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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.4</span> <span>State precedents</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-State_precedents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Internationalization_and_the_United_Nations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internationalization_and_the_United_Nations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Internationalization and the United Nations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internationalization_and_the_United_Nations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Congress_considers_the_proposal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Congress_considers_the_proposal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Congress considers the proposal</span> </div> </a> <button 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Republican majority</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-83rd_Congress:_Consideration_by_the_new_Republican_majority-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eisenhower_seeks_delay" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eisenhower_seeks_delay"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Eisenhower seeks delay</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eisenhower_seeks_delay-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Republican_infighting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Republican_infighting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Republican infighting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Republican_infighting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eisenhower_aided_by_Democrats" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eisenhower_aided_by_Democrats"> 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href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Table_of_cases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Table_of_cases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Table of cases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Table_of_cases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Table_of_statutes,_treaties,_and_international_agreements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Table_of_statutes,_treaties,_and_international_agreements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Table of statutes, treaties, and international agreements</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Table_of_statutes,_treaties,_and_international_agreements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Primary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" 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href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enmienda_Bricker" title="Enmienda Bricker – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Enmienda Bricker" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amendo_de_Bricker" title="Amendo de Bricker – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Amendo de Bricker" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amendement_Bricker" title="Amendement Bricker – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Amendement Bricker" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amendo_di_Bricker" title="Amendo di Bricker – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Amendo di Bricker" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emendamento_de_Bricker" title="Emendamento de Bricker – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Emendamento de Bricker" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emendament_de_Bricker" title="Emendament de Bricker – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Emendament de Bricker" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Proposed bill to amend US Constitution</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_William_Bricker_(Gov.,_Sen._OH).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/John_William_Bricker_%28Gov.%2C_Sen._OH%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="166" height="216" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="166" data-file-height="216" /></a><figcaption>Senator <a href="/wiki/John_W._Bricker" title="John W. Bricker">John W. Bricker</a>, the sponsor of the proposed constitutional amendment to limit the "treaty power" of the United States government</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>Bricker Amendment</b> is the collective name of a number of slightly different proposed amendments to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a> considered by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">United States Senate</a> in the 1950s. None of these amendments ever passed Congress. Each of them would require explicit congressional approval, especially for executive agreements that did not require the Senate's two-thirds approval for treaty. They are named for their sponsor, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Republican_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the United States Republican Party">conservative Republican</a> Senator <a href="/wiki/John_W._Bricker" title="John W. Bricker">John W. Bricker</a> of Ohio, who distrusted the exclusive powers of the president to involve the United States beyond the wishes of Congress. </p><p>American entry into <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> led to a new sense of internationalism opposed by many conservatives.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Frank_E._Holman" title="Frank E. Holman">Frank E. Holman</a>, president of the <a href="/wiki/American_Bar_Association" title="American Bar Association">American Bar Association</a> (ABA), called attention to federal court decisions, notably <i><a href="/wiki/Missouri_v._Holland" title="Missouri v. Holland">Missouri v. Holland</a></i>, which he claimed could give international treaties and agreements precedence over the United States Constitution and could be used by foreigners to threaten American liberties. Bricker was influenced by the ABA's work and first introduced a proposed constitutional amendment in 1951. With substantial popular support and the election of a Republican president and Congress in the elections of 1952, together with support from many Southern Democrats, Bricker's plan seemed destined to pass Congress by the necessary two-thirds vote and be sent to the individual states for <a href="/wiki/Article_Five_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Ratification" title="Article Five of the United States Constitution">ratification by three-fourths of the state legislatures</a>. </p><p>The best-known version of the Bricker Amendment, considered by the Senate in 1953–54, declared that no treaty could be made by the United States that conflicted with the Constitution; treaties could not be self-executing without the passage of separate enabling legislation through Congress; and treaties could not give Congress legislative powers beyond those specified in the Constitution. It also limited the president's power to enter into executive agreements with foreign powers. </p><p>Bricker's proposal attracted broad bipartisan support and was a focal point of intra-party conflict between the <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower">Eisenhower administration</a>, which represented the more <a href="/wiki/Internationalism_(politics)" title="Internationalism (politics)">internationalist</a> <a href="/wiki/Rockefeller_Republican" title="Rockefeller Republican">liberal Republican</a> element, and the <a href="/wiki/Old_Right_(United_States)" title="Old Right (United States)">Old Right</a> faction of conservative Republican senators, based in <a href="/wiki/United_States_non-interventionism" title="United States non-interventionism">isolationist</a> Midwestern strongholds. Despite the initial support, the Bricker Amendment was blocked through the intervention of President <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> and <a href="/wiki/Senate_Minority_Leader" class="mw-redirect" title="Senate Minority Leader">Senate Minority Leader</a> <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_Johnson" class="mw-redirect" title="Lyndon Johnson">Lyndon Johnson</a>. It failed in the Senate by a single vote in 1954, and was never voted on by the House.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Three years later the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court of the United States</a> explicitly ruled in <i><a href="/wiki/Reid_v._Covert" title="Reid v. Covert">Reid v. Covert</a></i> that the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a> cannot be abrogated by agreements with foreign powers. Nevertheless, Bricker's ideas still have supporters, and new versions of his amendment have been reintroduced in Congress periodically. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_background">Historical background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bricker_Amendment&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Historical background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fears_return_after_World_War_II">Fears return after World War II</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bricker_Amendment&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Fears return after World War II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg/220px-Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg/330px-Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg/440px-Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Flag of the United Nations. Many Americans were fearful in the 1940s that the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> could interfere in the country's internal affairs.</figcaption></figure><p> The <a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">attack on Pearl Harbor</a> temporarily silenced American non-interventionism; the <a href="/wiki/America_First_Committee" title="America First Committee">America First Committee</a> disbanded within days.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, in the final days of World War II, non-interventionism began its resurgence— non-interventionists had spoken against ratification of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Charter" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Charter">United Nations Charter</a> but were unsuccessful in preventing the United States from becoming a founding member of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Suspicions of the UN and its associated <a href="/wiki/International_organization" title="International organization">international organizations</a> were fanned by conservatives, most notably by <a href="/wiki/Frank_E._Holman" title="Frank E. Holman">Frank E. Holman</a>, an attorney from <a href="/wiki/Seattle" title="Seattle">Seattle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Washington_(U.S._state)" class="mw-redirect" title="Washington (U.S. state)">Washington</a>, in what has been called a "crusade".<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Holman, a <a href="/wiki/Utah" title="Utah">Utah</a> native and <a href="/wiki/Rhodes_Scholarship" title="Rhodes Scholarship">Rhodes scholar</a>, was elected president of the <a href="/wiki/American_Bar_Association" title="American Bar Association">American Bar Association</a> in 1947 and dedicated his term as president to warning Americans of the dangers of "treaty law."<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While Article II of the United Nations Charter stated "Nothing contained in the present Charter shall authorize the United Nations to intervene in matters which are essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of any state," an international analogue to the <a href="/wiki/Tenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Tenth Amendment</a>, Holman saw the work of the UN on the proposed <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_the_Prevention_and_Punishment_of_the_Crime_of_Genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide">Genocide Convention</a> and <a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and numerous proposals of the <a href="/wiki/International_Labour_Organization" title="International Labour Organization">International Labour Organization</a>, a body created under the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a>, as being far outside the UN's powers and an invasion against American liberties.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Holman argued that the Genocide Convention would subject Americans to the jurisdiction of foreign courts with unfamiliar procedures and without the protections afforded under the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a>. He said the Convention's language was sweeping and vague and offered a scenario where a white motorist who struck and killed a black child could be extradited to <a href="/wiki/The_Hague" title="The Hague">The Hague</a> on genocide charges.<sup id="cite_ref-Tananbaum_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tananbaum-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Holman's critics claimed the language was no more sweeping or vague than the state and federal statutes that American courts interpreted every day. Duane Tananbaum, the leading historian of the Bricker Amendment, wrote "most of ABA's objections to the Genocide Convention had no basis whatsoever in reality" and his example of a car accident becoming an international incident was not possible.<sup id="cite_ref-Tananbaum_2_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tananbaum_2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eisenhower's <a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney_General" title="United States Attorney General">Attorney General</a> <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Brownell_Jr." title="Herbert Brownell Jr.">Herbert Brownell</a> called this scenario "outlandish".<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>But Holman's hypothetical especially alarmed <a href="/wiki/Southern_Democrats" title="Southern Democrats">Southern Democrats</a> who had gone to great lengths to obstruct federal action targeted at ending the <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow</a> system of <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">racial segregation</a> in the American South. They feared that, if ratified, the Genocide Convention could be used in conjunction with the Constitution's <a href="/wiki/Necessary_and_Proper_Clause" title="Necessary and Proper Clause">Necessary and Proper Clause</a> to pass a federal <a href="/wiki/Civil_and_political_rights" title="Civil and political rights">civil rights</a> law (despite the conservative view that such a law would go beyond the <a href="/wiki/Enumerated_powers" class="mw-redirect" title="Enumerated powers">enumerated powers</a> of Article I, Section 8).<sup id="cite_ref-Tananbaum_2_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tananbaum_2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>President Eisenhower's aide <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Larson" title="Arthur Larson">Arthur Larson</a> said Holman's warnings were part of "all kinds of preposterous and legally lunatic scares [that] were raised," including "that the <a href="/wiki/International_Court_of_Justice" title="International Court of Justice">International Court</a> would take over our tariff and immigration controls, and then our education, post offices, military and welfare activities."<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Holman's own book advancing the Bricker Amendment he wrote the UN Charter meant the federal government could: </p> <blockquote><p> control and regulate all education, including public and parochial schools, it could control and regulate all matters affecting civil rights, marriage, divorce, etc; it could control all our sources of production of foods and the products of the farms and factories;... it could regiment labor and conditions of employment.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legal_background">Legal background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bricker_Amendment&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Legal background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Constitution_of_the_United_States,_page_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Constitution_of_the_United_States%2C_page_1.jpg/220px-Constitution_of_the_United_States%2C_page_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Constitution_of_the_United_States%2C_page_1.jpg/330px-Constitution_of_the_United_States%2C_page_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Constitution_of_the_United_States%2C_page_1.jpg/440px-Constitution_of_the_United_States%2C_page_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7258" data-file-height="8785" /></a><figcaption>The Constitution of the United States granted the federal government control of foreign affairs.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a>, effective in 1789, gave the <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">federal government</a> power over foreign affairs and restricted the individual States' authority in this realm. <a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Article I</a>, section ten provides, "no State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Confederation" and that "no State shall, without the Consent of the Congress . . . enter into any Agreement or Compact with another State or with a foreign Power." The federal government's primacy was made clear in the <a href="/wiki/Supremacy_Clause" title="Supremacy Clause">Supremacy Clause</a> of <a href="/wiki/Article_Six_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Six of the United States Constitution">Article VI</a>, which declares, "This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in Pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the Supreme Law of the land; and the Judges in every state shall be bound thereby, any Thing in the Constitution or Laws of any State to the Contrary notwithstanding."<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While <a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign policy of the United States">executive agreements</a> were not mentioned in the Constitution, Congress authorized them for delivery of the mail as early as 1792.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_precedents">Early precedents</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bricker_Amendment&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Early precedents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Constitutional scholars note that the supremacy clause was designed to protect the only significant treaty into which the infant United States had entered: the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1783)" title="Treaty of Paris (1783)">Treaty of Paris</a> of 1783, which ended the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">Revolutionary War</a> and under which <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Great Britain</a> recognized the thirteen former colonies as thirteen independent and fully sovereign states.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nonetheless, its wording ignited fear of the potential abuse of the treaty power from the beginning. For example, the <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina" title="North Carolina">North Carolina</a> <a href="/wiki/State_ratifying_conventions" title="State ratifying conventions">ratifying convention</a> that approved the Constitution did so with a reservation asking for a constitutional amendment that </p> <blockquote><p>No treaties which shall be directly opposed to the existing laws of the United States in Congress assembled shall be valid until such laws shall be repealed, or made conformable to such treaty; nor shall any treaty be valid which is contradictory to the Constitution of the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Early legal precedents striking down State laws that conflicted with federally negotiated international treaties arose from the peace treaty with Britain,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but subsequent treaties were found to trump city ordinances,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> state laws on <a href="/wiki/Escheat" title="Escheat">escheat</a> of land owned by foreigners<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and, in the 20th Century, state laws regarding tort claims.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Subsequently, in a case involving a treaty concluded with the <a href="/wiki/Cherokee" title="Cherokee">Cherokee</a> Indians, the Supreme Court declared "It need hardly be said that a treaty cannot change the Constitution or be held valid if it be in violation of that instrument. This results from the nature and fundamental principles of our government. The effect of treaties and acts of Congress, when in conflict, is not settled by the Constitution. But the question is not involved in any doubt as to its proper solution. A treaty may supersede a prior act of Congress, and an act of Congress may supersede a prior treaty."<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Likewise, in a case regarding ownership of land by foreign nationals, the court wrote, "The treaty power, as expressed in the constitution, is in terms unlimited, except by those restraints which are found in that instrument against the action of the government, or of its departments, and those arising from the nature of the government itself, and of that of the states. It would not be contended that it extends so far as to authorize what the constitution forbids, or a change in the character of the government, or in that of one of the states, or a cession of any portion of the territory of the latter, without its consent. But, with these exceptions, it is not perceived that there is any limit to the questions which can be adjusted touching any matter which is properly the subject of negotiation with a foreign country."<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Justice <a href="/wiki/Horace_Gray" title="Horace Gray">Horace Gray</a>, in the Supreme Court's opinion in the 1898 citizenship case <i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Wong_Kim_Ark" title="United States v. Wong Kim Ark">United States v. Wong Kim Ark</a></i>, wrote "that statutes enacted by Congress, as well as treaties made by the President and Senate, must yield to the paramount and supreme law of the Constitution."<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Twentieth_century_rulings">Twentieth century rulings</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bricker_Amendment&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Twentieth century rulings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Missouri_v._Holland"><i>Missouri v. Holland</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bricker_Amendment&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Missouri v. Holland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Missouri_v._Holland" title="Missouri v. Holland">Missouri v. Holland</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_Jr_circa_1930-edit.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_Jr_circa_1930-edit.jpg/200px-Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_Jr_circa_1930-edit.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_Jr_circa_1930-edit.jpg/300px-Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_Jr_circa_1930-edit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_Jr_circa_1930-edit.jpg/400px-Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_Jr_circa_1930-edit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1019" data-file-height="1491" /></a><figcaption>Justice <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_Jr." title="Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.">Oliver Wendell Holmes</a>' opinion in <i><a href="/wiki/Missouri_v._Holland" title="Missouri v. Holland">Missouri v. Holland</a></i> was cited as a justification of the Bricker Amendment.</figcaption></figure> <p>The precedent most often cited by critics of "treaty law" was <i>Missouri v. Holland</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Congress had attempted to protect <a href="/wiki/Bird_migration" title="Bird migration">migratory birds</a> by statute,<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but federal and state courts declared the law <a href="/wiki/Constitutionality" title="Constitutionality">unconstitutional</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The United States subsequently negotiated and ratified a treaty with Canada to achieve the same purpose,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Congress then passed the <a href="/wiki/Migratory_Bird_Treaty_Act_of_1918" title="Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918">Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918</a> to enforce it.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <i>Missouri v. Holland</i>, the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">United States Supreme Court</a> upheld the constitutionality of the new law. Justice <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_Jr." title="Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.">Oliver Wendell Holmes</a>, writing for the court, declared: </p> <blockquote><p>Acts of Congress are the supreme law of the land only when made in pursuance of the Constitution, while treaties are declared to be so when made under the authority of the United States. It is open to question whether the authority of the United States means more than the formal acts prescribed to make the convention. We do not mean to imply that there are no qualifications to the treaty-making power; but they must be ascertained in a different way. It is obvious that there may be matters of the sharpest exigency for the national well being that an act of Congress could not deal with but that a treaty followed by such an act could, and it is not lightly to be assumed that, in matters requiring national action, 'a power which must belong to and somewhere reside in every civilized government' is not to be found.