it meant any arrangement of space or facilities for dwellings.<sup id="cite_ref-mmwvihara_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mmwvihara-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lahiri2015p181_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lahiri2015p181-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term evolved into an architectural concept wherein it refers to living quarters for monks with an open shared space or courtyard, particularly in <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>. The term is also found in Jain monastic literature, usually referring to temporary refuge for wandering monks or nuns during the annual Indian monsoons.<sup id="cite_ref-mmwvihara_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mmwvihara-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kramrisch1946p137_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kramrisch1946p137-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dundas2003p203_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dundas2003p203-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In modern Jainism, the monks continue to wander from town to town except during the rainy season (<a href="/wiki/Chaturmas#Jainism" class="mw-redirect" title="Chaturmas">chaturmasya</a>), and the term "vihara" refers to their wanderings.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Vihara or vihara hall has a more specific meaning in the <a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_India" title="Architecture of India">architecture of India</a>, especially ancient <a href="/wiki/Indian_rock-cut_architecture" title="Indian rock-cut architecture">Indian rock-cut architecture</a>. Here it means a central hall, with small cells connected to it, sometimes with beds carved from the stone. Some have a shrine cell set back at the centre of the back wall, containing a <a href="/wiki/Stupa" title="Stupa">stupa</a> in early examples, or a Buddha statue later. Typical large sites such as the <a href="/wiki/Ajanta_Caves" title="Ajanta Caves">Ajanta Caves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aurangabad_Caves" title="Aurangabad Caves">Aurangabad Caves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karla_Caves" title="Karla Caves">Karli Caves</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kanheri_Caves" title="Kanheri Caves">Kanheri Caves</a> contain several viharas. Some included a <a href="/wiki/Chaitya" title="Chaitya">chaitya</a> or worship hall nearby.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The vihara originated as a shelter for monks when it rains. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology_and_nomenclature">Etymology and nomenclature</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vih%C4%81ra&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology and nomenclature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The word means a form of rest house, temple or monastery in ascetic traditions of India, particularly for a group of monks.<sup id="cite_ref-mmwvihara_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mmwvihara-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It particularly referred to a hall that was used as a temple or where monks met and some walked about.<sup id="cite_ref-mmwvihara_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mmwvihara-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-palivihara_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-palivihara-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the context of the performative arts, the term means the theatre, playhouse, convent or temple compound to meet, perform or relax in. Later it referred to a form of temple or monastery construction in Buddhism and Jainism, wherein the design has a central hall and attached separated shrines for residence either for monks or for dieties and sacred figure such as <a href="/wiki/Tirthankara" title="Tirthankara">Tirthankaras</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Gautama Buddha</a>. The word means a <a href="/wiki/Jain_temple" title="Jain temple">Jain</a> or <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_temple" title="Buddhist temple">Buddhist temple</a> or "dwelling, waiting place" in many medieval era inscriptions and texts, from <i>vi-har</i> which means "to construct".<sup id="cite_ref-Kramrisch1946p137_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kramrisch1946p137-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dundas2003p203_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dundas2003p203-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It contrasts with <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskrit language">Sanskrit</a>: <i lang="sa">araṇya</i> or <a href="/wiki/Pali_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Pali language">Pali</a>: <i lang="pi">arañña</i>, which means "forest".<sup id="cite_ref-palivihara_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-palivihara-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Smith1998p151_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith1998p151-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In medieval era, the term meant any monastery, particularly for Buddhist monks.<sup id="cite_ref-palivihara_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-palivihara-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Matha" title="Matha">Matha</a></i> is another term for monastery in the Buddhist tradition,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> today normally used for Hindu establishments. </p><p>The eastern <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">Indian</a> state of <a href="/wiki/Bihar" title="Bihar">Bihar</a> derives its name from <i>vihāra</i> due to the abundance of Buddhist monasteries in that area. The word has also been borrowed in <a href="/wiki/Malay_language" title="Malay language">Malay</a> as <i>biara</i>, denoting a monastery or other non-Muslim place of worship. It is called a <i>wihan</i> (<span title="Thai-language text"><span lang="th">วิหาร</span></span>) in <a href="/wiki/Thai_language" title="Thai language">Thai</a>, and <i>vĭhéar</i> (<span title="Khmer-language text"><span lang="km">វិហារ</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="km-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Khmer" title="Help:IPA/Khmer">[ʋihiə]</a></span>) in <a href="/wiki/Khmer_language" title="Khmer language">Khmer</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Burmese_language" title="Burmese language">Burmese</a>, <i>wihara</i> (<span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဝိဟာရ</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="my-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Burmese" title="Help:IPA/Burmese">[wḭhəɹa̰]</a></span>), means "monastery", but the native Burmese word <i><a href="/wiki/Kyaung" title="Kyaung">kyaung</a></i> (<span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ကျောင်း</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="my-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Burmese" title="Help:IPA/Burmese">[tɕáʊɰ̃]</a></span>) is preferred. Monks wandering from place to place preaching and seeking <a href="/wiki/Alms" title="Alms">alms</a> often stayed together in the <a href="/wiki/Sangha" title="Sangha">sangha</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Punjabi_language" title="Punjabi language">Punjabi language</a>, an open space inside a home is called a <span title="Punjabi-language text"><i lang="pa">vehra</i></span>. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a> and <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, the word for a Buddhist temple or monastery seems to have a different origin.<sup id="cite_ref-CIB_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CIB-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a> word for a Buddhist temple is <i>Tera</i><span style="font-weight: normal"> (<span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">寺</span></span>)</span>, it was anciently also written phonetically 天良 <i>tera</i>, and it is cognate with the <a href="/wiki/Modern_Korean" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Korean">Modern Korean</a> <i>Chǒl</i> from <a href="/wiki/Middle_Korean" title="Middle Korean">Middle Korean</a> <i>Tiel</i>, the <a href="/wiki/Jurchen_language" title="Jurchen language">Jurchen</a> <i>Taira</i> and the reconstructed <a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a> <sup>*</sup><i>dɘiaʁ</i>, all meaning "Buddhist Monastery".<sup id="cite_ref-CIB_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CIB-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These words are apparently derived from the <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a> word for "<a href="/wiki/Monastery" title="Monastery">monastery</a>" <i>dērā/ dairā/ dēr</i> (from the root <i>dwr</i> "to live together"), rather than from the unrelated Indian word for monastery <i>vihara</i>, and may have been transmitted to China by the first Central Asian translators of Buddhist scriptures, such as <a href="/wiki/An_Shigao" title="An Shigao">An Shigao</a> or <a href="/wiki/Lokaksema_(Buddhist_monk)" title="Lokaksema (Buddhist monk)">Lokaksema</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-CIB_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CIB-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins">Origins</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vih%C4%81ra&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ellora_Cave_12_si0253.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Ellora_Cave_12_si0253.jpg/220px-Ellora_Cave_12_si0253.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Ellora_Cave_12_si0253.jpg/330px-Ellora_Cave_12_si0253.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Ellora_Cave_12_si0253.jpg/440px-Ellora_Cave_12_si0253.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1564" data-file-height="1196" /></a><figcaption>Cave 12, <a href="/wiki/Ellora" class="mw-redirect" title="Ellora">Ellora</a>, a late multi-story rock-cut vihara. Further decoration of the pillars was probably intended.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Viharas_as_pleasure_centers">Viharas as pleasure centers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vih%C4%81ra&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Viharas as pleasure centers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the 3rd-century BCE era of <a href="/wiki/Ashoka" title="Ashoka">Ashoka</a>, <i>vihara yatras</i> were travel stops aimed at enjoyments, pleasures and hobbies such as hunting. These contrasted with <i>dharma yatras</i> which related to religious pursuits and pilgrimage.<sup id="cite_ref-Lahiri2015p181_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lahiri2015p181-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After Ashoka converted to Buddhism, states Lahiri, he started <i>dharma yatras</i> around mid 3rd century BCE instead of hedonistic royal <i>vihara yatras</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lahiri2015p181_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lahiri2015p181-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Viharas_as_monasteries">Viharas as monasteries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vih%C4%81ra&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Viharas as monasteries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The early history of viharas is unclear. Monasteries in the form of caves are dated to centuries before the start of the common era, for <a href="/wiki/Ajivika" class="mw-redirect" title="Ajivika">Ajivikas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainas</a>. The rock-cut architecture found in cave viharas from the 2nd-century BCE have roots in the <a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya Empire</a> period.<sup id="cite_ref-AllchinErdosy1995_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AllchinErdosy1995-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In and around the <a href="/wiki/Bihar" title="Bihar">Bihar</a> state of India are a group of residential cave monuments all dated to be from pre-common era, reflecting the Maurya architecture. Some of these have Brahmi script inscription which confirms their antiquity, but the inscriptions were likely added to pre-existing caves.<sup id="cite_ref-AllchinErdosy1995_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AllchinErdosy1995-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The oldest layer of Buddhist and Jain texts mention legends of the Buddha, the Jain Tirthankaras or <a href="/wiki/Sramana" class="mw-redirect" title="Sramana">sramana</a> monks living in caves.<sup id="cite_ref-AllchinErdosy1995_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AllchinErdosy1995-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gwynne2017_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gwynne2017-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Jain1991p66_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jain1991p66-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If these records derived from an <a href="/wiki/Oral_tradition" title="Oral tradition">oral tradition</a> accurately reflect the significance of monks and caves in the times of the Buddha and the Mahavira, then cave residence tradition dates back to at least the 5th century BCE. According to Allchin and Erdosy, the legend of First Buddhist Council is dated to a period just after the death of the Buddha. It mentions monks gathering at a cave near Rajgiri, and this dates it in pre-Mauryan times.<sup id="cite_ref-AllchinErdosy1995_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AllchinErdosy1995-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the square courtyard with cells architecture of <i>vihara</i>, state Allchin and Erdosy, is dated to the Mauryan period. The earlier monastic residences of Ajivikas, Buddhists, Hindus, and Jains were likely outside rock cliffs and made of temporary materials and these have not survived.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The earliest known gift of immovable property for monastic purposes ever recorded in an Indian inscription is credited to Emperor Ashoka, and it is a donation to the Ajivikas.