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</ul> </li> <li id="toc-Racial_tensions_in_Florida" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Racial_tensions_in_Florida"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Racial tensions in Florida </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Racial_tensions_in_Florida-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Events_in_Rosewood" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Events_in_Rosewood"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Events in Rosewood </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Events_in_Rosewood-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Events in Rosewood subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Events_in_Rosewood-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fannie_Taylor's_story" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fannie_Taylor's_story"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Fannie Taylor's story </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fannie_Taylor's_story-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Escalation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Escalation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Escalation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Escalation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Razing_Rosewood" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Razing_Rosewood"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Razing Rosewood </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Razing_Rosewood-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evacuation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evacuation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Evacuation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evacuation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Response" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Response"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Response </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Response-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture_of_silence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture_of_silence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Culture of silence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Culture_of_silence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Seeking_justice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Seeking_justice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Seeking justice </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Seeking_justice-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Seeking justice subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Seeking_justice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-History_includes_Rosewood" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a 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data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosewoodmassakren" title="Rosewoodmassakren – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Rosewoodmassakren" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosewood_Massaker" title="Rosewood Massaker – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Rosewood Massaker" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masacre_de_Rosewood" title="Masacre de Rosewood – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Masacre de Rosewood" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosewoodeko_sarraskia" title="Rosewoodeko sarraskia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Rosewoodeko sarraskia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%B4%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%B1%D8%B2%D9%88%D9%88%D8%AF" title="کشتار رزوود – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کشتار رزوود" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massacre_de_Rosewood" title="Massacre de Rosewood – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Massacre de Rosewood" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masacre_de_Rosewood" title="Masacre de Rosewood – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Masacre de Rosewood" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A1%9C%EC%A6%88%EC%9A%B0%EB%93%9C_%ED%95%99%EC%82%B4" title="로즈우드 학살 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="로즈우드 학살" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massacro_di_Rosewood" title="Massacro di Rosewood – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" 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Click here for more information."><img alt="Featured article" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/20px-Cscr-featured.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/30px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/40px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="443" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">1923 massacre of African Americans in Florida, US</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above summary" style="font-size:125%;">Rosewood massacre</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">Part of <a href="/wiki/Mass_racial_violence_in_the_United_States" title="Mass racial violence in the United States">mass racial violence in the United States</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">nadir of American race relations</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Rosewood_Florida_rc12408.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="=A photograph of ashes from a burned building with several people standing nearby and trees in the distance" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Rosewood_Florida_rc12408.jpg/220px-Rosewood_Florida_rc12408.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Rosewood_Florida_rc12408.jpg/330px-Rosewood_Florida_rc12408.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Rosewood_Florida_rc12408.jpg/440px-Rosewood_Florida_rc12408.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="219" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">The remains of Sarah Carrier's house, where two black and two white people were killed in <a href="/wiki/Rosewood,_Florida" title="Rosewood, Florida">Rosewood, Florida</a> in January 1923</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="switcher-container"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238443738">.mw-parser-output .locmap .od{position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .id{position:absolute;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .locmap .l0{font-size:0;position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv{line-height:110%;position:absolute;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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.locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:white!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}</style><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:240px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:240px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:240px"><a href="/wiki/File:USA_Florida_location_map.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Levy County"><img alt="Levy County" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/USA_Florida_location_map.svg/240px-USA_Florida_location_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/USA_Florida_location_map.svg/360px-USA_Florida_location_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/USA_Florida_location_map.svg/480px-USA_Florida_location_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1132" data-file-height="1096" /></a><div class="od notheme" style="top:28.502%;left:61.077%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><img alt="Levy County" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></div></div></div>Show map of Florida</div></div></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738"><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:240px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:240px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:240px"><a href="/wiki/File:Usa_edcp_location_map.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Levy County"><img alt="Levy County" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Usa_edcp_location_map.svg/240px-Usa_edcp_location_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Usa_edcp_location_map.svg/360px-Usa_edcp_location_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Usa_edcp_location_map.svg/480px-Usa_edcp_location_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1181" data-file-height="731" /></a><div class="od notheme" style="top:79.657%;left:74.731%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><img alt="Levy County" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></div></div></div>Show map of the United States</div></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_system" title="Geographic coordinate system">Coordinates</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Rosewood_massacre&params=29_14_0_N_82_56_0_W_type:event_region:US-FL">29°14′0″N 82°56′0″W / 29.23333°N 82.93333°W / 29.23333; -82.93333</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Date</th><td class="infobox-data">January 1–7, 1923</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Target</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Deaths</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li>6 black and 2 white people (official figure)</li> <li>27 to 150 in some reports<a href="#cite_note-Sentinel_Memory-1">[1]</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Injured</th><td class="infobox-data">Unknown</td></tr></tbody></table> The Rosewood massacre was a racially motivated <a href="/wiki/Massacre" title="Massacre">massacre</a> of black people and the destruction of a black town that took place during the first week of January 1923 in rural <a href="/wiki/Levy_County,_Florida" title="Levy County, Florida">Levy County, Florida</a>, United States. At least six black people were killed, but eyewitness accounts suggested a higher death toll of 27 to 150. In addition, two white people were killed in self-defense by one of the victims. The town of <a href="/wiki/Rosewood,_Florida" title="Rosewood, Florida">Rosewood</a> was destroyed in what contemporary news reports characterized as a <a href="/wiki/Mass_racial_violence_in_the_United_States" title="Mass racial violence in the United States">race riot</a>. Florida had an especially high number of <a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">lynchings</a> of black men in the years before the massacre,<a href="#cite_note-Downs2015-2">[2]</a> including the <a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Charles_Strong" title="Lynching of Charles Strong">lynching of Charles Strong</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Perry_massacre" title="Perry massacre">Perry massacre</a> in 1922. Before the massacre, the town of Rosewood had been a quiet, primarily black, self-sufficient <a href="/wiki/Whistle_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Whistle stop">whistle stop</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Seaboard_Air_Line_Railway" class="mw-redirect" title="Seaboard Air Line Railway">Seaboard Air Line Railway</a>. Trouble began when white men from several nearby towns lynched a black Rosewood resident because of accusations that a white woman in nearby <a href="/wiki/Sumner,_Florida" title="Sumner, Florida">Sumner</a> had been assaulted by a black drifter. A mob of several hundred whites combed the countryside hunting for black people and burned almost every structure in Rosewood. For several days, survivors from the town hid in nearby swamps until they were evacuated to larger towns by train and car. No arrests were made for what happened in Rosewood. The town was abandoned by its former black and white residents; none of them ever moved back and the town ceased to exist. Although the rioting was widely reported around the United States at the time, few official records documented the event. The survivors, their descendants, and the perpetrators all remained silent about Rosewood for decades. Sixty years after the rioting, the story of Rosewood was revived by major media outlets when several journalists covered it in the early 1980s. The survivors and their descendants all organized in an attempt to sue the state for failing to protect Rosewood's black community. In 1993, the Florida Legislature commissioned a report on the incident. As a result of the findings, Florida compensated the survivors and their descendants for the damages which they had incurred because of racial violence. The incident was the subject of <a href="/wiki/Rosewood_(film)" title="Rosewood (film)">a 1997 feature film</a> which was directed by <a href="/wiki/John_Singleton" title="John Singleton">John Singleton</a>. In 2004, the state designated the site of Rosewood as a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Florida_Heritage_Landmark&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Florida Heritage Landmark (page does not exist)">Florida Heritage Landmark</a>. Officially, the recorded death toll during the first week of January 1923 was eight (six blacks and two whites). Some survivors' stories claim that up to 27 black residents were killed, and they also assert that newspapers did not report the total number of white deaths. Minnie Lee Langley, who was in the Carrier house when it was besieged, recalls that she stepped over many white bodies on the porch when she left the house.<a href="#cite_note-historian-3">[3]</a> A newspaper article published in 1984 stated that estimates of up to 150 victims might have been exaggerations.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> Several eyewitnesses claim to have seen a mass grave which was filled with the bodies of black people; one of them remembers seeing 26 bodies being covered with a plow which was brought from Cedar Key. However, by the time authorities investigated these claims, most of the witnesses were dead or too elderly and infirm to lead them to a site to confirm the stories.<a href="#cite_note-D'Orso,_pp._324–325-5">[5]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rosewood_massacre&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Settlement">Settlement</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rosewood_massacre&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Settlement">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cedar_Key_Faber_Pencil_Mill.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A black and white photograph of a large building featuring a sign that reads "E Faber's Cedar Mill"; More than a dozen white men sit on a large cedar log in the foreground" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Cedar_Key_Faber_Pencil_Mill.jpg/220px-Cedar_Key_Faber_Pencil_Mill.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Cedar_Key_Faber_Pencil_Mill.jpg/330px-Cedar_Key_Faber_Pencil_Mill.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Cedar_Key_Faber_Pencil_Mill.jpg/440px-Cedar_Key_Faber_Pencil_Mill.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="473" /></a><figcaption>This pencil mill in <a href="/wiki/Cedar_Key,_Florida" title="Cedar Key, Florida">Cedar Key</a> was an integral part of local industry.</figcaption></figure> Rosewood was settled in 1847, nine miles (14 km) east of <a href="/wiki/Cedar_Key,_Florida" title="Cedar Key, Florida">Cedar Key</a>, near the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico" title="Gulf of Mexico">Gulf of Mexico</a>. Most of the local economy drew on the timber industry; the name Rosewood refers to the reddish color of cut <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Red_Cedar" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Red Cedar">cedar</a> wood. Two pencil mills were founded nearby in Cedar Key; local residents also worked in several <a href="/wiki/Turpentine" title="Turpentine">turpentine</a> mills and a sawmill three miles (4.8 km) away in <a href="/wiki/Sumner,_Florida" title="Sumner, Florida">Sumner</a>, in addition to farming of citrus and cotton. The hamlet grew enough to warrant the construction of a post office and train depot on the <a href="/wiki/Florida_Railroad" title="Florida Railroad">Florida Railroad</a> in 1870, but it was never incorporated as a town.<a href="#cite_note-historian-3">[3]</a> Initially, Rosewood had both black and white settlers. When most of the cedar trees in the area had been cut by 1890, the pencil mills closed, and many white residents moved to Sumner. By 1900, the population in Rosewood had become predominantly black. The village of Sumner was predominantly white, and relations between the two communities were relatively amicable.<a href="#cite_note-colburn-6">[6]</a> Two black families in Rosewood named Goins and Carrier were the most powerful. The Goins family brought the turpentine industry to the area, and in the years preceding the attacks were the second largest landowners in Levy County.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> To avoid lawsuits from white competitors, the Goins brothers moved to <a href="/wiki/Gainesville,_Florida" title="Gainesville, Florida">Gainesville</a>, and the population of Rosewood decreased slightly.<a href="#cite_note-historian-3">[3]</a> The Carriers were also a large family, primarily working at logging in the region. By the 1920s, almost everyone in the close-knit community was distantly related to each other.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> The population of Rosewood peaked in 1915 at 355 people. Florida had effectively <a href="/wiki/Disenfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction Era">disenfranchised</a> black voters since the start of the 20th century by high requirements for voter registration; both Sumner and Rosewood were part of a single voting precinct counted by the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Census" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Census">U.S. Census</a>. In 1920, the combined population of both towns was 638 (344 black and 294 white).<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> As was common in the late 19th century South, Florida had imposed legal <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">racial segregation</a> under <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a> requiring separate black and white public facilities and transportation.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Black and white residents created their own community centers: by 1920, the residents of Rosewood were mostly self-sufficient. They had three churches, a school, a large <a href="/wiki/Freemasonry" title="Freemasonry">Masonic Hall</a>, a turpentine mill, a <a href="/wiki/Sugarcane" title="Sugarcane">sugarcane</a> mill, a baseball team named the Rosewood Stars, and two general stores, one of which was white-owned. The village had about a dozen two-story wooden plank homes, other small two-room houses, and several small unoccupied plank farm and storage structures.<a href="#cite_note-historian-3">[3]</a> Some families owned pianos, organs, and other symbols of middle-class prosperity. Survivors of Rosewood remember it as a happy place. In 1995, survivor Robie Mortin recalled at age 79 that when she was a child there, that "Rosewood was a town where everyone's house was painted. There were roses everywhere you walked. Lovely."<a href="#cite_note-people-11">[11]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Racial_tensions_in_Florida">Racial tensions in Florida</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rosewood_massacre&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Racial tensions in Florida">edit</a>]</div> Racial violence at the time was common throughout the nation, manifested as individual incidents of extra-legal actions, or attacks on entire communities. <a href="/wiki/Lynchings" class="mw-redirect" title="Lynchings">Lynchings</a> reached a peak around the start of the 20th century as southern states were disenfranchising black voters and imposing white supremacy; white supremacists used it as a means of social control throughout the South. In 1866 Florida, as did many Southern states, passed laws called <a href="/wiki/Black_Codes_(United_States)" title="Black Codes (United States)">Black Codes</a> disenfranchising black citizens.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> Although these were quickly overturned, and black citizens enjoyed a brief period of improved social standing, by the late 19th century black political influence was virtually nil. The white Democratic-dominated legislature passed a <a href="/wiki/Poll_tax_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Poll tax (United States)">poll tax</a> in 1885, which largely served to disenfranchise all poor voters. Losing political power, black voters suffered a deterioration of their legal and political rights in the years following.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> Without the right to vote, they were excluded as jurors and could not run for office, effectively excluding them from the political process. The United States as a whole was experiencing rapid social changes: an influx of European immigrants, industrialization and the growth of cities, and political experimentation in <a href="/wiki/Northern_United_States" title="Northern United States">the North</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">the South</a>, black Americans grew increasingly dissatisfied with their lack of economic opportunity and status as second-class citizens.