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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_forecasting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Ancient forecasting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_forecasting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Modern methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Numerical_prediction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Numerical_prediction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Numerical prediction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Numerical_prediction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Broadcasts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Broadcasts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Broadcasts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Broadcasts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Numerical_weather_prediction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Numerical_weather_prediction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Numerical weather prediction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Numerical_weather_prediction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Techniques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Techniques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Techniques</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Techniques-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Techniques subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Techniques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Persistence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Persistence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Persistence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Persistence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Barometer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Barometer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Barometer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Barometer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Observation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Observation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Observation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Observation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nowcasting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nowcasting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Nowcasting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nowcasting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Atmospheric_model" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Atmospheric_model"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Atmospheric model</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Atmospheric_model-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Analog" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Analog"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Analog</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Analog-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Artificial_intelligence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Artificial_intelligence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Artificial intelligence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Artificial_intelligence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Communicating_forecasts_to_the_public" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Communicating_forecasts_to_the_public"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Communicating forecasts to the public</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Communicating_forecasts_to_the_public-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Communicating forecasts to the public subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Communicating_forecasts_to_the_public-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Severe_weather_alerts_and_advisories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Severe_weather_alerts_and_advisories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Severe weather alerts and advisories</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Severe_weather_alerts_and_advisories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Low_temperature_forecast" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Low_temperature_forecast"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Low temperature forecast</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Low_temperature_forecast-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Specialist_forecasting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Specialist_forecasting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Specialist forecasting</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Specialist_forecasting-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Specialist forecasting subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Specialist_forecasting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Air_traffic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Air_traffic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Air traffic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Air_traffic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Marine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Agriculture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agriculture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Agriculture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agriculture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Forestry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forestry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Forestry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Forestry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Utility_companies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Utility_companies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Utility companies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Utility_companies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_commercial_companies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_commercial_companies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Other commercial companies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_commercial_companies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.7</span> <span>Military applications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-United_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.7.1</span> <span>United Kingdom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.7.2</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Weather forecasting</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 61 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-61" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">61 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weervoorspelling" title="Weervoorspelling – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Weervoorspelling" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%82%D8%B9_%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%8A" title="توقع جوي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="توقع جوي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hava_proqnozu" title="Hava proqnozu – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Hava proqnozu" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thi%E2%81%BF-kh%C3%AC_%C4%AB-p%C3%B2" title="Thiⁿ-khì ī-pò – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Thiⁿ-khì ī-pò" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80%E2%80%99%D1%8F" title="Прагноз надвор’я – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Прагноз надвор’я" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80%E2%80%99%D1%8F" title="Прагноз надвор’я – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Прагноз надвор’я" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE" title="Прогноза за времето – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Прогноза за времето" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predicci%C3%B3_meteorol%C3%B2gica" title="Predicció meteorològica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Predicció meteorològica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C5%99edpov%C4%9B%C4%8F_po%C4%8Das%C3%AD" title="Předpověď počasí – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Předpověď počasí" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vejrudsigt" title="Vejrudsigt – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Vejrudsigt" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wettervorhersage" title="Wettervorhersage – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Wettervorhersage" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilmaennustus" title="Ilmaennustus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Ilmaennustus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pron%C3%B3stico_del_tiempo" title="Pronóstico del tiempo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Pronóstico del tiempo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veterprognozo" title="Veterprognozo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Veterprognozo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eguraldi_iragarpen" title="Eguraldi iragarpen – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Eguraldi iragarpen" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%B4%E2%80%8C%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C_%D9%88%D8%B6%D8%B9_%D9%87%D9%88%D8%A7" title="پیش‌بینی وضع هوا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پیش‌بینی وضع هوا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C3%A9vision_m%C3%A9t%C3%A9orologique" title="Prévision météorologique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Prévision météorologique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%BC%EA%B8%B0%EC%98%88%EB%B3%B4" title="일기예보 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="일기예보" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B5%D5%B2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%AB_%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AD%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%A5%D5%BD%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Եղանակի կանխատեսում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Եղանակի կանխատեսում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="मौसम का पूर्वानुमान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मौसम का पूर्वानुमान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vremenska_prognoza" title="Vremenska prognoza – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Vremenska prognoza" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prakiraan_cuaca" title="Prakiraan cuaca – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Prakiraan cuaca" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ve%C3%B0ursp%C3%A1" title="Veðurspá – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Veðurspá" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Previsione_meteorologica" title="Previsione meteorologica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Previsione meteorologica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%97%D7%99%D7%96%D7%95%D7%99_%D7%9E%D7%96%D7%92_%D7%90%D7%95%D7%95%D7%99%D7%A8" title="חיזוי מזג אוויר – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="חיזוי מזג אוויר" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%83%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B6%D0%B0%D1%83" title="Ауа райын болжау – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ауа райын болжау" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteyo_anal%C3%B2g" title="Meteyo analòg – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Meteyo analòg" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%B0_%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BE" title="Аба ырайын болжоо – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Аба ырайын болжоо" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laikapst%C4%81k%C4%BCu_prognoz%C4%93%C5%A1ana" title="Laikapstākļu prognozēšana – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Laikapstākļu prognozēšana" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Or%C5%B3_prognoz%C4%97" title="Orų prognozė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Orų