<sup id="cite_ref-Bronkhorst2011p96_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bronkhorst2011p96-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Johannes Bronkhorst, this created competitive financial pressures on all traditions, including the Hindu Brahmins. This may have led to the development of viharas as shelters for monks, and evolution in the <a href="/wiki/Ashrama_(stage)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashrama (stage)">Ashrama</a> concept to <i>agraharas</i> or Hindu monasteries. These shelters were normally accompanied by donation of revenue from villages nearby, who would work and support these cave residences with food and services. The Karle inscription dated to the 1st century CE donates a cave and nearby village, states Bronkhorst, "for the support of the ascetics living in the caves at Valuraka [Karle] without any distinction of sect or origin". Buddhist texts from Bengal, dated to centuries later, use the term <i>asrama-vihara</i> or <i>agrahara-vihara</i> for their monasteries.<sup id="cite_ref-Bronkhorst2011p96_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bronkhorst2011p96-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GrundrissAjantaHoehle1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/GrundrissAjantaHoehle1.jpg/270px-GrundrissAjantaHoehle1.jpg" decoding="async" width="270" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/GrundrissAjantaHoehle1.jpg/405px-GrundrissAjantaHoehle1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/GrundrissAjantaHoehle1.jpg/540px-GrundrissAjantaHoehle1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1720" data-file-height="1981" /></a><figcaption>Plan of cave 1 at <a href="/wiki/Ajanta_Caves" title="Ajanta Caves">Ajanta</a>, a large <i>vihara</i> hall for prayer and living, 5th century</figcaption></figure> <p>Buddhist viharas or monasteries may be described as a residence for monks, a centre for religious work and meditation and a centre of Buddhist learning. Reference to five kinds of dwellings (Pancha Lenani) namely, <i>Vihara, Addayoga, Pasada, Hammiya</i> and <i>Guha</i> is found in the Buddhist canonical texts as fit for monks. Of these only the <i>Vihara</i> (monastery) and <i>Guha</i> (Cave) have survived. </p><p>At some stage of Buddhism, like other Indian religious traditions, the wandering monks of the <a href="/wiki/Sangha_(Buddhism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sangha (Buddhism)">Sangha</a> dedicated to asceticism and the monastic life, wandered from place to place. During the rainy season (cf. <a href="/wiki/Vassa" title="Vassa">vassa</a>) they stayed in temporary shelters. In Buddhist theology relating to rebirth and merit earning, it was considered an act of merit not only to feed a monk but also to shelter him, sumptuous monasteries were created by rich lay devotees. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Architecture">Architecture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vih%C4%81ra&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Architecture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The only substantial remains of very early viharas are in the rock-cut complexes, mostly in north India, the <a href="/wiki/Deccan_Plateau" title="Deccan Plateau">Deccan</a> in particular, but this is an accident of survival. Originally structural viharas of stone or brick would probably have been at least as common everywhere, and the norm in the south. By the second century BCE a standard plan for a vihara was established; these form the majority of Buddhist rock-cut "caves". It consisted of a roughly square rectangular hall, in rock-cut cases, or probably an open court in structural examples, off which there were a number of small cells. Rock-cut cells are often fitted with rock-cut platforms for beds and pillows. The front wall had one or more entrances, and often a <a href="/wiki/Verandah" class="mw-redirect" title="Verandah">verandah</a>. Later the back wall facing the entrance had a fairly small shrine-room, often reached through an ante-chamber. Initially these held <a href="/wiki/Stupa" title="Stupa">stupas</a>, but later a large sculpted <a href="/wiki/Buddha_image" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddha image">Buddha image</a>, sometimes with <a href="/wiki/Relief" title="Relief">reliefs</a> on the walls. The verandah might also have sculpture, and in some cases the walls of the main hall. Paintings were perhaps more common, but these rarely survive, except in a few cases such as Caves 2, 10, 11 and 17 at the <a href="/wiki/Ajanta_Caves" title="Ajanta Caves">Ajanta Caves</a>. As later rock-cut viharas are often on up to three storeys, this was also probably the case with the structural ones.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the vihara acquired a central image, it came to take over the function of the chaitya worship hall, and eventually these ceased to be built. This was despite the rock-cut vihara shrine room usually offering no path for circumambulation or <a href="/wiki/Pradakshina" class="mw-redirect" title="Pradakshina">pradakshina</a>, an important ritual practice.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In early medieval era, Viharas became important institutions and a part of Buddhist <a href="/wiki/Universities" class="mw-redirect" title="Universities">Universities</a> with thousands of students, such as <a href="/wiki/Nalanda" class="mw-redirect" title="Nalanda">Nalanda</a>. Life in "Viharas" was codified early on. It is the object of a part of the <a href="/wiki/Pali_canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Pali canon">Pali canon</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Vinaya" title="Vinaya">Vinaya Pitaka</a> or "basket of monastic discipline". <a href="/wiki/Shalban_Vihara" title="Shalban Vihara">Shalban Vihara</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a> is an example of a structural monastery with 115 cells, where the lower parts of the brick-built structure have been excavated. <a href="/wiki/Somapura_Mahavihara" title="Somapura Mahavihara">Somapura Mahavihara</a>, also in Bangladesh, was a larger vihara, mostly 8th-century, with 177 cells around a huge central temple.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:094_Cave_12,_Vihara_Cells_(34123037202).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/094_Cave_12%2C_Vihara_Cells_%2834123037202%29.jpg/220px-094_Cave_12%2C_Vihara_Cells_%2834123037202%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/094_Cave_12%2C_Vihara_Cells_%2834123037202%29.jpg/330px-094_Cave_12%2C_Vihara_Cells_%2834123037202%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/094_Cave_12%2C_Vihara_Cells_%2834123037202%29.jpg/440px-094_Cave_12%2C_Vihara_Cells_%2834123037202%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5902" data-file-height="3935" /></a><figcaption>Cave 12, <a href="/wiki/Ajanta_Caves" title="Ajanta Caves">Ajanta Caves</a>, cell entries off a vihara hall</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Variants_in_rock-cut_viharas">Variants in rock-cut viharas</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vih%C4%81ra&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Variants in rock-cut viharas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Usually the standard form as described above is followed, but there are some variants. Two vihara halls, Cave 5 at <a href="/wiki/Ellora" class="mw-redirect" title="Ellora">Ellora</a> and Cave 11 at <a href="/wiki/Kanheri" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanheri">Kanheri</a>, have very low platforms running most of the length of the main hall. These were probably used as some combination of benches or tables for dining, desks for study, and possibly beds. They are often termed "dining-hall" or the "<a href="/wiki/Durbar_Hall" class="mw-redirect" title="Durbar Hall">Durbar Hall</a>" at Kanheri, on no good evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cave 11 at the Bedse Caves is a fairly small 1st-century vihara, with nine cells in the interior and originally four around the entrance, and no shrine room. It is distinguished by elaborate <a href="/wiki/Gavaksha" title="Gavaksha">gavaksha</a> and railing relief carving around the cell-doors, but especially by having a rounded roof and <a href="/wiki/Apse" title="Apse">apsidal</a> far end, like a <a href="/wiki/Chaitya" title="Chaitya">chaitya</a> hall.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vih%C4%81ra&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mahabodhitemple.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Mahabodhi Temple" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Mahabodhitemple.jpg/220px-Mahabodhitemple.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Mahabodhitemple.jpg/330px-Mahabodhitemple.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Mahabodhitemple.jpg/440px-Mahabodhitemple.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1944" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mahabodhi_Temple" title="Mahabodhi Temple">Mahabodhi Temple</a> in India.</figcaption></figure> <p>The earliest Buddhist rock-cut cave abodes and sacred places are found in the western Deccan dating back to the 3rd century BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-binda_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-binda-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These earliest rock-cut caves include the <a href="/wiki/Bhaja_Caves" title="Bhaja Caves">Bhaja Caves</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Karla_Caves" title="Karla Caves">Karla Caves</a>, and some of the <a href="/wiki/Ajanta_Caves" title="Ajanta Caves">Ajanta Caves</a>. </p><p>Vihara with central shrine containing devotional images of the Buddha, dated to about the 2nd century CE are found in the northwestern area of <a href="/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gandhara</a>, in sites such as <a href="/wiki/Jaulian" title="Jaulian">Jaulian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kalawan" title="Kalawan">Kalawan</a> (in the <a href="/wiki/Taxila" title="Taxila">Taxila</a> area) or <a href="/wiki/Dharmarajika" class="mw-redirect" title="Dharmarajika">Dharmarajika</a>, which states Behrendt, possibly were the prototypes for the 4th century monasteries such as those at <a href="/wiki/Devnimori" class="mw-redirect" title="Devnimori">Devnimori</a> in <a href="/wiki/Gujarat" title="Gujarat">Gujarat</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Behrendt_170_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Behrendt_170-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is supported by the discovery of clay and bronze Buddha statues, but it is unclear if the statue is of a later date.<sup id="cite_ref-Behrendt_170_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Behrendt_170-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Behrendt, these "must have been the architectural prototype for the later northern and western Buddhist shrines in the Ajanta Caves, <a href="/wiki/Aurangabad,_Maharashtra" class="mw-redirect" title="Aurangabad, Maharashtra">Aurangabad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ellora" class="mw-redirect" title="Ellora">Ellora</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nalanda" class="mw-redirect" title="Nalanda">Nalanda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ratnagiri" title="Ratnagiri">Ratnagiri</a> and other sites".<sup id="cite_ref-Behrendt_170_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Behrendt_170-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Behrendt's proposal follows the model that states the northwestern influences and Kushana era during the 1st and 2nd century CE triggered the development of Buddhist art and monastery designs. In contrast, Susan Huntington states that this late nineteenth and early twentieth century model is increasingly questioned by the discovery of pre-Kushana era Buddha images outside the northwestern territories. Further, states Huntington, "archaeological, literary, and inscriptional evidence" such as those in Madhya Pradesh cast further doubts.<sup id="cite_ref-huntington401_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-huntington401-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Devotional worship of Buddha is traceable, for example, to Bharhut Buddhist monuments dated between 2nd and 1st century BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-huntington401_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-huntington401-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Pandavleni_Caves" class="mw-redirect" title="Pandavleni Caves">Krishna or Kanha Cave</a> (Cave 19) at Nasik has the central hall with connected cells, and it is generally dated to about the 1st century BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The early stone viharas mimicked the timber construction that likely preceded them.<sup id="cite_ref-art_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-art-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Inscriptional evidence on stone and copper plates indicate that Buddhist viharas were often co-built with Hindu and Jain temples. The <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta Empire</a> era witnessed the building of numerous viharas, including those at the Ajanta Caves.<sup id="cite_ref-Asher1980p15_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Asher1980p15-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of these viharas and temples though evidenced in texts and inscriptions are no longer physically found, likely destroyed in later centuries by natural causes or due to war.<sup id="cite_ref-Asher1980p15_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Asher1980p15-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Viharas_as_a_source_of_major_Buddhist_traditions">Viharas as a source of major Buddhist traditions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vih%C4%81ra&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Viharas as a source of major Buddhist traditions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Viharas_in_Thotlakonda,_Visakhapatnam.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Viharas_in_Thotlakonda%2C_Visakhapatnam.jpg/220px-Viharas_in_Thotlakonda%2C_Visakhapatnam.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Viharas_in_Thotlakonda%2C_Visakhapatnam.jpg/330px-Viharas_in_Thotlakonda%2C_Visakhapatnam.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Viharas_in_Thotlakonda%2C_Visakhapatnam.jpg/440px-Viharas_in_Thotlakonda%2C_Visakhapatnam.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="3024" /></a><figcaption>Viharas found at <a href="/wiki/Thotlakonda" title="Thotlakonda">Thotlakonda</a></figcaption></figure> <p>As more people joined Buddhist monastic <i>sangha</i>, the senior monks adopted a code of discipline which came to be known in the <a href="/wiki/Pali_Canon" title="Pali Canon">Pali Canon</a> as the Vinaya texts.