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Turpentine_workers_in_Florida.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A black and white photograph of a black youth and two black men harvesting sap from pine trees in the woods" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Turpentine_workers_in_Florida.jpg/220px-Turpentine_workers_in_Florida.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Turpentine_workers_in_Florida.jpg/330px-Turpentine_workers_in_Florida.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Turpentine_workers_in_Florida.jpg/440px-Turpentine_workers_in_Florida.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="376" /></a><figcaption>Black <a href="/wiki/Turpentine" title="Turpentine">turpentine</a> workers were encouraged to stay in Florida only after they became scarce.</figcaption></figure> Elected officials in Florida represented the voting white majority. Governor <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte_Broward" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon Bonaparte Broward">Napoleon Bonaparte Broward</a> (1905–1909) suggested finding a location out of state for black people to live separately. Tens of thousands of people moved to the North during and after <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a>, unsettling labor markets and introducing more rapid changes into cities. They were recruited by many expanding northern industries, such as the <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Railroad" title="Pennsylvania Railroad">Pennsylvania Railroad</a>, the steel industry, and meatpacking. Florida governors <a href="/wiki/Park_Trammell" title="Park Trammell">Park Trammell</a> (1913–1917) and <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Catts" class="mw-redirect" title="Sidney Catts">Sidney Catts</a> (1917–1921) generally ignored the emigration of blacks to the North and its causes. While Trammell was state <a href="/wiki/Attorney_general" title="Attorney general">attorney general</a>, none of the 29 lynchings committed during his term were prosecuted, nor were any of the 21 that occurred while he was governor. Catts ran on a platform of <a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">white supremacy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anti-Catholic_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Catholic sentiment">anti-Catholic sentiment</a>; he openly criticized the <a href="/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People" class="mw-redirect" title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People</a> (NAACP) when they complained he did nothing to investigate two lynchings in Florida. Catts changed his message when the turpentine and lumber industries claimed labor was scarce; he began to plead with black workers to stay in the state.<a href="#cite_note-colburn-6">[6]</a> By 1940, 40,000 black people had left Florida to find employment, but also to escape the oppression of segregation, underfunded education and facilities, violence, and disenfranchisement.<a href="#cite_note-historian-3">[3]</a> When U.S. troop training began for World War I, many white Southerners were alarmed at the thought of arming black soldiers. A confrontation regarding the rights of black soldiers culminated in the <a href="/wiki/Houston_Riot_(1917)" class="mw-redirect" title="Houston Riot (1917)">Houston Riot of 1917</a>. German <a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">propaganda</a> encouraged black soldiers to turn against their "real" enemies: American whites. Rumors reached the U.S. that French women had been sexually active with black American soldiers, which <a href="/wiki/University_of_Florida" title="University of Florida">University of Florida</a> historian David Colburn argues struck at the heart of Southern fears about power and <a href="/wiki/Miscegenation" title="Miscegenation">miscegenation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-colburn-6">[6]</a> Colburn connects growing concerns of sexual intimacy between the races to what occurred in Rosewood: "Southern culture had been constructed around a set of mores and values which places white women at its center and in which the purity of their conduct and their manners represented the refinement of that culture. An attack on women not only represented a violation of the South's foremost taboo, but it also threatened to dismantle the very nature of southern society."<a href="#cite_note-colburn-6">[6]</a> The transgression of <a href="/wiki/Miscegenation" title="Miscegenation">sexual taboos</a> subsequently combined with the arming of black citizens to raise fears among whites of an impending race war in the South. The influx of black people into urban centers in the Northeast and Midwest increased racial tensions in those cities. Between 1917 and 1923, racial disturbances erupted in numerous cities throughout the U.S., motivated by economic competition between different racial groups for industrial jobs. One of the first and most violent instances was a <a href="/wiki/East_St._Louis_Riot" class="mw-redirect" title="East St. Louis Riot">riot in East St. Louis</a>, sparked in 1917. In the <a href="/wiki/Red_Summer_of_1919" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Summer of 1919">Red Summer of 1919</a>, racially motivated mob violence erupted in 23 cities—including <a href="/wiki/Chicago_Race_Riot_of_1919" class="mw-redirect" title="Chicago Race Riot of 1919">Chicago</a>, <a href="/wiki/Omaha_Race_Riot_of_1919" class="mw-redirect" title="Omaha Race Riot of 1919">Omaha</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>—caused by competition for jobs and housing by returning World War I veterans of both races, and the arrival of waves of new European immigrants.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> Further unrest occurred in <a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_riot" class="mw-redirect" title="Tulsa race riot">Tulsa in 1921</a>, when whites attacked the black Greenwood community. David Colburn distinguishes two types of violence against black people up to 1923: Northern violence was generally spontaneous mob action against entire communities. Southern violence, in contrast, took the form of individual incidents of lynchings and other extrajudicial actions. The Rosewood massacre, according to Colburn, resembled violence more commonly perpetrated in the North in those years.<a href="#cite_note-colburn-6">[6]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rosewood_Massacre_Map.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A color digital map showing the location of Rosewood in relation to other towns involved in the massacre" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Rosewood_Massacre_Map.PNG/350px-Rosewood_Massacre_Map.PNG" decoding="async" width="350" height="318" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Rosewood_Massacre_Map.PNG/525px-Rosewood_Massacre_Map.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Rosewood_Massacre_Map.PNG/700px-Rosewood_Massacre_Map.PNG 2x" data-file-width="742" data-file-height="675" /></a><figcaption>Map of <a href="/wiki/Rosewood,_Florida" title="Rosewood, Florida">Rosewood, Florida</a> and the surrounding towns</figcaption></figure> In the mid-1920s, the <a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a> (KKK) reached its peak membership in the South and Midwest after a revival beginning around 1915. Its growth was due in part to tensions from rapid industrialization and social change in many growing cities; in the Midwest and West, its growth was related to the competition of waves of new immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe.<a href="#cite_note-Jackson,_pp._82,_241-16">[16]</a> The KKK was strong in the Florida cities of <a href="/wiki/Jacksonville,_Florida" title="Jacksonville, Florida">Jacksonville</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tampa,_Florida" title="Tampa, Florida">Tampa</a>; <a href="/wiki/Miami,_Florida" class="mw-redirect" title="Miami, Florida">Miami</a>'s chapter was influential enough to hold initiations at the Miami Country Club. The Klan also flourished in smaller towns of the South where racial violence had a long tradition dating back to the <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Jackson,_pp._82,_241-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> An editor of <a href="/wiki/The_Gainesville_Sun" title="The Gainesville Sun">The Gainesville Daily Sun</a> admitted that he was a member of the Klan in 1922, and praised the organization in print.<a href="#cite_note-colburn-6">[6]</a> Despite Governor Catts' change of attitude, white mob action frequently occurred in towns throughout north and central Florida and went unchecked by local law enforcement. Extrajudicial violence against black residents was so common that it seldom was covered by newspapers.<a href="#cite_note-historian-3">[3]</a> In 1920, whites removed four black men from jail, who were suspects accused of raping a white woman in <a href="/wiki/Macclenny,_Florida" title="Macclenny, Florida">Macclenny</a>, and lynched them. In <a href="/wiki/Ocoee,_Florida" title="Ocoee, Florida">Ocoee</a> the same year, two black citizens armed themselves to go to the polls during an election. A confrontation ensued and two white election officials were shot, after which a white mob destroyed Ocoee's black community, causing as many as 30 deaths, and destroying 25 homes, two churches, and a Masonic Lodge.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> Just weeks before the Rosewood massacre, the <a href="/wiki/Perry_Race_Riot" class="mw-redirect" title="Perry Race Riot">Perry Race Riot</a> occurred on December 14 and 15, 1922, in which whites burned Charles Wright at the stake and attacked the black community of <a href="/wiki/Perry,_Florida" title="Perry, Florida">Perry, Florida</a> after a white schoolteacher was murdered.<a href="#cite_note-Henry2007-19">[19]</a> On the day following Wright's lynching, whites shot and hanged two more black men in Perry; next they burned the town's black school, <a href="/wiki/Masonic_lodge" title="Masonic lodge">Masonic lodge</a>, church, amusement hall, and several families' homes.<a href="#cite_note-Henry2007-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-henry-20">[20]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Events_in_Rosewood">Events in Rosewood</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rosewood_massacre&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Events in Rosewood">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fannie_Taylor's_story">Fannie Taylor's story</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rosewood_massacre&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Fannie Taylor's story">edit</a>]</div> The Rosewood massacre occurred after a white woman in Sumner claimed she had been assaulted by a black man. Frances "Fannie" Taylor was 22 years old in 1923 and married to James, a 30-year-old <a href="/wiki/Millwright" title="Millwright">millwright</a> employed by Cummer & Sons in Sumner. They lived there with their two young children. James' job required him to leave each day during the darkness of early morning. Neighbors remembered Fannie Taylor as "very peculiar": she was meticulously clean, scrubbing her cedar floors with bleach so that they shone white. Other women attested that Taylor was aloof; no one knew her very well.<a href="#cite_note-moore-21">[21]</a> On January 1, 1923, the Taylors' neighbor reported that she heard a scream while it was still dark, grabbed her revolver and ran next door to find Fannie bruised and beaten, with scuff marks across the white floor. Taylor was screaming that someone needed to get her baby. She said a black man was in her house; he had come through the back door and assaulted her. The neighbor found the baby, but no one else.<a href="#cite_note-moore-21">[21]</a> Taylor's initial report stated her assailant beat her about the face but did not <a href="/wiki/Rape" title="Rape">rape</a> her. Rumors circulated—widely believed by whites in Sumner—that she was both raped and robbed.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[note 1]</a> The charge of rape of a white woman by a black man was inflammatory in the South: the day before, the Klan had held a parade and rally of over 100 hooded Klansmen 50 miles (80 km) away in <a href="/wiki/Gainesville,_Florida" title="Gainesville, Florida">Gainesville</a> under a <a href="/wiki/Burning_cross" class="mw-redirect" title="Burning cross">burning cross</a> and a banner reading, "First and Always Protect Womanhood".<a href="#cite_note-24">[23]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sara_Carrier.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Sara_Carrier.jpg/170px-Sara_Carrier.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Sara_Carrier.jpg/255px-Sara_Carrier.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Sara_Carrier.jpg/340px-Sara_Carrier.jpg 2x" data-file-width="363" data-file-height="551" /></a><figcaption>Sarah Carrier (left), Sylvester Carrier (standing) and his sister Willie Carrier (right), taken around 1910</figcaption></figure> The neighbor also reported the absence that day of Taylor's laundress, Sarah Carrier, whom the white women in Sumner called "Aunt Sarah". Philomena Goins, Carrier's granddaughter, told a different story about Fannie Taylor many years later. She joined her grandmother Carrier at Taylor's home as usual that morning. They watched a white man leave by the back door later in the morning before noon. She said Taylor did emerge from her home showing evidence of having been beaten, but it was well after morning.<a href="#cite_note-moore-21">[21]</a> Carrier's grandson and Philomena's brother, Arnett Goins, sometimes went with them; he had seen the white man before. Carrier told others in the black community what she had seen that day; the black community of Rosewood believed that Fannie Taylor had a white lover, they got into a fight that day, and he beat her.<a href="#cite_note-25">[24]</a> When the man left Taylor's house, he went to Rosewood.<a href="#cite_note-moore-21">[21]</a> Quickly, Levy County Sheriff Robert Elias Walker raised a <a href="/wiki/Posse_comitatus_(common_law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Posse comitatus (common law)">posse</a> and started an investigation. When they learned that Jesse Hunter, a black prisoner, had escaped from a <a href="/wiki/Chain_gang" title="Chain gang">chain gang</a>, they began a search to question him about Taylor's attack. Men arrived from Cedar Key, <a href="/wiki/Otter_Creek,_Florida" title="Otter Creek, Florida">Otter Creek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chiefland,_Florida" title="Chiefland, Florida">Chiefland</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bronson,_Florida" title="Bronson, Florida">Bronson</a> to help with the search. Adding confusion to the events recounted later, as many as 400 white men began to gather. Sheriff Walker <a href="/wiki/Deputy_sheriff" class="mw-redirect" title="Deputy sheriff">deputized</a> some of them, but was unable to initiate them all. Walker asked for dogs from a nearby convict camp, but one dog may have been used by a group of men acting without Walker's authority. Dogs led a group of about 100 to 150 men to the home of Aaron Carrier, Sarah's nephew. Aaron was taken outside, where his mother begged the men not to kill him. He was tied to a car and dragged to Sumner.<a href="#cite_note-moore-21">[21]</a> Sheriff Walker put Carrier in protective custody at the county seat in Bronson to remove him from the men in the posse, many of whom were drinking and acting on their own authority. Worried that the group would quickly grow further out of control, Walker also urged black employees to stay at the turpentine mills for their own safety.<a href="#cite_note-26">[25]</a> A group of white <a href="/wiki/Vigilantes" class="mw-redirect" title="Vigilantes">vigilantes</a>, who had become a mob by this time, seized Sam Carter, a local blacksmith and teamster who worked in a turpentine still. They tortured Carter into admitting that he had hidden the escaped chain gang prisoner. Carter led the group to the spot in the woods where he said he had taken Hunter, but the dogs were unable to pick up a scent. To the surprise of many witnesses, someone fatally shot Carter in the face.<a href="#cite_note-27">[note 2]</a> The group hung Carter's mutilated body from a tree as a symbol to other black men in the area.<a href="#cite_note-historian-3">[3]</a> Some in the mob took souvenirs of his clothes.<a href="#cite_note-moore-21">[21]</a> Survivors suggest that Taylor's lover fled to Rosewood because he knew he was in trouble and had gone to the home of Aaron Carrier, a fellow veteran and <a href="/wiki/Freemasonry" title="Freemasonry">Mason</a>. Carrier and Carter, another Mason, covered the fugitive in the back of a wagon. Carter took him to a nearby river, let him out of the wagon, then returned home to be met by the mob, who was led by dogs following the fugitive's scent.<a href="#cite_note-28">[26]</a> After lynching Sam Carter, the mob met Sylvester Carrier—Aaron's cousin and Sarah's son—on a road and told him to get out of town. Carrier refused, and when the mob moved on, he suggested gathering as many people as possible for protection.<a href="#cite_note-29">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Escalation">Escalation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rosewood_massacre&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Escalation">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rosewood_Florida_rc12409.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A black and white photograph of a crude wooden structure that could be a small shed, animal house, or hunting cabin with smoke pouring from it and flames visible in the door" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Rosewood_Florida_rc12409.jpg/200px-Rosewood_Florida_rc12409.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Rosewood_Florida_rc12409.jpg/300px-Rosewood_Florida_rc12409.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Rosewood_Florida_rc12409.jpg/400px-Rosewood_Florida_rc12409.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="428" /></a><figcaption>A cabin burns in Rosewood on January 4, 1923<a href="#cite_note-30">[note 3]</a></figcaption></figure> Despite the efforts of Sheriff Walker and mill supervisor W. H. Pillsbury to disperse the mobs, white men continued to gather. On the evening of January 4, a mob of armed white men went to Rosewood and surrounded the house of Sarah Carrier. It was filled with approximately 15 to 25 people seeking refuge, including many children hiding upstairs under mattresses. Some of the children were in the house because they were visiting their grandmother for Christmas.<a href="#cite_note-moore-21">[21]</a> They were protected by Sylvester Carrier and possibly two other men, but Carrier may have been the only one armed. He had a reputation of being proud and independent. In Rosewood, he was a formidable character, a crack shot, expert hunter, and music teacher, who was simply called "Man". Many white people considered him arrogant and disrespectful.<a href="#cite_note-historian-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-moore-21">[21]</a> Sylvester Carrier was reported in the New York Times saying that the attack on Fannie Taylor was an "example of what negroes could do without interference".<a href="#cite_note-31">[28]</a> Whether or not he said this is debated, but a group of 20 to 30 white men, inflamed by the reported statement, went to the Carrier house. They believed that the black community in Rosewood was hiding escaped prisoner Jesse Hunter.<a href="#cite_note-historian-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[note 4]</a> Reports conflict about who shot first, but after two members of the mob approached the house, someone opened fire. Sarah Carrier was shot in the head. Her nine-year-old niece at the house, Minnie Lee Langley, had witnessed Aaron Carrier taken from his house three days earlier. When Langley heard someone had been shot, she went downstairs to find her grandmother, Emma Carrier. Sylvester placed Minnie Lee in a firewood closet in front of him as he watched the front door, using the closet for cover: "He got behind me in the wood [bin], and he put the gun on my shoulder, and them <a href="/wiki/Cracker_(pejorative)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cracker (pejorative)">crackers</a> was still shooting and going on. He put his gun on my shoulder ... told me to lean this way, and then Poly Wilkerson, he kicked the door down. When he kicked the door down, Cuz' Syl let him have it."<a href="#cite_note-jones-33">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-tropic-34">[30]</a> Several shots were exchanged: the house was riddled with bullets, but the whites did not capture it. The standoff lasted long into the next morning, when Sarah and Sylvester Carrier were found dead inside the house; several others were wounded, including a child who had been shot in the eye. Two white men, C. P. "Poly" Wilkerson and Henry Andrews, were killed; Wilkerson had kicked in the front door, and Andrews was behind him. At least four white men were wounded, one possibly fatally.<a href="#cite_note-35">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[note 5]</a> The remaining children in the Carrier house were spirited out the back door into the woods. They crossed dirt roads one at a time, then hid under brush until they had all gathered away from Rosewood.