prognozė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A5%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%82" title="കാലാവസ്ഥാപ്രവചനം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="കാലാവസ്ഥാപ്രവചനം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C" title="हवामानाचा अंदाज – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="हवामानाचा अंदाज" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peramalan_cuaca" title="Peramalan cuaca – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Peramalan cuaca" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B0%D0%B3_%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D1%83%D1%80%D1%8C%D0%B4%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%BC%D1%8D%D0%B4%D1%8D%D1%8D" title="Цаг агаарын урьдчилсан мэдээ – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Цаг агаарын урьдчилсан мэдээ" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weersvoorspelling" title="Weersvoorspelling – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Weersvoorspelling" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E6%B0%97%E4%BA%88%E5%A0%B1" title="天気予報 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="天気予報" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A6rvarsling" title="Værvarsling – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Værvarsling" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%AArvarsling" title="Vêrvarsling – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Vêrvarsling" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%8C%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%AE_%E0%A8%A6%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%AD%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%96%E0%A8%AC%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A3%E0%A9%80" title="ਮੌਸਮ ਦੀ ਭਵਿੱਖਬਾਣੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਮੌਸਮ ਦੀ ਭਵਿੱਖਬਾਣੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%88_%D8%A7%D9%88_%D9%87%D9%88%D8%A7_%D9%88%DA%93%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%88%DB%90%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%87" title="د اوبو او هوا وړاندوېینه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د اوبو او هوا وړاندوېینه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prognoza_pogody" title="Prognoza pogody – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Prognoza pogody" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Previs%C3%A3o_do_tempo" title="Previsão do tempo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Previsão do tempo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prognoz%C4%83_meteorologic%C4%83" title="Prognoză meteorologică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Prognoză meteorologică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%8B" title="Прогноз погоды – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Прогноз погоды" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BD%E0%B6%9C%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%AB_%E0%B6%85%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%90%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%92_%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%93%E0%B6%B8" title="කාලගුණ අනාවැකි කීම – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="කාලගුණ අනාවැකි කීම" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather_forecast" title="Weather forecast – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Weather forecast" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predpove%C4%8F_po%C4%8Dasia" title="Predpoveď počasia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Predpoveď počasia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Временска прогноза – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Временска прогноза" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vremenska_prognoza" title="Vremenska prognoza – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Vremenska prognoza" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A4%C3%A4n_ennustaminen" title="Sään ennustaminen – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Sään ennustaminen" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A4derprognos" title="Väderprognos – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Väderprognos" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%93%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A8" title="การพยากรณ์อากาศ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การพยากรณ์อากาศ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hava_tahmini" title="Hava tahmini – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Hava tahmini" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howa_maglumaty" title="Howa maglumaty – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Howa maglumaty" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8" title="Прогноз погоди – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Прогноз погоди" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%85_%DA%A9%DB%8C_%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%B4_%D9%82%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="موسم کی پیش قیاسی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="موسم کی پیش قیاسی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%E1%BB%B1_b%C3%A1o_th%E1%BB%9Di_ti%E1%BA%BFt" title="Dự báo thời tiết – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Dự báo thời tiết" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E6%B0%A3%E9%A0%90%E5%A0%B1" title="天氣預報 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="天氣預報" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a 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<li><a href="/wiki/Haboob" title="Haboob">Haboob</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monsoon" title="Monsoon">Monsoon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amihan" title="Amihan">Amihan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gale" title="Gale">Gale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sirocco" title="Sirocco">Sirocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firestorm" title="Firestorm">Firestorm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter_storm" title="Winter storm">Winter storm</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ice_storm" title="Ice storm">Ice storm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blizzard" title="Blizzard">Blizzard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_blizzard" title="Ground blizzard">Ground blizzard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snow_squall" title="Snow squall">Snow squall</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Precipitation" title="Precipitation">Precipitation</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drizzle" title="Drizzle">Drizzle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freezing_drizzle" title="Freezing drizzle">Freezing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graupel" title="Graupel">Graupel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hail" title="Hail">Hail</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megacryometeor" title="Megacryometeor">Megacryometeor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_pellets" title="Ice pellets">Ice pellets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diamond_dust" title="Diamond dust">Diamond dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rain" title="Rain">Rain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freezing_rain" title="Freezing rain">Freezing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloudburst" title="Cloudburst">Cloudburst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snow" title="Snow">Snow</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rain_and_snow_mixed" title="Rain and snow mixed">Rain and snow mixed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snow_grains" title="Snow grains">Snow grains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snow_roller" title="Snow roller">Snow roller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slush" title="Slush">Slush</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_meteorology_articles" title="Index of meteorology articles">Topics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Air pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">Atmosphere</a></li></ul> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_chemistry" title="Atmospheric chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_convection" title="Atmospheric convection">Convection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_physics" title="Atmospheric physics">Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_river" title="Atmospheric river">River</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud" title="Cloud">Cloud</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_physics" title="Cloud physics">Physics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fog" title="Fog">Fog</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mist" title="Mist">Mist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fog_season" title="Fog season">Season</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_wave" title="Cold wave">Cold wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_wave" title="Heat wave">Heat wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jet_stream" title="Jet stream">Jet stream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">Meteorology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Severe_weather" title="Severe weather">Severe weather</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_severe_weather_phenomena" title="List of severe weather phenomena">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_weather" title="Extreme weather">Extreme</a></li> <li>Severe weather terminology <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Severe_weather_terminology_(Canada)" title="Severe weather terminology (Canada)">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Severe_weather_terminology_(Japan)" title="Severe weather terminology (Japan)">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Severe_weather_terminology_(United_States)" title="Severe weather terminology (United States)">United States</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Weather forecasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weather_modification" title="Weather modification">Weather modification</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Glossaries</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology" title="Glossary of meteorology">Meteorology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change" title="Glossary of climate change">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_tornado_terms" title="Glossary of tornado terms">Tornado terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_tropical_cyclone_terms" title="Glossary of tropical cyclone terms">Tropical cyclone terms</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:#ccc 1px solid; border-bottom:#ccc 1px solid;"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg/16px-Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg" decoding="async" width="16" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg/24px-Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg/32px-Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Weather" title="Portal:Weather">Weather portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Weather" title="Template:Weather"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Weather" title="Template talk:Weather"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Weather" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Weather"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Weather forecasting</b> is the application of science and technology <a href="/wiki/Forecasting" title="Forecasting">to predict</a> the conditions of the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's atmosphere">atmosphere</a> for a given location and time. People have attempted to predict the weather informally for <a href="/wiki/Millennia" class="mw-redirect" title="Millennia">millennia</a> and formally since the 19th century. </p><p>Weather forecasts are made by collecting quantitative data about the current state of the atmosphere, land, and ocean and using <a href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">meteorology</a> to project how the atmosphere will change at a given place. Once calculated manually based mainly upon changes in <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_pressure" title="Atmospheric pressure">barometric pressure</a>, current weather conditions, and sky conditions or cloud cover, weather forecasting now relies on <a href="/wiki/Numerical_weather_prediction" title="Numerical weather prediction">computer-based models</a> that take many atmospheric factors into account.