<sup id="cite_ref-Silk2008p137_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Silk2008p137-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These texts are mostly concerned with the rules of the <i><a href="/wiki/Sangha_(Buddhism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sangha (Buddhism)">sangha</a></i>. The rules are preceded by stories telling how the Buddha came to lay them down, and followed by explanations and analysis. According to the stories, the rules were devised on an ad hoc basis as the Buddha encountered various behavioral problems or disputes among his followers. Each major early Buddhist tradition had its own variant text of code of discipline for vihara life. Major vihara appointed a <i>vihara-pala</i>, the one who managed the vihara, settled disputes, determined sangha's consent and rules, and forced those hold-outs to this consensus.<sup id="cite_ref-Silk2008p137_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Silk2008p137-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Three early influential monastic fraternities are traceable in Buddhist history.<sup id="cite_ref-Harvey2013p197_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harvey2013p197-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Mahavihara established by Mahinda was the oldest. Later, in 1st century BCE, King Vattagamani donated the Abhayagiri vihara to his favored monk, which led the Mahavihara fraternity to expel that monk.<sup id="cite_ref-Harvey2013p197_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harvey2013p197-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 3rd century CE, this repeated when King Mahasena donated the Jetavana vihara to an individual monk, which led to his expulsion. The Mahinda Mahavihara led to the orthodox Theravada tradition.<sup id="cite_ref-Harvey2013p197_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harvey2013p197-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Abhayagiri vihara monks, rejected and criticized by the orthodox Buddhist monks, were more receptive to heterodox ideas and they nurtured the Mahayana tradition. The Jetavana vihara monks vacillated between the two traditions, blending their ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-Harvey2013p197_31-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harvey2013p197-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Viharas_of_the_Pāla_era"><span id="Viharas_of_the_P.C4.81la_era"></span>Viharas of the Pāla era</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vih%C4%81ra&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Viharas of the Pāla era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shalvan_Vihara,_Mainamati_10_September_2016_34.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Shalvan_Vihara%2C_Mainamati_10_September_2016_34.jpg/220px-Shalvan_Vihara%2C_Mainamati_10_September_2016_34.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Shalvan_Vihara%2C_Mainamati_10_September_2016_34.jpg/330px-Shalvan_Vihara%2C_Mainamati_10_September_2016_34.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Shalvan_Vihara%2C_Mainamati_10_September_2016_34.jpg/440px-Shalvan_Vihara%2C_Mainamati_10_September_2016_34.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4608" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>The ruins of <a href="/wiki/Shalvan_Vihara" class="mw-redirect" title="Shalvan Vihara">Shalvan Vihara</a>, the Buddhist monastery that operated between 7th-12th century in what is now <a href="/wiki/Mainamati" title="Mainamati">Mainamati</a>, Bangladesh.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Vih%C4%81ra" title="Special:EditPage/Vihāra">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2015</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Mahavihara" title="Mahavihara">Mahavihara</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></div> <p>A range of monasteries grew up during the Pāla period in ancient Magadha (modern Bihar) and Bengal. According to Tibetan sources, five great <a href="/wiki/Mahavihara" title="Mahavihara">mahaviharas</a> stood out: <a href="/wiki/Vikramashila" title="Vikramashila">Vikramashila</a>, the premier university of the era; <a href="/wiki/Nalanda" class="mw-redirect" title="Nalanda">Nalanda</a>, past its prime but still illustrious, <a href="/wiki/Somapura_Mahavihara" title="Somapura Mahavihara">Somapura</a>, <a href="/wiki/Odantapuri" title="Odantapuri">Odantapurā</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jagaddala_Mahavihara" title="Jagaddala Mahavihara">Jagaddala</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Sukumar Dutt, the five monasteries formed a network, were supported and supervised by the Pala state. Each of the five had their own seal and operated like a corporation, serving as centers of learning.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other notable monasteries of the <a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pala Empire</a> were Traikuta, Devikota (identified with ancient Kotivarsa, 'modern Bangarh'), and <a href="/wiki/Pandit_Vihara" title="Pandit Vihara">Pandit Vihara</a>. Excavations jointly conducted by the Archaeological Survey of India and University of Burdwan in 1971–1972 to 1974–1975 yielded a Buddhist monastic complex at Monorampur, near Bharatpur via Panagarh Bazar in the <a href="/wiki/Bardhaman" title="Bardhaman">Bardhaman</a> district of West Bengal. The date of the monastery may be ascribed to the early medieval period. Recent excavations at <a href="/wiki/Jagjivanpur" title="Jagjivanpur">Jagjivanpur</a> (Malda district, West Bengal) revealed another Buddhist monastery (<i><a href="/wiki/Nandadirghi_Mahavihara" title="Nandadirghi Mahavihara">Nandadirghika-Udranga Mahavihara</a></i>)<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of the ninth century. </p><p>Nothing of the superstructure has survived. A number of monastic cells facing a rectangular courtyard have been found. A notable feature is the presence of circular corner cells. It is believed that the general layout of the monastic complex at Jagjivanpur is by and large similar to that of Nalanda. Beside these, scattered references to some monasteries are found in epigraphic and other sources. Among them Pullahari (in western Magadha), <a href="/wiki/Halud_Vihara" title="Halud Vihara">Halud Vihara</a> (45 km south of Paharpur), Parikramana vihara and Yashovarmapura vihara (in Bihar) deserve mention. Other important structural complexes have been discovered at <a href="/wiki/Mainamati" title="Mainamati">Mainamati</a> (Comilla district, Bangladesh). Remains of quite a few viharas have been unearthed here and the most elaborate is the <a href="/wiki/Shalban_Vihara" title="Shalban Vihara">Shalban Vihara</a>. The complex consists of a fairly large vihara of the usual plan of four ranges of monastic cells round a central court, with a temple in cruciform plan situated in the centre. According to a legend on a seal (discovered at the site) the founder of the monastery was <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bhavadeva&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bhavadeva (page does not exist)">Bhavadeva</a>, a ruler of the Deva dynasty.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Southeast_Asia">Southeast Asia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vih%C4%81ra&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Southeast Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chiang-Mai_Thailand_Wat-Chedi-Luang-01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Chiang-Mai_Thailand_Wat-Chedi-Luang-01.jpg/220px-Chiang-Mai_Thailand_Wat-Chedi-Luang-01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Chiang-Mai_Thailand_Wat-Chedi-Luang-01.jpg/330px-Chiang-Mai_Thailand_Wat-Chedi-Luang-01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Chiang-Mai_Thailand_Wat-Chedi-Luang-01.jpg/440px-Chiang-Mai_Thailand_Wat-Chedi-Luang-01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5955" data-file-height="4480" /></a><figcaption>Vihara, locally called <i>wihan</i>, of <a href="/wiki/Wat_Chedi_Luang" title="Wat Chedi Luang">Wat Chedi Luang</a> in Northern <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a></figcaption></figure> <p>As Buddhism spread in Southeast Asia, monasteries were built by local kings. The term <i>vihara</i> is still sometimes used to refer to the monasteries/temples, also known as <i><a href="/wiki/Wat" title="Wat">wat</a></i>, but in Thailand it also took on a narrower meaning referring to certain buildings in the temple complex. The <i>wihan</i> is a building, apart from the main <i><a href="/wiki/Ubosot" class="mw-redirect" title="Ubosot">ubosot</a></i> (ordination hall) in which a Buddha image is enshrined.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In many temples, the <i>wihan</i> serves as a sermon hall or an assembly hall where ceremonies, such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Kathina" class="mw-redirect" title="Kathina">kathina</a></i>, are held.<sup id="cite_ref-Swearer1995p23_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Swearer1995p23-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of these Theravada viharas feature a Buddha image that is considered sacred after it is formally consecrated by the monks.<sup id="cite_ref-Swearer1995p23_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Swearer1995p23-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Image_gallery">Image gallery</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vih%C4%81ra&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Image gallery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 227.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 225.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Play_of_light_in_ajanta_caves.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Cave 4, Ajanta Caves"><img alt="Cave 4, Ajanta Caves" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Play_of_light_in_ajanta_caves.jpg/338px-Play_of_light_in_ajanta_caves.jpg" decoding="async" width="226" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Play_of_light_in_ajanta_caves.jpg/507px-Play_of_light_in_ajanta_caves.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Play_of_light_in_ajanta_caves.jpg/675px-Play_of_light_in_ajanta_caves.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Cave 4, <a href="/wiki/Ajanta_Caves" title="Ajanta Caves">Ajanta Caves</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 202px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kanheri-vihara.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Entrance to a vihara hall at Kanheri Caves"><img alt="Entrance to a vihara hall at Kanheri Caves" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Kanheri-vihara.jpg/300px-Kanheri-vihara.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/Kanheri-vihara.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Entrance to a vihara hall at <a href="/wiki/Kanheri_Caves" title="Kanheri Caves">Kanheri Caves</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 202px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kanheri-cave-90.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wall carvings at Kanheri Caves"><img alt="Wall carvings at Kanheri Caves" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Kanheri-cave-90.jpg/300px-Kanheri-cave-90.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Kanheri-cave-90.jpg/451px-Kanheri-cave-90.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Kanheri-cave-90.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="450" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Wall carvings at Kanheri Caves</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 202px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kanheri-beds.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Simple slab abode beds in vihara at Kanheri Caves"><img alt="Simple slab abode beds in vihara at Kanheri Caves" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Kanheri-beds.jpg/300px-Kanheri-beds.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Kanheri-beds.jpg/451px-Kanheri-beds.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/Kanheri-beds.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="375" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Simple slab abode beds in vihara at Kanheri Caves</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 227.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 225.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:029_Doorways_in_the_Vihara_(32849645854).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Doorways of a Vihara, Bedse Caves"><img alt="Doorways of a Vihara, Bedse Caves" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/029_Doorways_in_the_Vihara_%2832849645854%29.jpg/338px-029_Doorways_in_the_Vihara_%2832849645854%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="226" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/029_Doorways_in_the_Vihara_%2832849645854%29.jpg/507px-029_Doorways_in_the_Vihara_%2832849645854%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/029_Doorways_in_the_Vihara_%2832849645854%29.jpg/675px-029_Doorways_in_the_Vihara_%2832849645854%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Doorways of a Vihara, <a href="/wiki/Bedse_Caves" title="Bedse Caves">Bedse Caves</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vih%C4%81ra&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lumbini_Buddhist_University#Global" title="Lumbini Buddhist University">List of Buddhist universities across the world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashram" title="Ashram">Ashram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bahal,_Nepal" title="Bahal, Nepal">Bahal, Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahma-vihara" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahma-vihara">Brahma-vihara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gal_Vihara" title="Gal Vihara">Gal Vihara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyaung" title="Kyaung">Kyaung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahavihara" title="Mahavihara">Mahavihara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahiyangana_Raja_Maha_Vihara" title="Mahiyangana Raja Maha Vihara">Mahiyangana Raja Maha Vihara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nava_Vihara" title="Nava Vihara">Nava Vihara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tissamaharama_Raja_Maha_Vihara" title="Tissamaharama Raja Maha Vihara">Tissamaharama Raja Maha Vihara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vihara_Buddhagaya_Watugong" title="Vihara Buddhagaya Watugong">Vihara Buddhagaya Watugong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wat" title="Wat">Wat</a> – Buddhist temple in Cambodia, Laos or Thailand.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vih%C4%81ra&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSharon_La_Boda1994" class="citation book cs1">Sharon La Boda (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JqHPpNaZfNwC&pg=PA625"><i>International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. p. 625. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-884964-04-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-884964-04-6"><bdi>978-1-884964-04-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=International+Dictionary+of+Historic+Places%3A+Asia+and+Oceania&rft.pages=625&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-1-884964-04-6&rft.au=Sharon+La+Boda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJqHPpNaZfNwC%26pg%3DPA625&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVih%C4%81ra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mmwvihara-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mmwvihara_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mmwvihara_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mmwvihara_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mmwvihara_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/1000/mw__1036.html">Vihara</a>, Monier Monier Williams, Sanskrit-English Dictionary Etymologically Arranged, Oxford University Press, p. 1003</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lahiri2015p181-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lahiri2015p181_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lahiri2015p181_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lahiri2015p181_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"He now undertook what were described as 'dharma yatras' instead of the usual royal 'vihara yatras'. Vihara yatras were marked by pleasures such as the hunt" in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNayanjot_Lahiri2015" class="citation book cs1">Nayanjot Lahiri (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bJ_XCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA181"><i>Ashoka in Ancient India</i></a>. Harvard University Press. pp. 181–183. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-91525-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-91525-1"><bdi>978-0-674-91525-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ashoka+in+Ancient+India&rft.pages=181-183&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-674-91525-1&rft.au=Nayanjot+Lahiri&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbJ_XCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA181&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVih%C4%81ra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kramrisch1946p137-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kramrisch1946p137_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kramrisch1946p137_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStella_Kramrisch1946" class="citation book cs1">Stella Kramrisch (1946). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NNcXrBlI9S0C&pg=PA137"><i>The Hindu Temple</i></a>. Princeton University Press (Reprint: Motilal Banarsidass). pp. 137–138. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0223-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0223-0"><bdi>978-81-208-0223-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Hindu+Temple&rft.pages=137-138&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press+%28Reprint%3A+Motilal+Banarsidass%29&rft.date=1946&rft.isbn=978-81-208-0223-0&rft.au=Stella+Kramrisch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNNcXrBlI9S0C%26pg%3DPA137&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVih%C4%81ra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dundas2003p203-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dundas2003p203_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dundas2003p203_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaul_Dundas2003" class="citation book cs1">Paul Dundas (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ"><i>The Jains</i></a>. Routledge. pp. 203–204. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-134-50165-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-134-50165-X"><bdi>1-134-50165-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jains&rft.pages=203-204&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=1-134-50165-X&rft.au=Paul+Dundas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DX8iAAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVih%C4%81ra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gomaṭeśvara sahasrābdī mahotsava darśana, Niraj Jain, Śravaṇabelagola Digambara Jaina Muzaraī Insṭīṭyuśaṃsa Mainejiṅga Kameṭī, 1984, p. 265</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tulasī prajñā, Jaina Viśva Bhāratī, 1984, p. 29</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michell, George, <i>The Penguin Guide to the Monuments of India, Volume 1: Buddhist, Jain, Hindu</i>, p. 67 and see individual entries, 1989, Penguin Books, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0140081445" title="Special:BookSources/0140081445">0140081445</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-palivihara-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-palivihara_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-palivihara_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-palivihara_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/contextualize.pl?p.3.pali.1288899">Vihara</a>, Pali English Dictionary, T. W. Rhys Davids, William Stede, editors; Pali Text Society; p. 642</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Smith1998p151-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Smith1998p151_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrian_K._Smith1998" class="citation book cs1">Brian K. Smith (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nkruE6UCz54C&pg=PA151"><i>Reflections on Resemblance, Ritual, and Religion</i></a>. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 151–152. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1532-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1532-2"><bdi>978-81-208-1532-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reflections+on+Resemblance%2C+Ritual%2C+and+Religion&rft.pages=151-152&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-81-208-1532-2&rft.au=Brian+K.+Smith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnkruE6UCz54C%26pg%3DPA151&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVih%C4%81ra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_PowersDavid_Templeman2012" class="citation book cs1">John Powers; David Templeman (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LVlyX6iSDEQC&pg=PA204"><i>Historical Dictionary of Tibet</i></a>. Scarecrow. pp. 204–205. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-7984-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-7984-3"><bdi>978-0-8108-7984-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+Tibet&rft.pages=204-205&rft.pub=Scarecrow&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-8108-7984-3&rft.au=John+Powers&rft.au=David+Templeman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLVlyX6iSDEQC%26pg%3DPA204&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVih%C4%81ra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarl_H._Potter2003" class="citation book cs1">Karl H. Potter (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5WHHJ6O7b-IC&pg=PA265"><i>Buddhist Philosophy from 350 to 600 A.D.</i></a> Motilal Banarsidass. p. 265. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1968-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1968-9"><bdi>978-81-208-1968-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buddhist+Philosophy+from+350+to+600+A.D.&rft.pages=265&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-81-208-1968-9&rft.au=Karl+H.+Potter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5WHHJ6O7b-IC%26pg%3DPA265&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVih%C4%81ra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CIB-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CIB_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CIB_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CIB_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeckwith2014" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Beckwith" class="mw-redirect" title="Christopher Beckwith">Beckwith, Christopher I.</a> (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/19612033">"The Aramaic source of the East Asian word for 'Buddhist monastery': on the spread of Central Asian monasticism in the Kushan Period (2014)"</a>. <i>Journal Asiatique</i>. <b>302</b> (1): 111–138.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+Asiatique&rft.atitle=The+Aramaic+source+of+the+East+Asian+word+for+%27Buddhist+monastery%27%3A+on+the+spread+of+Central+Asian+monasticism+in+the+Kushan+Period+%282014%29&rft.volume=302&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=111-138&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Beckwith&rft.aufirst=Christopher+I.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F19612033&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVih%C4%81ra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AllchinErdosy1995-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AllchinErdosy1995_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AllchinErdosy1995_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AllchinErdosy1995_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AllchinErdosy1995_14-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFF._R._AllchinGeorge_Erdosy1995" class="citation book cs1">F. R. Allchin; George Erdosy (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5kI02_zW70C"><i>The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 247–249. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-37695-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-37695-2"><bdi>978-0-521-37695-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Archaeology+of+Early+Historic+South+Asia%3A+The+Emergence+of+Cities+and+States&rft.pages=247-249&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-521-37695-2&rft.au=F.+R.+Allchin&rft.au=George+Erdosy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQ5kI02_zW70C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVih%C4%81ra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gwynne2017-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gwynne2017_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaul_Gwynne2017" class="citation book cs1">Paul Gwynne (30 May 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sU8nDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA51"><i>World Religions in Practice: A Comparative Introduction</i></a>. Wiley. pp. 51–52. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-97228-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-97228-1"><bdi>978-1-118-97228-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+Religions+in+Practice%3A+A+Comparative+Introduction&rft.pages=51-52&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2017-05-30&rft.isbn=978-1-118-97228-1&rft.au=Paul+Gwynne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsU8nDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA51&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVih%C4%81ra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jain1991p66-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Jain1991p66_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKailash_Chand_Jain1991" class="citation book cs1">Kailash Chand Jain (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8-TxcO9dfrcC&pg=PA66"><i>Lord Mahāvīra and His Times</i></a>. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0805-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0805-8"><bdi>978-81-208-0805-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lord+Mah%C4%81v%C4%ABra+and+His+Times&rft.pages=66&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-81-208-0805-8&rft.au=Kailash+Chand+Jain&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8-TxcO9dfrcC%26pg%3DPA66&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVih%C4%81ra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFF._R._AllchinGeorge_Erdosy1995" class="citation book cs1">F. R. Allchin; George Erdosy (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5kI02_zW70C"><i>The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 240–246. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-37695-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-37695-2"><bdi>978-0-521-37695-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Archaeology+of+Early+Historic+South+Asia%3A+The+Emergence+of+Cities+and+States&rft.pages=240-246&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-521-37695-2&rft.au=F.+R.+Allchin&rft.au=George+Erdosy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQ5kI02_zW70C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVih%C4%81ra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bronkhorst2011p96-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bronkhorst2011p96_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bronkhorst2011p96_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohannes_Bronkhorst2011" class="citation book cs1">Johannes Bronkhorst (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BaX58-E5-3MC"><i>Buddhism in the Shadow of Brahmanism</i></a>. Brill Academic. pp. 96–97 with footnotes. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-20140-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-20140-8"><bdi>978-90-04-20140-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buddhism+in+the+Shadow+of+Brahmanism&rft.pages=96-97+with+footnotes&rft.pub=Brill+Academic&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-90-04-20140-8&rft.au=Johannes+Bronkhorst&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBaX58-E5-3MC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVih%C4%81ra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harle, 48, 54–56, 119–120; Michell, 67</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harle, 132; Michell, 67</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michell, 359, 374</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michell, 351–352</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-binda-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-binda_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThapar2004" class="citation book cs1">Thapar, Binda (2004). <i>Introduction to Indian Architecture</i>. Singapore: Periplus Editions. p. 34. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7946-0011-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-7946-0011-5"><bdi>0-7946-0011-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Indian+Architecture&rft.place=Singapore&rft.pages=34&rft.pub=Periplus+Editions&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-7946-0011-5&rft.aulast=Thapar&rft.aufirst=Binda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVih%C4%81ra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Behrendt_170-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Behrendt_170_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Behrendt_170_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Behrendt_170_24-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBehrendt2004" class="citation book cs1">Behrendt, Kurt A. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=C9_vbgkzUSkC&pg=PA168"><i>Handbuch der Orientalistik</i></a>. Brill. pp. 168–171. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9004135952" title="Special:BookSources/9004135952"><bdi>9004135952</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbuch+der+Orientalistik&rft.pages=168-171&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9004135952&rft.aulast=Behrendt&rft.aufirst=Kurt+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DC9_vbgkzUSkC%26pg%3DPA168&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVih%C4%81ra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-huntington401-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-huntington401_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-huntington401_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Susan L. Huntington (1990), Early Buddhist Art and the Theory of Aniconism, Art Journal, Volume 49, 1990. Issue 4: New Approaches to South Asian Art, pp. 401–408</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHimanshu_Prabha_Ray2017" class="citation book cs1">Himanshu Prabha Ray (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=A-wrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT66"><i>Archaeology and Buddhism in South Asia</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. pp. 66–67. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-351-39432-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-351-39432-1"><bdi>978-1-351-39432-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Archaeology+and+Buddhism+in+South+Asia&rft.pages=66-67&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-351-39432-1&rft.au=Himanshu+Prabha+Ray&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DA-wrDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT66&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVih%C4%81ra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPia_Brancaccio2010" class="citation book cs1">Pia Brancaccio (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m_4pXm7dD78C"><i>The Buddhist Caves at Aurangabad: Transformations in Art and Religion</i></a>. Brill Academic. pp. 61 with footnote 80. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-18525-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-18525-8"><bdi>978-90-04-18525-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Buddhist+Caves+at+Aurangabad%3A+Transformations+in+Art+and+Religion&rft.pages=61+with+footnote+80&rft.pub=Brill+Academic&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-90-04-18525-8&rft.au=Pia+Brancaccio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dm_4pXm7dD78C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVih%C4%81ra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-art-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-art_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.art-and-archaeology.com/india/ajanta/aja02.html">"Entrance Cave 9, Ajanta"</a>. art-and-archaeology.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-03-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Entrance+Cave+9%2C+Ajanta&rft.pub=art-and-archaeology.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.art-and-archaeology.com%2Findia%2Fajanta%2Faja02.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVih%C4%81ra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Asher1980p15-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Asher1980p15_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Asher1980p15_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrederick_M._Asher1980" class="citation book cs1">Frederick M. Asher (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=d-gGxzx6wxIC&pg=PA15"><i>The Art of Eastern India: 300 –800</i></a>. University of Minnesota Press. pp. 15–16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4529-1225-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4529-1225-7"><bdi>978-1-4529-1225-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+Eastern+India%3A+300+%E2%80%93800&rft.pages=15-16&rft.pub=University+of+Minnesota+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-1-4529-1225-7&rft.au=Frederick+M.+Asher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dd-gGxzx6wxIC%26pg%3DPA15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVih%C4%81ra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Silk2008p137-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Silk2008p137_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Silk2008p137_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJonathan_A._Silk2008" class="citation book cs1">Jonathan A. Silk (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3RYTDAAAQBAJ"><i>Managing Monks: Administrators and Administrative Roles in Indian Buddhist Monasticism</i></a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 39–58, 137–158. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-532684-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-532684-0"><bdi>978-0-19-532684-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Managing+Monks%3A+Administrators+and+Administrative+Roles+in+Indian+Buddhist+Monasticism&rft.pages=39-58%2C+137-158&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-19-532684-0&rft.au=Jonathan+A.+Silk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3RYTDAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVih%C4%81ra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Harvey2013p197-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Harvey2013p197_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harvey2013p197_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harvey2013p197_31-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harvey2013p197_31-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_Harvey2013" class="citation book cs1">Peter Harvey (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=u0sg9LV_rEgC"><i>An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 197–198. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-85942-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-85942-4"><bdi>978-0-521-85942-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Buddhism%3A+Teachings%2C+History+and+Practices&rft.pages=197-198&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-521-85942-4&rft.au=Peter+Harvey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Du0sg9LV_rEgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVih%C4%81ra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSusan_L._Huntington1984" class="citation book cs1">Susan L. Huntington (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xLA3AAAAIAAJ"><i>The "Påala-Sena" Schools of Sculpture</i></a>. Brill. pp. 164–165. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-06856-2" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-06856-2"><bdi>90-04-06856-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+%22P%C3%A5ala-Sena%22+Schools+of+Sculpture&rft.pages=164-165&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=90-04-06856-2&rft.au=Susan+L.+Huntington&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxLA3AAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVih%C4%81ra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEnglish2002" class="citation book cs1">English, Elizabeth (2002). <i>Vajrayogini: Her Visualization, Rituals, and Forms</i>. Wisdom Publications. p. 15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86171-329-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-86171-329-X"><bdi>0-86171-329-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vajrayogini%3A+Her+Visualization%2C+Rituals%2C+and+Forms&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=Wisdom+Publications&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-86171-329-X&rft.aulast=English&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVih%C4%81ra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDutt1962" class="citation book cs1">Dutt, Sukumar (1962). <i>Buddhist Monks And Monasteries Of India: Their History And Contribution To Indian Culture</i>. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd. pp. 352–353. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/372316">372316</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buddhist+Monks+And+Monasteries+Of+India%3A+Their+History+And+Contribution+To+Indian+Culture&rft.place=London&rft.pages=352-353&rft.pub=George+Allen+and+Unwin+Ltd&rft.date=1962&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F372316&rft.aulast=Dutt&rft.aufirst=Sukumar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVih%C4%81ra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090809033739/http://www.tathyabangla.org.in/public/i_cadeprt/archeology/arch3.asp">"Jagjivanpur, A newly discovered Buddhist site in west Bengal"</a>. Information & Cultural Affairs Department, Government of West Bengal. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tathyabangla.org.in/public/i_cadeprt/archeology/arch3.asp">the original</a> on 9 August 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jagjivanpur%2C+A+newly+discovered+Buddhist+site+in+west+Bengal&rft.pub=Information+%26+Cultural+Affairs+Department%2C+Government+of+West+Bengal&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tathyabangla.org.in%2Fpublic%2Fi_cadeprt%2Farcheology%2Farch3.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVih%C4%81ra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDöhring2000" class="citation book cs1">Döhring, Karl (2000). <i>Buddhist temples of Thailand : An Architectonic Introduction</i>. Translated by Tips, Walter E. J. White Lotus Press. pp. 26–27. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789747534405" title="Special:BookSources/9789747534405"><bdi>9789747534405</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buddhist+temples+of+Thailand+%3A+An+Architectonic+Introduction&rft.pages=26-27&rft.pub=White+Lotus+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9789747534405&rft.aulast=D%C3%B6hring&rft.aufirst=Karl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVih%C4%81ra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Swearer1995p23-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Swearer1995p23_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Swearer1995p23_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonald_K._Swearer1995" class="citation book cs1">Donald K. Swearer (1995). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/buddhistworldofs0000swea"><i>The Buddhist World of Southeast Asia</i></a></span>. State University of New York Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/buddhistworldofs0000swea/page/23">23</a>–27. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-2165-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-2165-0"><bdi>978-1-4384-2165-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Buddhist+World+of+Southeast+Asia&rft.pages=23-27&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-1-4384-2165-0&rft.au=Donald+K.+Swearer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbuddhistworldofs0000swea&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVih%C4%81ra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_Harvey2013" class="citation book cs1">Peter Harvey (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=u0sg9LV_rEgC"><i>An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 260–262. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-85942-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-85942-4"><bdi>978-0-521-85942-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Buddhism%3A+Teachings%2C+History+and+Practices&rft.pages=260-262&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-521-85942-4&rft.au=Peter+Harvey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Du0sg9LV_rEgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVih%C4%81ra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vih%C4%81ra&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Chakrabarti, Dilip K. (October 1995). "Buddhist Sites across South Asia as Influenced by Political and Economic Forces". <i>World Archaeology</i>. <b>27</b> (2): 185–202. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00438243.1995.9980303">10.1080/00438243.1995.9980303</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/125081">125081</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=World+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Buddhist+Sites+across+South+Asia+as+Influenced+by+Political+and+Economic+Forces&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=185-202&rft.date=1995-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00438243.1995.9980303&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F125081%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Chakrabarti&rft.aufirst=Dilip+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVih%C4%81ra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Harle, J.C., <i>The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent</i>, 2nd edn. 1994, Yale University Press Pelican History of Art, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0300062176" title="Special:BookSources/0300062176">0300062176</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Khettry, Sarita (2006). <i>Buddhism in North-Western India: Up to C. A.D. 650</i>. Kolkata: R.N. Bhattacharya. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-87661-57-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-87661-57-3"><bdi>978-81-87661-57-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buddhism+in+North-Western+India%3A+Up+to+C.+A.D.+650&rft.place=Kolkata&rft.pub=R.N.+Bhattacharya&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-81-87661-57-3&rft.aulast=Khettry&rft.aufirst=Sarita&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVih%C4%81ra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Michell, George, <i>The Penguin Guide to the Monuments of India, Volume 1: Buddhist, Jain, Hindu</i>, 1989, Penguin Books, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0140081445" title="Special:BookSources/0140081445">0140081445</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Mitra, D. (1971). <i>Buddhist Monuments</i>. Calcutta: Sahitya Samsad. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89684-490-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-89684-490-0"><bdi>0-89684-490-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buddhist+Monuments&rft.place=Calcutta&rft.pub=Sahitya+Samsad&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=0-89684-490-0&rft.aulast=Mitra&rft.aufirst=D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVih%C4%81ra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Rajan, K.V. Soundara (1998). <i>Rock-cut Temple Styles: Early Pandyan Art and The Ellora Shrines</i>. Mumbai: Somaiya Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-7039-218-7" title="Special:BookSources/81-7039-218-7"><bdi>81-7039-218-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rock-cut+Temple+Styles%3A+Early+Pandyan+Art+and+The+Ellora+Shrines&rft.place=Mumbai&rft.pub=Somaiya+Publications&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=81-7039-218-7&rft.aulast=Rajan&rft.aufirst=K.V.+Soundara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVih%C4%81ra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Tadgell, C. (1990). <i>The History of Architecture in India: From the Dawn of Civilization to the End of the Raj</i>. London: Phaidon. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85454-350-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-85454-350-4"><bdi>1-85454-350-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Architecture+in+India%3A+From+the+Dawn+of+Civilization+to+the+End+of+the+Raj&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Phaidon&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=1-85454-350-4&rft.aulast=Tadgell&rft.aufirst=C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVih%C4%81ra" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vih%C4%81ra&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Viharas" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Viharas">Viharas</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://accesstoinsight.org/lib/bps/wheels/wheel206/rains.html">Lay Buddhist Practice: The Rains Residence</a> – <i>A short article on the meaning of Vassa, and its observation by lay Buddhists.</i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://monastic-asia.wikidot.com/">Mapping Buddhist Monasteries</a> A project aiming to catalogue, crosscheck, verify and interrelate, tag and georeference, chronoreference and map online (using KML markup & Google Maps technology).</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Buddhism.svg/38px-Flag_of_Buddhism.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Buddhism.svg/50px-Flag_of_Buddhism.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #FFD068;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Buddhism" title="Outline of Buddhism">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Buddhism" title="Glossary of Buddhism">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Buddhism-related_articles" title="Index of Buddhism-related articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Buddhism" title="Outline of Buddhism">Foundations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Noble_Truths" title="Four Noble Truths">Four Noble Truths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refuge_in_Buddhism" title="Refuge in Buddhism">Three Jewels</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">Buddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sangha" title="Sangha">Sangha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path" title="Noble Eightfold Path">Noble Eightfold Path</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">Nirvana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Way" title="Middle Way">Middle Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">The Buddha</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tath%C4%81gata" title="Tathāgata">Tathāgata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha%27s_Birthday" title="Buddha's Birthday">Birthday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_sights" title="Four sights">Four sights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Eight_Great_Events_in_the_Life_of_Buddha" title="The Eight Great Events in the Life of Buddha">Eight Great Events</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Renunciation" title="Great Renunciation">Great Renunciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_characteristics_of_the_Buddha" title="Physical characteristics of the Buddha">Physical characteristics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_of_Buddha_in_art" title="Life of Buddha in art">Life of Buddha in art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha_footprint" title="Buddha footprint">Footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relics_associated_with_Buddha" title="Relics associated with Buddha">Relics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iconography_of_Gautama_Buddha_in_Laos_and_Thailand" title="Iconography of Gautama Buddha in Laos and Thailand">Iconography in Laos and Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depictions_of_Gautama_Buddha_in_film" title="Depictions of Gautama Buddha in film">Films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracles_of_Gautama_Buddha" title="Miracles of Gautama Buddha">Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_of_Gautama_Buddha" title="Family of Gautama Buddha">Family</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Auddhodana" title="Śuddhodana">Suddhodāna <small>(father)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_(mother_of_the_Buddha)" title="Maya (mother of the Buddha)">Māyā <small>(mother)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahapajapati_Gotami" title="Mahapajapati Gotami">Mahapajapati Gotamī<small> (aunt, adoptive mother)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ya%C5%9Bodhar%C4%81" title="Yaśodharā">Yaśodharā <small>(wife)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C4%81hula" title="Rāhula">Rāhula <small>(son)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80nanda" title="Ānanda">Ānanda <small>(cousin)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devadatta" title="Devadatta">Devadatta <small>(cousin)</small></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_places_where_Gautama_Buddha_stayed" title="List of places where Gautama Buddha stayed">Places where the Buddha stayed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha_in_world_religions" title="Gautama Buddha in world religions">Buddha in world religions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattvas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avalokite%C5%9Bvara" title="Avalokiteśvara">Avalokiteśvara</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guanyin" title="Guanyin">Guanyin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manjushri" title="Manjushri">Mañjuśrī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahasthamaprapta" title="Mahasthamaprapta">Mahāsthāmaprāpta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80k%C4%81%C5%9Bagarbha" title="Ākāśagarbha">Ākāśagarbha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%E1%B9%A3itigarbha" title="Kṣitigarbha">Kṣitigarbha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samantabhadra_(Bodhisattva)" title="Samantabhadra (Bodhisattva)">Samantabhadra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrapani" title="Vajrapani">Vajrapāṇi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skanda_(Buddhism)" title="Skanda (Buddhism)">Skanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tara_(Buddhism)" title="Tara (Buddhism)">Tārā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maitreya" title="Maitreya">Metteyya/Maitreya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Disciples_of_Gautama_Buddha" title="Category:Disciples of Gautama Buddha">Disciples</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kaundinya" title="Kaundinya">Kaundinya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assaji" title="Assaji">Assaji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C4%81riputra" title="Śāriputra">Sāriputta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maudgalyayana" title="Maudgalyayana">Mahamoggallāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80nanda" title="Ānanda">Ānanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81k%C4%81%C5%9Byapa" title="Mahākāśyapa">Mahākassapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%E1%B9%85gulim%C4%81la" title="Aṅgulimāla">Aṅgulimāla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anuruddha" title="Anuruddha">Anuruddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katyayana_(Buddhist)" title="Katyayana (Buddhist)">Mahākaccana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanda_(half-brother_of_Buddha)" title="Nanda (half-brother of Buddha)">Nanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subh%C5%ABti" title="Subhūti">Subhūti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pu%E1%B9%87%E1%B9%87a_Mant%C4%81n%C4%ABputta" title="Puṇṇa Mantānīputta">Puṇṇa Mantānīputta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Up%C4%81li" title="Upāli">Upāli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahapajapati_Gotami" title="Mahapajapati Gotami">Mahapajapati Gotamī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khema" title="Khema">Khema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uppalavanna" title="Uppalavanna">Uppalavanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asita" title="Asita">Asita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Channa_(Buddhist)" title="Channa (Buddhist)">Channa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yasa" title="Yasa">Yasa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Buddhism" title="Glossary of Buddhism">Key concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avidy%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Avidyā (Buddhism)">Avidyā (Ignorance)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bardo" title="Bardo">Bardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhicitta" title="Bodhicitta">Bodhicitta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha-nature" title="Buddha-nature">Buddha-nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhamma_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhamma theory">Dhamma theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_hindrances" title="Five hindrances">Five hindrances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indriya" title="Indriya">Indriya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karma_in_Buddhism" title="Karma in Buddhism">Karma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleshas_(Buddhism)" title="Kleshas (Buddhism)">Kleshas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_factors_(Buddhism)" title="Mental factors (Buddhism)">Mental factors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mindstream" title="Mindstream">Mindstream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parinirvana" title="Parinirvana">Parinirvana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da" title="Pratītyasamutpāda">Pratītyasamutpāda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebirth_(Buddhism)" title="Rebirth (Buddhism)">Rebirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra_(Buddhism)" title="Saṃsāra (Buddhism)">Saṃsāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%85kh%C4%81ra" title="Saṅkhāra">Saṅkhāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skandha" title="Skandha">Skandha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ta%E1%B9%87h%C4%81" title="Taṇhā">Taṇhā (Craving)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tath%C4%81t%C4%81" title="Tathātā">Tathātā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fetter_(Buddhism)" title="Fetter (Buddhism)">Ten Fetters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_marks_of_existence" title="Three marks of existence">Three marks of existence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Impermanence_(Buddhism)" title="Impermanence (Buddhism)">Anicca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Du%E1%B8%A5kha" title="Duḥkha">Dukkha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatt%C4%81" title="Anattā">Anattā</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_truths_doctrine" title="Two truths doctrine">Two truths doctrine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_cosmology" title="Buddhist cosmology">Cosmology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ten_realms" title="Ten realms">Ten spiritual realms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six_Paths" title="Six Paths">Six Paths</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deva_(Buddhism)" title="Deva (Buddhism)">Deva realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_beings_in_Buddhism" title="Human beings in Buddhism">Human realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asura_(Buddhism)" title="Asura (Buddhism)">Asura realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preta" title="Preta">Hungry Ghost realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animals_in_Buddhism" title="Animals in Buddhism">Animal realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naraka_(Buddhism)" title="Naraka (Buddhism)">Naraka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trailokya" title="Trailokya">Three planes of existence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Buddhism" title="Schools of Buddhism">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chinese Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Zen" title="Japanese Zen">Japanese Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Seon" title="Korean Seon">Korean Seon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thi%E1%BB%81n" title="Thiền">Vietnamese Thiền</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Pure Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rissh%C5%AB_(Buddhism)" title="Risshū (Buddhism)">Risshū</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nichiren_Buddhism" title="Nichiren Buddhism">Nichiren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogachara</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Esoteric_Buddhism" title="Chinese Esoteric Buddhism">Chinese Esoteric Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shingon_Buddhism" title="Shingon Buddhism">Shingon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzogchen" title="Dzogchen">Dzogchen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navayana" title="Navayana">Navayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_schools" title="Early Buddhist schools">Early Buddhist schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-sectarian_Buddhism" title="Pre-sectarian Buddhism">Pre-sectarian Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_points_unifying_Therav%C4%81da_and_Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na" title="Basic points unifying Theravāda and Mahāyāna">Basic points unifying Theravāda and Mahāyāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern,_Eastern_and_Northern_Buddhism" title="Southern, Eastern