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Proponents of the Bricker Amendment said this language made it essential to add to the Constitution explicit limitations on the treaty-making power. <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Moley" title="Raymond Moley">Raymond Moley</a> wrote in 1953 that <i>Holland</i> meant "the protection of an international duck takes precedence over the constitutional protections of American citizens".<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In response, legal scholars such as Professor <a href="/wiki/Edward_Samuel_Corwin" title="Edward Samuel Corwin">Edward Samuel Corwin</a> of <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton University</a> said the language of the Constitution regarding treaties—"under the authority of the United States"—was misunderstood by Holmes, and was written to protect the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1783)" title="Treaty of Paris (1783)">1783 peace treaty</a> with Britain; this became "in part the source of Senator Bricker's agitation".<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Professor <a href="/wiki/Zechariah_Chafee" title="Zechariah Chafee">Zechariah Chafee</a> of <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_School" title="Harvard Law School">Harvard Law School</a> wrote, "the <a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Framers</a> never talked about having treaties on the same level as the Constitution. What they did want was to make sure a state could no longer flout any lawful action taken by the nation". Chafee claimed that the word "Supreme", as used in Article VI, simply meant "supreme over the states".<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Belmont_and_Pink"><i>Belmont</i> and <i>Pink</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bricker_Amendment&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Belmont and Pink"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Belmont" title="United States v. Belmont">United States v. Belmont</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Pink" title="United States v. Pink">United States v. Pink</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yalta_Conference_(Churchill,_Roosevelt,_Stalin)_(B%26W).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Yalta_Conference_%28Churchill%2C_Roosevelt%2C_Stalin%29_%28B%26W%29.jpg/250px-Yalta_Conference_%28Churchill%2C_Roosevelt%2C_Stalin%29_%28B%26W%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Yalta_Conference_%28Churchill%2C_Roosevelt%2C_Stalin%29_%28B%26W%29.jpg/375px-Yalta_Conference_%28Churchill%2C_Roosevelt%2C_Stalin%29_%28B%26W%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Yalta_Conference_%28Churchill%2C_Roosevelt%2C_Stalin%29_%28B%26W%29.jpg/500px-Yalta_Conference_%28Churchill%2C_Roosevelt%2C_Stalin%29_%28B%26W%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2720" data-file-height="2239" /></a><figcaption>President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> (center) at <a href="/wiki/Yalta" title="Yalta">Yalta</a> in 1945, where he made an <a href="/wiki/Yalta_Conference" title="Yalta Conference">agreement</a> with <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> which was asserted to show the need for a constitutional amendment.</figcaption></figure> <p>Two additional cases frequently cited by proponents of the Amendment were both related to the <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Roosevelt Administration</a>'s recognition of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a> government in 1933. In the course of recognizing the USSR, letters were exchanged with the Soviet Union's foreign minister, <a href="/wiki/Maxim_Litvinov" title="Maxim Litvinov">Maxim Litvinov</a>, to settle claims between the two countries, in an agreement neither sent to the Senate nor ratified by it. In <i>United States v. Belmont</i> the constitutionality of <a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign policy of the United States">executive agreements</a> was tested in the Supreme Court.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Justice <a href="/wiki/George_Sutherland" title="George Sutherland">George Sutherland</a>, writing for the majority, upheld the power of the president, finding: </p> <blockquote><p>That the negotiations, acceptance of the assignment and agreements and understandings in respect thereof were within the competence of the President may not be doubted. Governmental power over external affairs is not distributed, but is vested exclusively in the national government. And in respect of what was done here, the Executive had authority to speak as the sole organ of that government. The assignment and the agreements in connection therewith did not, as in the case of treaties, as that term is used in the treaty making clause of the Constitution (article 2, 2), require the advice and consent of the Senate.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>A second case from the Litvinov Agreement, <i>United States v. Pink</i>, also went to the Supreme Court.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <i>Pink</i>, the New York State superintendent of insurance was ordered to turn over assets belonging to a Russian insurance company pursuant to the Litvinov assignment. The United States sued New York to claim the money held by the Insurance Superintendent, and lost in lower courts. However, the Supreme Court held New York was interfering with the President's exclusive power over foreign affairs, independent of any language in the Constitution, a doctrine it enunciated in <i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Curtiss-Wright_Export_Corp." title="United States v. Curtiss-Wright Export Corp.">United States v. Curtiss-Wright Export Corp.</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and ordered New York to pay the money to the federal government. The court declared that "the <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fifth Amendment</a> does not stand in the way of giving full force and effect to the Litvinov Assignment"<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and </p> <blockquote><p>The powers of the President in the conduct of foreign relations included the power, without consent of the Senate, to determine the public policy of the United States with respect to the Russian nationalization decrees. What government is to be regarded here as representative of a foreign sovereign state is a political rather than a judicial question, and is to be determined by the political department of the government. That authority is not limited to a determination of the government to be recognized. It includes the power to determine the policy which is to govern the question of recognition. Objections to the underlying policy as well as objections to recognition are to be addressed to the political department and not to the courts.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rulings_during_Congressional_debate">Rulings during Congressional debate</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bricker_Amendment&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Rulings during Congressional debate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Unlike in <i>Pink</i> and <i>Belmont</i>, an executive agreement on <a href="/wiki/Potato" title="Potato">potato</a> imports from Canada, litigated in <i>United States v. Guy W. Capps, Inc.</i>, another oft cited case, the courts declared an agreement unenforceable.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <i>Capps</i> the courts found that the agreement, which directly contradicted a statute passed by Congress, could not be enforced. </p><p>But the dissent of <a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief Justice</a> <a href="/wiki/Fred_M._Vinson" title="Fred M. Vinson">Fred M. Vinson</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Youngstown_Sheet_%26_Tube_Co._v._Sawyer" title="Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer">Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer</a></i> (commonly referred to as the "steel seizure case") alarmed conservatives.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> President <a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> had <a href="/wiki/Nationalization" title="Nationalization">nationalized</a> the American <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a> industry to prevent a <a href="/wiki/Strike_action" title="Strike action">strike</a> he claimed would interfere with the prosecution of the <a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a>. Though the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">United States Supreme Court</a> found this illegal, Vinson's defense of this sweeping exercise of executive authority was used to justify the Bricker Amendment.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Those warning of "treaty law" claimed that in the future, Americans could be endangered with the use of the executive powers Vinson supported.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="State_precedents">State precedents</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bricker_Amendment&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: State precedents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some state courts issued rulings in the 1940s and 1950s that relied on the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Charter" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Charter">United Nations Charter</a>, much to the alarm of Holman and others. In <i>Fujii v. California</i>, a California law restricting the ownership of land by aliens was ruled by a <a href="/wiki/California_Courts_of_Appeal" title="California Courts of Appeal">state appeals court</a> to be a violation of the UN Charter.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <i>Fujii</i>, the court declared "The Charter has become 'the supreme Law of the Land... any Thing in the Constitution of Laws of any State to the Contrary notwithstanding.' The position of this country in the family of nations forbids trafficking innocuous generalities but demands that every State in the Union accept and act upon the Charter according to its plain language and its unmistakable purpose and intent."<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_California" title="Supreme Court of California">California Supreme Court</a> overruled, declaring that while the Charter was "entitled to respectful consideration by the courts and Legislatures of every member nation," it was "not intended to supersede existing domestic legislation."<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, a New York trial court refused to consider the UN Charter in an effort to strike down <a href="/wiki/Restrictive_covenant" class="mw-redirect" title="Restrictive covenant">racially restrictive covenants</a> in housing, declaring "these treaties have nothing to do with domestic matters," citing Article 2, Section 7 of the Charter.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In another covenant case, the <a href="/wiki/Michigan_Supreme_Court" title="Michigan Supreme Court">Michigan Supreme Court</a> discounted efforts to use the Charter, saying "these pronouncements are merely indicative of a desirable social trend and an objective devoutly to be desired by all well-thinking peoples."<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These words were quoted with approval by the <a href="/wiki/Iowa_Supreme_Court" title="Iowa Supreme Court">Iowa Supreme Court</a> in overturning a lower court decision that relied on the Charter, noting the Charter's principles "do not have the force or effect of superseding our laws."<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Internationalization_and_the_United_Nations">Internationalization and the United Nations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bricker_Amendment&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Internationalization and the United Nations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:JohnFosterDulles.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/JohnFosterDulles.jpeg/170px-JohnFosterDulles.jpeg" decoding="async" width="170" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/JohnFosterDulles.jpeg 1.5x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="298" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Foster_Dulles" title="John Foster Dulles">John Foster Dulles</a> said restrictions were needed on treaties, until he became <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State" title="United States Secretary of State">Secretary of State</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower">Eisenhower Administration</a>.</figcaption></figure><p>Following the <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">Second World War</a>, various treaties were proposed under the aegis of the United Nations, in the spirit of <a href="/wiki/Collective_security" title="Collective security">collective security</a> and internationalism that followed the global conflict of the preceding years. In particular, the <a href="/wiki/Genocide_Convention" title="Genocide Convention">Genocide Convention</a>, which made a crime of "causing serious mental harm" to "a national, ethnic, racial, or religious group" and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which contained sweeping language about <a href="/wiki/Health_care" title="Health care">health care</a>, <a href="/wiki/Employment" title="Employment">employment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Annual_leave" title="Annual leave">vacations</a>, and other subjects outside the traditional scope of treaties, were considered problematic by non-interventionists and advocates of <a href="/wiki/Limited_government" title="Limited government">limited government</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Tananbaum_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tananbaum-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historian <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Ambrose" class="mw-redirect" title="Stephen Ambrose">Stephen Ambrose</a> described the suspicions of Americans: "Southern leaders feared that the U.N. commitment to human rights would imperil segregation; the <a href="/wiki/American_Medical_Association" title="American Medical Association">American Medical Association</a> feared it would bring about <a href="/wiki/Socialized_medicine" title="Socialized medicine">socialized medicine</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-Stephen_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stephen-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was, the <a href="/wiki/American_Bar_Association" title="American Bar Association">American Bar Association</a> declared, "one of the greatest constitutional crises the country has ever faced."<sup id="cite_ref-The_Bricker_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Bricker-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Conservatives were worried that these treaties could be used to expand the power of the federal government at the expense of the people and the states. In a speech to the <a href="/wiki/American_Bar_Association" title="American Bar Association">American Bar Association</a>'s regional meeting at <a href="/wiki/Louisville,_Kentucky" title="Louisville, Kentucky">Louisville, Kentucky</a>, on April 11, 1952, <a href="/wiki/John_Foster_Dulles" title="John Foster Dulles">John Foster Dulles</a>, an American delegate to the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>, said, "Treaties make international law and they also make domestic law. Under our Constitution, treaties become the Supreme Law of the Land. They are indeed more supreme than ordinary laws, for Congressional laws are invalid if they do not conform to the Constitution, whereas treaty laws can override the Constitution." Dulles said the power to make treaties "is an extraordinary power liable to abuse."<sup id="cite_ref-The_Bricker_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Bricker-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Senator <a href="/wiki/Everett_Dirksen" title="Everett Dirksen">Everett Dirksen</a>, a Republican of <a href="/wiki/Illinois" title="Illinois">Illinois</a>, declared, "we are in a new era of international organizations. They are grinding out treaties like so many eager beavers which will have effects on the rights of American citizens."<sup id="cite_ref-The_Bricker_49-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Bricker-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eisenhower's <a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney_General" title="United States Attorney General">Attorney General</a> <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Brownell_Jr." title="Herbert Brownell Jr.">Herbert Brownell</a> admitted executive agreements "had sometimes been abused in the past."<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Frank E. Holman wrote <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State" title="United States Secretary of State">Secretary of State</a> <a href="/wiki/George_Marshall" class="mw-redirect" title="George Marshall">George Marshall</a> in November 1948 regarding the dangers of the Human Rights Declaration, receiving the dismissive reply that the agreement was "merely declaratory in character" and had no legal effect.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The conservative ABA called for a Constitutional amendment to address what they perceived to be a potential abuse of executive power. Holman described the threat: </p> <blockquote><p>More or less coincident with the organization of the United Nations a <i>new form</i> of internationalism arose which undertook to enlarge the historical concept of international law and treaties to have them include and deal with the domestic affairs and internal laws of independent nations.<sup id="cite_ref-Frank_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frank-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Senator Bricker thought the <a href="/wiki/Transnational_progressivism" title="Transnational progressivism">"one world" movement</a> advocated by those such as <a href="/wiki/Wendell_Willkie" title="Wendell Willkie">Wendell Willkie</a>, Roosevelt's Republican challenger in the <a href="/wiki/1940_United_States_presidential_election" title="1940 United States presidential election">1940 election</a>, would attempt to use treaties to undermine American liberties. Conservatives cited as evidence the statement of John P. Humphrey, the first director of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Commission_on_Human_Rights" title="United Nations Commission on Human Rights">United Nations Commission on Human Rights</a>: </p> <blockquote><p>What the United Nations is trying to do is revolutionary in character. <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a> are largely a matter of [the] relationship between the State and individuals, and therefore a matter which has been traditionally regarded as being within the domestic jurisdiction of states. What is now being proposed is, in effect, the creation of some super national supervision of this relationship.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Frank E. Holman testified before the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_Committee_on_the_Judiciary" title="United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary">Senate Judiciary Committee</a> that the Bricker Amendment was needed "to eliminate the risk that through 'treaty law' our basic American rights may be bargained away in attempts to show our good neighborliness and to indicate to the rest of the world our spirit of brotherhood."<sup id="cite_ref-Tananbaum_3_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tananbaum_3-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/W.L._McGrath" class="mw-redirect" title="W.L. McGrath">W.L. McGrath</a>, president of the Williamson Heater Company in <a href="/wiki/Cincinnati" title="Cincinnati">Cincinnati, Ohio</a>, told the Senate that the <a href="/wiki/International_Labour_Organization" title="International Labour Organization">International Labour Organization</a>, to which he had been an American delegate, was "seeking to set itself up as a sort of international legislature to formulate socialistic laws which it hopes, by the vehicle of treaty ratification, can essentially be imposed upon most of the countries of the world."<sup id="cite_ref-Tananbaum_3_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tananbaum_3-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Congress_considers_the_proposal">Congress considers the proposal</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bricker_Amendment&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Congress considers the proposal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pres-DwightDEisenhower.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Pres-DwightDEisenhower.jpg/220px-Pres-DwightDEisenhower.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Pres-DwightDEisenhower.jpg/330px-Pres-DwightDEisenhower.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Pres-DwightDEisenhower.jpg/440px-Pres-DwightDEisenhower.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2874" data-file-height="3651" /></a><figcaption>President <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> thought the Bricker Amendment would undermine American foreign policy and worked to defeat it.</figcaption></figure><p> Republican Senator <a href="/wiki/John_W._Bricker" title="John W. Bricker">John W. Bricker</a>, an attorney, had served as <a href="/wiki/List_of_Governors_of_Ohio" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Governors of Ohio">governor of Ohio</a> and was <a href="/wiki/Thomas_E._Dewey" title="Thomas E. Dewey">Thomas E. Dewey</a>'s running mate in the <a href="/wiki/1944_United_States_presidential_election" title="1944 United States presidential election">1944 campaign</a> before winning a Senate seat in the 1946 Republican landslide. Author <a href="/wiki/Robert_Caro" title="Robert Caro">Robert Caro</a> declared Senator Bricker to be "a fervent admirer" of Senators <a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Taft" title="Robert A. Taft">Robert A. Taft</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ohio" title="Ohio">Ohio</a>, "whom he had three times backed for the presidential nomination," and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_McCarthy" title="Joseph McCarthy">Joseph McCarthy</a> of <a href="/wiki/Wisconsin" title="Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a>, "whom he would support to the last," and stated that Bricker was "a fervent hater of foreign aid, the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>, and all those he lumped with <a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Roosevelt" title="Eleanor Roosevelt">Eleanor Roosevelt</a> under the contemptuous designation of 'One Worlders'. He was the embodiment of the GOP's "<a href="/wiki/Old_Right_(United_States)" title="Old Right (United States)">Old Guard</a>," borne out by his voting record: <a href="/wiki/Americans_for_Democratic_Action" title="Americans for Democratic Action">Americans for Democratic Action</a> gave him a "zero" rating in 1949.<sup id="cite_ref-Master_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Master-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Bricker was not a doctrinaire non-interventionist; he had voted in favor of the <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a> and the <a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_Treaty" title="North Atlantic Treaty">North Atlantic Treaty</a>. </p><p>President Eisenhower disagreed about the necessity of the Amendment, writing in his diary in April 1953, "Senator Bricker wants to amend the Constitution . . . By and large the logic of the case is all against Senator Bricker, but he has gotten almost psychopathic on the subject, and a great many lawyers have taken his side of the case. This fact does not impress me very much. Lawyers have been trained to take either side of any case and make the most intelligent and impassioned defense of their adopted viewpoint."<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historians describe the Bricker Amendment as "the high water mark of the non-interventionist surge in the 1950s" and "the embodiment of the Old Guard's rage at what it viewed as twenty years of presidential usurpation of Congress's constitutional powers" which "grew out of sentiment both anti-Democrat and anti-presidential."<sup id="cite_ref-Master_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Master-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bricker's pressing the issue, wrote <i>Time</i> just before the climactic vote, was "a time-bomb threat to both <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">G.O.P.</a> unity and White House-Congressional accord."<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Senator Bricker warned "the constitutional power of Congress to determine American foreign policy is at stake."<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="82nd_Congress">82nd Congress</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bricker_Amendment&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: 82nd Congress"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/82nd_United_States_Congress" title="82nd United States Congress">82nd Congress</a>, Senator Bricker introduced the first version of his amendment, S.J. Res. 102, drafted by Bricker and his staff. The <a href="/wiki/American_Bar_Association" title="American Bar Association">American Bar Association</a> was still studying the issue of how to prevent an abuse of "treaty law" when Bricker introduced his resolution on July 17, 1951, without the ABA's involvement, but the Senator wanted to begin immediate debate on an issue he considered vital.