<a href="#cite_note-37">[32]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Razing_Rosewood">Razing Rosewood</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rosewood_massacre&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Razing Rosewood">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Rosewood_1923_map_from_Tropic_Magazine.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A color digital map of the town of Rosewood marking the structures that stood on January 1, 1923, and the Seabord Air Line Railway" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Rosewood_1923_map_from_Tropic_Magazine.jpg/400px-Rosewood_1923_map_from_Tropic_Magazine.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Rosewood_1923_map_from_Tropic_Magazine.jpg/600px-Rosewood_1923_map_from_Tropic_Magazine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Rosewood_1923_map_from_Tropic_Magazine.jpg/800px-Rosewood_1923_map_from_Tropic_Magazine.jpg 2x" data-file-width="921" data-file-height="625" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> News of the armed standoff at the Carrier house attracted white men from all over the state to take part. Reports were carried in the <a href="/wiki/St._Petersburg_Independent" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Petersburg Independent">St. Petersburg Independent</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Florida_Times-Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Florida Times-Union">Florida Times-Union</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Miami_Herald" title="Miami Herald">Miami Herald</a>, and <a href="/wiki/The_Miami_Metropolis" class="mw-redirect" title="The Miami Metropolis">The Miami Metropolis</a>, in versions of competing facts and overstatement. The Miami Metropolis listed 20 black people and four white people dead and characterized the event as a "race war". National newspapers also put the incident on the front page. <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a> and <a href="/wiki/St._Louis_Post-Dispatch" title="St. Louis Post-Dispatch">St. Louis Dispatch</a> described a band of "heavily armed Negroes" and a "negro desperado" as being involved.<a href="#cite_note-dorso_news-38">[33]</a> Most of the information came from discreet messages from Sheriff Walker, mob rumors, and other embellishments to part-time reporters who wired their stories to the <a href="/wiki/Associated_Press" title="Associated Press">Associated Press</a>. Details about the armed standoff were particularly explosive. According to historian Thomas Dye, "The idea that blacks in Rosewood had taken up arms against the white race was unthinkable in the Deep South".<a href="#cite_note-historian-3">[3]</a> Black newspapers covered the events from a different angle. The <a href="/wiki/Afro-American_(newspaper)" class="mw-redirect" title="Afro-American (newspaper)">Afro-American</a> in Baltimore highlighted the acts of African-American heroism against the onslaught of "savages". Another newspaper reported: "Two Negro women were attacked and raped between Rosewood and Sumner. The sexual lust of the brutal white mobbists satisfied, the women were strangled."<a href="#cite_note-dorso_news-38">[33]</a> The white mob burned black churches in Rosewood. Philomena Goins' cousin, Lee Ruth Davis, heard the bells tolling in the church as the men were inside setting it on fire.<a href="#cite_note-moore-21">[21]</a> The mob also destroyed the white church in Rosewood. Many black residents fled for safety into the nearby swamps, some clothed only in their pajamas. Wilson Hall was nine years old at the time; he later recounted his mother waking him to escape into the swamps early in the morning when it was still dark; the lights from approaching cars of white men could be seen for miles. The Hall family walked 15 miles (24 km) through swampland to the town of <a href="/wiki/Gulf_Hammock,_Florida" title="Gulf Hammock, Florida">Gulf Hammock</a>. The survivors recall that it was uncharacteristically cold for Florida, and people suffered when they spent several nights in raised wooded areas called <a href="/wiki/Hammock_(ecology)" title="Hammock (ecology)">hammocks</a> to evade the mob. Some took refuge with sympathetic white families.<a href="#cite_note-historian-3">[3]</a> Sam Carter's 69-year-old widow hid for two days in the swamps, then was driven by a sympathetic white mail carrier, under bags of mail, to join her family in Chiefland.<a href="#cite_note-people-11">[11]</a> White men began surrounding houses, pouring <a href="/wiki/Kerosene" title="Kerosene">kerosene</a> on and lighting them, then shooting at those who emerged. Lexie Gordon, a light-skinned 50-year-old woman who was ill with <a href="/wiki/Typhoid_fever" title="Typhoid fever">typhoid fever</a>, had sent her children into the woods. She was killed by a shotgun blast to the face when she fled from hiding underneath her home, which had been set on fire by the mob. Fannie Taylor's brother-in-law claimed to be her killer.<a href="#cite_note-historian-3">[3]</a> On January 5, more whites converged on the area, forming a mob of between 200 and 300 people. Some came from out of state. Mingo Williams, who was 20 miles (32 km) away near Bronson, was collecting turpentine sap by the side of the road when a car full of whites stopped and asked his name. As was custom among many residents of Levy County, both black and white, Williams used a nickname that was more prominent than his given name; when he gave his nickname of "Lord God", they shot him dead.<a href="#cite_note-moore-21">[21]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cary_Hardee.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A black and white photograph of about ten white men in three-piece suits standing on the steps of a building with columns" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Cary_Hardee.jpg/170px-Cary_Hardee.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Cary_Hardee.jpg/255px-Cary_Hardee.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Cary_Hardee.jpg/340px-Cary_Hardee.jpg 2x" data-file-width="517" data-file-height="686" /></a><figcaption>Governor <a href="/wiki/Cary_Hardee" class="mw-redirect" title="Cary Hardee">Cary Hardee</a> (center front, in white) took Sheriff Walker's word that all was well, and went on a hunting trip.</figcaption></figure> Sheriff Walker pleaded with news reporters covering the violence to send a message to the <a href="/wiki/Alachua_County" class="mw-redirect" title="Alachua County">Alachua County</a> Sheriff P. G. Ramsey to send assistance. Carloads of men came from Gainesville to assist Walker; many of them had probably participated in the Klan rally earlier in the week. W. H. Pillsbury tried desperately to keep black workers in the Sumner mill, and worked with his assistant, a man named Johnson, to dissuade the white workers from joining others using extra-legal violence. Armed guards sent by Sheriff Walker turned away black people who emerged from the swamps and tried to go home.<a href="#cite_note-39">[34]</a> W. H. Pillsbury's wife secretly helped smuggle people out of the area. Several white men declined to join the mobs, including the town barber who also refused to lend his gun to anyone. He said he did not want his "hands wet with blood".<a href="#cite_note-moore-21">[21]</a> Governor <a href="/wiki/Cary_Hardee" class="mw-redirect" title="Cary Hardee">Cary Hardee</a> was on standby, ready to order <a href="/wiki/National_Guard_(United_States)" title="National Guard (United States)">National Guard</a> troops in to neutralize the situation. Despite his message to the sheriff of Alachua County, Walker informed Hardee by telegram that he did not fear "further disorder" and urged the governor not to intervene. The governor's office monitored the situation, in part because of intense Northern interest, but Hardee would not activate the National Guard without Walker's request. Walker insisted he could handle the situation; records show that Governor Hardee took Sheriff Walker's word and went on a hunting trip.<a href="#cite_note-40">[35]</a> James Carrier, Sylvester's brother and Sarah's son, had previously suffered a stroke and was partially paralyzed. He left the swamps and returned to Rosewood. He asked W. H. Pillsbury, the white turpentine mill supervisor, for protection; Pillsbury locked him in a house but the mob found Carrier, and tortured him to find out if he had aided Jesse Hunter, the escaped convict. After they made Carrier dig his own grave, they fatally shot him.<a href="#cite_note-moore-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[36]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evacuation">Evacuation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rosewood_massacre&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Evacuation">edit</a>]</div> On January 6, white train conductors John and William Bryce managed the evacuation of some black residents to Gainesville. The brothers were independently wealthy Cedar Key residents who had an affinity for trains. They knew the people in Rosewood and had traded with them regularly.<a href="#cite_note-42">[note 6]</a> As they passed the area, the Bryces slowed their train and blew the horn, picking up women and children. Fearing reprisals from mobs, they refused to pick up any black men.<a href="#cite_note-historian-3">[3]</a> Many survivors boarded the train after having been hidden by white general store owner John Wright and his wife, Mary Jo. Over the next several days, other Rosewood residents fled to Wright's house, facilitated by Sheriff Walker, who asked Wright to transport as many residents out of town as possible. Lee Ruth Davis, her sister, and two brothers were hidden by the Wrights while their father hid in the woods. On the morning of Poly Wilkerson's funeral, the Wrights left the children alone to attend. Davis and her siblings crept out of the house to hide with relatives in the nearby town of Wylly, but they were turned back for being too dangerous. The children spent the day in the woods but decided to return to the Wrights' house. After spotting men with guns on their way back, they crept back to the Wrights, who were frantic with fear.<a href="#cite_note-jones-33">[29]</a> Davis later described the experience: "I was laying that deep in water, that is where we sat all day long ... We got on our bellies and crawled. We tried to keep people from seeing us through the bushes ... We were trying to get back to Mr. Wright house. After we got all the way to his house, Mr. and Mrs. Wright were all the way out in the bushes hollering and calling us, and when we answered, they were so glad."<a href="#cite_note-historian-3">[3]</a> Several other white residents of Sumner hid black residents of Rosewood and smuggled them out of town. Gainesville's black community took in many of Rosewood's evacuees, waiting for them at the train station and greeting survivors as they disembarked, covered in sheets. On Sunday, January 7, a mob of 100 to 150 whites returned to burn the remaining dozen or so structures of Rosewood.<a href="#cite_note-43">[37]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Response">Response</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rosewood_massacre&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Response">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Levy_County_Florida_Courthouse.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A black and white photograph of a large brick building with two stories and a small dome" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Levy_County_Florida_Courthouse.jpg/220px-Levy_County_Florida_Courthouse.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Levy_County_Florida_Courthouse.jpg/330px-Levy_County_Florida_Courthouse.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Levy_County_Florida_Courthouse.jpg/440px-Levy_County_Florida_Courthouse.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="393" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Levy_County,_Florida" title="Levy County, Florida">Levy County</a> Courthouse in <a href="/wiki/Bronson,_Florida" title="Bronson, Florida">Bronson</a>, where the governor's grand jury met and found no one to prosecute</figcaption></figure> Many people were alarmed by the violence, and state leaders feared negative effects on the state's tourist industry. Governor Cary Hardee appointed a special grand jury and special prosecuting attorney to investigate the outbreak in Rosewood and other incidents in Levy County. In February 1923, the all-white <a href="/wiki/Grand_jury" title="Grand jury">grand jury</a> convened in Bronson. Over several days, they heard 25 witnesses, eight of whom were black, but found insufficient evidence to prosecute any perpetrators. The judge presiding over the case deplored the actions of the mob.<a href="#cite_note-44">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-dye-45">[39]</a> By the end of the week, Rosewood no longer made the front pages of major white newspapers. The <a href="/wiki/Chicago_Defender" class="mw-redirect" title="Chicago Defender">Chicago Defender</a>, the most influential black newspaper in the U.S., reported that 19 people in Rosewood's "race war" had died, and a soldier named Ted Cole appeared to fight the lynch mobs, then disappeared; no confirmation of his existence after this report exists.<a href="#cite_note-46">[40]</a> A few editorials appeared in Florida newspapers summarizing the event. The Gainesville Daily Sun justified the actions of whites involved, writing "Let it be understood now and forever that he, whether white or black, who brutally assaults an innocent and helpless woman, shall die the death of a dog." The Tampa Tribune, in a rare comment on the excesses of whites in the area, called it "a foul and lasting blot on the people of Levy County".<a href="#cite_note-47">[41]</a> Northern publications were more willing to note the breakdown of law, but many attributed it to the backward mindset in the South. The <a href="/wiki/New_York_Call" title="New York Call">New York Call</a>, a socialist newspaper, remarked "how astonishingly little cultural progress has been made in some parts of the world", while the <a href="/wiki/Nashville_Banner" title="Nashville Banner">Nashville Banner</a> compared the events in Rosewood to recent race riots in Northern cities, but characterized the entire event as "deplorable".<a href="#cite_note-literary_digest-48">[42]</a> A three-day conference in Atlanta organized by the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Methodist_Church" title="Southern Methodist Church">Southern Methodist Church</a> released a statement that similarly condemned the chaotic week in Rosewood. It concluded, "No family and no race rises higher than womanhood. Hence, the intelligence of women must be cultivated and the purity and dignity of womanhood must be protected by the maintenance of a single standard of morals for both races."<a href="#cite_note-literary_digest-48">[42]</a> Officially, the recorded death toll of the first week of January 1923 was eight people (six black and two white). Historians disagree about this number. Some survivors' stories claim there may have been up to 27 black residents killed, and assert that newspapers did not report the total number of white deaths. Minnie Lee Langley, who was in the Carrier house siege, recalls that she stepped over many white bodies on the porch when she left the house.<a href="#cite_note-historian-3">[3]</a> Several eyewitnesses claim to have seen a mass grave filled with black people; one remembers a plow brought from Cedar Key that covered 26 bodies. However, by the time authorities investigated these claims, most of the witnesses were dead, or too elderly and infirm to lead them to a site to confirm the stories.<a href="#cite_note-D'Orso,_pp._324–325-5">[5]</a> Aaron Carrier was held in jail for several months in early 1923; he died in 1965. James Carrier's widow Emma was shot in the hand and the wrist and reached Gainesville by train. She never recovered, and died in 1924. Sarah Carrier's husband Haywood did not see the events in Rosewood. He was on a hunting trip, and discovered when he returned that his wife, brother James, and son Sylvester had all been killed and his house destroyed by a white mob. Following the shock of learning what had happened in Rosewood, Haywood rarely spoke to anyone but himself; he sometimes wandered away from his family unclothed. His grandson, Arnett Goins, thought that he had been unhinged by grief. Haywood Carrier died a year after the massacre.<a href="#cite_note-49">[43]</a> Jesse Hunter, the escaped convict, was never found. Many survivors fled in different directions to other cities, and a few changed their names from fear that whites would track them down. None ever returned to live in Rosewood.<a href="#cite_note-dye-45">[39]</a> Fannie Taylor and her husband moved to another mill town. She was "very nervous" in her later years, until she succumbed to cancer. John Wright's house was the only structure left standing in Rosewood. He lived in it and acted as an emissary between the county and the survivors. After they left the town, almost all of their land was sold for taxes.<a href="#cite_note-moore-21">[21]</a> Mary Jo Wright died around 1931; John developed a problem with alcohol. He was ostracized and taunted for assisting the survivors, and rumored to keep a gun in every room of his house. He died after drinking too much one night in Cedar Key, and was buried in an unmarked grave in Sumner.<a href="#cite_note-50">[44]</a> The sawmill in Sumner burned down in 1925, and the owners moved the operation to <a href="/wiki/Lacoochee,_Florida" title="Lacoochee, Florida">Lacoochee</a> in <a href="/wiki/Pasco_County" class="mw-redirect" title="Pasco County">Pasco County</a>. Some survivors as well as participants in the mob action went to Lacoochee to work in the mill there. W. H. Pillsbury was among them, and he was taunted by former Sumner residents. No longer having any supervisory authority, Pillsbury was retired early by the company. He moved to Jacksonville and died in 1926.<a href="#cite_note-51">[45]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture_of_silence">Culture of silence</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rosewood_massacre&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Culture of silence">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rosewood_Florida_Highway_Marker.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A color photograph of an empty two-lane highway disappearing into the distance, lined by trees on both sides and a field to the right; at the center is a green sign that reads "Rosewood"" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Rosewood_Florida_Highway_Marker.jpg/200px-Rosewood_Florida_Highway_Marker.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Rosewood_Florida_Highway_Marker.jpg/300px-Rosewood_Florida_Highway_Marker.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Rosewood_Florida_Highway_Marker.jpg/400px-Rosewood_Florida_Highway_Marker.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1053" /></a><figcaption>Highway marker for <a href="/wiki/Rosewood,_Florida" title="Rosewood, Florida">Rosewood, Florida</a></figcaption></figure> Despite nationwide news coverage in both white and black newspapers, the incident, and the small abandoned village, slipped into oblivion. Most of the survivors scattered around Florida cities and started over with nothing. Many, including children, took on odd jobs to make ends meet. Education had to be sacrificed to earn an income. As a result, most of the Rosewood survivors took on manual labor jobs, working as maids, shoe shiners, or in citrus factories or lumber mills.<a href="#cite_note-jones-33">[29]</a> Although the survivors' experiences after Rosewood were disparate, none publicly acknowledged what had happened. Robie Mortin, Sam Carter's niece, was seven years old when her father put her on a train to Chiefland, 20 miles (32 km) east of Rosewood, on January 3, 1923. Mortin's father avoided the heart of Rosewood on the way to the depot that day, a decision Mortin believes saved their lives. Mortin's father met them years later in <a href="/wiki/Riviera_Beach,_Florida" title="Riviera Beach, Florida">Riviera Beach</a>, in South Florida. None of the family ever spoke about the events in Rosewood, on order from Mortin's grandmother: "She felt like maybe if somebody knew where we came from, they might come at us".<a href="#cite_note-people-11">[11]</a> This silence was an exception to the practice of <a href="/wiki/African_American_culture#Oral_tradition" class="mw-redirect" title="African American culture">oral history among black families</a>. Minnie Lee Langley knew James and Emma Carrier as her parents. She kept the story from her children for 60 years: "I didn't want them to know what I came through and I didn't discuss it with none of them ... I just didn't want them to know what kind of way I come up. I didn't want them to know white folks want us out of our homes." Decades passed before she began to trust white people.<a href="#cite_note-video1-52">[46]</a> Some families spoke of Rosewood, but forbade the stories from being told: Arnett Doctor heard the story from his mother, Philomena Goins Doctor, who was with Sarah Carrier the day Fannie Taylor claimed she was assaulted, and was in the house with Sylvester Carrier. She told her children about Rosewood every Christmas. Doctor was consumed by his mother's story; he would bring it up to his aunts only to be dissuaded from speaking of it.