and Northern Buddhism">Southern, Eastern and Northern Buddhism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Buddhist_practices" title="Category:Buddhist practices">Practices</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhavana" title="Bhavana">Bhavana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhipakkhiy%C4%81dhamm%C4%81" title="Bodhipakkhiyādhammā">Bodhipakkhiyādhammā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmavihara" title="Brahmavihara">Brahmavihara</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maitr%C4%AB" title="Maitrī">Mettā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karu%E1%B9%87%C4%81" title="Karuṇā">Karuṇā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudita" title="Mudita">Mudita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upek%E1%B9%A3%C4%81" title="Upekṣā">Upekkha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddh%C4%81bhi%E1%B9%A3eka" title="Buddhābhiṣeka">Buddhābhiṣeka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C4%81na" title="Dāna">Dāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_devotion" title="Buddhist devotion">Devotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deity_yoga" title="Deity yoga">Deity yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhyana_in_Buddhism" title="Dhyana in Buddhism">Dhyāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_in_Buddhism" title="Faith in Buddhism">Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Strengths" title="Five Strengths">Five Strengths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iddhipada" title="Iddhipada">Iddhipada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_meditation" title="Buddhist meditation">Meditation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mantra#Buddhism" title="Mantra">Mantras</a></li> <li><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Kamma%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADh%C4%81na" title="Kammaṭṭhāna">Kammaṭṭhāna</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anussati" title="Anussati">Recollection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simran" title="Simran">Smarana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anapanasati" title="Anapanasati">Anapanasati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samatha-vipassan%C4%81" title="Samatha-vipassanā">Samatha-vipassanā</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vipassana_movement" title="Vipassana movement">Vipassana movement</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shikantaza" title="Shikantaza">Shikantaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zazen" title="Zazen">Zazen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tukdam" title="Tukdam">Tukdam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koan" title="Koan">Koan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganana" title="Ganana">Ganana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandala" title="Mandala">Mandala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonglen" title="Tonglen">Tonglen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tantra" title="Tantra">Tantra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tert%C3%B6n" title="Tertön">Tertön</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terma_(religion)" title="Terma (religion)">Terma</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merit_(Buddhism)" title="Merit (Buddhism)">Merit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mindfulness" title="Mindfulness">Mindfulness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mindful_Yoga" title="Mindful Yoga">Mindful Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satipatthana" title="Satipatthana">Satipatthana</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nekkhamma" title="Nekkhamma">Nekkhamma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nianfo" title="Nianfo">Nianfo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81ramit%C4%81" title="Pāramitā">Pāramitā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paritta" title="Paritta">Paritta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_devotion" title="Buddhist devotion">Puja</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Offering_(Buddhism)" title="Offering (Buddhism)">Offerings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostration_(Buddhism)" title="Prostration (Buddhism)">Prostration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_music" title="Buddhist music">Music</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refuge_in_Buddhism" title="Refuge in Buddhism">Refuge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C4%81dhu_(Pali_word)" title="Sādhu (Pali word)">Sādhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satya" title="Satya">Satya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sacca" title="Sacca">Sacca</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Factors_of_Awakening" title="Seven Factors of Awakening">Seven Factors of Enlightenment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sati_(Buddhism)" title="Sati (Buddhism)">Sati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhamma_vicaya" title="Dhamma vicaya">Dhamma vicaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%ABti" title="Pīti">Pīti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passaddhi" title="Passaddhi">Passaddhi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Śīla</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Five_precepts" title="Five precepts">Five precepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight_precepts" title="Eight precepts">Eight precepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva_vow" title="Bodhisattva vow">Bodhisattva vow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pratimok%E1%B9%A3a" title="Pratimokṣa">Pratimokṣa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Threefold_Training" title="Threefold Training">Threefold Training</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Śīla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samadhi" title="Samadhi">Samadhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Prajñā (Buddhism)">Prajñā</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C4%ABrya" title="Vīrya">Vīrya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Right_Exertions" title="Four Right Exertions">Four Right Exertions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-two_vows_of_Ambedkar" title="Twenty-two vows of Ambedkar">Twenty-two vows of Ambedkar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">Nirvana</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">Bodhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddhahood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pratyekabuddhay%C4%81na" title="Pratyekabuddhayāna">Pratyekabuddhayāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_stages_of_awakening" title="Four stages of awakening">Four stages of awakening</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sot%C4%81panna" title="Sotāpanna">Sotāpanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakadagami" title="Sakadagami">Sakadagami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An%C4%81g%C4%81mi" title="Anāgāmi">Anāgāmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arhat" title="Arhat">Arhat</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_monasticism" title="Buddhist monasticism">Monasticism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhikkhu" title="Bhikkhu">Bhikkhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhikkhun%C4%AB" title="Bhikkhunī">Bhikkhunī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanera" title="Samanera">Śrāmaṇera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanera" title="Samanera">Śrāmaṇerī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anag%C4%81rika" title="Anagārika">Anagārika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajahn" title="Ajahn">Ajahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayadaw" title="Sayadaw">Sayadaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen_master" title="Zen master">Zen master</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C5%8Dshi" title="Rōshi">Rōshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lama" title="Lama">Lama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rinpoche" title="Rinpoche">Rinpoche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geshe" title="Geshe">Geshe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulku" title="Tulku">Tulku</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_tulku" title="Western tulku">Western tulku</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kappiya" title="Kappiya">Kappiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donchee" title="Donchee">Donchee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Householder_(Buddhism)" title="Householder (Buddhism)">Householder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Up%C4%81saka_and_Up%C4%81sik%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Upāsaka and Upāsikā">Upāsaka and Upāsikā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achar_(Buddhism)" title="Achar (Buddhism)">Achar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Ar%C4%81vaka" title="Śrāvaka">Śrāvaka</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ten_principal_disciples" title="Ten principal disciples">Ten principal disciples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaolin_Monastery" title="Shaolin Monastery">Shaolin Monastery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhists" title="List of Buddhists">Major figures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">The Buddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagasena" title="Nagasena">Nagasena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C5%9Bvagho%E1%B9%A3a" title="Aśvaghoṣa">Aśvaghoṣa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna" title="Nagarjuna">Nagarjuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asanga" title="Asanga">Asanga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva" title="Kumārajīva">Kumārajīva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhaghosa" title="Buddhaghosa">Buddhaghosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhap%C4%81lita" title="Buddhapālita">Buddhapālita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dign%C4%81ga" title="Dignāga">Dignāga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhidharma" title="Bodhidharma">Bodhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhiyi" title="Zhiyi">Zhiyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wen_of_Sui" title="Emperor Wen of Sui">Emperor Wen of Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songtsen_Gampo" title="Songtsen Gampo">Songtsen Gampo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shandao" title="Shandao">Shandao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Padmasambhava" title="Padmasambhava">Padmasambhava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saraha" title="Saraha">Saraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ati%C5%9Ba" title="Atiśa">Atiśa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naropa" title="Naropa">Naropa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karmapa" title="Karmapa">Karmapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C5%8Dnen" title="Hōnen">Hōnen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shinran" title="Shinran">Shinran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C5%8Dgen" title="Dōgen">Dōgen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nichiren" title="Nichiren">Nichiren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamarpa" title="Shamarpa">Shamarpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalai_Lama" title="Dalai Lama">Dalai Lama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panchen_Lama" title="Panchen Lama">Panchen Lama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajahn_Mun" title="Ajahn Mun">Ajahn Mun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">B. R. Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajahn_Chah" title="Ajahn Chah">Ajahn Chah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%ADch_Nh%E1%BA%A5t_H%E1%BA%A1nh" title="Thích Nhất Hạnh">Thích Nhất Hạnh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_texts" title="Buddhist texts">Texts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_texts" title="Early Buddhist texts">Early Buddhist texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka" title="Tripiṭaka">Tripiṭaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahayana_sutras" title="Mahayana sutras">Mahayana sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pali_Canon" title="Pali Canon">Pali Canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhist_canon" title="Chinese Buddhist canon">Chinese Buddhist canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist_canon" title="Tibetan Buddhist canon">Tibetan Buddhist canon</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dhammapada" title="Dhammapada">Dhammapada</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">Sutra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinaya" title="Vinaya">Vinaya</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Madhyamak%C4%81la%E1%B9%83k%C4%81ra" title="Madhyamakālaṃkāra">Madhyamakālaṃkāra</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharmad%C4%ABpa" title="Abhidharmadīpa">Abhidharmadīpa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_by_country" title="Buddhism by country">Countries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Afghanistan" title="Buddhism in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Bangladesh" title="Buddhism in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Bhutan" title="Buddhism in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Cambodia" title="Buddhism in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_China" title="Buddhism in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism_in_India" title="History of Buddhism in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Indonesia" title="Buddhism in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Japan" title="Buddhism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Buddhism" title="Korean Buddhism">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Laos" title="Buddhism in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Malaysia" title="Buddhism in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Maldives" title="Buddhism in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Mongolia" title="Buddhism in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Myanmar" title="Buddhism in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Nepal" title="Buddhism in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Pakistan" title="Buddhism