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bricker was not trying to reverse the <a href="/wiki/Yalta_Conference" title="Yalta Conference">Yalta Agreement</a>, in contrast to the goals of some of his conservative colleagues; he was worried most about what might be done by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> or under an <a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign policy of the United States">executive agreement</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A second proposal, S.J. Res 130, was introduced by Bricker on February 7, 1952, with fifty-eight co-sponsors, including every Republican except <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Millikin" title="Eugene Millikin">Eugene Millikin</a> of <a href="/wiki/Colorado" title="Colorado">Colorado</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>President <a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> was adamantly opposed to limitations on executive power and ordered every executive branch agency to report on how the Bricker Amendment would affect its work and to offer this information to the Judiciary Committee.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consequently, in its hearings, the Committee heard from representatives of the Departments of <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Agriculture" title="United States Department of Agriculture">Agriculture</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Commerce" title="United States Department of Commerce">Commerce</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">Defense</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Labor" title="United States Department of Labor">Labor</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Post_Office_Department" title="United States Post Office Department">Post Office</a>, along with the <a href="/wiki/Internal_Revenue_Service" title="Internal Revenue Service">Bureau of Internal Revenue</a>, the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Securities_and_Exchange_Commission" title="U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission">Securities and Exchange Commission</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Narcotics" title="Federal Bureau of Narcotics">Federal Bureau of Narcotics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Duane Tananbaum wrote the hearings "provided the amendment's supporters with a wider forum for their argument that a constitutional amendment was needed" and gave opponents a chance to debate the issue.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bricker's amendment was raised as an issue in his 1952 re-election campaign. <a href="/wiki/Toledo,_Ohio" title="Toledo, Ohio">Toledo</a> mayor <a href="/wiki/Michael_DiSalle" title="Michael DiSalle">Michael DiSalle</a> railed that the amendment was "an unwarranted interference with the provisions of the Constitution," but Bricker was easily elected to a second term.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="83rd_Congress:_Consideration_by_the_new_Republican_majority">83rd Congress: Consideration by the new Republican majority</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bricker_Amendment&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: 83rd Congress: Consideration by the new Republican majority"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Bricker introduced his proposal, S.J. Res 1, on the first day of the <a href="/wiki/83rd_United_States_Congress" title="83rd United States Congress">83rd Congress</a> and soon had sixty-three co-sponsors on a resolution much closer to the language of the amendment proposed by the <a href="/wiki/American_Bar_Association" title="American Bar Association">American Bar Association</a>. This time, every Republican senator, including Millikin, was a co-sponsor, as were eighteen Democrats. Including Bricker, this totaled exactly the sixty-four votes that comprised two-thirds of the full Senate, the number necessary to approve a constitutional amendment. Companion measures were introduced in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">United States House of Representatives</a>, but no action was taken on them; the focus was on the Senate.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The Eisenhower Administration was caught by surprise as <a href="/wiki/Sherman_Adams" title="Sherman Adams">Sherman Adams</a>, Eisenhower's <a href="/wiki/White_House_Chief_of_Staff" title="White House Chief of Staff">Chief of Staff</a>, thought an agreement had been reached with Bricker to delay introduction of his amendment until after the Administration had studied the issue. "Bricker hoped to force the new administration's hand," wrote Duane Tananbaum.<sup id="cite_ref-Master_55-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Master-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/George_Reedy" title="George Reedy">George E. Reedy</a>, aide to Senate minority leader <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a> of <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a>, said popular support for the measure made it "apparent from the start that it could not be defeated on a straight-out vote. No one could vote against the Bricker Amendment with impunity and very few could vote against it and survive at all . . . There was no hope of stopping it through direct opposition."<sup id="cite_ref-Master_55-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Master-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Johnson told his aide <a href="/wiki/Bobby_Baker" title="Bobby Baker">Bobby Baker</a> it was "the worst bill I can think of" and "it will be the bane of every president we elect."<sup id="cite_ref-Master_55-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Master-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Eisenhower privately disparaged Bricker's motives, suggesting Bricker's push for the Amendment was driven by "his one hope of achieving at least a faint immortality in American history,"<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and considered the Amendment entirely unnecessary, telling <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Ambrose" class="mw-redirect" title="Stephen Ambrose">Stephen Ambrose</a> it was "an addition to the Constitution that said you could not violate the Constitution."<sup id="cite_ref-Stephen_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stephen-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eisenhower_seeks_delay">Eisenhower seeks delay</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bricker_Amendment&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Eisenhower seeks delay"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Eisenhower publicly stated his opposition in his press conference of March 26, 1953: "The Bricker Amendment, as analyzed for me by the Secretary of State, would, as I understand it, in certain ways restrict the authority that the President must have, if he is to conduct the foreign affairs of this Nation effectively. . . . I do believe that there are certain features that would work to the disadvantage of our country, particularly in making it impossible for the President to work with the flexibility that he needs in this highly complicated and difficult situation."<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eisenhower's phrasing, "as analyzed for me by the Secretary of State," led Bricker and other conservatives to blame Dulles for misleading Eisenhower, and raised their suspicion that the Secretary of State was a tool of Eastern internationalist interests. </p><p>Eisenhower sent <a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney_General" title="United States Attorney General">Attorney General</a> <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Brownell_Jr." title="Herbert Brownell Jr.">Herbert Brownell</a> to meet with Bricker to try to delay consideration of the resolution while the administration studied it; Bricker refused, noting his original proposal was introduced over a year earlier in the previous session of Congress.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bricker was willing, however, to compromise on the language of an amendment, unlike Frank Holman, who was intent on a particular wording. However, the administration, particularly Dulles, irritated Bricker by refusing to offer an alternative to his resolution.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eisenhower privately continued to disparage the Amendment with strong language, calling it "a stupid blind violation of the Constitution by stupid, blind non-interventionists" and stating "if it is true that when you die the name of the things that bothered you the most are engraved on your skull, I'm sure I'll have there the mud and dirt of France during the <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Normandy" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasion of Normandy">invasion</a> and the name of Senator Bricker."<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Republican_infighting">Republican infighting</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bricker_Amendment&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Republican infighting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sherman Adams wrote "Eisenhower thus found himself caught in a crossfire between the Republican conservatives and the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_State" title="United States Department of State">State Department</a>"<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and stated President Eisenhower thought the Bricker Amendment was a refusal of the United States "to accept the leadership of world democracy that had been thrust upon it."<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1954, Eisenhower wrote Senate majority leader <a href="/wiki/William_F._Knowland" class="mw-redirect" title="William F. Knowland">William F. Knowland</a> of <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a> stating, "Adoption of the Bricker Amendment in its present form by the Senate would be notice to our friends as well as our enemies abroad that our country intends to withdraw from its leadership in world affairs."<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite the Amendment's popularity and large number of sponsors, Majority Leader Taft stalled the bill itself in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_Committee_on_the_Judiciary" title="United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary">Judiciary Committee</a> at the behest of President Eisenhower. However, on June 10, ill health led Taft to resign as Majority Leader, and five days later, the Judiciary Committee reported the measure to the full Senate.<sup id="cite_ref-Master_55-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Master-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> No action was taken before the session adjourned in August; debate would begin in January 1954. </p><p>The long delay allowed opposition to mobilize. <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Griswold" title="Erwin Griswold">Erwin Griswold</a>, dean of the <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_School" title="Harvard Law School">Harvard Law School</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Owen_Roberts" title="Owen Roberts">Owen Roberts</a>, retired Justice of the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">United States Supreme Court</a>, organized the Committee for the Defense of the Constitution.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were joined by such prominent Americans as attorney <a href="/wiki/John_W._Davis" title="John W. Davis">John W. Davis</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> former Attorney General <a href="/wiki/William_D._Mitchell" title="William D. Mitchell">William D. Mitchell</a>, former Secretary of War <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Claiborne_Royall" title="Kenneth Claiborne Royall">Kenneth C. Royall</a>, former First Lady <a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Roosevelt" title="Eleanor Roosevelt">Eleanor Roosevelt</a>, Governor <a href="/wiki/Adlai_Stevenson_II" title="Adlai Stevenson II">Adlai Stevenson</a>, former President <a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a>, Judge <a href="/wiki/John_J._Parker" title="John J. Parker">John J. Parker</a>, Supreme Court Justice <a href="/wiki/Felix_Frankfurter" title="Felix Frankfurter">Felix Frankfurter</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Denver_Post" title="The Denver Post">Denver Post</a></i> publisher <a href="/w/index.php?title=Palmer_Hoyt&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Palmer Hoyt (page does not exist)">Palmer Hoyt</a>, the Reverend <a href="/wiki/Harry_Emerson_Fosdick" title="Harry Emerson Fosdick">Harry Emerson Fosdick</a>, socialist <a href="/wiki/Norman_Thomas" title="Norman Thomas">Norman Thomas</a>, and General <a href="/wiki/Lucius_D._Clay" title="Lucius D. Clay">Lucius D. Clay</a>. The Committee claimed the Amendment would give Congress too much power and make the United States' system to approve treaties "the most cumbersome in the world."<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Roberts dismissed the Amendment, declaring "we must decide whether we are to stand on the silly <a href="/wiki/Shibboleth" title="Shibboleth">shibboleth</a> of national security," a statement supporters of the Amendment eagerly seized upon.<sup id="cite_ref-Frank_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frank-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Committee was joined in opposing the Amendment by the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Women_Voters" title="League of Women Voters">League of Women Voters</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Association_of_the_United_States_of_America" title="United Nations Association of the United States of America">American Association for the United Nations</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Association_of_the_Bar_of_the_City_of_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="Association of the Bar of the City of New York">Association of the Bar of the City of New York</a>, one of the few bar associations to oppose the Amendment.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Conservatives <a href="/wiki/Clarence_Manion" title="Clarence Manion">Clarence Manion</a>, former dean of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Notre_Dame" title="University of Notre Dame">University of Notre Dame</a> Law School, and newspaper publisher <a href="/wiki/Frank_Gannett" title="Frank Gannett">Frank Gannett</a> formed organizations to support the Amendment while a wide spectrum of groups entered the debate. Supporting the Bricker Amendment were the <a href="/wiki/National_Association_of_Attorneys_General" title="National Association of Attorneys General">National Association of Attorneys General</a>, the <a href="/wiki/American_Legion" title="American Legion">American Legion</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Veterans_of_Foreign_Wars" title="Veterans of Foreign Wars">Veterans of Foreign Wars</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Marine_Corps_League" title="Marine Corps League">Marine Corps League</a>, <a href="/wiki/National_Sojourners" title="National Sojourners">National Sojourners</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_War_Veterans" title="Catholic War Veterans">Catholic War Veterans</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kiwanis" title="Kiwanis">Kiwanis</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Chamber_of_Commerce" title="United States Chamber of Commerce">U.S. Chamber of Commerce</a>, the <a href="/wiki/The_National_Grange_of_the_Order_of_Patrons_of_Husbandry" class="mw-redirect" title="The National Grange of the Order of Patrons of Husbandry">National Grange</a>, the <a href="/wiki/American_Farm_Bureau_Federation" title="American Farm Bureau Federation">American Farm Bureau Federation</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Daughters_of_the_American_Revolution" title="Daughters of the American Revolution">Daughters of the American Revolution</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Colonial_Dames_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="The Colonial Dames of America">The Colonial Dames of America</a>, the <a href="/wiki/National_Association_of_Evangelicals" title="National Association of Evangelicals">National Association of Evangelicals</a>, the <a href="/wiki/American_Medical_Association" title="American Medical Association">American Medical Association</a>, the <a href="/wiki/General_Federation_of_Women%27s_Clubs" title="General Federation of Women's Clubs">General Federation of Women's Clubs</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Association_of_American_Physicians_and_Surgeons" title="Association of American Physicians and Surgeons">Association of American Physicians and Surgeons</a>. In opposition were <a href="/wiki/Americans_for_Democratic_Action" title="Americans for Democratic Action">Americans for Democratic Action</a>, the <a href="/wiki/American_Jewish_Congress" title="American Jewish Congress">American Jewish Congress</a>, the <a href="/wiki/American_Federation_of_Labor" title="American Federation of Labor">American Federation of Labor</a>, <a href="/wiki/B%27nai_B%27rith" title="B'nai B'rith">B'nai B'rith</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Citizens_for_Global_Solutions" title="Citizens for Global Solutions">United World Federalists</a>, the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union" title="American Civil Liberties Union">American Civil Liberties Union</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/American_Association_of_University_Women" title="American Association of University Women">American Association of University Women</a>: groups that Holman characterized as "eastern seaboard internationalists."<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eisenhower_aided_by_Democrats">Eisenhower aided by Democrats</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bricker_Amendment&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Eisenhower aided by Democrats"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Senator_Lyndon_Johnson.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Senator_Lyndon_Johnson.jpg/220px-Senator_Lyndon_Johnson.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="317" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Senator_Lyndon_Johnson.jpg/330px-Senator_Lyndon_Johnson.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/Senator_Lyndon_Johnson.jpg 2x" data-file-width="417" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Senator <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a> helped President <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Eisenhower</a> defeat the Bricker Amendment.</figcaption></figure><p>Faced with essentially united opposition from his own Party's Senate caucus, Eisenhower needed the help of Democrats to defeat the Amendment. Caro summarized the problem: "Defeating the amendment and thereby preserving the power of the presidency—his first objective—could not be accomplished even if he united his party's liberal and moderate senators against it; there simply were not enough of them. He would have to turn conservative Senators against it too, conservatives who were at the moment wholeheartedly for it—and not just Democratic conservatives but at least a few members of the Republican Old Guard."<sup id="cite_ref-Master_55-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Master-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> President Eisenhower continued his opposition. In January, he claimed that the Bricker Amendment would fatally weaken the bargaining position of the United States because the states would be involved in foreign policy, recalling the divisions under the <a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Before the Second Session of the 83rd Congress convened, the Amendment "went through a complex and incomprehensible series of changes as various Senators struggled to find a precise wording that would satisfy both the President and Bricker." In fact, President Eisenhower himself in January 1954 said that nobody understood the Bricker Amendment, but his position "was clear; he opposed any amendment that would reduce the President's power to conduct foreign policy."<sup id="cite_ref-Stephen_2_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stephen_2-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his opposition to the Amendment, Eisenhower obtained the help of Senate Minority Leader <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a>, who persuaded Senator <a href="/wiki/Walter_F._George" title="Walter F. George">Walter F. George</a> of <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a> to sponsor his own proposal in order to sap support from Senator Bricker's.<sup id="cite_ref-Master_55-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Master-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The George Substitute introduced on January 27, 1954, especially infuriated Bricker since George also wanted limits on treaties.<sup id="cite_ref-Master_55-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Master-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>George warned in the Senate, "I do not want a president of the U.S. to conclude an executive agreement which will make it unlawful for me to kill a cat in the back alley of my lot at night and I do not want the President of the U.S. to make a treaty with India which would preclude me from butchering a cow in my own pasture."<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Senator George was ideal as an opponent as he was a hero to conservatives of both parties for his opposition to the <a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a> and his survival of President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a>'s unsuccessful effort to purge him when he sought re-election in 1938. "Democrats and Republicans alike respected him and recognized his influence."<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Eisenhower worked to prevent a vote, telling Republican Senators that he agreed that President Roosevelt had done things he would not have done, but that the Amendment would not have prevented the <a href="/wiki/Yalta_Conference" title="Yalta Conference">Yalta Agreement</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stephen_2_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stephen_2-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the time the Senate finally voted on the Bricker Amendment on February 26, thirteen of the nineteen Democrats who had co-sponsored it had withdrawn their support, at the urging of Senators Johnson and George.<sup id="cite_ref-Master_55-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Master-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The original version of S.J. Res. 1 failed 42–50. By a 61-30 vote, the Senate agreed to substitute George's language for Bricker's— if only ninety-one senators voted, sixty-one was the necessary two-thirds vote for final approval.<sup id="cite_ref-Master_55-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Master-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Senator <a href="/wiki/Herbert_H._Lehman" title="Herbert H. Lehman">Herbert H. Lehman</a> of <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">New York</a> said in the debate "what we are doing is one of the most dangerous and inexcusable things that any great legislative body can do."<sup id="cite_ref-Master_55-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Master-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Johnson had planned carefully and had several votes in reserve. When revised Amendments came to a vote, with <a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">Vice President</a> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> presiding over the Senate, Senator <a href="/wiki/Harley_M._Kilgore" title="Harley M. Kilgore">Harley M. Kilgore</a> of <a href="/wiki/West_Virginia" title="West Virginia">West Virginia</a> arrived to cast the deciding vote of "nay." The measure was defeated 60-31. In the final count, thirty-two Republicans voted for the revised Bricker Amendment and fourteen voted against.<sup id="cite_ref-Master_55-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Master-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Senator Bricker was embittered by the defeat. "By the mid-1950s," wrote the Senator's biographer, "Bricker had become alienated from the mainstream of his own party... fulminating on the far right of the political spectrum." Decades after his defeat he was still furious. "Ike did it!" he said. "He killed my amendment."<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bricker_Amendment&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Aftermath"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hugo_Black.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Hugo_Black.jpg/220px-Hugo_Black.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Hugo_Black.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="302" data-file-height="403" /></a><figcaption>Justice <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Black" title="Hugo Black">Hugo Black</a>'s opinion in <i><a href="/wiki/Reid_v._Covert" title="Reid v. Covert">Reid v. Covert</a></i> addressed many fears of Bricker Amendment supporters.</figcaption></figure> <p>Eisenhower made defeating the amendment a high priority.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, to secure enough Republican votes, he had to abandon American support for the UN human rights initiative.