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Human input is still required to pick the best possible model to base the forecast upon, which involves pattern recognition skills, <a href="/wiki/Teleconnection" title="Teleconnection">teleconnections</a>, knowledge of model performance, and knowledge of model biases. </p><p>The inaccuracy of forecasting is due to the <a href="/wiki/Chaos_theory" title="Chaos theory">chaotic</a> nature of the atmosphere; the massive computational power required to solve the equations that describe the atmosphere, the land, and the ocean; the error involved in measuring the initial conditions; and an incomplete understanding of atmospheric and related processes. Hence, forecasts become less accurate as the difference between the current time and the time for which the forecast is being made (the <i>range</i> of the forecast) increases. The use of ensembles and model consensus helps narrow the error and provide confidence in the forecast. </p><p>There is a vast variety of end uses for weather forecasts. <a href="/wiki/Weather_warning" title="Weather warning">Weather warnings</a> are important because they are used to protect lives and property. Forecasts based on temperature and <a href="/wiki/Precipitation_(meteorology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Precipitation (meteorology)">precipitation</a> are important to agriculture, and therefore to traders within commodity markets. Temperature forecasts are used by utility companies to estimate demand over coming days. On an everyday basis, many people use weather forecasts to determine what to wear on a given day. Since outdoor activities are severely curtailed by heavy rain, snow and <a href="/wiki/Wind_chill" title="Wind chill">wind chill</a>, forecasts can be used to plan activities around these events, and to plan ahead and survive them. </p><p>Weather forecasting is a part of the economy. For example in 2009, the US spent approximately $5.8 billion on it, producing benefits estimated at six times as much.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weather_forecasting&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_meteorology" title="Timeline of meteorology">Timeline of meteorology</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_forecasting">Ancient forecasting</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weather_forecasting&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Ancient forecasting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 650 BC, the <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonians</a> predicted the weather from cloud patterns as well as <a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">astrology</a>. In about 350 BC, <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> described weather patterns in <i><a href="/wiki/Meteorology_(Aristotle)" title="Meteorology (Aristotle)">Meteorologica</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later, <a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a> compiled a book on weather forecasting, called the <i>Book of Signs</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chinese weather prediction lore extends at least as far back as 300 BC,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which was also around the same time ancient <a href="/wiki/Indian_astronomy" title="Indian astronomy">Indian astronomers</a> developed weather-prediction methods.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a>, Jesus is quoted as referring to deciphering and understanding local weather patterns, by saying, "When evening comes, you say, 'It will be fair weather, for the sky is red', and in the morning, 'Today it will be stormy, for the sky is red and overcast.' You know how to interpret the appearance of the sky, but you cannot interpret the signs of the times."<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 904 AD, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Wahshiyya" title="Ibn Wahshiyya">Ibn Wahshiyya</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Nabatean_Agriculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Nabatean Agriculture">Nabatean Agriculture</a></i>, translated into Arabic from an earlier <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a> work,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> discussed the weather forecasting of atmospheric changes and signs from the planetary astral alterations; signs of rain based on observation of the <a href="/wiki/Lunar_phase" title="Lunar phase">lunar phases</a>; and weather forecasts based on the movement of winds.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ancient weather forecasting methods usually relied on observed patterns of events, also termed pattern recognition. For example, it was observed that if the sunset was particularly red, the following day often brought fair weather. This experience accumulated over the generations to produce <a href="/wiki/Weather_lore" title="Weather lore">weather lore</a>. However, not all<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too vague attribution or weasel words. (April 2015)">which?</span></a></i>]</sup> of these predictions prove reliable, and many of them have since been found not to stand up to rigorous statistical testing.<sup id="cite_ref-Skywatch_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Skywatch-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_methods">Modern methods</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weather_forecasting&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Modern methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:StateLibQld_1_186783_Royal_Charter_(ship).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/StateLibQld_1_186783_Royal_Charter_%28ship%29.jpg/220px-StateLibQld_1_186783_Royal_Charter_%28ship%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/StateLibQld_1_186783_Royal_Charter_%28ship%29.jpg/330px-StateLibQld_1_186783_Royal_Charter_%28ship%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/StateLibQld_1_186783_Royal_Charter_%28ship%29.jpg/440px-StateLibQld_1_186783_Royal_Charter_%28ship%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="633" /></a><figcaption>The <i>Royal Charter</i> sank in an October 1859 storm, stimulating the establishment of modern weather forecasting.</figcaption></figure> <p>It was not until the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Electrical_telegraph" title="Electrical telegraph">electric telegraph</a> in 1835 that the modern age of weather forecasting began.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before that, the fastest that distant weather reports could travel was around 160 kilometres per day (100 mi/d), but was more typically 60–120 kilometres per day (40–75 mi/day) (whether by land or by sea).<sup id="cite_ref-USPS_History_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USPS_History-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Royal_Mail_coaches_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Royal_Mail_coaches-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the late 1840s, the telegraph allowed reports of weather conditions from a wide area to be received almost instantaneously,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> allowing forecasts to be made from knowledge of weather conditions further <a href="/wiki/Windward_and_leeward" title="Windward and leeward">upwind</a>. </p><p>The two men credited with the birth of forecasting as a science were an officer of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> <a href="/wiki/Francis_Beaufort" title="Francis Beaufort">Francis Beaufort</a> and his <a href="/wiki/Prot%C3%A9g%C3%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="Protégé">protégé</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_FitzRoy" title="Robert FitzRoy">Robert FitzRoy</a>. Both were influential men in <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">British</a> naval and governmental circles, and though ridiculed in the press at the time, their work gained scientific credence, was accepted by the Royal Navy, and formed the basis for all of today's weather forecasting knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BBC_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBC-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Beaufort developed the <a href="/wiki/Beaufort_scale" title="Beaufort scale">Wind Force Scale</a> and Weather Notation coding, which he was to use in his journals for the remainder of his life. He also promoted the development of reliable tide tables around British shores, and with his friend <a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a>, expanded weather record-keeping at 200 British <a href="/wiki/Coast_guard" title="Coast guard">coast guard</a> stations. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Robert_FitzRoy" title="Robert FitzRoy">Robert FitzRoy</a> was appointed in 1854 as chief of a new department within the <a href="/wiki/Board_of_Trade" title="Board of Trade">Board of Trade</a> to deal with the collection of weather data at sea as a service to <a href="/wiki/Sailor" title="Sailor">mariners</a>. This was the forerunner of the modern <a href="/wiki/Met_Office" title="Met Office">Meteorological Office</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-BBC_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBC-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All ship captains were tasked with collating data on the weather and computing it, with the use of tested instruments that were loaned for this purpose.<sup id="cite_ref-Mellersh,_H._E._L._1968_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mellersh,_H._E._L._1968-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Meyers_b16_s0570.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Meyers_b16_s0570.jpg/220px-Meyers_b16_s0570.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="351" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Meyers_b16_s0570.jpg/330px-Meyers_b16_s0570.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Meyers_b16_s0570.jpg/440px-Meyers_b16_s0570.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1275" /></a><figcaption>Weather map of Europe, December 10, 1887</figcaption></figure> <p>A storm in October 1859 that caused the loss of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Charter_(ship)" title="Royal Charter (ship)"><i>Royal Charter</i></a> inspired FitzRoy to develop charts to allow predictions to be made, which he called <i>"forecasting the weather"</i>, thus coining the term "weather forecast".<sup id="cite_ref-Mellersh,_H._E._L._1968_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mellersh,_H._E._L._1968-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fifteen land stations were established to use the <a href="/wiki/Telegraph" class="mw-redirect" title="Telegraph">telegraph</a> to transmit to him daily reports of weather at set times leading to the first gale warning service. His warning service for shipping was initiated in February 1861, with the use of <a href="/wiki/Electric_telegraph" class="mw-redirect" title="Electric telegraph">telegraph communications</a>. The first daily weather forecasts were published in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Times" title="The Times">The Times</a></i> in 1861.<sup id="cite_ref-BBC_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBC-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the following year a system was introduced of hoisting storm warning cones at the principal ports when a gale was expected.