<a href="#cite_note-53">[47]</a> In 1982, an investigative reporter named Gary Moore from the <a href="/wiki/St._Petersburg_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Petersburg Times">St. Petersburg Times</a> drove from the Tampa area to Cedar Key looking for a story. When he commented to a local on the "gloomy atmosphere" of <a href="/wiki/Cedar_Key" class="mw-redirect" title="Cedar Key">Cedar Key</a>, and questioned why a Southern town was all-white when at the start of the 20th century it had been nearly half black, the local woman replied, "I know what you're digging for. You're trying to get me to talk about that massacre." Moore was hooked.<a href="#cite_note-davey-54">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[49]</a> He was able to convince Arnett Doctor to join him on a visit to the site, which he did without telling his mother. Moore addressed the disappearance of the incident from written or spoken history: "After a week of sensation, the weeks of January 1923 seem to have dropped completely from Florida's consciousness, like some unmentionable skeleton in the family closet".<a href="#cite_note-moore-21">[21]</a> When Philomena Goins Doctor found out what her son had done, she became enraged and threatened to disown him, shook him, then slapped him.<a href="#cite_note-video1-52">[46]</a> A year later, Moore took the story to <a href="/wiki/CBS" title="CBS">CBS</a>' <a href="/wiki/60_Minutes" title="60 Minutes">60 Minutes</a>, and was the background reporter on a piece produced by Joel Bernstein and narrated by African-American journalist <a href="/wiki/Ed_Bradley" title="Ed Bradley">Ed Bradley</a>. Philomena Doctor called her family members and declared Moore's story and Bradley's television exposé were full of lies.<a href="#cite_note-56">[50]</a> A psychologist at the University of Florida later testified in state hearings that the survivors of Rosewood showed signs of <a href="/wiki/Posttraumatic_stress_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Posttraumatic stress disorder">posttraumatic stress disorder</a>, made worse by the secrecy. Many years after the incident, they exhibited fear, denial, and <a href="/wiki/Hypervigilance" title="Hypervigilance">hypervigilance</a> about socializing with whites—which they expressed specifically regarding their children, interspersed with bouts of apathy.<a href="#cite_note-jones-33">[29]</a> Despite such characteristics, survivors counted religious faith as integral to their lives following the attack in Rosewood, to keep them from becoming bitter. Michael D'Orso, who wrote a book about Rosewood, said, "[E]veryone told me in their own way, in their own words, that if they allowed themselves to be bitter, to hate, it would have eaten them up."<a href="#cite_note-57">[51]</a> Robie Mortin described her past this way: "I knew that something went very wrong in my life because it took a lot away from me. But I wasn't angry or anything."<a href="#cite_note-people-11">[11]</a> The legacy of Rosewood remained in Levy County. For decades no black residents lived in Cedar Key or Sumner. Robin Raftis, the white editor of the Cedar Key Beacon, tried to place the events in an open forum by printing Moore's story. She had been collecting anecdotes for many years, and said, "Things happened out there in the woods. There's no doubt about that. How bad? We don't know ... So I said, 'Okay guys, I'm opening the closet with the skeletons, because if we don't learn from mistakes, we're doomed to repeat them'." Raftis received notes reading, "We know how to get you and your kids. All it takes is a match".<a href="#cite_note-booth-58">[52]</a> University of Florida historian David Colburn stated, "There is a pattern of denial with the residents and their relatives about what took place, and in fact they said to us on several occasions they don't want to talk about it, they don't want to identify anyone involved, and there's also a tendency to say that those who were involved were from elsewhere."<a href="#cite_note-video1-52">[46]</a> In 1993, a black couple retired to Rosewood from Washington D.C. They told The Washington Post, "When we used to have black friends down from <a href="/wiki/Chiefland,_Florida" title="Chiefland, Florida">Chiefland</a>, they always wanted to leave before it got dark. They didn't want to be in Rosewood after dark. We always asked, but folks wouldn't say why."<a href="#cite_note-booth-58">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Seeking_justice">Seeking justice</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rosewood_massacre&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Seeking justice">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History_includes_Rosewood">History includes Rosewood</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rosewood_massacre&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: History includes Rosewood">edit</a>]</div> Philomena Goins Doctor died in 1991. Her son Arnett was, by that time, "obsessed" with the events in Rosewood. Although he was originally excluded from the Rosewood claims case, he was included after this was revealed by publicity. By that point, the case had been taken on a <a href="/wiki/Pro_bono" title="Pro bono">pro bono</a> basis by one of Florida's largest legal firms.<a href="#cite_note-jones-33">[29]</a> In 1993, the firm filed a lawsuit on behalf of Arnett Goins, Minnie Lee Langley, and other survivors against the state government for its failure to protect them and their families.<a href="#cite_note-bassett-59">[53]</a> Survivors participated in a publicity campaign to expand attention to the case. Langley and Lee Ruth Davis appeared on <a href="/wiki/The_Maury_Povich_Show" class="mw-redirect" title="The Maury Povich Show">The Maury Povich Show</a> on <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Day" class="mw-redirect" title="Martin Luther King Day">Martin Luther King Day</a> in 1993. Gary Moore published another article about Rosewood in the Miami Herald on March 7, 1993; he had to negotiate with the newspaper's editors for about a year to publish it. At first they were skeptical that the incident had taken place, and secondly, reporter Lori Rosza of the Miami Herald had reported on the first stage of what proved in December 1992 to be a deceptive claims case, with most of the survivors excluded. "If something like that really happened, we figured, it would be all over the history books", an editor wrote.<a href="#cite_note-60">[54]</a> Arnett Doctor told the story of Rosewood to print and television reporters from all over the world. He raised the number of historic residents in Rosewood, as well as the number who died at the Carrier house siege; he exaggerated the town's contemporary importance by comparing it to <a href="/wiki/Atlanta,_Georgia" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlanta, Georgia">Atlanta, Georgia</a> as a cultural center. Doctor wanted to keep Rosewood in the news; his accounts were printed with few changes.<a href="#cite_note-61">[55]</a> According to historian Thomas Dye, Doctor's "forceful addresses to groups across the state, including the NAACP, together with his many articulate and heart-rending television appearances, placed intense pressure on the legislature ... to do something about Rosewood".<a href="#cite_note-dye-45">[39]</a> In December 1996, Doctor told a meeting at Jacksonville Beach that 30 women and children had been buried alive at Rosewood, and that his facts had been confirmed by journalist Gary Moore. He was embarrassed to learn that Moore was in the audience. As the <a href="/wiki/Holland_%26_Knight" title="Holland & Knight">Holland & Knight</a> law firm continued the claims case, they represented 13 survivors, people who had lived in Rosewood at the time of the 1923 violence, in the claim to the legislature.<a href="#cite_note-62">[56]</a> The lawsuit missed the filing deadline of January 1, 1993. The speaker of the <a href="/wiki/Florida_House_of_Representatives" title="Florida House of Representatives">Florida House of Representatives</a> commissioned a group to research and provide a report by which the equitable claim bill could be evaluated. It took them nearly a year to do the research, including interviews, and writing. On December 22, 1993, historians from <a href="/wiki/Florida_State_University" title="Florida State University">Florida State University</a>, <a href="/wiki/Florida_A%26M_University" title="Florida A&M University">Florida A&M University</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Florida" title="University of Florida">University of Florida</a> delivered a 100-page report (with 400 pages of attached documentation) on the Rosewood massacre. It was based on available primary documents, and interviews mostly with black survivors of the incident. Due to the media attention received by residents of Cedar Key and Sumner following filing of the claim by survivors, white participants were discouraged from offering interviews to the historians. The report used a taped description of the events by Jason McElveen, a Cedar Key resident who had since died,<a href="#cite_note-63">[57]</a> and an interview with Ernest Parham, who was in high school in 1923 and happened upon the lynching of Sam Carter. Parham said he had never spoken of the incident because he was never asked.<a href="#cite_note-64">[58]</a> The report was titled "Documented History of the Incident which Occurred at Rosewood, Florida in January 1923".<a href="#cite_note-65">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[60]</a> Gary Moore, the investigative journalist who wrote the 1982 story in The St. Petersburg Times that reopened the Rosewood case, criticized demonstrable errors in the report. The commissioned group retracted the most serious of these, without public discussion. They delivered the final report to the <a href="/wiki/Florida_Board_of_Regents" title="Florida Board of Regents">Florida Board of Regents</a> and it became part of the legislative record.<a href="#cite_note-dye-45">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rosewood_victims_v._the_State_of_Florida">Rosewood victims v. the State of Florida</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rosewood_massacre&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Rosewood victims v. the State of Florida">edit</a>]</div> Florida's consideration of a bill to compensate victims of racial violence was the first by any U.S. state. Opponents argued that the bill set a dangerous precedent and put the onus of paying survivors and descendants on Floridians who had nothing to do with the incident in Rosewood.<a href="#cite_note-video1-52">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-bassett-59">[53]</a> James Peters, who represented the State of Florida, argued that the <a href="/wiki/Statute_of_limitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Statute of limitation">statute of limitations</a> applied because the law enforcement officials named in the lawsuit—Sheriff Walker and Governor Hardee—had died many years before.<a href="#cite_note-bassett-59">[53]</a> He also called into question the shortcomings of the report: although the historians were instructed not to write it with compensation in mind, they offered conclusions about the actions of Sheriff Walker and Governor Hardee. The report was based on investigations led by historians as opposed to legal experts; they relied in cases on information that was <a href="/wiki/Hearsay" title="Hearsay">hearsay</a> from witnesses who had since died. Critics thought that some of the report's writers asked <a href="/wiki/Leading_question" title="Leading question">leading questions</a> in their interviews.<a href="#cite_note-dye-45">[39]</a> Even legislators who agreed with the sentiment of the bill asserted that the events in Rosewood were typical of the era. One survivor interviewed by Gary Moore said that to single out Rosewood as an exception, as if the entire world was not a Rosewood, would be "vile".<a href="#cite_note-moore-21">[21]</a> State legislators who supported the bill Democrat <a href="/wiki/Al_Lawson" title="Al Lawson">Al Lawson</a> and Republican <a href="/wiki/Miguel_De_Grandy" title="Miguel De Grandy">Miguel De Grandy</a>, argued that, unlike Native Americans or slaves who had suffered atrocities at the hands of whites, the residents of Rosewood were tax-paying, self-sufficient citizens who deserved the protection of local and state law enforcement. While mob lynchings of black people around the same time tended to be spontaneous and quickly concluded, the incident at Rosewood was prolonged over a period of several days.<a href="#cite_note-video1-52">[46]</a> Some legislators began to receive hate mail, including some claiming to be from Ku Klux Klan members. One legislator remarked that his office received an unprecedented response to the bill, with a proportion of ten constituents to one opposing it.<a href="#cite_note-dye-45">[39]</a> In 1994, the state legislature held a hearing to discuss the merits of the bill. Lee Ruth Davis died a few months before testimony began, but Minnie Lee Langley, Arnett Goins, Wilson Hall, Willie Evans, and several descendants from Rosewood testified. Other witnesses were a clinical psychologist from the University of Florida, who testified that survivors had suffered post-traumatic stress, and experts who offered testimony about the scale of property damages.<a href="#cite_note-dye-45">[39]</a> Langley spoke first; the hearing room was packed with journalists and onlookers who were reportedly mesmerized by her statement.<a href="#cite_note-67">[61]</a> Ernest Parham also testified about what he saw. When asked specifically when he was contacted by law enforcement regarding the death of Sam Carter, Parham replied that he had been contacted for the first time on Carter's death two weeks before testifying. The coroner's inquest for Sam Carter had taken place the day after he was shot in January 1923; he concluded that Carter had been killed "by Unknown Party".<a href="#cite_note-68">[62]</a> After hearing all the evidence, the <a href="/wiki/Special_Master" class="mw-redirect" title="Special Master">Special Master</a> Richard Hixson, who presided over the testimony for the Florida Legislature, declared that the state had a "moral obligation" to make <a href="/wiki/Restitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Restitution">restitution</a> to the former residents of Rosewood. He said, "I truly don't think they cared about compensation. I think they simply wanted the truth to be known about what happened to them ... whether they got fifty cents or a hundred and fifty million dollars. It didn't matter."<a href="#cite_note-69">[63]</a> Black and Hispanic legislators in Florida took on the Rosewood compensation bill as a cause, and refused to support Democratic Governor <a href="/wiki/Lawton_Chiles" title="Lawton Chiles">Lawton Chiles</a>' healthcare plan until he put pressure on the Democrat controlled state assembly to vote in favor of the bill. Chiles was offended, as he had supported the compensation bill from its early days, and the legislative caucuses had previously promised their support for his healthcare plan.<a href="#cite_note-bassett-59">[53]</a> The legislature passed the bill, and Governor Chiles signed the Rosewood Compensation Bill, a $2.1 million package to compensate survivors and their descendants. Seven survivors and their family members were present at the signing to hear Chiles say <blockquote>Because of the strength and commitment of these survivors and their families, the long silence has finally been broken and the shadow has been lifted ... Instead of being forgotten, because of their testimony, the Rosewood story is known across our state and across our nation. This legislation assures that the tragedy of Rosewood will never be forgotten by the generations to come.<a href="#cite_note-bassett-59">[53]</a></blockquote> Originally, the compensation total offered to survivors was $7 million, which aroused controversy. The legislature eventually settled on $1.5 million: this would enable payment of $150,000 to each person who could prove he or she lived in Rosewood during 1923, and provide a $500,000 pool for people who could apply for the funds after demonstrating that they had an ancestor who owned property in Rosewood during the same time.<a href="#cite_note-70">[64]</a> The four survivors who testified automatically qualified; four others had to apply. More than 400 applications were received from around the world. Robie Mortin came forward as a survivor during this period; she was the only one added to the list who could prove that she had lived in Rosewood in 1923, totaling nine survivors who were compensated. Gaining compensation changed some families, whose members began to fight among themselves. Some descendants refused it, while others went into hiding in order to avoid the press of friends and relatives who asked them for <a href="/wiki/Handout" title="Handout">handouts</a>. Some descendants, after dividing the funds among their siblings, received not much more than $100 each.<a href="#cite_note-71">[65]</a> Later, the <a href="/wiki/Florida_Department_of_Education" title="Florida Department of Education">Florida Department of Education</a> set up the Rosewood Family Scholarship Fund for Rosewood descendants and ethnic minorities.<a href="#cite_note-72">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rosewood_remembered">Rosewood remembered</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rosewood_massacre&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Rosewood remembered">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Representation_in_other_media">Representation in other media</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rosewood_massacre&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Representation in other media">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Rosewood historical marker (front and back)</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Rosewood,_Florida_historical_marker_(1).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A color photograph of the front of the bronze plaque in Rosewood next to the highway" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/5c/Rosewood%2C_Florida_historical_marker_%281%29.jpg/200px-Rosewood%2C_Florida_historical_marker_%281%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/5c/Rosewood%2C_Florida_historical_marker_%281%29.jpg/300px-Rosewood%2C_Florida_historical_marker_%281%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/5c/Rosewood%2C_Florida_historical_marker_%281%29.jpg/400px-Rosewood%2C_Florida_historical_marker_%281%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6016" data-file-height="4016" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Rosewood,_Florida_historical_marker_(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A color photograph of the back of the bronze plaque in Rosewood" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/07/Rosewood%2C_Florida_historical_marker_%282%29.jpg/200px-Rosewood%2C_Florida_historical_marker_%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/07/Rosewood%2C_Florida_historical_marker_%282%29.jpg/300px-Rosewood%2C_Florida_historical_marker_%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/07/Rosewood%2C_Florida_historical_marker_%282%29.jpg/400px-Rosewood%2C_Florida_historical_marker_%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6016" data-file-height="4016" /></a></div></div></div></div></div> The Rosewood massacre, the ensuing silence, and the compensation hearing were the subject of the 1996 book titled Like Judgment Day: The Ruin and Redemption of a Town Called Rosewood by <a href="/wiki/Mike_D%27Orso" title="Mike D'Orso">Mike D'Orso</a>. It was a <a href="/wiki/New_York_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Times">New York Times</a> bestseller and won the <a href="/wiki/Lillian_Smith_Book_Award" title="Lillian Smith Book Award">Lillian Smith Book Award</a>, bestowed by the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Georgia" title="University of Georgia">University of Georgia</a> Libraries and the Southern Regional Council to authors who highlight racial and social inequality in their works.<a href="#cite_note-73">[67]</a> The dramatic feature film <a href="/wiki/Rosewood_(film)" title="Rosewood (film)">Rosewood</a> (1997), directed by <a href="/wiki/John_Singleton" title="John Singleton">John Singleton</a>, was based on these historic events. Minnie Lee Langley served as a source for the set designers, and Arnett Doctor was hired as a consultant.<a href="#cite_note-persall-74">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-sylbert-75">[69]</a> Recreated forms of the towns of Rosewood and Sumner were built in Central Florida, far away from Levy County. The film version, written by screenwriter <a href="/wiki/Gregory_Poirier" title="Gregory Poirier">Gregory Poirier</a>, created a character named Mann, who enters Rosewood as a type of reluctant Western-style hero. Composites of historic figures were used as characters, and the film offers the possibility of a happy ending. In The New York Times <a href="/wiki/E.R._Shipp" class="mw-redirect" title="E.R. Shipp">E.R. Shipp</a> suggests that Singleton's youth and his background in <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a> contributed to his willingness to take on the story of Rosewood. She notes Singleton's rejection of the image of black people as victims and the portrayal of "an idyllic past in which black families are intact, loving and prosperous, and a black superhero who changes the course of history when he escapes the noose, takes on the mob with double-barreled ferocity and saves many women and children from death".