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This episode proved to be the last hurrah for the isolationist Republicans, as the younger conservatives increasingly turned to an internationalism based on aggressive anti-communism, typified by Senator <a href="/wiki/Barry_Goldwater" title="Barry Goldwater">Barry Goldwater</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Senator Bricker introduced another proposal later in the 83rd Congress and proposed similar constitutional amendments in the 84th and 85th Congresses. While hearings were held in the 84th and 85th Congresses, the full Senate took no action and the idea of amending the Constitution was never again seriously considered. In part, this was because the Supreme Court issued rulings that undercut arguments for it, notably in <i><a href="/wiki/Reid_v._Covert" title="Reid v. Covert">Reid v. Covert</a></i>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The Supreme Court in 1957 declared that the United States could not abrogate the rights guaranteed to citizens in the Bill of Rights through international agreements. <i><a href="/wiki/Reid_v._Covert" title="Reid v. Covert">Reid v. Covert</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Kinsella_v._Krueger" title="Kinsella v. Krueger">Kinsella v. Krueger</a></i> concerned the prosecution of two servicemen's wives who killed their husbands abroad and were, under the <a href="/wiki/Status_of_forces_agreement" title="Status of forces agreement">status of forces agreements</a><sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in place, tried and convicted in American <a href="/wiki/Court-martial" title="Court-martial">courts-martial</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The court found the Congress had no constitutional authority to subject servicemen's dependents to the <a href="/wiki/Uniform_Code_of_Military_Justice" title="Uniform Code of Military Justice">Uniform Code of Military Justice</a> and overturned the convictions. Justice <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Black" title="Hugo Black">Hugo Black</a>'s opinion for the court declared: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>There is nothing in [the Constitution] which intimates that treaties and laws enacted pursuant to [it] do not have to comply with the provisions of the Constitution. Nor is there anything in the debates which accompanied the drafting and ratification of the Constitution which even suggests such a result. These debates as well as the history that surrounds the adoption of the treaty provision in Article VI make it clear that the reason treaties were not limited to those made in "pursuance" of the Constitution was so that agreements made by the United States under the Articles of Confederation, including the important peace treaties which concluded the Revolutionary War, would remain in effect. It would be manifestly contrary to the objectives of those who created the Constitution, as well as those who were responsible for the Bill of Rights—let alone alien to our entire constitutional history and tradition—to construe Article VI as permitting the United States to exercise power under an international agreement without observing constitutional prohibitions. In effect, such construction would permit amendment of that document in a manner not sanctioned by Article V. The prohibitions of the Constitution were designed to apply to all branches of the National Government and they cannot be nullified by the Executive or by the Executive and the Senate combined.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seery_v._United_States&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Seery v. United States (page does not exist)">Seery v. United States</a></i> (1955) the government argued that an executive agreement allowed it to confiscate property in <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a> owned by an American citizen without compensation.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But this was rejected, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Claims" title="United States Court of Claims">Court of Claims</a> writing "we think that there can be no doubt that an executive agreement, not being a transaction which is even mentioned in the Constitution, cannot impair constitutional rights."<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The United States ultimately ratified the UN's Genocide Convention in 1986.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Convention was signed with <a href="/wiki/Reservation_(law)" title="Reservation (law)">reservations</a>, which prevented the law being enacted if it contradicted the Constitution. Several states expressed concern that this would undermine the provisions of the convention.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The Bricker Amendment is occasionally revived in Congress. For example, in 1997, <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">Representative</a> <a href="/wiki/Helen_Chenoweth-Hage" title="Helen Chenoweth-Hage">Helen Chenoweth</a> (<a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">R</a>–<a href="/wiki/Idaho" title="Idaho">Idaho</a>) offered her version of the Bricker Amendment in the <a href="/wiki/105th_United_States_Congress" title="105th United States Congress">105th Congress</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bricker_Amendment&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower#Foreign_affairs" title="Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower">Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower#Foreign affairs</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bricker_Amendment&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFJames_Ciment2015" class="citation book cs1">James Ciment (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pnGsBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA173"><i>Postwar America: An Encyclopedia of Social, Political, Cultural, and Economic History</i></a>. Routledge. pp. 172–73. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781317462354" title="Special:BookSources/9781317462354"><bdi>9781317462354</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Postwar+America%3A+An+Encyclopedia+of+Social%2C+Political%2C+Cultural%2C+and+Economic+History&rft.pages=172-73&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781317462354&rft.au=James+Ciment&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpnGsBwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA173&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABricker+Amendment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Duane Tananbaum, <i>The Bricker Amendment Controversy: A test of Eisenhower's political leadership </i> ( 1988). </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wayne S. Cole. <i>Roosevelt & the Non-interventionists, 1932–1945.</i> <a href="/wiki/Lincoln,_Nebraska" title="Lincoln, Nebraska">Lincoln, Nebraska</a>: University of Nebraska Press, 1983. Chapters 32 and 33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wayne S. Cole. <i>Roosevelt & the Non-interventionists, 1932–1945.</i> <a href="/wiki/Lincoln,_Nebraska" title="Lincoln, Nebraska">Lincoln, Nebraska</a>: University of Nebraska Press, 1983. 527. The vote in the Senate was held on July 28, 1945, and was ratified 89 to 2. Voting no were <a href="/wiki/William_Langer" title="William Langer">William Langer</a> of <a href="/wiki/North_Dakota" title="North Dakota">North Dakota</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henrik_Shipstead" title="Henrik Shipstead">Henrik Shipstead</a> of <a href="/wiki/Minnesota" title="Minnesota">Minnesota</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hiram_Johnson" title="Hiram Johnson">Hiram Johnson</a> of <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a> would have voted no had he been able-bodied; he died on August 6, 1945.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yong-nok Koo. <i>Politics of Dissent in U.S. Foreign Policy: A Political Analysis of the Movement for the Bricker Amendment.</i> <a href="/wiki/Seoul" title="Seoul">Seoul</a>: American Studies Institute at <a href="/wiki/Seoul_National_University" title="Seoul National University">Seoul National University</a>, 1978. 36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frank E. Holman. <i>The Life and Career of a Western Lawyer, 1886–1961</i>. Baltimore, Maryland: Port City Press, 1963; Frank E. Holman. <i>The Story of the "Bricker Amendment."</i> New York City: Fund for Constitutional Government, 1954. See also Yong-nok Koo. <i>Politics of Dissent in U.S. Foreign Policy: A Political Analysis of the Movement for the Bricker Amendment.</i> <a href="/wiki/Seoul" title="Seoul">Seoul</a>: American Studies Institute at <a href="/wiki/Seoul_National_University" title="Seoul National University">Seoul National University</a>, 1978. 21 et seq. <a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Jackson" title="Robert H. Jackson">Robert H. Jackson</a>, later an <a href="/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States">Associate Justice</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">U.S. Supreme Court</a>, skeptically wrote of the authority of leaders of the bar associations, who "generally pyramid conservatism. At the top of the structures our bar association officials are as conservative as cemetery trustees." Robert H. Jackson. "The Lawyer: Leader or Mouthpieces?" <i>Journal of the American Judicature Society.</i> vol. 18 (October 1934). 72. Quoted by Tananbaum, 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gladwin Hill. "U.N. Rights Drafts Held Socialistic: Holman, Bar Association Head, Warns They Would Renounce Many Basic U.S. Principles." <i>The New York Times</i>. September 18, 1948. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> The Genocide Convention's text can be found on-line <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ohchr.org/english/law/genocide.htm">here</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060929173143/http://www.ohchr.org/english/law/genocide.htm">Archived</a> 2006-09-29 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tananbaum-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tananbaum_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tananbaum_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Tananbaum, 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tananbaum_2-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tananbaum_2_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tananbaum_2_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Tananbaum, 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herbert Brownell and John P. Burke. <i>Advising Ike: The Memoirs of Attorney General Herbert Brownell.</i> Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas, 1993. 265.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arthur Larson. <i>Eisenhower: The President that Nobody Knows</i>. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1968. 144.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frank E. Holman. <i>The Story of the "Bricker Amendment."</i> New York City: Fund for Constitutional Government, 1954. 38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In general on treaties and the Constitution, see Roger Lea MacBride. <i>Treaties Versus the Constitution.</i> <a href="/wiki/Caldwell,_Idaho" title="Caldwell, Idaho">Caldwell, Idaho</a>: The Caxton Printers, 1953.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">An Act to Establish the Post-Office and Post Roads Within the United States. Act of February 20, 1792. ch. 7. 1 Stat. 232.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Definitive Treaty of Peace Between the United States of America and His Britannic Majesty. Treaty of September 3, 1783. 8 Stat. 80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Akhil_Reed_Amar" title="Akhil Reed Amar">Akhil Reed Amar</a>. <i>America's Constitution: A Biography.</i> New York: Random House, 2005. 307.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <i><a href="/wiki/Ware_v._Hylton" title="Ware v. Hylton">Ware v. Hylton</a></i>, 3 Dall. 199 (1796), <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hopkirk_v._Bell&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hopkirk v. Bell (page does not exist)">Hopkirk v. Bell</a></i>, 7 U.S. (3 Cran.) 454 (1806), <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.justia.us/us/7/454/">[1]</a>, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Higginson_v._Mein&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Higginson v. Mein (page does not exist)">Higginson v. Mein</a></i>, 8 U.S. (4 Cran.) 415 (1808) <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.justia.us/us/8/415/index.html">[2]</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Fairfax%27s_Devisee_v._Hunter%27s_Lessee" title="Fairfax's Devisee v. Hunter's Lessee">Fairfax's Devisee v. Hunter's Lessee</a></i>, 11 U.S. (7 Cran.) 603 (1813), <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.justia.us/us/11/603/index.html">[3]</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Martin_v._Hunter%27s_Lessee" title="Martin v. Hunter's Lessee">Martin v. Hunter's Lessee</a></i>, 14 U.S. (1 Wheat.) 603 (1816), <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chirac_v._Chirac%27s_Lessee&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chirac v. Chirac's Lessee (page does not exist)">Chirac v. Chirac's Lessee</a></i>, 15 U.S. (2 Wheat.) 259 (1817), <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.justia.us/us/15/259/index.html">[4]</a>, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orr_v._Hodgson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Orr v. Hodgson (page does not exist)">Orr v. Hodgson</a></i>, 17 U.S. (4 Wheat.) 453 (1819) <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.justia.us/us/17/453/index.html">[5]</a>, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Society_for_the_Propagation_of_the_Gospel_in_Foreign_Parts_v._New_Haven&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts v. New Haven (page does not exist)">Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts v. New Haven</a></i>, 21 U.S. (8 Wheat.) 464 (1823) <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.justia.us/us/21/464/index.html">[6]</a>, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Society_for_the_Propagation_of_the_Gospel_in_Foreign_Parts_v._Town_of_Pawlet&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts v. Town of Pawlet (page does not exist)">Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts v. Town of Pawlet</a></i>, 29 U.S. 480 (1830). <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.justia.us/us/29/480/case.html">[7]</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Asakura_v._City_of_Seattle" title="Asakura v. City of Seattle">Asakura v. City of Seattle</a></i>, 265 U.S. 332 (1924). <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.justia.us/us/265/332/">[8]</a> (Seattle law limiting business licenses to American citizens violates the treaty of commerce with Japan guaranteeing Japanese citizens right to conduct business in the United States).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hauenstein_v._Lynham&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hauenstein v. Lynham (page does not exist)">Hauenstein v. Lynham</a></i>, 100 U.S. 483 (1879) <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.justia.us/us/100/483/">[9]</a> and <i><a href="/wiki/Terrace_v._Thompson" title="Terrace v. Thompson">Terrace v. Thompson</a></i>, 263 U.S. 197 (1923) <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.justia.us/us/263/197/">[10]</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Garcia v. Pan American Airways</i>, 269 App. Div. 287, 55 N.Y.S. 2d 317 (1945), affirmed 295 N.Y. 852, 67 N.E. 2d 257, <i>Lee v. Pan American Airways</i>, 89 N.Y.S. 2d 888, 300 N.Y. 761, 89 N.E. 2d 258 (1949), cert. denied 339 U.S. 920 (1950).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Cherokee Tobacco</i>, 78 U.S. (11 Wall.) 616 (1870) at 621–622. See also <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Doe_v._Braden&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Doe v. Braden (page does not exist)">Doe v. Braden</a></i>, 57 U.S. (16 How.) 635 (1835). <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.justia.us/us/57/635/case.html">[11]</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Botiller_v._Dominguez" title="Botiller v. Dominguez">Botiller v. Dominguez</a></i>, 130 U.S. 238 (1889). <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.justia.us/us/130/238/">[12]</a> and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Chinese_Exclusion_Case" class="mw-redirect" title="The Chinese Exclusion Case">The Chinese Exclusion Case</a></i> (<i>Chae Chan Ping v. United States</i>), 130 U.S. 581 (1889). <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.justia.us/us/130/581/">[13]</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>De Geofroy v. Riggs</i>, 133 U.S. 258 (1890) at 267.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>United States v. Wong Kim Ark</i>, 169 U.S. 649, 701 (1898).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.justia.us/us/252/416/index.html"><i>Missouri v. Holland</i></a>, 252 U.S. 416 (1920).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">An Act Making Appropriations for the Department of Agriculture for the Fiscal Year Ending June 30, 1914, Act of March 4, 1913, 38 Stat. 828, c. 145, at page 847.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>United States v. Shauver</i>, 214 Fed. 154 (E.D. Ark. 1914), <i>United States v. McCullagh</i>, 221 Fed. 288 (D.Kan. 1915), <i>State v. Sawyer</i>, 94 A. 886 (Maine 1915), and <i>State v. McCullagh</i>, 153 P. 557 (Kan. 557).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Convention for the Protection of Migratory Birds of August 16, 1916, T.S. No. 628, 39 Stat. 1702.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Migratory Bird Treaty Act, Act of July 3, 1918, c. 128, 40 Stat. 755. Codified at 18 U.S.C.§703.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">252 U.S. 416 at 433.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Moley" title="Raymond Moley">Raymond Moley</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Newsweek" title="Newsweek">Newsweek</a></i>, August 10, 1953. 88.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Samuel_Corwin" title="Edward Samuel Corwin">Edward Samuel Corwin</a>. <i>The President: Office and Powers, 1787–1957.</i> 4th ed. New York: New York University Press, 1957. 421. Quoted in Yong-nok Koo. <i>Politics of Dissent in U.S. Foreign Policy: A Political Analysis of the Movement for the Bricker Amendment.</i> <a href="/wiki/Seoul" title="Seoul">Seoul</a>: American Studies Institute at <a href="/wiki/Seoul_National_University" title="Seoul National University">Seoul National University</a>, 1978. 56–57.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zechariah Chafee Jr., "Bricker Proposal Opposed" (Letter), <i>New York Times</i>, January 28, 1954. 26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>United States v. Belmont</i>, 301 U.S. 324 (1937).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>United States v. Belmont</i>, 301 U.S. 324 (1937) at 330.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>United States v. Pink</i>, 315 U.S. 203 (1942) <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.justia.us/us/315/203/index.html">[14]</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Curtiss-Wright_Export_Corp." title="United States v. Curtiss-Wright Export Corp.">United States v. Curtiss-Wright Export Corp.</a></i>, 299 U.S. 304 (1936),</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>United States v. Pink</i>. 315 U.S. 203 (1942) at 228.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>United States v. Pink</i>, 315 U.S. 203 (1942) at 229, internal quotations and citations omitted.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>United States v. Guy W. Capps, Inc.</i>, 100 F.Supp. 30 (E.D. Va. 1952), affirmed 204 F.2d. 655 (4th 1953), affirmed 348 U.S. 296 (1955)<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.justia.us/us/348/296/index.html">[15]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Youngstown_Sheet_%26_Tube_Co._v._Sawyer" title="Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer">Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer</a></i>, 343 U.S. 579, 667–709 (1952) (Vinson, C.J., dissenting).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Fujii v. State</i>, 217 P.2d 481 (Cal. App. 2d 1950), rehearing denied 218 P.2d 596 (Cal. App. 2d 1950), reversed 242 P.2d 617 (1952).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Fujii v. State</i>, 217 P.2d 481, 486 (Cal. App. 2d. 1950).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Fujii v. State</i>, 242 P.2d 617, 622 (Cal. 1952)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Kemp v. Rubin</i>, 69 N.Y.S.2d 680, 686 (Sup. Ct. Queens 1947).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Sipes v. McGhee</i>, 316 Mich. 615, 628 (1947).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Rice v. Sioux City Memorial Park Cemetery, Inc.</i>, 245 Iowa 147, 60 N.W.2d 110, 116–117 (1954)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stephen-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stephen_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stephen_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephen E. Ambrose. <i>Eisenhower, Volume 2: The President.</i> New York: Simon & Schuster, 1984. 68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Bricker-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-The_Bricker_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Bricker_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Bricker_49-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"The Bricker Amendment: A Cure Worse Than the Disease?" <i>Time</i>. July 13, 1953. 20–21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herbert Brownell and John P. Burke. <i>Advising Ike: The Memoirs of Attorney General Herbert Brownell</i>. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas, 1993. 264.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tananbaum, 10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Frank-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Frank_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Frank_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Frank E. Holman. <i>The Story of the "Bricker Amendment."</i> New York City: Fund for Constitutional Government, 1954. viii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frank E. Holman. <i>The Story of the "Bricker Amendment."</i> New York City: Fund for Constitutional Government, 1954. 6. Holman said the Commission was "controlled by Communists and international socialists." <i>Story</i>, 71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tananbaum_3-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tananbaum_3_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tananbaum_3_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Tananbaum, 54.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Master-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Master_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Master_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Master_55-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Master_55-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Master_55-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Master_55-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Master_55-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Master_55-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Master_55-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Master_55-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Master_55-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Master_55-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Master_55-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaro2002" class="citation book cs1">Caro, Robert (2002). "22. Masterstrokes". <a href="/wiki/Master_of_the_Senate" title="Master of the Senate"><i>Master of the Senate: The Years of Lyndon Johnson</i></a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Alfred_A._Knopf" title="Alfred A. Knopf">Alfred A. Knopf</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-52836-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-394-52836-0"><bdi>0-394-52836-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=22.+Masterstrokes&rft.btitle=Master+of+the+Senate%3A+The+Years+of+Lyndon+Johnson&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Alfred+A.+Knopf&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-394-52836-0&rft.aulast=Caro&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABricker+Amendment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tananbaum, 22–23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dwight D. Eisenhower. <i>The Eisenhower Diaries.</i> Edited by Robert H. Ferrell. New York: W.W. Norton, 1981. Entry for April 1, 1953, on page 233.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walter LaFeber. <i>America, Russia, and the Cold War, 1945–1984.</i> New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1985. 178–179.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"On Their Knees" <i>Time</i>. January 18, 1954. 20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">LaFeber, 179.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tananbaum, 25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tananbaum, 35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tananbaum, 42</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harry S. Truman. "Memorandum on Proposed Bills Dealing With Treaties and Executive Agreements." May 23, 1953. <i>Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Harry S. Truman, 1952–1953.</i> Washington: United States Government Printing Office. 367. Available on-line <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.trumanlibrary.org/publicpapers/index.php?pid=1307&st=&st1=">here</a> (accessed May 2, 2006).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tananbaum, 58.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tananbaum, 60.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tananbaum, 64.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tananbaum, 67–69.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eisenhower, diary entry for July 24, 1953, page 248.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dwight D. Eisenhower. "The President's News Conference of March 26, 1953." <i>Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1953.</i> Washington: United States Government Printing Office. Available on-line <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=9804&st=&st1=">here</a> (accessed May 2, 2006).