<sup id="cite_ref-Kington_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kington-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>"Weather Book"</i> which FitzRoy published in 1863 was far in advance of the scientific opinion of the time. </p><p>As the electric telegraph network expanded, allowing for the more rapid dissemination of warnings, a national observational network was developed, which could then be used to provide synoptic analyses. To shorten detailed weather reports into more affordable telegrams, senders encoded weather information in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Telegraphic_code&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telegraphic code (page does not exist)">telegraphic code</a>, such as the one developed by the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Army_Signal_Corps" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Army Signal Corps">U.S. Army Signal Corps</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instruments to continuously record variations in meteorological parameters using <a href="/wiki/Photography#Science_and_forensics" title="Photography">photography</a> were supplied to the observing stations from <a href="/wiki/King%27s_Observatory" title="King's Observatory">Kew Observatory</a> – these cameras had been invented by <a href="/wiki/Francis_Ronalds" title="Francis Ronalds">Francis Ronalds</a> in 1845 and his <a href="/wiki/Barograph" title="Barograph">barograph</a> had earlier been used by FitzRoy.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To convey accurate information, it soon became necessary to have a standard vocabulary describing clouds; this was achieved by means of a series of classifications first achieved by <a href="/wiki/Luke_Howard" title="Luke Howard">Luke Howard</a> in 1802, and standardized in the <i><a href="/wiki/International_Cloud_Atlas" title="International Cloud Atlas">International Cloud Atlas</a></i> of 1896. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Numerical_prediction">Numerical prediction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weather_forecasting&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Numerical prediction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_numerical_weather_prediction" title="History of numerical weather prediction">History of numerical weather prediction</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Improved-weather-forecasting_7463.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Improved-weather-forecasting_7463.png/220px-Improved-weather-forecasting_7463.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Improved-weather-forecasting_7463.png/330px-Improved-weather-forecasting_7463.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Improved-weather-forecasting_7463.png/440px-Improved-weather-forecasting_7463.png 2x" data-file-width="7463" data-file-height="6130" /></a><figcaption>The difference between the forecast and the actual weather outcome for forecasts 3, 5, 7, and 10 days in advance.</figcaption></figure> <p>It was not until the 20th century that advances in the understanding of atmospheric physics led to the foundation of modern <a href="/wiki/Numerical_weather_prediction" title="Numerical weather prediction">numerical weather prediction</a>. In 1922, English scientist <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Fry_Richardson" title="Lewis Fry Richardson">Lewis Fry Richardson</a> published "Weather Prediction By Numerical Process",<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> after finding notes and derivations he worked on as an ambulance driver in World War I. He described therein how small terms in the prognostic fluid dynamics equations governing atmospheric flow could be neglected, and a finite differencing scheme in time and space could be devised, to allow numerical prediction solutions to be found. </p><p>Richardson envisioned a large auditorium of thousands of people performing the calculations and passing them to others. However, the sheer number of calculations required was too large to be completed without the use of computers, and the size of the grid and time steps led to unrealistic results in deepening systems. It was later found, through numerical analysis, that this was due to <a href="/wiki/Numerical_instability" class="mw-redirect" title="Numerical instability">numerical instability</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first computerised weather forecast was performed by a team composed of American meteorologists <a href="/wiki/Jule_Charney" class="mw-redirect" title="Jule Charney">Jule Charney</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Philip_Duncan_Thompson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Philip Duncan Thompson (page does not exist)">Philip Duncan Thompson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Larry_Gates" title="Larry Gates">Larry Gates</a>, and Norwegian meteorologist <a href="/wiki/Ragnar_Fj%C3%B8rtoft" title="Ragnar Fjørtoft">Ragnar Fjørtoft</a>, applied mathematician <a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">John von Neumann</a>, and <a href="/wiki/ENIAC" title="ENIAC">ENIAC</a> programmer <a href="/wiki/Klara_Dan_von_Neumann" class="mw-redirect" title="Klara Dan von Neumann">Klara Dan von Neumann</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Practical use of numerical weather prediction began in 1955,<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> spurred by the development of programmable electronic computers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Broadcasts">Broadcasts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weather_forecasting&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Broadcasts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Weather_presenter" title="Weather presenter">Weather presenter</a></div> <p>The first ever daily weather forecasts were published in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Times" title="The Times">The Times</a></i> on August 1, 1861, and the first <a href="/wiki/Weather_map" title="Weather map">weather maps</a> were produced later in the same year.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1911, the <a href="/wiki/Met_Office" title="Met Office">Met Office</a> began issuing the first marine weather forecasts via radio transmission. These included gale and storm warnings for areas around Great Britain.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the United States, the first public radio forecasts were made in 1925 by Edward B. "E.B." Rideout, on <a href="/wiki/WEZE" title="WEZE">WEEI</a>, the Edison Electric Illuminating station in Boston.<sup id="cite_ref-cyc_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cyc-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rideout came from the <a href="/wiki/National_Weather_Service" title="National Weather Service">U.S. Weather Bureau</a>, as did <a href="/wiki/WBZ_(AM)" title="WBZ (AM)">WBZ</a> weather forecaster G. Harold Noyes in 1931. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BBC_television_weather_chart_-_1936-11-13.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/BBC_television_weather_chart_-_1936-11-13.jpg/220px-BBC_television_weather_chart_-_1936-11-13.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/BBC_television_weather_chart_-_1936-11-13.jpg/330px-BBC_television_weather_chart_-_1936-11-13.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/BBC_television_weather_chart_-_1936-11-13.jpg/440px-BBC_television_weather_chart_-_1936-11-13.jpg 2x" data-file-width="765" data-file-height="513" /></a><figcaption>BBC television weather chart for November 13, 1936</figcaption></figure> <p>The world's first <a href="/wiki/Live_television" title="Live television">televised</a> weather forecasts, including the use of weather maps, were experimentally broadcast by the <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a> in November 1936.<sup id="cite_ref-BBC-60154358_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBC-60154358-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was brought into practice in 1949, after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-BBC-60154358_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBC-60154358-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/George_Cowling" title="George Cowling">George Cowling</a> gave the first weather forecast while being televised in front of the map in 1954.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-HUNT_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HUNT-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In America, experimental television forecasts were made by <a href="/w/index.php?title=James_C._Fidler&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="James C. Fidler (page does not exist)">James C. Fidler</a> in Cincinnati in either 1940 or 1947<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (January 2023)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> on the <a href="/wiki/DuMont_Television_Network" title="DuMont Television Network">DuMont Television Network</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-cyc_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cyc-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the late 1970s and early 1980s, <a href="/wiki/John_Coleman_(news_weathercaster)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Coleman (news weathercaster)">John Coleman</a>, the first weatherman for the <a href="/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company" title="American Broadcasting Company">American Broadcasting Company</a> (ABC)'s <i><a href="/wiki/Good_Morning_America" title="Good Morning America">Good Morning America</a></i>, pioneered the use of on-screen <a href="/wiki/Weather_satellite" title="Weather satellite">weather satellite</a> data and <a href="/wiki/Computer_graphics" title="Computer graphics">computer graphics</a> for television forecasts.<sup id="cite_ref-CJR_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CJR-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1982, Coleman partnered with <a href="/wiki/Landmark_Media_Enterprises" title="Landmark Media Enterprises">Landmark Communications</a> CEO <a href="/wiki/Frank_Batten" title="Frank Batten">Frank Batten</a> to launch <a href="/wiki/The_Weather_Channel" title="The Weather Channel">The Weather Channel</a> (TWC), a 24-hour cable network devoted to national and local weather reports. Some weather channels have started broadcasting on <a href="/wiki/Live_broadcasting" class="mw-redirect" title="Live broadcasting">live streaming platforms</a> such as <a href="/wiki/YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a> and <a href="/wiki/Periscope_(app)" class="mw-redirect" title="Periscope (app)">Periscope</a> to reach more viewers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Numerical_weather_prediction">Numerical weather prediction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weather_forecasting&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Numerical weather prediction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NAM_500_MB.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/NAM_500_MB.PNG/220px-NAM_500_MB.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/NAM_500_MB.PNG/330px-NAM_500_MB.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/NAM_500_MB.PNG/440px-NAM_500_MB.PNG 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>An example of 500 <a href="/wiki/Millibar" class="mw-redirect" title="Millibar">mbar</a> <a href="/wiki/Geopotential_height" title="Geopotential height">geopotential height</a> and absolute <a href="/wiki/Vorticity" title="Vorticity">vorticity</a> prediction from a numerical weather prediction model</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Numerical_weather_prediction" title="Numerical weather prediction">Numerical weather prediction</a></div> <p>The basic idea of numerical weather prediction is to sample the state of the fluid at a given time and use the equations of <a href="/wiki/Fluid_dynamics" title="Fluid dynamics">fluid dynamics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a> to estimate the state of the fluid at some time in the future. The main inputs from country-based weather services are <a href="/wiki/Surface_weather_observation" title="Surface weather observation">surface observations</a> from automated <a href="/wiki/Weather_station" title="Weather station">weather stations</a> at ground level over land and from weather buoys at sea. The <a href="/wiki/World_Meteorological_Organization" title="World Meteorological Organization">World Meteorological Organization</a> acts to standardize the instrumentation, observing practices and timing of these observations worldwide. Stations either report hourly in <a href="/wiki/METAR" title="METAR">METAR</a> reports,<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or every six hours in <a href="/wiki/SYNOP" title="SYNOP">SYNOP</a> reports.