<a href="#cite_note-shipp-76">[70]</a> Singleton has offered his view: "I had a very deep—I wouldn't call it fear—but a deep contempt for the South because I felt that so much of the horror and evil that black people have faced in this country is rooted here ... So in some ways this is my way of dealing with the whole thing."<a href="#cite_note-levin-77">[71]</a> Reception of the film was mixed. Shipp commented on Singleton's creating a fictional account of Rosewood events, saying that the film "assumes a lot and then makes up a lot more".<a href="#cite_note-shipp-76">[70]</a> The film version alludes to many more deaths than the highest counts by eyewitnesses. Gary Moore believes that creating an outside character who inspires the citizens of Rosewood to fight back condescends to survivors, and he criticized the inflated death toll specifically, saying the film was "an interesting experience in illusion".<a href="#cite_note-persall-74">[68]</a> In contrast, in 2001 <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Crouch" title="Stanley Crouch">Stanley Crouch</a> of The New York Times described Rosewood as Singleton's finest work, writing, "Never in the history of American film had Southern racist hysteria been shown so clearly. Color, class and sex were woven together on a level that <a href="/wiki/William_Faulkner" title="William Faulkner">Faulkner</a> would have appreciated."<a href="#cite_note-78">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legacy">Legacy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rosewood_massacre&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Legacy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:House_in_Roswwood,_Florida,_US.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/House_in_Roswwood%2C_Florida%2C_US.jpg/220px-House_in_Roswwood%2C_Florida%2C_US.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/House_in_Roswwood%2C_Florida%2C_US.jpg/330px-House_in_Roswwood%2C_Florida%2C_US.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/House_in_Roswwood%2C_Florida%2C_US.jpg/440px-House_in_Roswwood%2C_Florida%2C_US.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6016" data-file-height="4016" /></a><figcaption>The only remaining house in Rosewood</figcaption></figure> The State of Florida declared Rosewood a Florida Heritage Landmark in 2004 and subsequently erected a historical marker on <a href="/wiki/Florida_State_Road_24" title="Florida State Road 24">State Road 24</a> that names the victims and describes the community's destruction.<a href="#cite_note-curry-79">[73]</a> Scattered structures remain within the community, including a church, a business, and a few homes, notably John Wright's. Mary Hall Daniels, the last known survivor of the massacre at the time of her death, died at the age of 98 in <a href="/wiki/Jacksonville,_Florida" title="Jacksonville, Florida">Jacksonville, Florida</a>, on May 2, 2018.<a href="#cite_note-80">[74]</a> Vera Goins-Hamilton, who had not previously been publicly identified as a survivor of the Rosewood massacre, died at the age of 100 in <a href="/wiki/Lacoochee,_Florida" title="Lacoochee, Florida">Lacoochee, Florida</a>, in 2020.<a href="#cite_note-81">[75]</a> Rosewood descendants formed the Rosewood Heritage Foundation and the Real Rosewood Foundation, Inc., in order to educate people both in Florida and all over the world about the massacre. The Rosewood Heritage Foundation created a traveling exhibit that tours internationally in order to share the history of Rosewood and the attacks; a permanent display is housed in the library of <a href="/wiki/Bethune-Cookman_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Bethune-Cookman University">Bethune-Cookman University</a> in <a href="/wiki/Daytona_Beach,_Florida" title="Daytona Beach, Florida">Daytona Beach</a>.<a href="#cite_note-curry-79">[73]</a> The Real Rosewood Foundation presents a variety of humanitarian awards to people in Central Florida who help preserve Rosewood's history. The organization also recognized Rosewood residents who protected blacks during the attacks by presenting an Unsung Heroes Award to the descendants of Sheriff Robert Walker, John Bryce, and William Bryce.<a href="#cite_note-awards-82">[76]</a> Lizzie Jenkins, executive director of the Real Rosewood Foundation and niece of the Rosewood schoolteacher, explained her interest in keeping Rosewood's legacy current: <blockquote>It has been a struggle telling this story over the years, because a lot of people don't want to hear about this kind of history. People don't relate to it, or just don't want to hear about it. But Mama told me to keep it alive, so I keep telling it ... It's a sad story, but it's one I think everyone needs to hear.<a href="#cite_note-83">[77]</a></blockquote> The Real Rosewood Foundation, Inc., under the leadership of Jenkins, is raising funds to move John Wright's house to nearby <a href="/wiki/Archer,_Florida" title="Archer, Florida">Archer, Florida</a>, and make it a museum.<a href="#cite_note-84">[78]</a> The state of Florida in 2020 established a Rosewood Family Scholarship Program, paying up to $6,100 each to up to 50 students each year who are direct descendants of Rosewood families.<a href="#cite_note-85">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rosewood_massacre&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Florida" title="African Americans in Florida">African Americans in Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Black genocide">Black genocide</a> – the notion that African Americans have been subjected to <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_terrorism_in_the_United_States" title="Domestic terrorism in the United States">Domestic terrorism in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elaine_massacre" title="Elaine massacre">Elaine massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_cleansing_campaigns" title="List of ethnic cleansing campaigns">List of ethnic cleansing campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_riots#United_States" title="List of ethnic riots">List of ethnic riots#United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_expulsions_of_African_Americans" title="List of expulsions of African Americans">List of expulsions of African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_incidents_of_civil_unrest_in_the_United_States" title="List of incidents of civil unrest in the United States">List of incidents of civil unrest in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_massacres_in_the_United_States" title="List of massacres in the United States">List of massacres in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynching in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_racial_violence_in_the_United_States" title="Mass racial violence in the United States">Mass racial violence in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Harry_and_Harriette_Moore" class="mw-redirect" title="Murder of Harry and Harriette Moore">Murder of Harry and Harriette Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newberry_Six_lynchings" title="Newberry Six lynchings">Newberry Six lynchings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocoee_massacre" title="Ocoee massacre">Ocoee massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opelousas_massacre" title="Opelousas massacre">Opelousas massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perry_massacre" title="Perry massacre">Perry massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_African_Americans" title="Racism against African Americans">Racism against African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_States" title="Racism in the United States">Racism in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Summer" title="Red Summer">Red Summer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_the_United_States" title="Terrorism in the United States">Terrorism in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_terrorist_attacks_in_the_United_States" title="Timeline of terrorist attacks in the United States">Timeline of terrorist attacks in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilmington_insurrection_of_1898" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilmington insurrection of 1898">Wilmington insurrection</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rosewood_massacre&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> The story was disputed for years: historian Thomas Dye interviewed a white man in Sumner in 1993 who asserted, "that nigger raped her!" (Thomas Dye in The Historian, 1996). Ernest Parham, who married W. H. Pillsbury's daughter three years after Pillsbury's death in 1926, was skeptical that Taylor was raped, based on his personal knowledge of James Taylor: "They came from a good Cedar Key family. At least he did. Where she came from, I don't know. But some of James Taylor's sisters were in my class in school. I knew that family, and they were good people." (D'Orso, p. 198.) </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> Ernest Parham, a high school student in Cedar Key at the time, told David Colburn, "You could hear the gasps. I think most everyone was shocked. Mr. Pillsbury, he was standing there, and he said, 'Oh my God, now we'll never know who did it.' And then everybody dispersed, just turned and left. They was all really upset with this fella that did the killing. He was not very well thought of, not then, not for years thereafter, for that matter." (D'Orso, p. 194.) </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> The image was originally published in a news magazine in 1923, referring to the destruction of the town. Its veracity is somewhat disputed. Eva Jenkins, a Rosewood survivor, testified that she knew of no such structure in the town, that it was perhaps an outhouse. Rosewood houses were painted and most of them neat. However, the Florida Archives lists the image as representing the burning of a structure in Rosewood. (D'Orso, pp. 238–239) (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.floridamemory.com/PhotographicCollection/">Florida Memory Archives</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080918030112/http://www.floridamemory.com/PhotographicCollection/">Archived</a> 2008-09-18 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Call No. RC12409.) </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> Cedar Key resident Jason McElveen, who was in the posse that killed Sam Carter, remarked years later, "He said that they had 'em, and that if we thought we could, to come get 'em. That be just like throwing gasoline on fire ... to tell a bunch of white people that." (Thomas Dye in The Historian, 1996) Both Sylvester Carrier and Sam Carter had been previously arrested; Carrier for changing brands on cattle, and Carter for brandishing a shotgun at a sheriff's deputy. Carter had been released before being indicted, and Carrier, convinced that he was wrongly arrested and the charges were brought about by whites competing for grazing lands, was forced to serve on a chain gang for the summer of 1918, which he deeply resented. (Jones et al., "Incident at Rosewood", p. 30)(D'Orso, p. 104) Carrier's demeanor was vastly different from other black residents of Levy County. He was known to confront white people whom his younger sisters claimed had been rude to them, and made clear that they would have to deal with him in the future. (<a href="#Appendices">Jones, et al. "Appendices"</a>, pp. 215–216.) Arnett Doctor said that the story about Taylor being raped arose during the three-day span between the death of Sam Carter and the standoff at the Carrier house (<a href="#Appendices">Jones et al., "Appendices"</a>, p. 150.) Carrier's wife was of mixed ancestry and so light skinned she could <a href="/wiki/Passing_(racial_identity)" title="Passing (racial identity)">pass for white</a>. All these elements, according to Doctor, made Sylvester Carrier a target. (<a href="#Appendices">Jones, et al., "Appendices"</a>, p. 162.) </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> Arnett Doctor, in his interview for the report given to the Florida Board of Regents, claimed that his mother received Christmas cards from Sylvester Carrier until 1964; he was said to have been smuggled out of Rosewood in a coffin and later lived in Texas and Louisiana. His survival was not otherwise documented. (<a href="#Appendices">Jones et al., "Appendices"</a>, pp. 165–166.) </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> William Bryce, known as "K", was unique; he often disregarded race barriers. As a child, he had a black friend who was killed by a white man who left him to die in a ditch. The man was never prosecuted, and K Bryce said it "clouded his whole life". (Moore, 1982) </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rosewood_massacre&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Sentinel_Memory-1"><a href="#cite_ref-Sentinel_Memory_1-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLibby2004" class="citation news cs1">Libby, Jeff (February 1, 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.orlandosentinel.com/2004/02/01/rosewood-descendant-keeps-the-memory-alive/">"Rosewood Descendant Keeps The Memory Alive"</a>. Orlando Sentinel. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180724095029/http://articles.orlandosentinel.com/2004-02-01/news/0401300610_1_rosewood-massacre-white-mob-black-residents">Archived</a> from the original on July 24, 2018. Retrieved May 3, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Rosewood+Descendant+Keeps+The+Memory+Alive&rft.date=2004-02-01&rft.aulast=Libby&rft.aufirst=Jeff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.orlandosentinel.com%2F2004%2F02%2F01%2Frosewood-descendant-keeps-the-memory-alive%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARosewood+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Downs2015-2"><a href="#cite_ref-Downs2015_2-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRay_Downs2015" class="citation news cs1">Ray Downs (February 11, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.browardpalmbeach.com/news/florida-lynched-more-black-people-per-capita-than-any-other-state-according-to-report-6470940">"Florida Lynched More Black People Per Capita Than Any Other State, According to Report"</a>. New Times Broward-Palm Beach. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180426013427/http://www.browardpalmbeach.com/news/florida-lynched-more-black-people-per-capita-than-any-other-state-according-to-report-6470940">Archived</a> from the original on April 26, 2018. Retrieved April 25, 2018. <q>Between 1877 and 1950, the report, Lynching in America: Confronting the Legacy of Racial Terror, counts 3,959 examples of "racial terror lynchings," which EJI describes as violent, public acts of torture that were tolerated by public officials and designed to intimidate black victims. The staggering tally is 700 more than previously reported and is based on research of court records, newspaper accounts, local historians, and family descendants.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Times+Broward-Palm+Beach&rft.atitle=Florida+Lynched+More+Black+People+Per+Capita+Than+Any+Other+State%2C+According+to+Report&rft.date=2015-02-11&rft.au=Ray+Downs&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.browardpalmbeach.com%2Fnews%2Fflorida-lynched-more-black-people-per-capita-than-any-other-state-according-to-report-6470940&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARosewood+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-historian-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-historian_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-historian_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-historian_3-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-historian_3-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-historian_3-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-historian_3-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-historian_3-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-historian_3-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-historian_3-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-historian_3-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-historian_3-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-historian_3-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-historian_3-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-historian_3-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-historian_3-14">o</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDye1996" class="citation journal cs1">Dye, R. Thomas (Spring 1996). "Rosewood, Florida: The Destruction of an African American Community". The Historian. 58 (3): 605–622. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1540-6563.1996.tb00967.x">10.1111/j.1540-6563.1996.tb00967.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24449436">24449436</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Historian&rft.atitle=Rosewood%2C+Florida%3A+The+Destruction+of+an+African+American+Community&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=605-622&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1540-6563.1996.tb00967.x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24449436%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Dye&rft.aufirst=R.+Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARosewood+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoore1982" class="citation news cs1">Moore, Gary (July 25, 1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tampabay.com/data/2018/06/06/from-the-archives-the-original-story-of-the-rosewood-massacre/">"From the archives: the original story of the Rosewood Massacre"</a>. The St. Petersburg Times Floridian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190215071227/http://www.tampabay.com/data/2018/06/06/from-the-archives-the-original-story-of-the-rosewood-massacre/">Archived</a> from the original on February 15, 2019. Retrieved February 16, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+St.+Petersburg+Times+Floridian&rft.atitle=From+the+archives%3A+the+original+story+of+the+Rosewood+Massacre&rft.date=1982-07-25&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=Gary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tampabay.com%2Fdata%2F2018%2F06%2F06%2Ffrom-the-archives-the-original-story-of-the-rosewood-massacre%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARosewood+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-D'Orso,_pp._324–325-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-D'Orso,_pp._324–325_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-D'Orso,_pp._324–325_5-1">b</a> D'Orso, pp. 324–325. </li> <li id="cite_note-colburn-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-colburn_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-colburn_6-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-colburn_6-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-colburn_6-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-colburn_6-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-colburn_6-5">f</a> Colburn, David R. (Fall 1997) "Rosewood and America in the Early Twentieth Century", The Florida Historical Quarterly, 76 (2), pp. 175–192. </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <a href="#Appendices">Jones, et al. "Appendices"</a>, p. 135. </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <a href="#Appendices">Jones, et al. "Appendices"</a>, p. 163. </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <a href="#Incident_at_Rosewood">Jones et al.</a>, p. 20. </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> Pildes, Richard H. "Democracy, Anti-Democracy, and the Canon", Constitutional Commentary (2000), 17, p 12–13. </li> <li id="cite_note-people-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-people_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-people_11-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-people_11-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-people_11-3">d</a> Jerome, Richard (January 16, 1995). "A Measure of Justice", People, 43 (2), pp. 46–49 </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> Richardson, Joe (April 1969). "Florida Black Codes", The Florida Historical Quarterly 47 (4), pp. 366–380. </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> Gannon, p. 275–276. </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> Tebeau, pp. 243–244. </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> D'Orso, pp. 51–56. </li> <li id="cite_note-Jackson,_pp._82,_241-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jackson,_pp._82,_241_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jackson,_pp._82,_241_16-1">b</a> Jackson, pp. 82, 241. </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> Gannon, pp. 300–301. </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> Jones and McCarthy, pp. 81–82. </li> <li id="cite_note-Henry2007-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Henry2007_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Henry2007_19-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenry2007" class="citation book cs1">Henry, Charles P. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/longoverduepolit00henr">Long overdue: the politics of racial reparations</a>. NYU Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/longoverduepolit00henr/page/70">70</a>–71. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-3692-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-3692-0"><bdi>978-0-8147-3692-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Long+overdue%3A+the+politics+of+racial+reparations&rft.pages=70-71&rft.pub=NYU+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8147-3692-0&rft.aulast=Henry&rft.aufirst=Charles+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flongoverduepolit00henr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARosewood+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-henry-20"><a href="#cite_ref-henry_20-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenry2004" class="citation book cs1">Henry, C. Michael (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_DmN-Zq-WPIC&pg=PA31">"Introduction"</a>. In C. Michel Henry (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/racepovertydomes00henr">Race, Poverty, and Domestic Policy</a>. Yale ISPS series. New Haven: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-09541-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-09541-8"><bdi>978-0-300-09541-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Race%2C+Poverty%2C+and+Domestic+Policy&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.series=Yale+ISPS+series&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-300-09541-8&rft.aulast=Henry&rft.aufirst=C.+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_DmN-Zq-WPIC%26pg%3DPA31&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARosewood+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-moore-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-moore_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-moore_21-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-moore_21-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-moore_21-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-moore_21-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-moore_21-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-moore_21-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-moore_21-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-moore_21-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-moore_21-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-moore_21-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-moore_21-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-moore_21-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-moore_21-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-moore_21-14">o</a> Moore, Gary (July 25, 1982). 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"Beyond Rosewood", The St. Petersburg Times (Florida), p. 1A. </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <a href="#Appendices">Jones et al., "Appendices"</a>, p. 398. </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> D'Orso, pp. 79–80. </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> Halton, Beau (October 21, 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jacksonville.com/tu-online/stories/102197/2b3rosew.html">"No Resentment, Survivors Say"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080317111258/http://www.jacksonville.com/tu-online/stories/102197/2b3rosew.html">Archived</a> 2008-03-17 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> , Jacksonville Times Union. Retrieved on March 28, 2008. </li> <li id="cite_note-booth-58">^ <a href="#cite_ref-booth_58-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-booth_58-1">b</a> Booth, William (May 30, 1993). "Rosewood: 70 Years Ago, a Town Disappeared in a Blaze Fueled by Racial Hatred. Not Everyone Has Forgotten", The Washington Post, p. F1. </li> <li id="cite_note-bassett-59">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bassett_59-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bassett_59-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bassett_59-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bassett_59-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bassett_59-4">e</a> Bassett, C. Jeanne (Fall 1994). "Comments: House Bill 591: Florida Compensates Rosewood Victims and Their Families for a Seventy-One-Year-Old Injury", Florida State University Law Review 22 Fla St. U.L. Rev. 503. </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> Rose, Bill (March 7, 1993). "Up Front from the Editor: Black History", Tropic Magazine insert to the Miami Herald, p. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> D'Orso, pp. 165–166. </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> D'Orso, p. 163. </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> D'Orso, p. 183. </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> D'Orso, pp. 192–193, 253–254. </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dlis.dos.state.fl.us/library/bibliographies/Rosewood_bib.cfm">Rosewood Bibliography</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140410115151/http://dlis.dos.state.fl.us/library/bibliographies/Rosewood_bib.cfm">Archived</a> 2014-04-10 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> ", Florida Department of State. Retrieved on April 28, 2015. </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <a href="#Incident_at_Rosewood">Jones et al.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> D'Orso, pp. 230–234. </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> D'Orso, p. 256. </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> D'Orso, pp. 256–257. </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> D'Orso, pp. 211, 297. </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> D'Orso, pp. 306–317. </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.flrules.org/gateway/ruleno.asp?id=6A-20.027&Section=0">Rosewood Family Scholarship Fund</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110726061457/https://www.flrules.org/gateway/ruleno.asp?id=6A-20.027&Section=0">Archived</a> 2011-07-26 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Rule: 6A-20.027, Florida Department of Education. </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.libs.uga.edu/hargrett/lilliansmith/lsawardwinners1.html">"Lillian Smith Book Award "</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121009171320/http://www.libs.uga.edu/hargrett/lilliansmith/lsawardwinners1.html">Archived</a> 2012-10-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> University of Georgia Library (March 16, 2009). Accessed March 30, 2009. </li> <li id="cite_note-persall-74">^ <a href="#cite_ref-persall_74-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-persall_74-1">b</a> Persall, Steve, (February 17, 1997) "A Burning Issue", The St. Petersburg Times, p. 1D. </li> <li id="cite_note-sylbert-75"><a href="#cite_ref-sylbert_75-0">^</a> "Raising 'Rosewood'", TCI (March 1997), pp. 40–43. </li> <li id="cite_note-shipp-76">^ <a href="#cite_ref-shipp_76-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-shipp_76-1">b</a> Shipp, E. R. (March 16, 1997). "Film View: Taking Control of Old Demons by Forcing Them Into the Light", The New York Times, p. 13. </li> <li id="cite_note-levin-77"><a href="#cite_ref-levin_77-0">^</a> Levin, Jordan (June 30, 1996). "Movies: On Location: Dredging in the Deep South John Singleton Digs into the Story of Rosewood, a Town Burned by a Lynch Mob in 1923 ...", The Los Angeles Times, p. 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> Crouch, Stanley (August 26, 2001). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2001/08/26/movies/film-a-lost-generation-and-its-exploiters.html?sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all">Film; A Lost Generation and its Exploiters</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160306180634/http://www.nytimes.com/2001/08/26/movies/film-a-lost-generation-and-its-exploiters.html?sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all">Archived</a> 2016-03-06 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>", <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. Retrieved on April 17, 2009. </li> <li id="cite_note-curry-79">^ <a href="#cite_ref-curry_79-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-curry_79-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCurry2009" class="citation news cs1">Curry, Lashonda (January 22, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110615080657/http://www.gainesville.com/article/20090122/NEWS/901220298">"The Journey Home"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Gainesville_Sun" title="The Gainesville Sun">The Gainesville Sun</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gainesville.com/article/20090122/NEWS/901220298">the original</a> on June 15, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Gainesville+Sun&rft.atitle=The+Journey+Home&rft.date=2009-01-22&rft.aulast=Curry&rft.aufirst=Lashonda&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gainesville.com%2Farticle%2F20090122%2FNEWS%2F901220298&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARosewood+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaplan2018" class="citation news cs1">Caplan, Andrew (May 28, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gainesville.com/news/20180528/longest-living-rosewood-survivor-im-not-angry">"Longest-living Rosewood survivor: 'I'm not angry'"</a>. The Gainesville Sun. Retrieved November 21, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Gainesville+Sun&rft.atitle=Longest-living+Rosewood+survivor%3A+%27I%27m+not+angry%27&rft.date=2018-05-28&rft.aulast=Caplan&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gainesville.com%2Fnews%2F20180528%2Flongest-living-rosewood-survivor-im-not-angry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARosewood+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarter2020" class="citation news cs1">Carter, Rod (June 17, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wfla.com/news/pasco-county/late-pasco-county-woman-said-to-be-last-true-rosewood-survivor-passes-away/">"Pasco County woman said to be true Rosewood survivor passes away"</a>. Channel 8 (Tampa). Retrieved November 24, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Channel+8+%28Tampa%29&rft.atitle=Pasco+County+woman+said+to+be+true+Rosewood+survivor+passes+away&rft.date=2020-06-17&rft.aulast=Carter&rft.aufirst=Rod&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wfla.com%2Fnews%2Fpasco-county%2Flate-pasco-county-woman-said-to-be-last-true-rosewood-survivor-passes-away%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARosewood+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-awards-82"><a href="#cite_ref-awards_82-0">^</a> Tinker, Cleveland (March 16, 2006). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gainesville.com/article/20060316/GUARDIAN/60315042">Real Rosewood Foundation Hands Out Awards"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110615080820/http://www.gainesville.com/article/20060316/GUARDIAN/60315042">Archived</a> 2011-06-15 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, The Gainesville Sun. Retrieved on April 8, 2009. </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReink2008" class="citation news cs1">Reink, Amy (August 1, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110615080932/http://www.gainesville.com/article/20080801/NEWS/155478422">"Levy Co. Massacre Gets Spotlight in Koppel Film"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Gainesville_Sun" title="The Gainesville Sun">The Gainesville Sun</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gainesville.com/article/20080801/NEWS/155478422">the original</a> on June 15, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Gainesville+Sun&rft.atitle=Levy+Co.+Massacre+Gets+Spotlight+in+Koppel+Film&rft.date=2008-08-01&rft.aulast=Reink&rft.aufirst=Amy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gainesville.com%2Farticle%2F20080801%2FNEWS%2F155478422&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARosewood+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDouglasCarnell2023" class="citation news cs1">Douglas, Isabella; Carnell, Zachary (January 1, 2023). "Descendants mark racial violence that razed town 100 years ago". <a href="/wiki/Sun-Sentinel" class="mw-redirect" title="Sun-Sentinel">Sun-Sentinel</a>. p. 3.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sun-Sentinel&rft.atitle=Descendants+mark+racial+violence+that+razed+town+100+years+ago&rft.pages=3&rft.date=2023-01-01&rft.aulast=Douglas&rft.aufirst=Isabella&rft.au=Carnell%2C+Zachary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARosewood+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.leg.state.fl.us/Statutes/index.cfm?App_mode=Display_Statute&Search_String=&URL=1000-1099/1009/Sections/1009.55.html">"Statutes & Constitution :View Statutes : Online Sunshine"</a>. www.leg.state.fl.us. Retrieved December 31, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.leg.state.fl.us&rft.atitle=Statutes+%26+Constitution+%3AView+Statutes+%3A+Online+Sunshine&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.leg.state.fl.us%2FStatutes%2Findex.cfm%3FApp_mode%3DDisplay_Statute%26Search_String%3D%26URL%3D1000-1099%2F1009%2FSections%2F1009.55.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARosewood+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rosewood_massacre&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Michael_D%27Orso" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael D'Orso">D'Orso, Michael</a> (1996). Like Judgment Day: The Ruin and Redemption of a Town Called Rosewood, Grosset/Putnam. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-399-14147-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-399-14147-2">0-399-14147-2</a></li> <li>Dunn, Marvin. (2013). The Beast in Florida: A History of Anti-Black Violence, <a href="/wiki/University_Press_of_Florida" title="University Press of Florida">University Press of Florida</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8130-4163-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8130-4163-6">978-0-8130-4163-6</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://upf.com/Mkt/Dunn_public_statement.pdf">This book has been unpublished by the University Press of Florida and is not a valid reference</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Gannon_(historian)" title="Michael Gannon (historian)">Gannon, Michael</a> (ed.) (1996). A New History of Florida, <a href="/wiki/University_Press_of_Florida" title="University Press of Florida">University Press of Florida</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8130-1415-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8130-1415-8">0-8130-1415-8</a></li> <li>Gonzalez-Tennant. (2018).<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://upf.com/book.asp?id=9780813056784">The Rosewood Massacre: An Archaeology and History of Intersectional Violence</a>, University Press of Florida. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780813056784" title="Special:BookSources/9780813056784">9780813056784</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarakas1993" class="citation news cs1">Harakas, Margo (February 21, 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160905002400/http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/1993-02-21/features/9301110134_1_lee-ruth-davis-rosewood-white-men">"Owed To Rosewood Voices From A Florida Town That Died In A Racial Firestorm 70 Years Ago Rise From The Ashes, Asking For Justice"</a>. Sun-Sentinel. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/1993-02-21/features/9301110134_1_lee-ruth-davis-rosewood-white-men">the original</a> on September 5, 2016. Retrieved January 2, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sun-Sentinel&rft.atitle=Owed+To+Rosewood+Voices+From+A+Florida+Town+That+Died+In+A+Racial+Firestorm+70+Years+Ago+Rise+From+The+Ashes%2C+Asking+For+Justice.&rft.date=1993-02-21&rft.aulast=Harakas&rft.aufirst=Margo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farticles.sun-sentinel.com%2F1993-02-21%2Ffeatures%2F9301110134_1_lee-ruth-davis-rosewood-white-men&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARosewood+massacre" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Jackson, Kenneth T. (1992). The Ku Klux Klan in the City, 1915–1930, Elephant Paperback. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8223-0730-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8223-0730-8">0-8223-0730-8</a></li> <li>Jones, Maxine; McCarthy, Kevin (1993). African Americans in Florida, Pineapple Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56164-030-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-56164-030-1">1-56164-030-1</a></li> <li><cite id="Incident_at_Rosewood"></cite>Jones, Maxine; Rivers, Larry; Colburn, David; Dye, Tom; Rogers, William (1993). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090126110750/http://displaysforschools.com/rosewoodrp.html">A Documented History of the Incident Which Occurred at Rosewood, Florida in 1923</a>" (hosted online by Displays for Schools).</li> <li><cite id="Appendices"></cite>Jones, Maxine; Rivers, Larry; Colburn, David; Dye, Tom; Rogers, William (1993). "Appendices: A Documented History of the Incident Which Occurred at Rosewood, Florida in 1923".</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlton_Tebeau" class="mw-redirect" title="Charlton Tebeau">Tebeau, Charlton</a> (1971). A History of Florida, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Miami" title="University of Miami">University of Miami</a> Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87024-149-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-87024-149-4">0-87024-149-4</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rosewood_massacre&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFD'Orso,1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mike_D%27Orso" title="Mike D'Orso">D'Orso, Michael</a> (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/likejudgmentdayr0000dors_v2c6/page/n5/mode/2up">Like Judgment Day: The Ruin and Redemption of a Town Called Rosewood</a>. <a href="/wiki/G.P._Putnam%27s_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="G.P. Putnam's Sons">G.P. Putnam's Sons</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780399141478" title="Special:BookSources/9780399141478"><bdi>9780399141478</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Like+Judgment+Day%3A+The+Ruin+and+Redemption+of+a+Town+Called+Rosewood&rft.pub=G.P.+Putnam%27s+Sons&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9780399141478&rft.aulast=D%27Orso&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flikejudgmentdayr0000dors_v2c6%2Fpage%2Fn5%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARosewood+massacre" class="Z3988"> <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/item/95038492">95-38492</a>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-3991-4147-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-3991-4147-2">0-3991-4147-2</a>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/33047183/editions">33047183 (all editions)</a>.</li> <li>Flowers, Charles (March 14, 1997) "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080326175941/http://www.seminoletribe.com/tribune/97/mar/rosewood.shtml">Is Singleton's Movie a Scandal or a Black Schindler's List?</a>", Seminole Tribune</li> <li>Markovitz, Jonathan. Legacies of Lynching: Racial Violence and Memory, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Minnesota_Press" title="University of Minnesota Press">University of Minnesota Press</a>, 2004. Section on Singleton's film.</li> <li>Schumacher, Aileen. Rosewood's Ashes (2002). A fictional murder mystery that uses the massacre at Rosewood as historical backdrop.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rosewood_massacre&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Rosewood_massacre" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Rosewood massacre">Rosewood massacre</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rosewoodflorida.com/">The Real Rosewood website</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.virtualrosewood.com/">Rosewood Heritage & VR Project</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141218161140/http://www.thewhitehouseboysonline.com/ARTICLE-ROSEWOOD-VS-STATE.html">Rosewood Victims v. State of Florida</a>, Special Master's Report (of the Florida legislature), March 24, 1994</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.displaysforschools.com/history.html">Remembering Rosewood</a>, by Displays for Schools, Inc.