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tananbaum, 73.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tananbaum, 77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Geoffrey C. Perrett. <i>Eisenhower</i>. New York: Random House, 1999. 485–487.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adams, 106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sherman Adams. <i>Firsthand Report: The Story of the Eisenhower Administration.</i> New York: Harper and Brothers, 1961. 104.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Adams, 104. The text of the January 25 letter is available online <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eisenhowermemorial.org/presidential-papers/first-term/documents/684.cfm">here</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070928015042/http://www.eisenhowermemorial.org/presidential-papers/first-term/documents/684.cfm">Archived</a> 2007-09-28 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> .</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Geoffrey C. Perrett. <i>Eisenhower</i>. New York: Random House, 1999. 487.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Davis, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Solicitor_General" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Solicitor General">United States Solicitor General</a> under <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a>, orchestrated the passage of the Migratory Bird Treaty (the treaty at issue in <i>Missouri v. Holland</i>) after the statute protecting birds was found unconstitutional.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dwight D. Eisenhower. <i>The White House Years: Mandate for Change, 1953–1956.</i> <a href="/wiki/Garden_City,_New_York" title="Garden City, New York">Garden City, New York</a>: Doubleday, 1963. 283.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sherman Adams. <i>Firsthand Report: The Story of the Eisenhower Administration.</i> New York: Harper and Brothers, 1961. 106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frank E. Holman. <i>The Story of the "Bricker Amendment."</i> New York City: Fund for Constitutional Government, 1954. 17, 23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dwight D. Eisenhower. "The President's News Conference of January 13, 1954." <i>Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1954.</i> Washington: United States Government Printing Office. 132. Available on-line <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=10220&st=&st1=">here</a> (accessed June 28, 2006).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stephen_2-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stephen_2_83-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stephen_2_83-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephen E. Ambrose. <i>Eisenhower, Volume 2: The President.</i> New York: Simon & Schuster, 1984. 154.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Cats, Cows, Pigeons, Fleas." <i>Time</i>. February 22, 1954. 28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tananbaum, 144.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard O. Davies. "John W. Bricker and the Slow Death of Old Guard Republicanism." Chapter 21 of <i>Builders of Ohio: A Biographical History</i>. Edited by Warren Van Tine and Michael Pierce. <a href="/wiki/Columbus,_Ohio" title="Columbus, Ohio">Columbus, Ohio</a>: The Ohio State University Press, 2003. 279.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Duane A. Tananbaum, "The Bricker Amendment Controversy: Its Origins and Eisenhower's Role." <i>Diplomatic History</i> 9.1 (1985): 73-93.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tony Evans, "Hegemony, domestic politics and the project of universal human rights." <i>Diplomacy and Statecraft</i> 6.3 (1995): 616-644.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cathal J. Nolan, "The Last Hurrah of Conservative Isolationism: Eisenhower, Congress, and the Bricker Amendment, <i>Presidential Studies Quarterly</i> 22#2 (1992) pp. 337-349 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27550951">in JSTOR</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Administrative Agreement Under Article III of the Security Treaty Between the United States of America and Japan. Agreement of February 28, 1952, 3 UST 3343, TIAS 2492, and Executive Agreement Between the United States of America and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland Respecting Jurisdiction Over Criminal Offenses Committed by Armed Forces of July 27, 1942, 57 Stat. 1193, E.A.S. 355. Enacted in Britain as United States of America (Victory Forces Act) 1942, 5&6 Geo. 6, c. 31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Reid_v._Covert" title="Reid v. Covert">Reid v. Covert</a></i>, 351 U.S. 378 (1956) and <i><a href="/wiki/Reid_v._Covert" title="Reid v. Covert">Kinsella v. Krueger</a></i>, 351 U.S. 370 (1956), both reversed on rehearing as <i>Reid v. Covert</i>, 354 U.S. 1 (1957)<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://supreme.justia.com/us/354/1/case.html">[16]</a>. See also: <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Bernays_Wiener" title="Frederick Bernays Wiener">Frederick Bernays Wiener</a>. <i>Civilians Under Military Justice: The British Practice Since 1689, Especially in North America.</i> Chicago: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a> Press, 1967. Wiener argued <i>Reid</i> and <i>Kinsella</i> before the Supreme Court on behalf of the convicted women.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Reid v. Covert</i>, 354 U.S. 1, 16 (1957)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Seery v. United States</i>, 127 F. Supp. 601 (Ct. Claims. 1955). See also <i>Seery v. United States</i>, 161 F. Supp. 395 (Ct. Claims 1958).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Seery v. United States</i>, 127 F. Supp. 601, 606 (Ct. Claims. 1955).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Convention on the prevention and punishment of the crime of genocide. Adopted by the UN General Assembly at Paris December 9, 1948. The enabling legislation was the Genocide Convention Implementation Act of 1987, also known as the Proxmire Act, Pub. L. 100–606, Act of November 4, 1988, 102 Stat. 3045, codified as <a href="/wiki/Title_18_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 18 of the United States Code">18 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/1091">§ 1091</a> et seq.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUmpenhour,_Charles_Merlin2005" class="citation book cs1">Umpenhour, Charles Merlin (2005). <i>Freedom, A Fading Illusion</i>. Bookmakers Ink. p. 421. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9726789-5-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-9726789-5-6"><bdi>0-9726789-5-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Freedom%2C+A+Fading+Illusion&rft.pages=421&rft.pub=Bookmakers+Ink&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-9726789-5-6&rft.au=Umpenhour%2C+Charles+Merlin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABricker+Amendment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Table_of_cases">Table of cases</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bricker_Amendment&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Table of cases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Asakura_v._City_of_Seattle" title="Asakura v. City of Seattle">Asakura v. City of Seattle</a></i>, 265 U.S. 332 (1924).<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.justia.us/us/265/332/">[17]</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Botiller_v._Dominguez" title="Botiller v. Dominguez">Botiller v. Dominguez</a></i>, 130 U.S. 238 (1889). <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.justia.us/us/130/238/">[18]</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Cherokee_Tobacco" title="The Cherokee Tobacco">The Cherokee Tobacco</a></i>, 78 U.S. (11 Wall.) 616 (1870). <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.justia.us/us/78/616/">[19]</a></li> <li><i>The Chinese Exclusion Case</i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Chae_Chan_Ping_v._United_States" title="Chae Chan Ping v. United States">Chae Chan Ping v. United States</a></i>), 130 U.S. 581 (1889). <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.justia.us/us/130/581/">[20]</a></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chirac_v._Chirac%27s_Lessee&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chirac v. Chirac's Lessee (page does not exist)">Chirac v. Chirac's Lessee</a></i>, 15 U.S. (2 Wheat.) 259 (1817). <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.justia.us/us/15/259/index.html">[21]</a></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=De_Geofroy_v._Riggs&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="De Geofroy v. Riggs (page does not exist)">De Geofroy v. Riggs</a></i>, 133 U.S. 258 (1890) <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.justia.us/us/133/258/index.html">[22]</a></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Doe_v._Braden&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Doe v. Braden (page does not exist)">Doe v. Braden</a></i>, 57 U.S. (16 How.) 635 (1835). <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.justia.us/us/57/635/case.html">[23]</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fairfax%27s_Devisee_v._Hunter%27s_Lessee" title="Fairfax's Devisee v. Hunter's Lessee">Fairfax's Devisee v. Hunter's Lessee</a></i>, 11 U.S. (7 Cran.) 603 (1813). <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.justia.us/us/11/603/index.html">[24]</a></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foster_v._Nielson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Foster v. Nielson (page does not exist)">Foster v. Nielson</a></i>, 27 U.S. (2 Pet.) 253 (1829). <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.justia.us/us/27/253/index.html">[25]</a></li> <li><i>Fujii v. State</i>, 217 P.2d 481 (Cal. App. 2d 1950), rehearing denied 218 P.2d 596 (Cal. App. 2d 1950), reversed 242 P.2d 617 (1952).</li> <li><i>Garcia v. Pan American Airways</i>, 269 App. Div. 287, 55 N.Y.S. 2d 317 (1945), affirmed 295 N.Y. 852, 67 N.E. 2d 257.</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hauenstein_v._Lynham&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hauenstein v. Lynham (page does not exist)">Hauenstein v. Lynham</a></i>, 100 U.S. 483 (1879). <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.justia.us/us/100/483/">[26]</a></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Higginson_v._Mein&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Higginson v. Mein (page does not exist)">Higginson v. Mein</a></i>, 8 U.S. (4 Cran.) 415 (1808). <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.justia.us/us/8/415/index.html">[27]</a></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hopkirk_v._Bell&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hopkirk v. Bell (page does not exist)">Hopkirk v. Bell</a></i>, 7 U.S. (3 Cran.) 454 (1806). <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.justia.us/us/7/454/">[28]</a></li> <li><i>Kemp v. Rubin</i>, 69 N.Y.S.2d 680 (Sup. Ct. Queens 1947).</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reid_v._Covert" title="Reid v. Covert">Kinsella v. Krueger</a></i>, 351 U.S. 470 (1956) <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.justia.us/us/351/470/index.html">[29]</a>, reversed on rehearing, 354 U.S. 1 (1957)<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.justia.us/us/354/1/index.html">[30]</a>.<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.justia.us/us/351/487/index.html">[31]</a></li> <li><i>Lee v. Pan American Airways</i>, 89 N.Y.S. 2d 888, 300 N.Y. 761, 89 N.E. 2d 258 (1949), cert. denied 339 U.S. 920 (1950).</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Martin_v._Hunter%27s_Lessee" title="Martin v. Hunter's Lessee">Martin v. Hunter's Lessee</a></i>, 14 U.S. (1 Wheat.) 603 (1816)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Missouri_v._Holland" title="Missouri v. Holland">Missouri v. Holland</a></i>, 252 U.S. 416 (1920). <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.justia.us/us/252/416/index.html">[32]</a></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orr_v._Hodgson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Orr v. Hodgson (page does not exist)">Orr v. Hodgson</a></i>, 17 U.S. (4 Wheat.) 453 (1819). <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.justia.us/us/17/453/index.html">[33]</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reid_v._Covert" title="Reid v. Covert">Reid v. Covert</a></i>, 351 U.S. 487 (1956), reversed on rehearing, 354 U.S. 1 (1957)<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.justia.us/us/354/1/index.html">[34]</a>.<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.justia.us/us/351/487/index.html">[35]</a></li> <li><i>Rice v. Sioux City Memorial Park Cemetery</i>, 245 Iowa 147, 60 N.W.2d 110 (1954), cert dismissed as improvidently granted, 349 U.S. 70 (1955) <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.justia.us/us/349/70/index.html">[36]</a></li> <li><i>Seery v. United States</i>, 127 F. Supp. 601 (Ct. Claims 1955).</li> <li><i>Sipes v. McGhee</i>, 316 Mich. 615 (1947).</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Society_for_the_Propagation_of_the_Gospel_in_Foreign_Parts_v._New_Haven&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts v. New Haven (page does not exist)">Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts v. New Haven</a></i>, 21 U.S. (8 Wheat.) 464 (1823). <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.justia.us/us/21/464/index.html">[37]</a></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Society_for_the_Propagation_of_the_Gospel_in_Foreign_Parts_v._Town_of_Pawlet&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts v. Town of Pawlet (page does not exist)">Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts v. Town of Pawlet</a></i>, 29 U.S. 480 (1830). <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.justia.us/us/29/480/case.html">[38]</a></li> <li><i>State v. McCullagh</i>, 153 Pac. 557 (Kan. 557).</li> <li><i>State v. Sawyer</i>, 94 Atl. 886 (Maine 1915).</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Terrace_v._Thompson" title="Terrace v. Thompson">Terrace v. Thompson</a></i>, 263 U.S. 197 (1923). <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.justia.us/us/263/197/">[39]</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Belmont" title="United States v. Belmont">United States v. Belmont</a></i>, 301 U.S. 324 (1937)<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.justia.us/us/301/324/index.html">[40]</a></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_v._Guy_W._Capps,_Inc.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="United States v. Guy W. Capps, Inc. (page does not exist)">United States v. Guy W. Capps, Inc.</a></i>, 100 F.Supp. 30 (E.D. Va. 1952), affirmed 204 F.2d. 655 (4th 1953), affirmed 348 U.S. 296 (1955)<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.justia.us/us/348/296/index.html">[41]</a></li> <li><i>United States v. McCullagh.</i> 221 Fed 288 (D Kan. 1915).</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Pink" title="United States v. Pink">United States v. Pink</a></i>, 315 U.S. 203 (1942) <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.justia.us/us/315/203/index.html">[42]</a></li> <li><i>United States v. Shauver</i>, 214 Fed 154 (E.D Ark. 1914).</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Wong_Kim_Ark" title="United States v. Wong Kim Ark">United States v. Wong Kim Ark</a></i>, 169 U.S. 649 (1898) <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://supreme.justia.com/us/169/649/">[43]</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ware_v._Hylton" title="Ware v. Hylton">Ware v. Hylton</a></i>, 3 U.S. (3 Dall.) 199 (1796). <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.justia.us/us/3/199/index.html">[44]</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Youngstown_Sheet_%26_Tube_Co._v._Sawyer" title="Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer">Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer</a></i>, 343 U.S. 569 (1952). <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.justia.us/us/343/579/index.html">[45]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Table_of_statutes,_treaties,_and_international_agreements"><span id="Table_of_statutes.2C_treaties.2C_and_international_agreements"></span>Table of statutes, treaties, and international agreements</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bricker_Amendment&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Table of statutes, treaties, and international agreements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>An Act Concerning Aliens. Act of June 25, 1798, ch. 58, 1 Stat. 570.</li> <li>An Act for the Punishment of Certain Crimes against the United States. Act of July 14, 1798, ch. 74, 1 Stat. 596.</li> <li>An Act Respecting Alien Enemies. Act of July 6, 1798, ch. 66, 1 Stat. 577.</li> <li>An Act to Establish a Uniform Rule of Naturalization. Act of June 18, 1798, ch. 54, 1 Stat. 566.</li> <li>An Act to Establish the Post-Office and Post Roads Within the United States. Act of February 20, 1792. ch. 7. 1 Stat. 232.</li> <li>Administrative Agreement Under Article III of the Security Treaty Between the United States of America and Japan. Agreement of February 28, 1952. 3 UST 3343. TIAS 2492.</li> <li>Convention for the Protection of Migratory Birds of August 16, 1916, T.S. No. 628, 39 Stat. 1702.</li> <li>Definitive Treaty of Peace Between the United States of America and His Britannic Majesty. Treaty of September 3, 1783. 8 Stat. 80.</li> <li>Executive Agreement Between the United States of America and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland Respecting Jurisdiction Over Criminal Offenses Committed by Armed Forces of July 27, 1942. 57 Stat. 1193, E.A.S. 355. Enacted in Britain as United States of America (Victory Forces Act) 1942, 5&6 Geo. 6, c. 31.</li> <li>Genocide Convention Implementation Act of 1987, also known as the Proxmire Act, Pub. L. 100–606, Act of November 4, 1988, 102 Stat. 3045, codified as <a href="/wiki/Title_18_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 18 of the United States Code">18 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/1091">§ 1091</a> et seq.</li> <li>Migratory Bird Treaty Act. Act of July 3, 1918, ch. 148, 40 Stat. 755, 18 U.S.C.§703.</li> <li>Neutrality Act of 1935. Act of August 31, 1935, ch. 837, 49 Stat. 1081.</li> <li>Neutrality Act of 1936. Act of February 18, 1936, ch. 106, 49 Stat. 1153.</li> <li>Neutrality Act of 1937. Act of May 1, 1937, ch. 146, 50 Stat. 121.</li> <li>The United Nations Charter. 59 Stat. 1031, T.S. 993.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bricker_Amendment&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Byrd, Elbert M. <i>Treaties and executive agreements in the United States: their separate roles and limitations</i> (Springer, 2012).</li> <li>Caro, Robert A. <i>The Years of Lyndon Johnson: Master of the Senate.</i> New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2002. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-52836-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-394-52836-0">0-394-52836-0</a>.</li> <li>Davies, Richard O. <i>Defender of the Old Guard: John Bricker and American Politics</i>. (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1993)</li> <li>Fisher, Louis. <i>President and Congress: Power and Policy</i> (Free Press, 1972).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_E._Holman" title="Frank E. Holman">Frank E. Holman</a>. <i>The Story of the "Bricker Amendment."</i> (Fund for Constitutional Government, 1954).</li> <li>Richards, Nelson. <i>The Bricker Amendment and Congress's Failure to Check the Inflation of the Executive's Foreign Affairs Powers, 1951-1954</i>, 94 Cal. Law Rev. 175 (2006).</li> <li>Mathews, Craig. "The Constitutional Power of the President to Conclude International Agreements." <i>Yale Law Journal</i> 64 (1954): 345+. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=8350&context=ylj">Online</a></li> <li>Nolan, Cathal J. "The last hurrah of conservative isolationism: Eisenhower, Congress, and the Bricker Amendment," <i>Presidential Studies Quarterly</i> (1992) 22#2 pp 337–49</li> <li>Sutherland, Arthur E. "Bricker Amendment, Executive Agreements, and Imported Potatoes, The." <i>Harvard Law Review</i> 67 (1953): 281+.</li> <li>Tananbaum. Duane. <i>The Bricker Amendment Controversy: A Test of Eisenhower's Political Leadership</i>. (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1988)</li> <li>Tikriti, Amir M. "Beyond the Executive Agreement: The Foreign Policy Preference under Movesian and the Return of the Dormant Foreign Affairs Power in Norton Simon." <i>Pepperdine Law Review</i> 38 (2010): 755+. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalcommons.pepperdine.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1023&context=plr">Online</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bricker_Amendment&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Primary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on the Judiciary. <i>Treaties and Executive Agreements: Hearings Before a Subcommittee of the Committee on the Judiciary, <a href="/wiki/82nd_United_States_Congress" title="82nd United States Congress">Eighty-second Congress</a>, Second Session, on S.J. Res 130, Proposing an Amendment to the Constitution of the United States Relating to the Making of Treaties and Executive Agreements.</i> Washington, D.C.: <a href="/wiki/United_States_Government_Printing_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Government Printing Office">United States Government Printing Office</a>, 1952.</li> <li>United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on the Judiciary. Subcommittee on Constitutional Amendments. <i>Treaties and Executive Agreements: Hearings Before a Subcommittee of the Committee on the Judiciary, <a href="/wiki/83rd_United_States_Congress" title="83rd United States Congress">Eighty-third Congress</a>, Second Session, on S.J. Res 1, Proposing an Amendment to the Constitution of the United States Relating to the Making of Treaties and Executive Agreements, and S.J. Res 43, Proposing an Amendment to the Constitution of the United States Relating to the Legal Effects of Certain Treaties.</i> Washington, D.C.: <a href="/wiki/United_States_Government_Printing_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Government Printing Office">United States Government Printing Office</a>, 1953.</li> <li>United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on the Judiciary. <i>Constitutional Amendment Relative to Treaties and Executive Agreements, <a href="/wiki/83rd_United_States_Congress" title="83rd United States Congress">83rd Congress</a>, 1st session.</i> Senate Report 412. Calendar 408. Washington, D.C.: <a href="/wiki/United_States_Government_Printing_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Government Printing Office">United States Government Printing Office</a>, 1953.</li> <li>United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on the Judiciary. Subcommittee on Constitutional Amendments. <i>Treaties and Executive Agreements: Hearings Before a Subcommittee of the Committee on the Judiciary, <a href="/wiki/84th_United_States_Congress" title="84th United States Congress">Eighty-fourth Congress</a>, First Session, on S.J. Res 1, Proposing an Amendment to the Constitution of the United States Relating to the Legal Effects of Certain Treaties and Other International Agreements.</i> Washington, D.C.: <a href="/wiki/United_States_Government_Printing_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Government Printing Office">United States Government Printing Office</a>, 1955.</li> <li>United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on the Judiciary. Subcommittee on Constitutional Amendments. <i>Treaties and Executive Agreements: Hearings Before a Subcommittee of the Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, <a href="/wiki/85th_United_States_Congress" title="85th United States Congress">Eighty-fifth Congress</a>, First Session, on S.J. Res 3, Proposing an Amendment to the Constitution of the United States Relating to the Legal Effect of Certain Treaties and Other International Agreements.</i> Washington, D.C.: <a href="/wiki/United_States_Government_Printing_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Government Printing Office">United States Government Printing Office</a>, 1958.