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sites launch <a href="/wiki/Radiosonde" title="Radiosonde">radiosondes</a>, which rise through the depth of the <a href="/wiki/Troposphere" title="Troposphere">troposphere</a> and well into the <a href="/wiki/Stratosphere" title="Stratosphere">stratosphere</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Data from <a href="/wiki/Weather_satellite" title="Weather satellite">weather satellites</a> are used in areas where traditional data sources are not available.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Compared with similar data from radiosondes, the satellite data has the advantage of global coverage, but at a lower accuracy and resolution.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Weather_radar" title="Weather radar">Meteorological radar</a> provide information on precipitation location and intensity, which can be used to estimate precipitation accumulations over time.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, if a <a href="/wiki/Pulse-Doppler_radar" title="Pulse-Doppler radar">pulse Doppler</a> <a href="/wiki/Weather_radar" title="Weather radar">weather radar</a> is used then wind speed and direction can be determined.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These methods, however, leave an in-situ observational gap in the lower atmosphere (from 100 m to 6 km above ground level). To reduce this gap, in the late 1990s <a href="/wiki/Weather_drone" title="Weather drone">weather drones</a> started to be considered for obtaining data from those altitudes. Research has been growing significantly since the 2010s, and weather-drone data may in future be added to numerical weather models.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2005-09-22-10PM_CDT_Hurricane_Rita_3_day_path.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/2005-09-22-10PM_CDT_Hurricane_Rita_3_day_path.png/220px-2005-09-22-10PM_CDT_Hurricane_Rita_3_day_path.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/2005-09-22-10PM_CDT_Hurricane_Rita_3_day_path.png/330px-2005-09-22-10PM_CDT_Hurricane_Rita_3_day_path.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/2005-09-22-10PM_CDT_Hurricane_Rita_3_day_path.png/440px-2005-09-22-10PM_CDT_Hurricane_Rita_3_day_path.png 2x" data-file-width="895" data-file-height="716" /></a><figcaption>Modern weather predictions aid in timely evacuations and potentially save lives and prevent property damage</figcaption></figure> <p>Commerce provides <a href="/wiki/Pilot_report" title="Pilot report">pilot reports</a> along aircraft routes,<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and ship reports along shipping routes. Research flights using <a href="/wiki/Weather_reconnaissance" title="Weather reconnaissance">reconnaissance aircraft</a> fly in and around weather systems of interest such as <a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone" title="Tropical cyclone">tropical cyclones</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hurricane_Hunters_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hurricane_Hunters-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SunHerald_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SunHerald-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reconnaissance aircraft are also flown over the open oceans during the cold season into systems that cause significant uncertainty in forecast guidance, or are expected to be of high impact three–seven days into the future over the downstream continent.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Models are <i>initialized</i> using this observed data. The irregularly spaced observations are processed by <a href="/wiki/Data_assimilation" title="Data assimilation">data assimilation</a> and objective analysis methods, which perform quality control and obtain values at locations usable by the model's mathematical algorithms (usually an evenly spaced grid). The data are then used in the model as the starting point for a forecast.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Commonly, the set of equations used to predict the physics and dynamics of the atmosphere are called <a href="/wiki/Primitive_equations" title="Primitive equations">primitive equations</a>. These are initialized from the analysis data and rates of change are determined. The rates of change predict the state of the atmosphere a short time into the future. The equations are then applied to this new atmospheric state to find new rates of change, which predict the atmosphere at a yet further time into the future. This <i>time stepping</i> procedure is continually repeated until the solution reaches the desired forecast time. </p><p>The length of the time step chosen within the model is related to the distance between the points on the computational grid, and is chosen to maintain <a href="/wiki/Numerical_stability" title="Numerical stability">numerical stability</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Time steps for global models are on the order of tens of minutes,<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while time steps for regional models are between one and four minutes.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The global models are run at varying times into the future. The <a href="/wiki/Met_Office" title="Met Office">Met Office</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Unified_Model" title="Unified Model">Unified Model</a> is run six days into the future,<sup id="cite_ref-models_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-models-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/European_Centre_for_Medium-Range_Weather_Forecasts" title="European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts">European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts</a> model is run out to 10 days into the future,<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while the <a href="/wiki/Global_Forecast_System" title="Global Forecast System">Global Forecast System</a> model run by the <a href="/wiki/Environmental_Modeling_Center" title="Environmental Modeling Center">Environmental Modeling Center</a> is run 16 days into the future.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The visual output produced by a model solution is known as a <a href="/wiki/Prognostic_chart" title="Prognostic chart">prognostic chart</a>, or <i>prog</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The raw output is often modified before being presented as the forecast. This can be in the form of statistical techniques to remove known <a href="/wiki/Bias" title="Bias">biases</a> in the model, or of adjustment to take into account consensus among other numerical weather forecasts.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> MOS or model output statistics is a technique used to interpret numerical model output and produce site-specific guidance. This guidance is presented in coded numerical form, and can be obtained for nearly all National Weather Service reporting stations in the United States. As proposed by <a href="/wiki/Edward_Lorenz" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward Lorenz">Edward Lorenz</a> in 1963, long range forecasts, those made at a range of two weeks or more cannot definitively predict the state of the atmosphere, owing to the <a href="/wiki/Chaos_theory" title="Chaos theory">chaotic nature</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Fluid_dynamics" title="Fluid dynamics">fluid dynamics</a> equations involved. In numerical models, extremely small errors in initial values double roughly every five days for variables such as temperature and wind velocity.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Essentially, a model is a computer program that produces <a href="/wiki/Meteorological" class="mw-redirect" title="Meteorological">meteorological</a> information for future times at given locations and altitudes. Within any modern model is a set of equations, known as the primitive equations, used to predict the future state of the atmosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These equations—along with the <a href="/wiki/Ideal_gas_law" title="Ideal gas law">ideal gas law</a>—are used to evolve the <a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">density</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">pressure</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Potential_temperature" title="Potential temperature">potential temperature</a> <a href="/wiki/Scalar_field" title="Scalar field">scalar fields</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Velocity" title="Velocity">velocity</a> <a href="/wiki/Vector_field" title="Vector field">vector field</a> of the atmosphere through time. Additional transport equations for pollutants and other <a href="/wiki/Aerosol" title="Aerosol">aerosols</a> are included in some primitive-equation mesoscale models as well.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The equations used are <a href="/wiki/Nonlinear_system" title="Nonlinear system">nonlinear</a> partial differential equations, which are impossible to solve exactly through analytical methods,<sup id="cite_ref-finite_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-finite-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with the exception of a few idealized cases.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, numerical methods obtain approximate solutions. Different models use different solution methods: some global models use <a href="/wiki/Spectral_method" title="Spectral method">spectral methods</a> for the horizontal dimensions and <a href="/wiki/Finite_difference_method" title="Finite difference method">finite difference methods</a> for the vertical dimension, while regional and other global models usually use finite-difference methods in all three dimensions.<sup id="cite_ref-finite_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-finite-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Techniques">Techniques</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weather_forecasting&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Techniques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Persistence">Persistence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weather_forecasting&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Persistence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The simplest method of forecasting the weather, persistence, relies upon today's conditions to forecast tomorrow's. This can be valid when the weather achieves a steady state, such as during the summer season in the tropics. This method strongly depends upon the presence of a stagnant weather pattern. Therefore, when in a fluctuating pattern, it becomes inaccurate. It can be useful in both short- and long-range forecast|long range forecasts.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Barometer">Barometer</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weather_forecasting&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Barometer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Measurements of barometric pressure and the pressure tendency (the change of pressure over time) have been used in forecasting since the late 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The larger the change in pressure, especially if more than 3.5 <a href="/wiki/Pascal_(unit)" title="Pascal (unit)">hPa</a> (2.6 <a href="/wiki/Millimetre_of_mercury" title="Millimetre of mercury">mmHg</a>), the larger the change in weather can be expected. If the pressure drop is rapid, a <a href="/wiki/Low_pressure_area" class="mw-redirect" title="Low pressure area">low pressure system</a> is approaching, and there is a greater chance of rain. <a href="/wiki/High_pressure_area" class="mw-redirect" title="High pressure area">Rapid pressure rises</a> are associated with improving weather conditions, such as clearing skies.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Observation">Observation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weather_forecasting&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Observation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marestail.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Marestail.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="134" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="134" /></a><figcaption>Marestail shows moisture at high altitude, signalling the later arrival of wet weather.