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gettyimages.com/license/515114374">Historical images after the riots</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Template:Lynching in the United States"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Template talk:Lynching in the United States"><abbr title="Discuss this 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States</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Before 1900</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Francis_McIntosh" title="Lynching of Francis McIntosh">Francis McIntosh</a> (1836)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elijah_Parish_Lovejoy" title="Elijah Parish Lovejoy">Elijah Parish Lovejoy</a> (1837)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josefa_Segovia" title="Josefa Segovia">Josefa Segovia</a> (1851)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pancho_Daniel" title="Pancho Daniel">Pancho Daniel</a> (1858)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detroit_race_riot_of_1863" title="Detroit race riot of 1863">Joshua Boyd</a> (1863)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Plummer" title="Henry Plummer">Henry Plummer</a> (1864)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Sketoe" title="Bill Sketoe">Bill Sketoe</a> (1864)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clubfoot_George" title="Clubfoot George">Clubfoot George</a> (1864)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Long" title="Steve Long">Steve Long, Ace and Con Moyer</a> (1868)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wyatt_Outlaw" title="Wyatt Outlaw">Wyatt Outlaw</a> (1870)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_W._Stephens" title="John W. Stephens">John W. Stephens</a> (1870)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Boyd_(county_solicitor)" title="Alexander Boyd (county solicitor)">Alexander Boyd</a> (1870)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Williams_(militia_leader)" title="Jim Williams (militia leader)">Jim Williams</a> (1871)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_David_Jones" title="Lynching of David Jones">David Jones</a> (1872)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Jo_Reed" title="Lynching of Jo Reed">Jo Reed</a> (1875)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_St._Clair_(minister)" title="Arthur St. Clair (minister)">Arthur St. Clair</a> (1877)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Michael_Green" title="Lynching of Michael Green">Michael Green</a> (1878)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Standing" title="Joseph Standing">Joseph Standing</a> (1879)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Nose_George" title="Big Nose George">Big Nose George Parrott</a> (1881)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Thurber" title="Charles Thurber">Charles Thurber</a> (1882)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bisbee_massacre" title="Bisbee massacre">John Wesley Heath</a> (1884)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Eliza_Woods" title="Lynching of Eliza Woods">Eliza Woods</a> (1886)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mingo_Jack" title="Mingo Jack">Samuel "Mingo Jack" Johnson</a> (1886)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Amos_Miller" title="Lynching of Amos Miller">Amos Miller</a> (1888)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Joseph_Vermillion" title="Lynching of Joseph Vermillion">Joseph Vermillion</a> (1889)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_George_Meadows" title="Lynching of George Meadows">George Meadows</a> (1889)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellen_Watson" title="Ellen Watson">Ellen Watson</a> (1889)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madison,_Georgia#Jim_Crow_era" title="Madison, Georgia">Brown Washington</a> (1890)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Jim_Taylor" title="Lynching of Jim Taylor">Jim Taylor</a> (1891)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tillman#Lynching_and_race" title="Benjamin Tillman">Dick Lundy</a> (1891)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Joe_Coe" title="Lynching of Joe Coe">Joe Coe</a> (1891)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Lewis_(lynching_victim)" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Lewis (lynching victim)">Robert Lewis</a> (1892)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Ephraim_Grizzard" title="Lynching of Ephraim Grizzard">Ephraim Grizzard</a> (1892)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Samuel_J._Bush" title="Lynching of Samuel J. Bush">Samuel J. Bush</a> (1893)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark,_South_Carolina#History" title="Denmark, South Carolina">John Peterson</a> (1893)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Alfred_Blount" title="Lynching of Alfred Blount">Alfred Blount</a> (1893)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Smith_(lynching_victim)" title="Henry Smith (lynching victim)">Henry Smith</a> (1893)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Richard_Puryear" title="Lynching of Richard Puryear">Richard Puryear</a> (1894)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Stephen_Williams" title="Lynching of Stephen Williams">Stephen Williams</a> (1894)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocky_Springs,_Mississippi#Lynching" title="Rocky Springs, Mississippi">Amos Hicks</a> (1894)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellicott_City,_Maryland#Incorporation_and_disincorporation" title="Ellicott City, Maryland">Jacob Henson</a> (1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_William_Andrews" title="Lynching of William Andrews">William Andrews</a> (1897)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Joseph_H._McCoy" title="Lynching of Joseph H. McCoy">Joseph H. McCoy</a> (1897)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/LaFayette,_Alabama#History" title="LaFayette, Alabama">John Anderson</a> (1898)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_John_Henry_James" title="Lynching of John Henry James">John Henry James</a> (1898)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_F._W._Stewart" title="Lynching of F. W. Stewart">F. W. Stewart</a> (1898)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Sam_Hose" title="Lynching of Sam Hose">Sam Hose</a> (1899)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Benjamin_Thomas" title="Lynching of Benjamin Thomas">Benjamin Thomas</a> (1899)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">1900–1940</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Rochelle" title="Fred Rochelle">Fred Rochelle</a> (1901)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Ballie_Crutchfield" title="Lynching of Ballie Crutchfield">Ballie Crutchfield</a> (1901)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_George_Ward" title="Lynching of George Ward">George Ward</a> (1901)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Marshall,_Texas#Twentieth_century" title="History of Marshall, Texas">Walker Davis</a> (1903)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danville_race_riot" title="Danville race riot">J. D. Mayfield</a> (1903)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_George_White" title="Lynching of George White"> George White</a> (1903)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_David_Wyatt" title="Lynching of David Wyatt">David Wyatt</a> (1903)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Marie_Thompson" title="Lynching of Marie Thompson">Marie Thompson</a> (1904)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Paul_Reed_and_Will_Cato" title="Lynching of Paul Reed and Will Cato">Paul Reed and Will Cato</a> (1904)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gadsden,_Alabama#Lynching_of_Bunk_Richardson" title="Gadsden, Alabama">Bunk Richardson</a> (1906)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Ed_Johnson" title="Lynching of Ed Johnson">Ed Johnson</a> (1906)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toyah,_Texas#History" title="Toyah, Texas">Slab Pitts</a> (1906)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_William_Burns" title="Lynching of William Burns">William Burns</a> (1907)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Earnest_Williams" title="Lynching of Earnest Williams">Earnest Williams</a> (1907)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Miller_(outlaw)" title="Jim Miller (outlaw)">Jim Miller</a> (1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Marshall,_Texas#20th_century" title="History of Marshall, Texas">James Hodges</a> (1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Marshall,_Texas#20th_century" title="History of Marshall, Texas">Matthew Chase</a> (1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Marshall,_Texas#20th_century" title="History of Marshall, Texas">"Mose" Creole</a> (1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Marshall,_Texas#20th_century" title="History of Marshall, Texas">"Pie" Hill</a> (1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_%22Froggie%22_James" title="William "Froggie" James">William "Froggie" James and Henry Salzner</a> (1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centreville,_Alabama#1910_lynching" title="Centreville, Alabama">Grant Richardson</a> (1910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_King_Johnson" title="Lynching of King Johnson">King Johnson</a> (1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Marshall,_Texas#20th_century" title="History of Marshall, Texas">Name unknown (TX)</a> (1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Laura_and_L._D._Nelson" title="Lynching of Laura and L. D. Nelson">Laura and L. D. Nelson</a> (1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livermore,_Kentucky#Opera_house_lynching" title="Livermore, Kentucky">Will Porter</a> (1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Zachariah_Walker" title="Lynching of Zachariah Walker">Zachariah Walker</a> (1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Marshall,_Texas#20th_century" title="History of Marshall, Texas">Mary Jackson</a> (1912)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1912_racial_conflict_in_Forsyth_County,_Georgia" title="1912 racial conflict in Forsyth County, Georgia">Rob Edwards</a> (1912)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Marshall,_Texas#20th_century" title="History of Marshall, Texas">George Saunders</a> (1912)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Marshall,_Texas#20th_century" title="History of Marshall, Texas">Robert Perry</a> (1913)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Marshall,_Texas#20th_century" title="History of Marshall, Texas">? Anderson</a> (1913)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Marshall,_Texas#20th_century" title="History of Marshall, Texas">Charles Fisher</a> (1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_John_Evans" title="Lynching of John Evans">John Evans</a> (1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Frank" title="Leo Frank">Leo Frank</a> (1915)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cedarbluff,_Mississippi#History" title="Cedarbluff, Mississippi">Name unknown (MS)</a> (1915)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Jesse_Washington" title="Lynching of Jesse Washington">Jesse Washington</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Anthony_Crawford" title="Lynching of Anthony Crawford">Anthony Crawford</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cedarbluff,_Mississippi#History" title="Cedarbluff, Mississippi">Jeff Brown</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Paulo_Boleta" title="Lynching of Paulo Boleta">Paulo Boleta</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Little_(unionist)" title="Frank Little (unionist)">Frank Little</a> (1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Marshall,_Texas#20th_century" title="History of Marshall, Texas">Charles Jones</a> (1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Ell_Persons" title="Lynching of Ell Persons">Ell Persons</a> (1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Prager" title="Robert Prager">Robert Prager</a> (1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_1918_lynchings" title="May 1918 lynchings">Mary Turner and her unborn baby</a> (1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_1918_lynchings" title="May 1918 lynchings">Hazel "Hayes" Turner</a> (1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_George_Taylor" title="Lynching of George Taylor">George Taylor</a> (1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_McIlherron" class="mw-redirect" title="Jim McIlherron">Jim McIlherron</a> (1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Olli_Kinkkonen" title="Lynching of Olli Kinkkonen">Olli Kinkkonen</a> (1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madison,_Georgia#Jim_Crow_era" title="Madison, Georgia">Wallace Baynes</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omaha_race_riot_of_1919" title="Omaha race riot of 1919">Will Brown</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wesley_Everest" title="Wesley Everest">Wesley Everest</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hartfield" title="John Hartfield">John Hartfield</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Jay_Lynch" title="Lynching of Jay Lynch">Jay Lynch</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berry_Washington" title="Berry Washington">Berry Washington</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1920_Alabama_coal_strike#Willie_Baird" title="1920 Alabama coal strike">Willie Baird</a> (1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Belton" title="Roy Belton">Roy Belton</a> (1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dick_Rowland" title="Dick Rowland">Dick Rowland (attempted)</a> (1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Henry_Lowry" title="Lynching of Henry Lowry">Henry Lowry</a> (1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_James_Harvey_and_Joe_Jordan" title="Lynching of James Harvey and Joe Jordan">James Harvey and Joe Jordan</a> (1922)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Pullen" title="Joe Pullen">Joe Pullen</a> (1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Samuel_Smith" title="Lynching of Samuel Smith">Samuel Smith</a> (1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_L._Q._Ivy" title="Lynching of L. Q. Ivy">L. Q. Ivy</a> (1925)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Raymond_Byrd" title="Lynching of Raymond Byrd">Raymond Byrd</a> (1926)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Clark_(lynching_victim)" title="James Clark (lynching victim)">James Clark</a> (1926)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Lake,_Colorado#Fred_Selak" title="Grand Lake, Colorado">Fred N. Selak</a> (1926)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Tom_Payne" title="Lynching of Tom Payne">Tom Payne</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_John_Carter" title="Lynching of John Carter">John Carter</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Dan_Anderson" title="Lynching of Dan Anderson">Dan Anderson</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Will_Sherod" title="Lynching of Will Sherod">Will Sherod</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Bernice_Raspberry" title="Lynching of Bernice Raspberry">Bernice Raspberry</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Owen_Flemming" title="Lynching of Owen Flemming">Owen Flemming</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Joseph_Upchurch" title="Lynching of Joseph Upchurch">Joseph Upchurch</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Joe_Smith" title="Lynching of Joe Smith">Joe Smith</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Albert_Williams" title="Lynching of Albert Williams">Albert Williams</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Thomas_Bradshaw" title="Lynching of Thomas Bradshaw">Thomas Bradshaw</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Winston_Pounds" title="Lynching of Winston Pounds">Winston Pounds</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Thomas_Williams" title="Lynching of Thomas Williams">Thomas Williams</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Henry_Choate" title="Lynching of Henry Choate">Henry Choate</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Leonard_Woods" title="Lynching of Leonard Woods">Leonard Woods</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mondak,_Montana" title="Mondak, Montana">J. C. Collins</a> (1928)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_George_Hughes" title="Lynching of George Hughes">George Hughes</a> (1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Cameron_(activist)" title="James Cameron (activist)">James Cameron</a> (1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Raymond_Gunn" title="Lynching of Raymond Gunn">Lynching of Raymond Gunn</a> (1931)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Williams_(laborer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Matthew Williams (laborer)">Matthew Williams</a> (1931)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Shedrick_Thompson" title="Death of Shedrick Thompson">Shedrick Thompson</a> (1932)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_George_Armwood" title="Lynching of George Armwood">George Armwood</a> (1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Cordie_Cheek" title="Lynching of Cordie Cheek">Cordie Cheek</a> (1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Claude_Neal" title="Lynching of Claude Neal">Claude Neal</a> (1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Austin_Callaway" title="Lynching of Austin Callaway">Austin Callaway</a> (1940)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elbert_Williams" title="Elbert Williams">Elbert Williams</a> (1940)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">After 1940</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Felix_Hall" title="Felix Hall">Felix Hall</a> (1941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kunze" title="Johannes Kunze">Johannes Kunze</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screws_v._United_States" title="Screws v. United States">Robert "Bobbie" Hall</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Willie_James_Howard" title="Lynching of Willie James Howard">Willie James Howard</a> (1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recy_Taylor" title="Recy Taylor">Recy Taylor</a> (1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Cecil_Jones" class="mw-redirect" title="John Cecil Jones">John Cecil Jones</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Willie_Earle" title="Lynching of Willie Earle">Willie Earle</a> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamar_Smith_(activist)" title="Lamar Smith (activist)">Lamar Smith</a> (1955)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_W._Lee" title="George W. Lee">George W. Lee</a> (1955)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Emmett Till</a> (1955)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judge_Edward_Aaron" title="Judge Edward Aaron">Judge Edward Aaron</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Willie_Edwards" title="Murder of Willie Edwards">Willie Edwards</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Mack_Charles_Parker" title="Lynching of Mack Charles Parker">Mack Charles Parker</a> (1959)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Allen" title="Louis Allen">Louis Allen</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Lemuel_Penn" title="Murder of Lemuel Penn">Lemuel Penn</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Frank_Morris" title="Murder of Frank Morris">Frank Morris</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Reeb" title="James Reeb">James Reeb</a> (1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Dahmer" title="Vernon Dahmer">Vernon Dahmer</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Wharlest_Jackson" title="Murder of Wharlest Jackson">Wharlest Jackson</a> (1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Carol_Jenkins" title="Murder of Carol Jenkins">Carol Jenkins</a> (1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shooting_of_Henry_Marrow" class="mw-redirect" title="Shooting of Henry Marrow">Henry Marrow</a> (1970)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livernois%E2%80%93Fenkell_riot" title="Livernois–Fenkell riot">Marian Pyszko</a> (1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Betty_Gardner" title="Murder of Betty Gardner">Betty Gardner</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_Miami_riots" title="1980 Miami riots">Arthur McDuffie</a> (1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Michael_Donald" title="Lynching of Michael Donald">Michael Donald</a> (1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Yusef_Hawkins" title="Murder of Yusef Hawkins">Yusef Hawkins</a> (1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_James_Byrd_Jr." title="Murder of James Byrd Jr.">James Byrd Jr.