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bricker_Amendment&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output 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aria-labelledby="Constitution_of_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini 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href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Constitution of the United States"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Constitution_of_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Preamble_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Preamble to the United States Constitution">Preamble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Four_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Four of the United States Constitution">IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Five_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Five of the United States Constitution">V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Six_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Six of the United States Constitution">VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Seven_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Seven of the United States Constitution">VII</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="List of amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Amendments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Second Amendment to the United States Constitution">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Third Amendment to the United States Constitution">3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution">8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ninth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution">9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">10</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1795–1804</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eleventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution">12</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">14</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">15</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sixteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">16</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventeenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">17</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">18</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twentieth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution">20</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-first_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution">21</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution">22</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution">23</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">24</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">25</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">26</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">27</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="List of amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Unratified</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Apportionment_Amendment" title="Congressional Apportionment Amendment">Congressional Apportionment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titles_of_Nobility_Amendment" title="Titles of Nobility Amendment">Titles of Nobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corwin_Amendment" title="Corwin Amendment">Corwin Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_Labor_Amendment" title="Child Labor Amendment">Child Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Rights_Amendment" title="Equal Rights Amendment">Equal Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_Voting_Rights_Amendment" title="District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment">District of Columbia Voting Rights</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_proposed_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="List of proposed amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Proposed</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balanced_budget_amendment" title="Balanced budget amendment">Balanced budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaine_Amendment" title="Blaine Amendment">Blaine amendment</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bricker amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_finance_reform_amendment" title="Campaign finance reform amendment">Campaign finance reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_amendment" title="Christian amendment">Christian amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crittenden_Compromise" title="Crittenden Compromise">Crittenden Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_College_abolition_amendment" title="Electoral College abolition amendment">Electoral College abolition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Opportunity_to_Govern_Amendment" title="Equal Opportunity to Govern Amendment">Equal Opportunity to Govern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Marriage_Amendment" title="Federal Marriage Amendment">Federal Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_Desecration_Amendment" title="Flag Desecration Amendment">Flag Desecration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Life_Amendment" title="Human Life Amendment">Human Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposed_%22Liberty%22_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Proposed "Liberty" Amendment to the United States Constitution">"Liberty" amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludlow_Amendment" title="Ludlow Amendment">Ludlow amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_Rights_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Parental Rights Amendment to the United States Constitution">Parental Rights amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_Prayer_Amendment" title="School Prayer Amendment">School Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single_subject_amendment" title="Single subject amendment">Single subject</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victims%27_Rights_Amendment" title="Victims' Rights Amendment">Victims' Rights</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convention_to_propose_amendments_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Convention to propose amendments to the United States Constitution">Convention to propose amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_ratifying_conventions" title="State ratifying conventions">State ratifying conventions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Vernon_Conference" title="Mount Vernon Conference">Mount Vernon Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annapolis_Convention_(1786)" title="Annapolis Convention (1786)">Annapolis Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)" title="Constitutional Convention (United States)">Philadelphia Convention</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Plan" title="Virginia Plan">Virginia Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Jersey_Plan" title="New Jersey Plan">New Jersey Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connecticut_Compromise" title="Connecticut Compromise">Connecticut Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-fifths_Compromise" title="Three-fifths Compromise">Three-fifths Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Detail" title="Committee of Detail">Committee of Detail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Framers" class="mw-redirect" title="Framers">List of Framers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signing_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Signing of the United States Constitution">Signing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printing_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Printing of the United States Constitution">Printing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_Hall" title="Independence Hall">Independence Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syng_inkstand" title="Syng inkstand">Syng inkstand</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">The Federalist Papers</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Federalist_Papers" title="Anti-Federalist Papers">Anti-Federalist Papers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Compromise" title="Massachusetts Compromise">Massachusetts Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Ratifying_Convention" title="Virginia Ratifying Convention">Virginia Ratifying Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_Circular_Letter" title="New York Circular Letter">New York Circular Letter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hillsborough_Convention" title="Hillsborough Convention">Hillsborough Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fayetteville_Convention" title="Fayetteville Convention">Fayetteville Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution_by_Rhode_Island" title="Ratification of the United States Constitution by Rhode Island">Rhode Island ratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_drafting_and_ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution">Drafting and ratification timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_clauses_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="List of clauses of the United States Constitution">Clauses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Admission_to_the_Union" title="Admission to the Union">Admission to the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appointments_Clause" title="Appointments Clause">Appointments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appropriations_bill_(United_States)" title="Appropriations bill (United States)">Appropriations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_petition_in_the_United_States" title="Right to petition in the United States">Assemble and Petition Clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assistance_of_Counsel_Clause" title="Assistance of Counsel Clause">Assistance of Counsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_or_Controversy_Clause" title="Case or Controversy Clause">Case or Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship_Clause" title="Citizenship Clause">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commerce_Clause" title="Commerce Clause">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interstate_compact" title="Interstate compact">Compact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_Process_Clause" title="Compulsory Process Clause">Compulsory Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confrontation_Clause" title="Confrontation Clause">Confrontation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_power_of_enforcement" title="Congressional power of enforcement">Congressional enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contingent_election" title="Contingent election">Contingent Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract_Clause" title="Contract Clause">Contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Clause" title="Copyright Clause">Copyright and Patent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_Jeopardy_Clause" title="Double Jeopardy Clause">Double Jeopardy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">Due Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Elections clause">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engagements_Clause" title="Engagements Clause">Engagements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Establishment_Clause" title="Establishment Clause">Establishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Original_and_appellate_jurisdiction" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">Exceptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excessive_Bail_Clause" title="Excessive Bail Clause">Excessive Bail</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ex_post_facto_law#United_States" title="Ex post facto law">Ex Post Facto</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extradition_Clause" title="Extradition Clause">Extradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Exercise_Clause" title="Free Exercise Clause">Free Exercise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of the press in the United States">Freedom of the Press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of speech in the United States">Freedom of Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Clause" title="Fugitive Slave Clause">Fugitive Slave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full_Faith_and_Credit_Clause" title="Full Faith and Credit Clause">Full Faith and Credit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxing_and_Spending_Clause#General_Welfare_Clause" title="Taxing and Spending Clause">General Welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guarantee_Clause" title="Guarantee Clause">Guarantee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_congressional_apportionment" title="United States congressional apportionment">House Apportionment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_impeachment_in_the_United_States" title="Federal impeachment in the United States">Impeachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Import-Export_Clause" title="Import-Export Clause">Import-Export</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ineligibility_Clause" title="Ineligibility Clause">Ineligibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_8" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Militia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural-born-citizen_clause_(United_States)" title="Natural-born-citizen clause (United States)">Natural-born citizen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necessary_and_Proper_Clause" title="Necessary and Proper Clause">Necessary and Proper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_Religious_Test_Clause" title="No Religious Test Clause">No Religious Test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oath_of_office_of_the_president_of_the_United_States" title="Oath of office of the president of the United States">Oath or Affirmation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_jurisdiction_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court of the United States">Original Jurisdiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origination_Clause" title="Origination Clause">Origination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_pardons_in_the_United_States" title="Federal pardons in the United States">Pardon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postal_Clause" title="Postal Clause">Postal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presentment_Clause" title="Presentment Clause">Presentment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Electoral_College" title="United States Electoral College">Presidential Electors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_line_of_succession" title="United States presidential line of succession">Presidential succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privileges_and_Immunities_Clause" title="Privileges and Immunities Clause">Privileges and Immunities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privileges_or_Immunities_Clause" title="Privileges or Immunities Clause">Privileges or Immunities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recess_appointment" title="Recess appointment">Recess appointment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_2:_Making_recommendations_to_Congress" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Recommendation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#Self-incrimination" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Self-Incrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_or_Debate_Clause" title="Speech or Debate Clause">Speech or Debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speedy_Trial_Clause" title="Speedy Trial Clause">Speedy Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_1:_State_of_the_Union" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">State of the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supremacy_Clause" title="Supremacy Clause">Supremacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_9" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Suspension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_5:_Caring_for_the_faithful_execution_of_the_law" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Take Care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#Eminent_domain" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Takings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxing_and_Spending_Clause" title="Taxing and Spending Clause">Taxing and Spending</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Four_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Federal_property_and_the_Territorial_Clause" title="Article Four of the United States Constitution">Territorial</a></li> <li>Title of Nobility (<a href="/wiki/Foreign_Emoluments_Clause" title="Foreign Emoluments Clause">Foreign Emoluments</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_Clause" title="Treaty Clause">Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jury_trial#United_States" title="Jury trial">Trial by Jury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vesting_Clauses" title="Vesting Clauses">Vesting</a> (<a href="/wiki/Legislative_Vesting_Clause" title="Legislative Vesting Clause">Legislative</a> / <a href="/wiki/Executive_Vesting_Clause" title="Executive Vesting Clause">Executive</a> / <a href="/wiki/Judicial_Vesting_Clause" title="Judicial Vesting Clause">Judicial</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicinage_Clause" title="Vicinage Clause">Vicinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_Powers_Clause" title="War Powers Clause">War Powers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interpretation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(federalism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Balance of power (federalism)">Balance of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concurrent_powers" title="Concurrent powers">Concurrent powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_law_of_the_United_States" title="Constitutional law of the United States">Constitutional law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_constitutional_criminal_procedure" title="United States constitutional criminal procedure">Criminal procedure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_constitutional_sentencing_law" title="United States constitutional sentencing law">Criminal sentencing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dormant_Commerce_Clause" title="Dormant Commerce Clause">Dormant Commerce Clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enumerated_powers_(United_States)" title="Enumerated powers (United States)">Enumerated powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_footing" title="Equal footing">Equal footing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_privilege" title="Executive privilege">Executive privilege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Implied_powers" title="Implied powers">Implied powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incorporation_of_the_Bill_of_Rights" title="Incorporation of the Bill of Rights">Incorporation of the Bill of Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_review_in_the_United_States" title="Judicial review in the United States">Judicial review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondelegation_doctrine#United_States" title="Nondelegation doctrine">Nondelegation doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plenary_power" title="Plenary power">Plenary power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_preemption" title="Federal preemption">Preemption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reserved_powers" title="Reserved powers">Reserved powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxbe_fix" title="Saxbe fix">Saxbe fix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States" title="Separation of church and state in the United States">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Separation of powers under the United States Constitution">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symmetric_federalism" title="Symmetric federalism">Symmetric federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_protester_constitutional_arguments" title="Tax protester constitutional arguments">Taxation power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitary_executive_theory" title="Unitary executive theory">Unitary executive theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Framers" class="mw-redirect" title="Framers">Signatories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Convention President</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New Hampshire</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Langdon_(politician)" title="John Langdon (politician)">John Langdon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Gilman" title="Nicholas Gilman">Nicholas Gilman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Massachusetts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Gorham" title="Nathaniel Gorham">Nathaniel Gorham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rufus_King" title="Rufus King">Rufus King</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Connecticut</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Samuel_Johnson" title="William Samuel Johnson">William Samuel Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Sherman" title="Roger Sherman">Roger Sherman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New York</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New Jersey</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Livingston" title="William Livingston">William Livingston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Brearley" title="David Brearley">David Brearley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Paterson_(judge)" title="William Paterson (judge)">William Paterson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Dayton" title="Jonathan Dayton">Jonathan Dayton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pennsylvania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Mifflin" title="Thomas Mifflin">Thomas Mifflin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Morris_(financier)" title="Robert Morris (financier)">Robert Morris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Clymer" title="George Clymer">George Clymer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Fitzsimons" title="Thomas Fitzsimons">Thomas Fitzsimons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jared_Ingersoll" title="Jared Ingersoll">Jared Ingersoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Wilson_(Founding_Father)" title="James Wilson (Founding Father)">James Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gouverneur_Morris" title="Gouverneur Morris">Gouverneur Morris</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Delaware</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Read_(American_politician,_born_1733)" title="George Read (American politician, born 1733)">George Read</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunning_Bedford_Jr." title="Gunning Bedford Jr.">Gunning Bedford Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dickinson" title="John Dickinson">John Dickinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Bassett_(Delaware_politician)" title="Richard Bassett (Delaware politician)">Richard Bassett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Broom" title="Jacob Broom">Jacob Broom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Maryland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_McHenry" title="James McHenry">James McHenry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_of_St._Thomas_Jenifer" title="Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer">Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Carroll" title="Daniel Carroll">Daniel Carroll</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Virginia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Blair_Jr." title="John Blair Jr.">John Blair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North Carolina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Blount" title="William Blount">William Blount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Dobbs_Spaight" title="Richard Dobbs Spaight">Richard Dobbs Spaight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Williamson" title="Hugh Williamson">Hugh Williamson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South Carolina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Rutledge" title="John Rutledge">John Rutledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Cotesworth_Pinckney" title="Charles Cotesworth Pinckney">Charles Cotesworth Pinckney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Pinckney_(governor)" title="Charles Pinckney (governor)">Charles Pinckney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierce_Butler_(American_politician)" title="Pierce Butler (American politician)">Pierce Butler</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Georgia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Few" title="William Few">William Few</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Baldwin" title="Abraham Baldwin">Abraham Baldwin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Convention Secretary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Jackson_(secretary)" title="William Jackson (secretary)">William Jackson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Notes_of_Debates_in_the_Federal_Convention_of_1787" title="Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787">Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Shallus" title="Jacob Shallus">Jacob Shallus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Bibliography of the United States Constitution">Bibliography of the United States Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers of the United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Display<br />and legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Archives_Building" title="National Archives Building">National Archives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charters_of_Freedom" title="Charters of Freedom">Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_Mall_(Philadelphia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Independence Mall (Philadelphia)">Independence Mall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_Day_and_Citizenship_Day" title="Constitution Day and Citizenship Day">Constitution Day and Citizenship Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_Gardens" title="Constitution Gardens">Constitution Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_Week" title="Constitution Week">Constitution Week</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Constitution_Center" title="National Constitution Center">National Constitution Center</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Scene_at_the_Signing_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States">Scene at the Signing of the Constitution</a></i> (painting)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_More_Perfect_Union_(film)" title="A More Perfect Union (film)">A More Perfect Union</a></i> (film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worldwide_influence_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Worldwide influence of the Constitution of the United States">Worldwide