</figcaption></figure> <p>Along with pressure tendency, the condition of the sky is one of the more important parameters used to forecast weather in mountainous areas. Thickening of cloud cover or the invasion of a higher cloud deck is indicative of rain in the near future. High thin <a href="/wiki/Cirrostratus_cloud" title="Cirrostratus cloud">cirrostratus clouds</a> can create <a href="/wiki/Halo_(optical_phenomenon)" title="Halo (optical phenomenon)">halos</a> around the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">sun</a> or <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">moon</a>, which indicates an approach of a <a href="/wiki/Warm_front" title="Warm front">warm front</a> and its associated rain.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Morning <a href="/wiki/Fog" title="Fog">fog</a> portends fair conditions, as rainy conditions are preceded by wind or clouds that prevent fog formation. The approach of a line of <a href="/wiki/Thunderstorm" title="Thunderstorm">thunderstorms</a> could indicate the approach of a <a href="/wiki/Cold_front" title="Cold front">cold front</a>. Cloud-free skies are indicative of fair weather for the near future.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/Bar_(tropical_cyclone)" title="Bar (tropical cyclone)">bar</a> can indicate a coming tropical cyclone. The use of sky cover in weather prediction has led to various <a href="/wiki/Weather_lore" title="Weather lore">weather lore</a> over the centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-Skywatch_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Skywatch-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nowcasting">Nowcasting</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weather_forecasting&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Nowcasting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nowcasting_(meteorology)" title="Nowcasting (meteorology)">Nowcasting (meteorology)</a></div> <p>The forecasting of the weather for the following six hours is often referred to as nowcasting.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this time range it is possible to forecast smaller features such as individual showers and thunderstorms with reasonable accuracy, as well as other features too small to be resolved by a computer model. A human given the latest radar, satellite and observational data will be able to make a better analysis of the small scale features present and so will be able to make a more accurate forecast for the following few hours.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, there are now <a href="/wiki/Expert_system" title="Expert system">expert systems</a> using those data and mesoscale numerical model to make better extrapolation, including evolution of those features in time. <a href="/wiki/Accuweather" class="mw-redirect" title="Accuweather">Accuweather</a> is known for a Minute-Cast, which is a minute-by-minute <a href="/wiki/Precipitation" title="Precipitation">precipitation</a> forecast for the next two hours. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Atmospheric_model">Atmospheric model</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weather_forecasting&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Atmospheric model"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_model" title="Atmospheric model">Atmospheric model</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NAM_500_MB.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/NAM_500_MB.PNG/220px-NAM_500_MB.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/NAM_500_MB.PNG/330px-NAM_500_MB.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/NAM_500_MB.PNG/440px-NAM_500_MB.PNG 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>An example of 500 <a href="/wiki/Millibar" class="mw-redirect" title="Millibar">mbar</a> <a href="/wiki/Geopotential_height" title="Geopotential height">geopotential height</a> prediction from a numerical weather prediction model</figcaption></figure> <p>In the past, human forecasters were responsible for generating the weather forecast based upon available observations.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Today, human input is generally confined to choosing a model based on various parameters, such as model biases and performance.<sup id="cite_ref-Klaus_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Klaus-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using a consensus of forecast models, as well as ensemble members of the various models, can help reduce forecast error.<sup id="cite_ref-TBK_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TBK-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, regardless how small the average error becomes with any individual system, large errors within any particular piece of guidance are still possible on any given model run.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Humans are required to interpret the model data into weather forecasts that are understandable to the end user. Humans can use knowledge of local effects that may be too small in size to be resolved by the model to add information to the forecast. While increasing accuracy of forecasting models implies that humans may no longer be needed in the forecasting process at some point in the future, there is currently still a need for human intervention.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Analog">Analog</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weather_forecasting&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Analog"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The analog technique is a complex way of making a forecast, requiring the forecaster to remember a previous weather event that is expected to be mimicked by an upcoming event. What makes it a difficult technique to use is that there is rarely a perfect analog for an event in the future.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some call this type of forecasting pattern recognition. It remains a useful method of observing rainfall over data voids such as oceans,<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as the forecasting of precipitation amounts and distribution in the future. A similar technique is used in medium range forecasting, which is known as teleconnections, when systems in other locations are used to help pin down the location of another system within the surrounding regime.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example of teleconnections are by using <a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o-Southern_Oscillation" class="mw-redirect" title="El Niño-Southern Oscillation">El Niño-Southern Oscillation</a> (ENSO) related phenomena.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Artificial_intelligence">Artificial intelligence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weather_forecasting&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Artificial intelligence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Initial attempts to use <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a> began in the 2010s. <a href="/wiki/Huawei" title="Huawei">Huawei</a>'s Pangu-Weather model, <a href="/wiki/Google" title="Google">Google</a>'s GraphCast, WindBorne's WeatherMesh model, <a href="/wiki/Nvidia" title="Nvidia">Nvidia</a>'s FourCastNet, and the <a href="/wiki/European_Centre_for_Medium-Range_Weather_Forecasts" title="European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts">European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts</a>' Artificial Intelligence/Integrated Forecasting System, or AIFS all appeared in 2022–2023. In 2024, AIFS started to publish real-time forecasts, showing specific skill at predicting hurricane tracks, but lower-performing on the intensity changes of such storms relative to physics-based models.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Such models use no physics-based atmosphere modeling or <a href="/wiki/Large_language_model" title="Large language model">large language models</a>. Instead, they learn purely from data such as ERA5.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These models typically require far less compute than physics-based models.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_81-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Microsoft" title="Microsoft">Microsoft</a>'s Aurora system offers global 10-day weather and 5-day air pollution (<a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide"><span class="chemf nowrap">CO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span></span></a>, <a href="/wiki/NOx" title="NOx">NO</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_dioxide" title="Nitrogen dioxide"><span class="chemf nowrap">NO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span></span></a>, <a href="/wiki/Silicon_dioxide" title="Silicon dioxide"><span class="chemf nowrap">SO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span></span></a>, <a href="/wiki/Ozone" title="Ozone"><span class="chemf nowrap">O<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">3</sub></span></span></span></a>, and particulates) forecasts with claimed accuracy similar to physics-based models, but at orders-of-magnitude lower cost. Aurora was trained on more than a million hours of data from six weather/climate models.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Communicating_forecasts_to_the_public">Communicating forecasts to the public</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weather_forecasting&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Communicating forecasts to the public"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Frame"><a href="/wiki/File:Newspaper_weather_forecast_-_today_and_tomorrow.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Newspaper_weather_forecast_-_today_and_tomorrow.svg/290px-Newspaper_weather_forecast_-_today_and_tomorrow.svg.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="109" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Newspaper_weather_forecast_-_today_and_tomorrow.svg/435px-Newspaper_weather_forecast_-_today_and_tomorrow.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Newspaper_weather_forecast_-_today_and_tomorrow.svg/580px-Newspaper_weather_forecast_-_today_and_tomorrow.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="290" data-file-height="109" /></a><figcaption>An example of a two-day weather forecast in the <a href="/wiki/Visual_language" title="Visual language">visual style</a> that an American newspaper might use. Temperatures are given in Fahrenheit.</figcaption></figure> <p>Most end users of forecasts are members of the general public. Thunderstorms can create strong winds and dangerous <a href="/wiki/Lightning" title="Lightning">lightning</a> strikes that can lead to deaths, power outages,<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and widespread hail damage. Heavy snow or rain can bring transportation and commerce to a stand-still,<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as cause flooding in low-lying areas.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Excessive <a href="/wiki/Heat_wave" title="Heat wave">heat</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cold_wave" title="Cold wave">cold waves</a> can sicken or kill those with inadequate utilities, and droughts can impact water usage and destroy vegetation. </p><p>Several countries employ government agencies to provide forecasts and watches/warnings/advisories to the public to protect life and property and maintain commercial interests. Knowledge of what the end user needs from a weather forecast must be taken into account to present the information in a useful and understandable way. Examples include the <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a>'s <a href="/wiki/National_Weather_Service" title="National Weather Service">National Weather Service</a> (NWS)<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Environment_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Environment Canada">Environment Canada</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Meteorological_Service_of_Canada" title="Meteorological Service of Canada">Meteorological Service</a> (MSC).