</a> (1998)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_James_Craig_Anderson" title="Murder of James Craig Anderson">James Craig Anderson</a> (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Ahmaud_Arbery" title="Murder of Ahmaud Arbery">Ahmaud Arbery</a> (2020)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Multiple_victims" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Multiple victims</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Joseph_Smith" class="mw-redirect" title="Death of Joseph Smith">Death of Joseph Smith</a> (<a href="/wiki/Joseph_Smith" title="Joseph Smith">Joseph Smith</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hyrum_Smith" title="Hyrum Smith">Hyrum Smith</a>) (1844)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marais_des_Cygnes_massacre" title="Marais des Cygnes massacre">Marais des Cygnes, KS, massacre</a> (1858)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Hanging_at_Gainesville" title="Great Hanging at Gainesville">Great Hanging at Gainesville, TX</a> (1862)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_City_draft_riots" title="New York City draft riots">New York City draft riots</a> (1863)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detroit_race_riot_(1863)" class="mw-redirect" title="Detroit race riot (1863)">Detroit race riot (1863)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felix_Signoret" title="Felix Signoret">? Lachenais and four others</a> (1863)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Pillow" title="Battle of Fort Pillow">Fort Pillow, TN, massacre</a> (1864)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Plummer" title="Henry Plummer">Plummer Gang</a> (1864)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memphis_riots_of_1866" class="mw-redirect" title="Memphis riots of 1866">Memphis massacre</a> (1866)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1866_Gallatin_County_race_riot" title="1866 Gallatin County race riot">Gallatin County, KY, race riot</a> (1866)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Orleans_massacre_of_1866" class="mw-redirect" title="New Orleans massacre of 1866">New Orleans massacre of 1866</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reno_Gang" title="Reno Gang">Reno Brothers Gang</a> (1868)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camilla_massacre" title="Camilla massacre">Camilla, GA, massacre</a> (1868)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Long" title="Steve Long">Steve Long and two half-brothers</a> (1868)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulaski_riot" title="Pulaski riot">Pulaski, TN, riot</a> (1868)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Samuel_Bierfield" class="mw-redirect" title="Lynching of Samuel Bierfield">Samuel Bierfield and Lawrence Bowman</a> (1868)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opelousas_massacre" title="Opelousas massacre">Opelousas, LA, massacre</a> (1868)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bear_River_City,_Wyoming#Bear_River_City_Riot_of_November_19,_1868" title="Bear River City, Wyoming">Bear River City riot</a> (1868)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_massacre_of_1871" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese massacre of 1871">Chinese massacre of 1871</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meridian_race_riot_of_1871" title="Meridian race riot of 1871">Meridian, MS, race riot</a> (1871)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colfax_massacre" title="Colfax massacre">Colfax, LA, massacre</a> (1873)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_riot_of_1874" class="mw-redirect" title="Election riot of 1874">Election riot of 1874</a> (AL)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Moya" title="Juan Moya">Juan, Antonio, and Marcelo Moya</a> (1874)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Benjamin_and_Mollie_French" title="Lynching of Benjamin and Mollie French">Benjamin and Mollie French</a> (1876)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellenton_riot" class="mw-redirect" title="Ellenton riot">Ellenton, SC, riot</a> (1876)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamburg_massacre" title="Hamburg massacre">Hamburg, SC, massacre</a> (1876)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thibodaux_massacre" title="Thibodaux massacre">Thibodeax, LA, massacre</a> (1878)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horrell_Brothers" title="Horrell Brothers">Mart and Tom Horrell</a> (1878)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Nevlin_Porter_and_Johnson_Spencer" title="Lynching of Nevlin Porter and Johnson Spencer">Nevlin Porter and Johnson Spencer</a> (1879)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willits,_California##Triple_Masonic_lynching_of_1879" title="Willits, California">Elijah Frost, Abijah Gibson, Tom McCracken</a> (1879)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variety_Hall_shootout" title="Variety Hall shootout">T.J. House, James West, John Dorsey</a> (1880)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_14,_1891,_lynchings" class="mw-redirect" title="March 14, 1891, lynchings">New Orleans 1891 lynchings</a> (1891)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_the_Ruggles_brothers" title="Lynching of the Ruggles brothers">Ruggles Brothers (CA)</a> (1892)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Grocery_lynchings" title="People's Grocery lynchings">Thomas Moss, Henry Stewart, Calvin McDowell (TN)</a> (1892)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Nevlin_Porter_and_Johnson_Spencer" title="Lynching of Nevlin Porter and Johnson Spencer">Porter and Spencer (MS)</a> (1897)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenix_election_riot" title="Phoenix election riot">Phoenix, SC, election riot</a> (1898)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilmington_insurrection_of_1898" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilmington insurrection of 1898">Wilmington, NC, insurrection</a> (1898)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Julia_and_Frazier_Baker" class="mw-redirect" title="Lynching of Julia and Frazier Baker">Julia and Frazier Baker</a> (1898)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pana_riot" title="Pana riot">Pana, IL, riot</a> (1899)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watkinsville_lynching" title="Watkinsville lynching">Watkinsville lynching</a> (1905)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1906_Atlanta_race_massacre" title="1906 Atlanta race massacre">1906 Atlanta race massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kemper_County,_Mississippi#History" title="Kemper County, Mississippi">Kemper County, MS</a> (1906)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_the_Walker_family" title="Lynching of the Walker family">Walker family</a> (1908)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Springfield_race_riot_of_1908" title="Springfield race riot of 1908">Springfield race riot of 1908</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slocum,_Texas" title="Slocum, Texas">Slocum, TX, massacre</a> (1910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Laura_and_L._D._Nelson" title="Lynching of Laura and L. D. Nelson">Laura and L.D. Nelson</a> (1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harris_County,_Georgia#History" title="Harris County, Georgia">Harris County, GA, lynchings</a> (1912)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newberry_Six_lynchings" title="Newberry Six lynchings">Newberry, FL, lynchings</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_St._Louis_riots" class="mw-redirect" title="East St. Louis riots">East St. Louis, IL, riots</a> (1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brooks_County,_Georgia" title="Brooks County, Georgia">Lynching rampage in Brooks County, GA</a> (1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jenkins_County,_Georgia,_riot_of_1919" class="mw-redirect" title="Jenkins County, Georgia, riot of 1919">Jenkins County, GA, riot</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longview_race_riot" title="Longview race riot">Longview, TX, race riot</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elaine_race_riot" class="mw-redirect" title="Elaine race riot">Elaine, AR, race riot</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omaha_race_riot_of_1919" title="Omaha race riot of 1919">Omaha race riot of 1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knoxville_riot_of_1919" title="Knoxville riot of 1919">Knoxville riot of 1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Summer" title="Red Summer">Red Summer</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duluth_lynchings" title="Duluth lynchings">Duluth, MN, lynchings</a> (1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocoee_massacre" title="Ocoee massacre">Ocoee, FL, massacre</a> (1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a> (1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perry_race_riot" class="mw-redirect" title="Perry race riot">Perry, FL, race riot</a> (1922)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rosewood, FL, massacre</a> (1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Jim_and_Mark_Fox" title="Lynching of Jim and Mark Fox">Jim and Mark Fox</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Thomas_Shipp_and_Abram_Smith" title="Lynching of Thomas Shipp and Abram Smith">Thomas Shipp and Abram Smith</a> (1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tate_County,_Mississippi#History" title="Tate County, Mississippi">Tate County, MS</a> (1932)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brooke_Hart#Lynching_of_Thurmond_and_Holmes" class="mw-redirect" title="Brooke Hart">Thomas Harold Thurmond and John M. Holmes</a> (1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Roosevelt_Townes_and_Robert_McDaniels" title="Lynching of Roosevelt Townes and Robert McDaniels">Roosevelt Townes and Robert McDaniels</a> (1937)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beaumont_race_riot_of_1943" title="Beaumont race riot of 1943">Beaumont, TX, Race Riot</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/O%27Day_Short" title="O'Day Short">O'Day Short, wife, and two children</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moore%27s_Ford_lynchings" title="Moore's Ford lynchings">Moore's Ford, GA, lynchings</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_T._Moore" title="Harry T. Moore">Harry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Harriette_Moore" title="Harriette Moore">Harriette Moore</a> (1952)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anniston,_Alabama#The_Civil_Rights_era" title="Anniston, Alabama">Anniston, AL</a> (1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murders_of_Chaney,_Goodman,_and_Schwerner" title="Murders of Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner">Freedom Summer Murders</a> (<a href="/wiki/James_Chaney" title="James Chaney">James Chaney</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Goodman_(activist)" title="Andrew Goodman (activist)">Andrew Goodman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Schwerner" title="Michael Schwerner">Michael Schwerner</a>) (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Cold_Case" title="Mississippi Cold Case">Henry Hezekiah Dee and Charles Eddie Moore</a> (1964)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indiana_White_Caps" title="Indiana White Caps">Indiana White Caps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Shirts_(United_States)" title="Red Shirts (United States)">Red Shirts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_American_Jews" title="Lynching of American Jews">Jews</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anti-lynching_movement" title="Anti-lynching movement">Anti-lynching movement</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:American_anti-lynching_activists" title="Category:American anti-lynching activists">American anti-lynching activists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Crusade_Against_Lynching" title="American Crusade Against Lynching">American Crusade Against Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jessie_Daniel_Ames" title="Jessie Daniel Ames">Jessie Daniel Ames</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_C._Ansorge" title="Martin C. Ansorge">Martin C. Ansorge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_of_Southern_Women_for_the_Prevention_of_Lynching" title="Association of Southern Women for the Prevention of Lynching">Association of Southern Women for the Prevention of Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flossie_Bailey" title="Flossie Bailey">Flossie Bailey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_O%27Connell_Bradley" title="William O'Connell Bradley">William O'Connell Bradley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ella_Barksdale_Brown" title="Ella Barksdale Brown">Ella Barksdale Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Father_Divine" title="Father Divine">Father Divine</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Flag_Salute" title="Flag Salute">Flag Salute</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">N.A.A.C.P.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Conference_on_Lynching" title="National Conference on Lynching">National Conference on Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Robeson" title="Paul Robeson">Paul Robeson</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Strange_Fruit" title="Strange Fruit">Strange Fruit</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ida_B._Wells" title="Ida B. Wells">Ida B. Wells</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Legislation" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legislation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dyer_Anti-Lynching_Bill" title="Dyer Anti-Lynching Bill">Dyer Anti-Lynching Bill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_P._Costigan#Costigan–Wagner_Bill" title="Edward P. Costigan">Costigan-Wagner Bill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice_for_Victims_of_Lynching_Act" title="Justice for Victims of Lynching Act">Justice for Victims of Lynching Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till_Unsolved_Civil_Rights_Crime_Act" title="Emmett Till Unsolved Civil Rights Crime Act">Emmett Till Unsolved Civil Rights Crime Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till_Antilynching_Act" title="Emmett Till Antilynching Act">Emmett Till Antilynching Act</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Defenders of lynching</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_G._Bilbo" title="Theodore G. Bilbo">Theodore G. Bilbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cole_L._Blease" title="Cole L. Blease">Cole L. Blease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_S._Carr" title="Julian S. Carr">Julian S. Carr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Johnston_Catts" title="Sidney Johnston Catts">Sidney Johnston Catts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Dixon_Jr." title="Thomas Dixon Jr.">Thomas Dixon Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebecca_Latimer_Felton" title="Rebecca Latimer Felton">Rebecca Latimer Felton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Temple_Graves" title="John Temple Graves">John Temple Graves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Trotwood_Moore" title="John Trotwood Moore">John Trotwood Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_T._Morgan" title="John T. Morgan">John T. Morgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Rolph" title="James Rolph">James Rolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goodloe_Sutton" title="Goodloe Sutton">Goodloe Sutton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tillman" title="Benjamin Tillman">Benjamin Tillman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_K._Vardaman" title="James K. Vardaman">James K. Vardaman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_E._Watson" title="Thomas E. Watson">Thomas E. Watson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Memory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/America%27s_Black_Holocaust_Museum" title="America's Black Holocaust Museum">America's Black Holocaust Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Memorial" title="Civil Rights Memorial">Civil Rights Memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Legacy_Museum" title="The Legacy Museum">The Legacy Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Memorial_for_Peace_and_Justice" title="National Memorial for Peace and Justice">National Memorial for Peace and Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_African_American_History_and_Culture" title="National Museum of African American History and Culture">National Museum of African American History and Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Poverty_Law_Center" title="Southern Poverty Law Center">Southern Poverty Law Center</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Allen_(collector)" title="James Allen (collector)">James Allen (collector)</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/And_you_are_lynching_Negroes" title="And you are lynching Negroes">And you are lynching Negroes</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_John_Shillady" title="Attack on John Shillady">Attack on John Shillady</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Liberty_Place" title="Battle of Liberty Place">Battle of Liberty Place</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Birth_of_a_Nation" title="The Birth of a Nation">The Birth of a Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Clansman:_A_Historical_Romance_of_the_Ku_Klux_Klan" title="The Clansman: A Historical Romance of the Ku Klux Klan">The Clansman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Deaths_in_police_custody_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Deaths in police custody in the United States">Deaths in police custody</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fury_(1936_film)" title="Fury (1936 film)">Fury (1936 film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hang_%27Em_High" title="Hang 'Em High">Hang 'Em High</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_postcard" title="Lynching postcard">Lynching postcard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Burning" title="Mississippi Burning">Mississippi Burning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Cold_Case" title="Mississippi Cold Case">Mississippi Cold Case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Jimmie_Lee_Jackson" title="Murder of Jimmie Lee Jackson">Murder of Jimmie Lee Jackson</a> (1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Ox-Bow_Incident" title="The Ox-Bow Incident">The Ox-Bow Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parade_(musical)" title="Parade (musical)">Parade (musical)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Summer" title="Red Summer">Red Summer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottsboro_Boys" title="Scottsboro Boys">Scottsboro Boys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_Parade" title="Silent Parade">Silent Parade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_Mountain#Confederate_Memorial_Carving" title="Stone Mountain">Stone Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Summer_in_Mississippi" title="Summer in Mississippi">Summer in Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sundown_town" title="Sundown town">Sundown town</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_sundown_towns_in_the_United_States" title="List of sundown towns in the United States">list</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/They_Won%27t_Forget" title="They Won't Forget">They Won't Forget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_United_States_of_Lyncherdom" title="The United States of Lyncherdom">"The United States of Lyncherdom" (Twain)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Shipp" title="United States v. Shipp">United States v. Shipp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vendetta_(1999_film)" title="Vendetta (1999 film)">Vendetta (1999 film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilmington_massacre" title="Wilmington massacre">Wilmington insurrection of 1898</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Categories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Lynching in the United States">Lynching in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lynching_deaths_in_the_United_States_by_state" title="Category:Lynching deaths in the United States by state">Lynching deaths in the United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rosewood_massacre&oldid=1259218278">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rosewood_massacre&oldid=1259218278</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lynching_deaths_in_Florida" title="Category:Lynching deaths in Florida">Lynching deaths in Florida</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1923_disasters_in_the_United_States" title="Category:1923 disasters in the United States">1923 disasters in the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1923_fires_in_the_United_States" title="Category:1923 fires in the United States">1923 fires in the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1923_in_Florida" title="Category:1923 in Florida">1923 in Florida</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1923_murders_in_the_United_States" title="Category:1923 murders in the United States">1923 murders in the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1923_riots_in_the_United_States" title="Category:1923 riots in the United States">1923 riots in the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:African-American_history_of_Florida" title="Category:African-American history of Florida">African-American history of Florida</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Anti-black_racism_in_Florida" title="Category:Anti-black racism in Florida">Anti-black racism in Florida</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Arson_in_Florida" title="Category:Arson in Florida">Arson in Florida</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Buildings_and_structures_in_Levy_County,_Florida" title="Category:Buildings and structures in Levy County, Florida">Buildings and structures in Levy County, Florida</a></li><li><a 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and civil disorder in Florida">Riots and civil disorder in Florida</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Attacks_on_buildings_and_structures_in_Florida" title="Category:Attacks on buildings and structures in Florida">Attacks on buildings and structures in Florida</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:White_American_riots_in_the_United_States" title="Category:White American riots in the United States">White American riots in the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mass_murder_in_the_United_States_in_the_1920s" title="Category:Mass murder in the United States in the 1920s">Mass murder in the United States in the 1920s</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Arson_in_the_1920s" title="Category:Arson in the 1920s">Arson in the 1920s</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Attacks_on_buildings_and_structures_in_the_1920s" title="Category:Attacks on buildings and structures in the 1920s">Attacks on buildings and structures in the 1920s</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" 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