influence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Cold_War" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Cold_War" title="Template:Cold War"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Cold_War" title="Template talk:Cold War"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cold_War" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cold War"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Cold_War" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUS" title="ANZUS">ANZUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Treaty_Organization" title="Central Treaty Organization">METO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization" title="Southeast Asia Treaty Organization">SEATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization" title="Northeast Asia Treaty Organization">NEATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-American_Treaty_of_Reciprocal_Assistance" title="Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance">Rio Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1940s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Morgenthau_Plan" title="Morgenthau Plan">Morgenthau Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hukbalahap_rebellion" title="Hukbalahap rebellion">Hukbalahap rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamaican_political_conflict" title="Jamaican political conflict">Jamaican political conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dekemvriana" title="Dekemvriana">Dekemvriana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_war_in_the_Baltic_states" title="Guerrilla war in the Baltic states">Guerrilla war in the Baltic states</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Priboi" title="Operation Priboi">Operation <i>Priboi</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Jungle" title="Operation Jungle">Operation <i>Jungle</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Occupation of the Baltic states</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursed_soldiers" title="Cursed soldiers">Cursed soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Unthinkable" title="Operation Unthinkable">Operation <i>Unthinkable</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gouzenko_Affair" title="Gouzenko Affair">Gouzenko Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Division_of_Korea" title="Division of Korea">Division of Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_National_Revolution" title="Indonesian National Revolution">Indonesian National Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Vietnam_(1945%E2%80%931946)" title="War in Vietnam (1945–1946)">Operation <i>Masterdom</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Beleaguer" title="Operation Beleaguer">Operation <i>Beleaguer</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Blacklist_Forty" title="Operation Blacklist Forty">Operation <i>Blacklist Forty</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_crisis_of_1946" title="Iran crisis of 1946">Iran crisis of 1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Civil_War" title="Greek Civil War">Greek Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Plan" title="Baruch Plan">Baruch Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corfu_Channel_incident" title="Corfu Channel incident">Corfu Channel incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Straits_crisis" title="Turkish Straits crisis">Turkish Straits crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restatement_of_Policy_on_Germany" title="Restatement of Policy on Germany">Restatement of Policy on Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1947_Polish_parliamentary_election" title="1947 Polish parliamentary election">1947 Polish parliamentary election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asian_Relations_Conference" title="Asian Relations Conference">Asian Relations Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_1947_crises" title="May 1947 crises">May 1947 crises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Pakistani_war_of_1947%E2%80%931948" title="Indo-Pakistani war of 1947–1948">Indo-Pakistani war of 1947–1948</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Palestine_war" title="1948 Palestine war">1947–1949 Palestine war</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1947%E2%80%931948_civil_war_in_Mandatory_Palestine" title="1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine">1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_War" title="1948 Arab–Israeli War">1948 Arab–Israeli War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Palestinian_expulsion_and_flight" title="1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight">1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">Comecon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Czechoslovak_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état">1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_Control_Council#Incapacitation_of_the_council" title="Allied Control Council">Incapacitation of the Allied Control Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Wathbah_uprising" title="Al-Wathbah uprising">Al-Wathbah uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tito%E2%80%93Stalin_split" title="Tito–Stalin split">Tito–Stalin split</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Blockade" title="Berlin Blockade">Berlin Blockade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Hyderabad" title="Annexation of Hyderabad">Annexation of Hyderabad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madiun_Affair" title="Madiun Affair">Madiun Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_betrayal" title="Western betrayal">Western betrayal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Curtain" title="Iron Curtain">Iron Curtain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Chinese Communist Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayan_Emergency" title="Malayan Emergency">Malayan Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_1949_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="March 1949 Syrian coup d'état">March 1949 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Valuable" title="Operation Valuable">Operation Valuable</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1950s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bamboo_curtain" title="Bamboo curtain">Bamboo curtain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Cold_War" title="Arab Cold War">Arab Cold War (1952–1979)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1952_Egyptian_revolution" title="1952 Egyptian revolution">1952 Egyptian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Intifada_(1952)" title="Iraqi Intifada (1952)">Iraqi Intifada (1952)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mau_Mau_rebellion" title="Mau Mau rebellion">Mau Mau rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_German_uprising_of_1953" title="East German uprising of 1953">East German uprising of 1953</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1953_Iranian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1953 Iranian coup d'état">1953 Iranian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pact_of_Madrid" title="Pact of Madrid">Pact of Madrid</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bricker Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1954 Syrian coup d'état">1954 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrov_Affair" title="Petrov Affair">Petrov Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domino_theory" title="Domino theory">Domino theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_Geneva_Conference" title="1954 Geneva Conference">1954 Geneva Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_Guatemalan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1954 Guatemalan coup d'état">1954 Guatemalan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_the_Tuapse" title="Capture of the Tuapse">Capture of the <i>Tuapse</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="First Taiwan Strait Crisis">First Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebel_Akhdar_War" title="Jebel Akhdar War">Jebel Akhdar War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_War" title="Algerian War">Algerian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashmir_Princess" title="Kashmir Princess">Kashmir Princess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bandung_Conference" title="Bandung Conference">Bandung Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Summit_(1955)" title="Geneva Summit (1955)">Geneva Summit (1955)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprus_Emergency" title="Cyprus Emergency">Cyprus Emergency</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/On_the_Cult_of_Personality_and_Its_Consequences" title="On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences">On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1956_Pozna%C5%84_protests" title="1956 Poznań protests">1956 Poznań protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">Hungarian Revolution of 1956</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_October" title="Polish October">Polish October</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/We_will_bury_you" title="We will bury you">We will bury you</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Gladio" title="Operation Gladio">Operation <i>Gladio</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Crisis_of_1957" title="Syrian Crisis of 1957">Syrian Crisis of 1957</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sputnik_crisis" title="Sputnik crisis">Sputnik crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ifni_War" title="Ifni War">Ifni War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14_July_Revolution" title="14 July Revolution">Iraqi 14 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1958_Lebanon_crisis" title="1958 Lebanon crisis">1958 Lebanon crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="Second Taiwan Strait Crisis">Second Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1959_Mosul_uprising" title="1959 Mosul uprising">1959 Mosul uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1959_Tibetan_uprising" title="1959 Tibetan uprising">1959 Tibetan uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laotian_Civil_War" title="Laotian Civil War">Laotian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitchen_Debate" title="Kitchen Debate">Kitchen Debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Revolution" title="Cuban Revolution">Cuban Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consolidation_of_the_Cuban_Revolution" title="Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution">Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">Sino-Soviet split</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congo_Crisis" title="Congo Crisis">Congo Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simba_rebellion" title="Simba rebellion">Simba rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_U-2_incident" title="1960 U-2 incident">1960 U-2 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Pigs_Invasion" title="Bay of Pigs Invasion">Bay of Pigs Invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_Turkish_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1960 Turkish coup d'état">1960 Turkish coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albanian%E2%80%93Soviet_split" title="Albanian–Soviet split">Albanian–Soviet split</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_Soviets_from_Albania" title="Expulsion of Soviets from Albania">Expulsion of Soviets from Albania</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_conflict" title="Iraqi–Kurdish conflict">Iraqi–Kurdish conflict</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_War" title="First Iraqi–Kurdish War">First Iraqi–Kurdish War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Crisis_of_1961" title="Berlin Crisis of 1961">Berlin Crisis of 1961</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Wall" title="Berlin Wall">Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Goa" title="Annexation of Goa">Annexation of Goa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papua_conflict" title="Papua conflict">Papua conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesia%E2%80%93Malaysia_confrontation" title="Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation">Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sand_War" title="Sand War">Sand War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Colonial_War" title="Portuguese Colonial War">Portuguese Colonial War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angolan_War_of_Independence" title="Angolan War of Independence">Angolan War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guinea-Bissau_War_of_Independence" title="Guinea-Bissau War of Independence">Guinea-Bissau War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambican_War_of_Independence" title="Mozambican War of Independence">Mozambican War of Independence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Porte%C3%B1azo" title="El Porteñazo">El Porteñazo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Indian_War" title="Sino-Indian War">Sino-Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Sarawak" title="Communist insurgency in Sarawak">Communist insurgency in Sarawak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramadan_Revolution" title="Ramadan Revolution">Ramadan Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrean_War_of_Independence" title="Eritrean War of Independence">Eritrean War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Yemen_civil_war" title="North Yemen civil war">North Yemen civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1963_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1963 Syrian coup d'état">1963 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Assassination of John F. Kennedy">Assassination of John F. Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aden_Emergency" title="Aden Emergency">Aden Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_intercommunal_violence#Crisis_of_1963–1964" title="Cypriot intercommunal violence">Cyprus crisis of 1963–1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shifta_War" title="Shifta War">Shifta War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_Dirty_War" title="Mexican Dirty War">Mexican Dirty War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tlatelolco_massacre" title="Tlatelolco massacre">Tlatelolco massacre</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guatemalan_Civil_War" title="Guatemalan Civil War">Guatemalan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colombian_conflict" title="Colombian conflict">Colombian conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_Brazilian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1964 Brazilian coup d'état">1964 Brazilian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominican_Civil_War" title="Dominican Civil War">Dominican Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodesian_Bush_War" title="Rhodesian Bush War">Rhodesian Bush War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_mass_killings_of_1965%E2%80%9366" title="Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66">Indonesian mass killings of 1965–1966</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_to_the_New_Order" title="Transition to the New Order">Transition to the New Order (Indonesia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASEAN_Declaration" title="ASEAN Declaration">ASEAN Declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1966_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1966 Syrian coup d'état">1966 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argentine_Revolution" title="Argentine Revolution">Argentine Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Border_War" title="South African Border War">South African Border War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_DMZ_Conflict" title="Korean DMZ Conflict">Korean DMZ Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/12-3_incident" title="12-3 incident">12-3 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_junta" title="Greek junta">Greek junta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1967_Hong_Kong_riots" title="1967 Hong Kong riots">1967 Hong Kong riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Years_of_Lead_(Italy)" title="Years of Lead (Italy)">Years of Lead (Italy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Attrition" title="War of Attrition">War of Attrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhofar_War" title="Dhofar War">Dhofar War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Wadiah_War" title="Al-Wadiah War">Al-Wadiah War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Civil_War" title="Nigerian Civil War">Nigerian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protests_of_1968" title="Protests of 1968">Protests of 1968</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/May_68" title="May 68">May 68</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_Spring" title="Prague Spring">Prague Spring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Pueblo_(AGER-2)#Pueblo_incident" title="USS Pueblo (AGER-2)">USS <i>Pueblo</i> incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Polish_political_crisis" title="1968 Polish political crisis">1968 Polish political crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968%E2%80%931971_East_Pakistan_communist_insurgency" title="1968–1971 East Pakistan communist insurgency">1968–1971 East Pakistan communist insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Malaysia_(1968%E2%80%931989)" title="Communist insurgency in Malaysia (1968–1989)">Communist insurgency in Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia">Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/17_July_Revolution" title="17 July Revolution">17 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Peruvian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1968 Peruvian coup d'état">1968 Peruvian coup d'état</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Government_of_the_Armed_Forces_of_Peru" title="Revolutionary Government of the Armed Forces of Peru">Revolutionary Government</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Sudanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1969 Sudanese coup d'état">1969 Sudanese coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Libyan_revolution" title="1969 Libyan revolution">1969 Libyan revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goulash_Communism" title="Goulash Communism">Goulash Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_border_conflict" title="Sino-Soviet border conflict">Sino-Soviet border conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_People%27s_Army_rebellion" title="New People's Army rebellion">New People's Army rebellion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1970s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9tente" title="Détente">Détente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Non-Proliferation_of_Nuclear_Weapons" title="Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons">Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_September" title="Black September">Black September</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcora_Exercise" title="Alcora Exercise">Alcora Exercise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_Movement_(Syria)" title="Corrective Movement (Syria)">Corrective Movement (Syria)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara_conflict" title="Western Sahara conflict">Western Sahara conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_Civil_War" title="Cambodian Civil War">Cambodian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Thailand" title="Communist insurgency in Thailand">Communist insurgency in Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1970_Polish_protests" title="1970 Polish protests">1970 Polish protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koza_riot" title="Koza riot">Koza riot</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Realpolitik" title="Realpolitik">Realpolitik</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ping-pong_diplomacy" title="Ping-pong diplomacy">Ping-pong diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_JVP_insurrection" title="1971 JVP insurrection">1971 JVP insurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_revolution_(Egypt)" title="Corrective revolution (Egypt)">Corrective revolution (Egypt)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_Turkish_military_memorandum" title="1971 Turkish military memorandum">1971 Turkish military memorandum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_Sudanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1971 Sudanese coup d'état">1971 Sudanese coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Power_Agreement_on_Berlin" title="Four Power Agreement on Berlin">Four Power Agreement on Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh_Liberation_War" title="Bangladesh Liberation War">Bangladesh Liberation War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972_visit_by_Richard_Nixon_to_China" title="1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China">1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Yemen#Disputes_with_North_Yemen" title="South Yemen">North Yemen-South Yemen Border conflict of 1972</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Yemenite_War" title="First Yemenite War">First Yemenite War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munich_massacre" title="Munich massacre">Munich massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972%E2%80%931975_Bangladesh_insurgency" title="1972–1975 Bangladesh insurgency">1972–1975 Bangladesh insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrean_Civil_Wars" title="Eritrean Civil Wars">Eritrean Civil Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_Uruguayan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Uruguayan coup d'état">1973 Uruguayan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_Afghan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Afghan coup d'état">1973 Afghan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_Chilean_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Chilean coup d'état">1973 Chilean coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yom_Kippur_War" title="Yom Kippur War">Yom Kippur War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_oil_crisis" title="1973 oil crisis">1973 oil crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnation_Revolution" title="Carnation Revolution">Carnation Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_transition_to_democracy" title="Spanish transition to democracy">Spanish transition to democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapolitefsi" title="Metapolitefsi">Metapolitefsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_Arms_Limitation_Talks" title="Strategic Arms Limitation Talks">Strategic Arms Limitation Talks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_War" title="Second Iraqi–Kurdish War">Second Iraqi–Kurdish War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_invasion_of_Cyprus" title="Turkish invasion of Cyprus">Turkish invasion of Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/15_August_1975_Bangladeshi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="15 August 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état">15 August 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3_November_1975_Bangladeshi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="3 November 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état">Siege of Dhaka (1975)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/7_November_1975_Bangladeshi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="7 November 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état">Sipahi-Janata revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angolan_Civil_War" title="Angolan Civil War">Angolan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_genocide" title="Cambodian genocide">Cambodian genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/June_1976_protests" title="June 1976 protests">June 1976 protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambican_Civil_War" title="Mozambican Civil War">Mozambican Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oromo_conflict" title="Oromo conflict">Oromo conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ogaden_War" title="Ogaden War">Ogaden War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1978_Somali_coup_attempt" title="1978 Somali coup attempt">1978 Somali coup attempt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara_War" title="Western Sahara War">Western Sahara War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Civil_War" title="Ethiopian Civil War">Ethiopian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Civil_War" title="Lebanese Civil War">Lebanese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Albanian_split" title="Sino-Albanian split">Sino-Albanian split</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Indochina_War" title="Third Indochina War">Third Indochina War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian%E2%80%93Vietnamese_War" title="Cambodian–Vietnamese War">Cambodian–Vietnamese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_conflict_(1979%E2%80%931998)" title="Cambodian conflict (1979–1998)">Cambodian conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Condor" title="Operation Condor">Operation <i>Condor</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirty_War" title="Dirty War">Dirty War (Argentina)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1976_Argentine_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1976 Argentine coup d'état">1976 Argentine coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian%E2%80%93Libyan_War" title="Egyptian–Libyan War">Egyptian–Libyan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Autumn" title="German Autumn">German Autumn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Air_Lines_Flight_902" title="Korean Air Lines