<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Traditionally, newspaper, television, and radio have been the primary outlets for presenting weather forecast information to the public. In addition, some cities had <a href="/wiki/Weather_beacon" title="Weather beacon">weather beacons</a>. Increasingly, the internet is being used due to the vast amount of specific information that can be found.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In all cases, these outlets update their forecasts on a regular basis. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Severe_weather_alerts_and_advisories">Severe weather alerts and advisories</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weather_forecasting&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Severe weather alerts and advisories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A major part of modern weather forecasting is the severe weather alerts and advisories that the national weather services issue in the case that severe or hazardous weather is expected. This is done to protect life and property.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of the most commonly known of severe weather advisories are the <a href="/wiki/Severe_thunderstorm_warning" title="Severe thunderstorm warning">severe thunderstorm</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tornado_warning" title="Tornado warning">tornado warning</a>, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Severe_thunderstorm_watch" title="Severe thunderstorm watch">severe thunderstorm</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tornado_watch" title="Tornado watch">tornado watch</a>. Other forms of these advisories include winter weather, high wind, <a href="/wiki/Flood_warning" title="Flood warning">flood</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone" title="Tropical cyclone">tropical cyclone</a>, and fog.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Severe weather advisories and alerts are broadcast through the media, including radio, using emergency systems as the <a href="/wiki/Emergency_Alert_System" title="Emergency Alert System">Emergency Alert System</a>, which break into regular programming.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Low_temperature_forecast">Low temperature forecast</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weather_forecasting&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Low temperature forecast"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The low temperature forecast for the current day is calculated using the lowest temperature found between 7<span class="nowrap"> </span>pm that evening through 7<span class="nowrap"> </span>am the following morning.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> So, in short, today's forecasted low is most likely tomorrow's low temperature. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Specialist_forecasting">Specialist forecasting</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weather_forecasting&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Specialist forecasting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are a number of sectors with their own specific needs for weather forecasts and specialist services are provided to these users as given below: </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Air_traffic">Air traffic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weather_forecasting&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Air traffic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plume_from_eruption_of_Chaiten_volcano,_Chile.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Plume_from_eruption_of_Chaiten_volcano%2C_Chile.jpg/220px-Plume_from_eruption_of_Chaiten_volcano%2C_Chile.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Plume_from_eruption_of_Chaiten_volcano%2C_Chile.jpg/330px-Plume_from_eruption_of_Chaiten_volcano%2C_Chile.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Plume_from_eruption_of_Chaiten_volcano%2C_Chile.jpg/440px-Plume_from_eruption_of_Chaiten_volcano%2C_Chile.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3200" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption>Ash cloud from the 2008 eruption of <a href="/wiki/Chait%C3%A9n_(volcano)" title="Chaitén (volcano)">Chaitén volcano</a> stretching across <a href="/wiki/Patagonia" title="Patagonia">Patagonia</a> from the Pacific to the Atlantic Ocean</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Terminal_aerodrome_forecast" title="Terminal aerodrome forecast">Terminal aerodrome forecast</a></div> <p>Because the aviation industry is especially sensitive to the weather, accurate weather forecasting is essential. Fog or exceptionally low <a href="/wiki/Ceiling_(cloud)" title="Ceiling (cloud)">ceilings</a> can prevent many aircraft from landing and taking off.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Turbulence" title="Turbulence">Turbulence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_icing" title="Atmospheric icing">icing</a> are also significant in-flight hazards.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thunderstorms are a problem for all aircraft because of severe turbulence due to their <a href="/wiki/Vertical_draft" title="Vertical draft">updrafts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Outflow_boundary" title="Outflow boundary">outflow boundaries</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> icing due to the heavy precipitation, as well as large <a href="/wiki/Hail" title="Hail">hail</a>, strong winds, and lightning, all of which can cause severe damage to an aircraft in flight.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_ash" title="Volcanic ash">Volcanic ash</a> is also a significant problem for aviation, as aircraft can lose engine power within ash clouds.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On a day-to-day basis airliners are routed to take advantage of the <a href="/wiki/Jet_stream" title="Jet stream">jet stream</a> tailwind to improve fuel efficiency.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aircrews are briefed prior to <a href="/wiki/Takeoff" title="Takeoff">takeoff</a> on the conditions to expect en route and at their destination.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, airports often change which <a href="/wiki/Runway" title="Runway">runway</a> is being used to take advantage of a <a href="/wiki/Headwind" class="mw-redirect" title="Headwind">headwind</a>. This reduces the distance required for takeoff, and eliminates potential <a href="/wiki/Crosswind" title="Crosswind">crosswinds</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marine">Marine</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weather_forecasting&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Marine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Marine_weather_forecasting" title="Marine weather forecasting">Marine weather forecasting</a></div> <p>Commercial and recreational use of waterways can be limited significantly by wind direction and speed, <a href="/wiki/Ocean_surface_wave" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean surface wave">wave</a> periodicity and heights, tides, and precipitation. These factors can each influence the safety of marine transit. Consequently, a variety of codes have been established to efficiently transmit detailed marine weather forecasts to vessel pilots via radio, for example the <a href="/wiki/MAFOR" title="MAFOR">MAFOR</a> (marine forecast).<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Typical weather forecasts can be received at sea through the use of <a href="/wiki/RTTY" class="mw-redirect" title="RTTY">RTTY</a>, <a href="/wiki/Navtex" class="mw-redirect" title="Navtex">Navtex</a> and <a href="/wiki/Radiofax" title="Radiofax">Radiofax</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Agriculture">Agriculture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weather_forecasting&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Agriculture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Farmers rely on weather forecasts to decide what work to do on any particular day. For example, drying <a href="/wiki/Hay" title="Hay">hay</a> is only feasible in dry weather. Prolonged periods of dryness can ruin cotton, wheat,<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">corn</a> crops. While corn crops can be ruined by drought, their dried remains can be used as a cattle feed substitute in the form of <a href="/wiki/Silage" title="Silage">silage</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Frost" title="Frost">Frosts</a> and freezes play havoc with crops both during the spring and fall. For example, <a href="/wiki/Peach" title="Peach">peach</a> trees in full bloom can have their potential peach crop decimated by a spring freeze.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Orange groves can suffer significant damage during frosts and freezes, regardless of their timing.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Forestry">Forestry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weather_forecasting&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Forestry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Forecasting of wind, precipitation and humidity is essential for preventing and controlling <a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">wildfires</a>. Indices such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Forest_fire_weather_index" title="Forest fire weather index">Forest fire weather index</a></i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Haines_Index" title="Haines Index">Haines Index</a></i>, have been developed to predict the areas more at risk of fire from natural or human causes. Conditions for the development of harmful insects can also be predicted by forecasting the weather. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Utility_companies">Utility companies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weather_forecasting&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Utility companies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Air_handling_unit.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Air_handling_unit.JPG/220px-Air_handling_unit.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Air_handling_unit.JPG/330px-Air_handling_unit.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Air_handling_unit.JPG/440px-Air_handling_unit.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1109" data-file-height="738" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Air_handling_unit" class="mw-redirect" title="Air handling unit">air handling unit</a> is used for the heating and cooling of air in a central location (click on image for legend).</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Degree_day" title="Degree day">Degree day</a></div> <p>Electricity and gas companies rely on weather forecasts to anticipate demand, which can be strongly affected by the weather. They use the quantity termed the degree day to determine how strong of a use there will be for heating (<a href="/wiki/Heating_degree_day" title="Heating degree day">heating degree day</a>) or cooling (cooling degree day). These quantities are based on a daily average temperature of 65 °F (18 °C). Cooler temperatures force heating degree days (one per degree Fahrenheit), while warmer temperatures force cooling degree days.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In winter, severe cold weather can cause a surge in demand as people turn up their heating.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, in summer a surge in demand can be linked with the increased use of <a href="/wiki/Air_conditioning" title="Air conditioning">air conditioning</a> systems in hot weather.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By anticipating a surge in demand, utility companies can purchase additional supplies of power or natural gas before the price increases, or in some circumstances, supplies are restricted through the use of <a href="/wiki/Brownout_(electricity)" title="Brownout (electricity)">brownouts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Power_outage" title="Power outage">blackouts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_commercial_companies">Other commercial companies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weather_forecasting&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Other commercial companies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Increasingly, private companies pay for weather forecasts tailored to their needs so that they can increase their profits or avoid large losses.