in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Philippines" title="Buddhism in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Russia" title="Buddhism in Russia">Russia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Buryatia" title="Buddhism in Buryatia">Buryatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Kalmykia" title="Buddhism in Kalmykia">Kalmykia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_in_Tuva&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Buddhism in Tuva (page does not exist)">Tuva</a> (<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC_%D0%B2_%D0%A2%D1%8B%D0%B2%D0%B5" class="extiw" title="ru:Буддизм в Тыве">ru</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Singapore" title="Buddhism in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Buddhism in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Taiwan" title="Buddhism in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Thailand" title="Buddhism in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Vietnam" title="Buddhism in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Africa" title="Buddhism in Africa">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Senegal" title="Buddhism in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_South_Africa" title="Buddhism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Central_Asia" title="Buddhism in Central Asia">Central Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Uzbekistan" title="Buddhism in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Middle_East" title="Buddhism in the Middle East">Middle East</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Iran" title="Buddhism in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Buddhism in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_West" title="Buddhism in the West">Western countries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Argentina" title="Buddhism in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Australia" title="Buddhism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Brazil" title="Buddhism in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Canada" title="Buddhism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Costa_Rica" title="Buddhism in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Buddhism in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_France" title="Buddhism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Germany" title="Buddhism in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Italy" title="Buddhism in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Mexico" title="Buddhism in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_New_Zealand" title="Buddhism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Norway" title="Buddhism in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Poland" title="Buddhism in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Sweden" title="Buddhism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Switzerland" title="Buddhism in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Ukraine" title="Buddhism in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Buddhism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_United_States" title="Buddhism in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Venezuela" title="Buddhism in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism" title="History of Buddhism">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Buddhism" title="Timeline of Buddhism">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashoka" title="Ashoka">Ashoka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanishka" title="Kanishka">Kanishka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_councils" title="Buddhist councils">Buddhist councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism_in_India" title="History of Buddhism in India">History of Buddhism in India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Buddhism_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent">Decline of Buddhism in India</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huichang_persecution_of_Buddhism" title="Huichang persecution of Buddhism">Huichang persecution of Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhism" title="Greco-Buddhism">Greco-Buddhism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gandharan_Buddhism" title="Gandharan Buddhism">Gandharan Buddhism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gandh%C4%81ran_Buddhist_texts" title="Gandhāran Buddhist texts">Texts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menander_I" title="Menander I">Menander I</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_the_Roman_world" title="Buddhism and the Roman world">Buddhism and the Roman world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_West" title="Buddhism in the West">Buddhism in the West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silk_Road_transmission_of_Buddhism" title="Silk Road transmission of Buddhism">Silk Road transmission of Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Buddhists" title="Persecution of Buddhists">Persecution of Buddhists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Afghanistan" title="Buddhism in Afghanistan">In Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_crisis" title="Buddhist crisis">In Vietnam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rim%C3%A9_movement" title="Rimé movement">Rimé movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banishment_of_Buddhist_monks_from_Nepal" title="Banishment of Buddhist monks from Nepal">Banishment of Buddhist monks from Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalit_Buddhist_movement" title="Dalit Buddhist movement">Dalit Buddhist movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Tibet_by_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China">Chinese invasion of Tibet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1959_Tibetan_uprising" title="1959 Tibetan uprising">1959 Tibetan uprising</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinhalese_Buddhist_nationalism" title="Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism">Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_modernism" title="Buddhist modernism">Buddhist modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vipassana_movement" title="Vipassana movement">Vipassana movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/969_Movement" title="969 Movement">969 Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engaged_Buddhism" title="Engaged Buddhism">Engaged Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Buddhism" title="Women in Buddhism">Women in Buddhism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_atomism" title="Buddhist atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_studies" title="Buddhist studies">Buddhology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creator_in_Buddhism" title="Creator in Buddhism">Creator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_democracy" title="Buddhism and democracy">Buddhism and democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_economics" title="Buddhist economics">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight_Consciousnesses" title="Eight Consciousnesses">Eight Consciousnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engaged_Buddhism" title="Engaged Buddhism">Engaged Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_eschatology" title="Buddhist eschatology">Eschatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhism and evolution">Evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Buddhism" title="Humanistic Buddhism">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_logico-epistemology" title="Buddhist logico-epistemology">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reality_in_Buddhism" title="Reality in Buddhism">Reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_Buddhism" title="Secular Buddhism">Secular Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_socialism" title="Buddhist socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_unanswerable_questions" title="The unanswerable questions">The unanswerable questions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Buddhism" title="Culture of Buddhism">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_architecture" title="Buddhist architecture">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_temple" title="Buddhist temple">Temple</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Vihāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyaung" title="Kyaung">Kyaung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wat" title="Wat">Wat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination_hall" title="Ordination hall">Ordination hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stupa" title="Stupa">Stupa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pagoda" title="Pagoda">Pagoda</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_pagoda" title="Burmese pagoda">Burmese pagoda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candi_of_Indonesia" title="Candi of Indonesia">Candi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzong_architecture" title="Dzong architecture">Dzong architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhist_architecture_in_China" title="List of Buddhist architecture in China">List of Buddhist architecture in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Buddhist_architecture" title="Japanese Buddhist architecture">Japanese Buddhist architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_temples_in_Korea" title="Buddhist temples in Korea">Buddhist temples in Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_temple_art_and_architecture" title="Thai temple art and architecture">Thai temple art and architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist_architecture" title="Tibetan Buddhist architecture">Tibetan Buddhist architecture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_art" title="Buddhist art">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhist_art" title="Greco-Buddhist art">Greco-Buddhist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhi_Tree" title="Bodhi Tree">Bodhi Tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Budai" title="Budai">Budai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha_in_art" title="Buddha in art">Buddha in art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_calendar" title="Buddhist calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_cuisine" title="Buddhist cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_funeral" title="Buddhist funeral">Funeral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_holidays" title="Buddhist holidays">Holidays</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vesak" title="Vesak">Vesak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uposatha" title="Uposatha">Uposatha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%81gha_P%C5%ABj%C4%81" title="Māgha Pūjā">Māgha Pūjā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asalha_Puja" title="Asalha Puja">Asalha Puja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vassa" title="Vassa">Vassa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaya_Sri_Maha_Bodhi" title="Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi">Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasaya_(clothing)" title="Kasaya (clothing)">Kasaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahabodhi_Temple" title="Mahabodhi Temple">Mahabodhi Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mantra" title="Mantra">Mantra</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Om_mani_padme_hum" title="Om mani padme hum">Om mani padme hum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudra" title="Mudra">Mudra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_music" title="Buddhist music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_pilgrimage_sites" title="Buddhist pilgrimage sites">Pilgrimage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lumbini" title="Lumbini">Lumbini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_Devi_Temple,_Lumbini" title="Maya Devi Temple, Lumbini">Maya Devi Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodh_Gaya" title="Bodh Gaya">Bodh Gaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarnath" title="Sarnath">Sarnath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushinagar" title="Kushinagar">Kushinagar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_poetry" title="Buddhist poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japamala" title="Japamala">Prayer beads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hama_yumi" title="Hama yumi">Hama yumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer_wheel" title="Prayer wheel">Prayer wheel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_symbolism" title="Buddhist symbolism">Symbolism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dharmachakra" title="Dharmachakra">Dharmachakra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_flag" title="Buddhist flag">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhavacakra" title="Bhavacakra">Bhavacakra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swastika" title="Swastika">Swastika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thangka" title="Thangka">Thangka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_the_Tooth" title="Temple of the Tooth">Temple of the Tooth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_vegetarianism" title="Buddhist vegetarianism">Vegetarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Buddhism-related_articles" title="Index of Buddhism-related articles">Miscellaneous</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhij%C3%B1%C4%81" title="Abhijñā">Abhijñā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha" title="Amitābha">Amitābha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahm%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Brahmā (Buddhism)">Brahmā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma_talk" title="Dharma talk">Dharma talk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinayana" title="Hinayana">Hinayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iddhi" title="Iddhi">Iddhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalpa_(time)" title="Kalpa (time)">Kalpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koliya" title="Koliya">Koliya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lineage_(Buddhism)" title="Lineage (Buddhism)">Lineage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mara_(demon)" title="Mara (demon)">Māra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddhi" title="Siddhi">Siddhi</a></li> <li><a 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