Flight 902">Korean Air Lines Flight 902</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicaraguan_Revolution" title="Nicaraguan Revolution">Nicaraguan Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uganda%E2%80%93Tanzania_War" title="Uganda–Tanzania War">Uganda–Tanzania War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NDF_Rebellion" title="NDF Rebellion">NDF Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chadian%E2%80%93Libyan_War" title="Chadian–Libyan War">Chadian–Libyan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Yemenite_War" title="Second Yemenite War">Second Yemenite War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Mosque_seizure" title="Grand Mosque seizure">Grand Mosque seizure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_revolution" title="Iranian revolution">Iranian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saur_Revolution" title="Saur Revolution">Saur Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Vietnamese_War" title="Sino-Vietnamese War">Sino-Vietnamese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Jewel_Movement" title="New Jewel Movement">New Jewel Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1979_Herat_uprising" title="1979 Herat uprising">1979 Herat uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Days_to_the_River_Rhine" title="Seven Days to the River Rhine">Seven Days to the River Rhine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Struggle_against_political_abuse_of_psychiatry_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Struggle against political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union">Struggle against political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salvadoran_Civil_War" title="Salvadoran Civil War">Salvadoran Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_Summer_Olympics_boycott" title="1980 Summer Olympics boycott">1980</a> and <a href="/wiki/1984_Summer_Olympics_boycott" title="1984 Summer Olympics boycott">1984 Summer Olympics boycotts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gera_Demands" title="Gera Demands">Gera Demands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peruvian_Civil_War_of_1980%E2%80%932000" title="Peruvian Civil War of 1980–2000">Peruvian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gda%C5%84sk_Agreement" title="Gdańsk Agreement">Gdańsk Agreement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity_(Polish_trade_union)" title="Solidarity (Polish trade union)">Solidarity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrean_Civil_Wars" title="Eritrean Civil Wars">Eritrean Civil Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_Turkish_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1980 Turkish coup d'état">1980 Turkish coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugandan_Bush_War" title="Ugandan Bush War">Ugandan Bush War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Sidra_incident_(1981)" title="Gulf of Sidra incident (1981)">Gulf of Sidra incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial_law_in_Poland" title="Martial law in Poland">Martial law in Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casamance_conflict" title="Casamance conflict">Casamance conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falklands_War" title="Falklands War">Falklands War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1982_Ethiopian%E2%80%93Somali_Border_War" title="1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War">1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ndogboyosoi_War" title="Ndogboyosoi War">Ndogboyosoi War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Grenada" title="United States invasion of Grenada">United States invasion of Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Able_Archer_83" title="Able Archer 83">Able Archer 83</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_Defense_Initiative" title="Strategic Defense Initiative">Star Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Summit_(1985)" title="Geneva Summit (1985)">1985 Geneva Summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_Rebellion" title="Somali Rebellion">Somali Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reykjav%C3%ADk_Summit" title="Reykjavík Summit">Reykjavík Summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1986_Black_Sea_incident" title="1986 Black Sea incident">1986 Black Sea incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Yemen_civil_war" title="South Yemen civil war">South Yemen civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toyota_War" title="Toyota War">Toyota War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987_Lieyu_massacre" title="1987 Lieyu massacre">1987 Lieyu massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Denver" title="Operation Denver">Operation Denver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987%E2%80%931989_JVP_insurrection" title="1987–1989 JVP insurrection">1987–1989 JVP insurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord%27s_Resistance_Army_insurgency" title="Lord's Resistance Army insurgency">Lord's Resistance Army insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Black_Sea_bumping_incident" title="1988 Black Sea bumping incident">1988 Black Sea bumping incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/8888_Uprising" title="8888 Uprising">8888 Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Solidarity" title="History of Solidarity">Solidarity</a> (<a href="/wiki/Soviet_reaction_to_the_Polish_crisis_of_1980%E2%80%931981" title="Soviet reaction to the Polish crisis of 1980–1981">Soviet reaction</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contras" title="Contras">Contras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_American_crisis" title="Central American crisis">Central American crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_RYAN" title="Operation RYAN">Operation RYAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Air_Lines_Flight_007" title="Korean Air Lines Flight 007">Korean Air Lines Flight 007</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_Power_Revolution" title="People Power Revolution">People Power Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">Glasnost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">Perestroika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bougainville_conflict" title="Bougainville conflict">Bougainville conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Nagorno-Karabakh_War" title="First Nagorno-Karabakh War">First Nagorno-Karabakh War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_(1989%E2%80%931992)" title="Afghan Civil War (1989–1992)">Afghan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Panama" title="United States invasion of Panama">United States invasion of Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Polish_strikes" title="1988 Polish strikes">1988 Polish strikes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Round_Table_Agreement" title="Polish Round Table Agreement">Polish Round Table Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre">1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">Revolutions of 1989</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Berlin_Wall" title="Fall of the Berlin Wall">Fall of the Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_inner_German_border" title="Fall of the inner German border">Fall of the inner German border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velvet_Revolution" title="Velvet Revolution">Velvet Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_revolution" title="Romanian revolution">Romanian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peaceful_Revolution" title="Peaceful Revolution">Peaceful Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Revolution_of_1990" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1990">Mongolian Revolution of 1990</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Min_Ping_Yu_No._5540_incident" title="Min Ping Yu No. 5540 incident">Min Ping Yu No. 5540 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Min_Ping_Yu_No._5202" title="Min Ping Yu No. 5202">Min Ping Yu No. 5202</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">German reunification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_unification" title="Yemeni unification">Yemeni unification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_communism_in_Albania" title="Fall of communism in Albania">Fall of communism in Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breakup_of_Yugoslavia" title="Breakup of Yugoslavia">Breakup of Yugoslavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Dissolution of the Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_attempt" title="1991 Soviet coup attempt">1991 August Coup</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Dissolution of Czechoslovakia">Dissolution of Czechoslovakia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Frozen_conflict" title="Frozen conflict">Frozen conflicts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abkhazia_conflict" title="Abkhazia conflict">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_status_of_Taiwan" title="Political status of Taiwan">China-Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Division_of_Korea" title="Division of Korea">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_status_of_Kosovo" title="Political status of Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian%E2%80%93Ossetian_conflict" title="Georgian–Ossetian conflict">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnistria_War" title="Transnistria War">Transnistria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Indian_border_dispute" title="Sino-Indian border dispute">Sino-Indian border dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Borneo_dispute" title="North Borneo dispute">North Borneo dispute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Foreign policy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Containment" title="Containment">Containment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_Doctrine" title="Eisenhower Doctrine">Eisenhower Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domino_theory" title="Domino theory">Domino theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hallstein_Doctrine" title="Hallstein Doctrine">Hallstein Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Doctrine" title="Kennedy Doctrine">Kennedy Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peaceful_coexistence" title="Peaceful coexistence">Peaceful coexistence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostpolitik" title="Ostpolitik">Ostpolitik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnson_Doctrine" title="Johnson Doctrine">Johnson Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brezhnev_Doctrine" title="Brezhnev Doctrine">Brezhnev Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nixon_Doctrine" title="Nixon Doctrine">Nixon Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulbricht_Doctrine" title="Ulbricht Doctrine">Ulbricht Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carter_Doctrine" title="Carter Doctrine">Carter Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_Doctrine" title="Reagan Doctrine">Reagan Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rollback" title="Rollback">Rollback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinmen_Agreement" title="Kinmen Agreement">Kinmen Agreement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_of_economics" title="Chicago school of economics">Chicago school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Conservatism in the United States">American conservatism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monetarism" title="Monetarism">Monetarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_economics" title="Neoclassical economics">Neoclassical economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reaganomics" title="Reaganomics">Reaganomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply-side_economics" title="Supply-side economics">Supply-side economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_capitalism" title="Democratic capitalism">Democratic capitalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxism–Leninism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Fidel_Castro" title="Politics of Fidel Castro">Castroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurocommunism" title="Eurocommunism">Eurocommunism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guevarism" title="Guevarism">Guevarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoxhaism" title="Hoxhaism">Hoxhaism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Juche" title="Juche">Juche</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh_Thought" title="Ho Chi Minh Thought">Ho Chi Minh Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maoism" title="Maoism">Maoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trotskyism" title="Trotskyism">Trotskyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titoism" title="Titoism">Titoism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-imperialism" title="Anti-imperialism">Anti-imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultranationalism" title="Ultranationalism">Ultranationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chauvinism" title="Chauvinism">Chauvinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_nationalism" title="Ethnic nationalism">Ethnic nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Zionism" title="Anti-Zionism">Anti-Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Nazism" title="Neo-Nazism">Neo-Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">Liberal democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illiberal_democracy" title="Illiberal democracy">Illiberal democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guided_democracy" title="Guided democracy">Guided democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third-worldism" title="Third-worldism">Third-worldism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White supremacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_nationalism" title="White nationalism">White nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy#White_separatism" title="White supremacy">White separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">Apartheid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization" title="Southeast Asia Treaty Organization">SEATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Treaty_Organization" title="Central Treaty Organization">METO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Community" title="European Economic Community">EEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">Comecon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_and_Non-Aligned_European_States" title="Neutral and Non-Aligned European States">NN States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASEAN" title="ASEAN">ASEAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Association_for_Regional_Cooperation" title="South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation">SAARC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safari_Club" title="Safari Club">Safari Club</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Propaganda</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Pro-communist</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_measures" title="Active measures">Active measures</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Izvestia" title="Izvestia">Izvestia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Neues_Deutschland" title="Neues Deutschland">Neues Deutschland</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pravda" title="Pravda">Pravda</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_Moscow" title="Radio Moscow">Radio Moscow</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rud%C3%A9_pr%C3%A1vo" title="Rudé právo">Rudé právo</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Trybuna_Ludu" title="Trybuna Ludu">Trybuna Ludu</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TASS" title="TASS">TASS</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Russian_Life" title="Russian Life">Soviet Life</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Pro-Western</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Amerika_(magazine)" title="Amerika (magazine)">Amerika</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusade_for_Freedom" title="Crusade for Freedom">Crusade for Freedom</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Paix_et_Libert%C3%A9" title="Paix et Liberté">Paix et Liberté</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_Free_Europe/Radio_Liberty" title="Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty">Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_Scare" title="Red Scare">Red Scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voice_of_America" title="Voice of America">Voice of America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Technological<br />competition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arms_race" title="Arms race">Arms race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_arms_race" title="Nuclear arms race">Nuclear arms race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Historians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gar_Alperovitz" title="Gar Alperovitz">Gar Alperovitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_A._Bailey" title="Thomas A. Bailey">Thomas A. Bailey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Beschloss" title="Michael Beschloss">Michael Beschloss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archie_Brown_(historian)" title="Archie Brown (historian)">Archie Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_H._Carroll" title="Warren H. Carroll">Warren H. Carroll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrian_Cioroianu" title="Adrian Cioroianu">Adrian Cioroianu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Costello_(historian)" title="John Costello (historian)">John Costello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Cox_(academic)" title="Michael Cox (academic)">Michael Cox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_J._Cull" title="Nicholas J. Cull">Nicholas J. Cull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Davies" title="Norman Davies">Norman Davies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willem_Drees" title="Willem Drees">Willem Drees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_D._English" title="Robert D. English">Robert D. English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Feis" title="Herbert Feis">Herbert Feis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hugh_Ferrell" title="Robert Hugh Ferrell">Robert Hugh Ferrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Fontaine" title="André Fontaine">André Fontaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anneli_Ute_Gabanyi" title="Anneli Ute Gabanyi">Anneli Ute Gabanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis_Gaddis" title="John Lewis Gaddis">John Lewis Gaddis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lloyd_Gardner" title="Lloyd Gardner">Lloyd Gardner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Garton_Ash" title="Timothy Garton Ash">Timothy Garton Ash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Gorodetsky" title="Gabriel Gorodetsky">Gabriel Gorodetsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Halliday" title="Fred Halliday">Fred Halliday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jussi_Hanhim%C3%A4ki" title="Jussi Hanhimäki">Jussi Hanhimäki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Earl_Haynes" title="John Earl Haynes">John Earl Haynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_J._Hearden" title="Patrick J. Hearden">Patrick J. Hearden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tvrtko_Jakovina" title="Tvrtko Jakovina">Tvrtko Jakovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tony_Judt" title="Tony Judt">Tony Judt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Klehr" title="Harvey Klehr">Harvey Klehr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Kolko" title="Gabriel Kolko">Gabriel Kolko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_LaFeber" title="Walter LaFeber">Walter LaFeber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Laqueur" title="Walter Laqueur">Walter Laqueur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melvyn_P._Leffler" title="Melvyn P. Leffler">Melvyn P. Leffler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geir_Lundestad" title="Geir Lundestad">Geir Lundestad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vojtech_Mastny_(historian)" title="Vojtech Mastny (historian)">Vojtech Mastny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_F._Matlock_Jr." title="Jack F. Matlock Jr.">Jack F. Matlock Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_J._McCormick" title="Thomas J. McCormick">Thomas J. McCormick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Naftali" title="Timothy Naftali">Timothy Naftali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marius_Oprea" title="Marius Oprea">Marius Oprea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_S._Painter" title="David S. Painter">David S. Painter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_B._Pickett" title="William B. Pickett">William B. Pickett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_E._Powaski" title="Ronald E. Powaski">Ronald E. Powaski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakov_M._Rabkin" title="Yakov M. Rabkin">Yakov M. Rabkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M._E._Sarotte" title="M. E. Sarotte">M. E. Sarotte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_M._Schlesinger_Jr." title="Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.">Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellen_Schrecker" title="Ellen Schrecker">Ellen Schrecker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giles_Scott-Smith" title="Giles Scott-Smith">Giles Scott-Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shen_Zhihua" title="Shen Zhihua">Shen Zhihua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Snyder" title="Timothy Snyder">Timothy Snyder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athan_Theoharis" title="Athan Theoharis">Athan Theoharis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Thorpe" title="Andrew Thorpe">Andrew Thorpe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Tism%C4%83neanu" title="Vladimir Tismăneanu">Vladimir Tismăneanu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Vaughan" title="Patrick Vaughan">Patrick Vaughan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alex_von_Tunzelmann" title="Alex von Tunzelmann">Alex von Tunzelmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odd_Arne_Westad" title="Odd Arne Westad">Odd Arne Westad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Appleman_Williams" title="William Appleman Williams">William Appleman Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Reed_Winkler" title="Jonathan Reed Winkler">Jonathan Reed Winkler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolph_Winnacker" title="Rudolph Winnacker">Rudolph Winnacker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ken_Young" title="Ken Young">Ken Young</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Espionage and<br />intelligence</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Eastern_Bloc_agents_in_the_United_States" title="List of Eastern Bloc agents in the United States">List of Eastern Bloc agents in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_espionage_in_the_United_States" title="Soviet espionage in the United States">Soviet espionage in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_espionage_in_the_United_States" title="Russian espionage in the United States">Russian espionage in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_espionage_in_the_Soviet_Union_and_Russian_Federation" title="American espionage in the Soviet Union and Russian Federation">American espionage in the Soviet Union and Russian Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CIA_and_the_Cultural_Cold_War" title="CIA and the Cultural Cold War">CIA and the Cultural Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">CIA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MI5" title="MI5">MI5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MI6" title="MI6">MI6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_involvement_in_regime_change" title="United States involvement in regime change">United States involvement in regime change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_involvement_in_regime_change" title="Soviet involvement in regime change">Soviet involvement in regime change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Internal_Affairs_(Soviet_Union)" title="Ministry of Internal Affairs (Soviet Union)">MVD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stasi" title="Stasi">Stasi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied_intervention_in_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War">Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Soviet Union–United States relations">Soviet Union–United States relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Soviet_Union%E2%80%93United_States_summits" title="List of Soviet Union–United States summits">Soviet Union–United States summits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93NATO_relations" title="Russia–NATO relations">Russia–NATO relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brinkmanship#Cold_War" title="Brinkmanship">Brinkmanship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Cold_War" title="Second Cold War">Second Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cold_War" title="Category:Cold War">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conflicts_related_to_the_Cold_War" title="List of conflicts related to the Cold War">List of conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Cold_War" title="Timeline of the Cold War">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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