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, supermarket chains may change the stocks on their shelves in anticipation of different <a href="/wiki/Consumer_spending" title="Consumer spending">consumer spending</a> habits in different weather conditions. Weather forecasts can be used to invest in the commodity market, such as futures in oranges, corn, soybeans, and oil.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military_applications">Military applications</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weather_forecasting&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Military applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weather_forecasting&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: United Kingdom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The British <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a>, working with the <a href="/wiki/Met_Office" title="Met Office">Met Office</a>, has its own specialist branch of weather observers and forecasters, as part of the Hydrographic and Meteorological (HM) specialisation, who monitor and forecast operational conditions across the globe, to provide accurate and timely weather and oceanographic information to submarines, ships and <a href="/wiki/Fleet_Air_Arm" title="Fleet Air Arm">Fleet Air Arm</a> aircraft. </p><p>A mobile unit in the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Air_Force" title="Royal Air Force">Royal Air Force</a>, working with the Met Office, forecasts the weather for regions in which British and allied armed forces are deployed. A group based at <a href="/wiki/Camp_Shorabak" title="Camp Shorabak">Camp Bastion</a> used to provide forecasts for the <a href="/wiki/Operation_Herrick" title="Operation Herrick">British armed forces in Afghanistan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_States">United States</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weather_forecasting&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Npmoc.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/Npmoc.gif" decoding="async" width="100" height="101" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="101" /></a><figcaption>The emblem of the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC).</figcaption></figure> <p>Similar to the private sector, military weather forecasters present weather conditions to the war fighter community. Military weather forecasters provide pre-flight and in-flight weather briefs to pilots and provide real time resource protection services for military installations. </p><p>Naval forecasters cover the waters and ship weather forecasts. The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">United States Navy</a> provides a special service for itself and the rest of the federal government by issuing forecasts for tropical cyclones across the Pacific and Indian Oceans through its <a href="/wiki/Joint_Typhoon_Warning_Center" title="Joint Typhoon Warning Center">Joint Typhoon Warning Center</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Within the United States, the <a href="/wiki/557th_Weather_Wing" title="557th Weather Wing">557th Weather Wing</a> provides weather forecasting for the Air Force and the Army. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">Air Force</a> forecasters cover air operations in both wartime and peacetime and provide <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">Army</a> support;<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard" title="United States Coast Guard">United States Coast Guard</a> marine science technicians provide ship forecasts for ice breakers and various other operations within their realm;<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Marine forecasters provide support for ground- and air-based <a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps" title="United States Marine Corps">United States Marine Corps</a> operations.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All four of the mentioned military branches have their initial enlisted meteorology technical training at <a href="/wiki/Keesler_Air_Force_Base" title="Keesler Air Force Base">Keesler Air Force Base</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Military and civilian forecasters actively cooperate in analyzing, creating and critiquing weather forecast products. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weather_forecasting&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Observations_upon_the_Marine_Barometer,_made_during_the_Examination_of_the_Coasts_of_New_Holland_and_New_South_Wales,_in_the_Years_1801,_1802,_and_1803" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Observations upon the Marine Barometer, made during the Examination of the Coasts of New Holland and New South Wales, in the Years 1801, 1802, and 1803">Observations upon the Marine Barometer...</a></b></div></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution_forecasting" title="Air pollution forecasting">Air pollution forecasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizen_Weather_Observer_Program" title="Citizen Weather Observer Program">Citizen Weather Observer Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ensemble_forecasting" title="Ensemble forecasting">Ensemble forecasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Collegiate_Weather_Forecasting_Contest" title="National Collegiate Weather Forecasting Contest">National Collegiate Weather Forecasting Contest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Weatherperson%27s_Day" title="National Weatherperson's Day">National Weatherperson's Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonhomogeneous_Gaussian_regression" title="Nonhomogeneous Gaussian regression">Nonhomogeneous Gaussian regression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_weather_observation" title="Surface weather observation">Surface weather observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone_forecasting" title="Tropical cyclone forecasting">Tropical cyclone forecasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weather_and_Society_Integrated_Studies" title="Weather and Society Integrated Studies">Weather and Society Integrated Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weather_hole" title="Weather hole">Weather hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WxChallenge" title="WxChallenge">WxChallenge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weather_forecasting_for_Operation_Overlord" title="Weather forecasting for Operation Overlord">Weather forecasting for Operation Overlord</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weather_forecasting&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output 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0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFDirmeyerSchlosserBrubaker2009" class="citation journal cs1">Dirmeyer, Paul A.; Schlosser, C. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 30,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Hurricane+Hunters&rft.pub=53rd+Weather+Reconnaissance+Squadron&rft.date=2011&rft.au=403rd+Wing&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hurricanehunters.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeather+forecasting" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SunHerald-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SunHerald_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee,_Christopher2007" class="citation news cs1">Lee, Christopher (October 8, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/10/07/AR2007100700971_pf.html">"Drone, Sensors May Open Path Into Eye of Storm"</a>. <i>The Washington Post</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121111093844/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/10/07/AR2007100700971_pf.html">Archived</a> from the original on November 11, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 22,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Drone%2C+Sensors+May+Open+Path+Into+Eye+of+Storm&rft.date=2007-10-08&rft.au=Lee%2C+Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2007%2F10%2F07%2FAR2007100700971_pf.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeather+forecasting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories2010/20100112_plane.html">"NOAA Dispatches High-Tech Research Plane to Improve Winter Storm Forecasts"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a>. January 12, 2010. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110103152316/http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories2010/20100112_plane.html">Archived</a> from the original on January 3, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 22,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=NOAA+Dispatches+High-Tech+Research+Plane+to+Improve+Winter+Storm+Forecasts&rft.pub=National+Oceanic+and+Atmospheric+Administration&rft.date=2010-01-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.noaanews.noaa.gov%2Fstories2010%2F20100112_plane.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeather+forecasting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/University_Corporation_for_Atmospheric_Research" title="University Corporation for Atmospheric Research">University Corporation for Atmospheric Research</a> (August 14, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070814044336/http://www.mmm.ucar.edu/wrf/WG4/wrfvar/wrfvar-tutorial.htm">"The WRF Variational Data Assimilation System (WRF-Var)"</a>. Retrieved May 25, 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPielke2002" class="citation book cs1">Pielke, Roger A. (2002). <i>Mesoscale Meteorological Modeling</i>. <a href="/wiki/Academic_Press" title="Academic Press">Academic Press</a>. pp. 285–287. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-554766-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-554766-6"><bdi>978-0-12-554766-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mesoscale+Meteorological+Modeling&rft.pages=285-287&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-12-554766-6&rft.aulast=Pielke&rft.aufirst=Roger+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeather+forecasting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSunderam,_V._S.van_Albada,_G._DickPeter,_M._A.Sloot,_J._J._Dongarra2005" class="citation book cs1">Sunderam, V. S.; van Albada, G. Dick; Peter, M. A.; Sloot, J. J. Dongarra (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JZikIbXzipwC&pg=PA131"><i>Computational Science – ICCS 2005: 5th International Conference, Atlanta, GA, USA, May 22–25, 2005, Proceedings, Part 1</i></a>. Springer. p. 132. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-26032-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-26032-5"><bdi>978-3-540-26032-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Computational+Science+%E2%80%93+ICCS+2005%3A+5th+International+Conference%2C+Atlanta%2C+GA%2C+USA%2C+May+22%E2%80%9325%2C+2005%2C+Proceedings%2C+Part+1&rft.pages=132&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-3-540-26032-5&rft.au=Sunderam%2C+V.+S.&rft.au=van+Albada%2C+G.+Dick&rft.au=Peter%2C+M.+A.&rft.au=Sloot%2C+J.+J.+Dongarra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJZikIbXzipwC%26pg%3DPA131&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeather+forecasting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZwieflhofer,_Walter;_Kreitz,_Norbert;_European_Centre_for_Medium_Range_Weather_Forecasts2001" class="citation book cs1">Zwieflhofer, Walter; Kreitz, Norbert; European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasts (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UV6PnF2z5_wC&pg=PA276"><i>Developments in teracomputing: proceedings of the ninth ECMWF Workshop on the Use of High Performance Computing in Meteorology</i></a>. World Scientific. p. 276. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-02-4761-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-02-4761-4"><bdi>978-981-02-4761-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Developments+in+teracomputing%3A+proceedings+of+the+ninth+ECMWF+Workshop+on+the+Use+of+High+Performance+Computing+in+Meteorology&rft.pages=276&rft.pub=World+Scientific&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-981-02-4761-4&rft.au=Zwieflhofer%2C+Walter%3B+Kreitz%2C+Norbert%3B+European+Centre+for+Medium+Range+Weather+Forecasts&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUV6PnF2z5_wC%26pg%3DPA276&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeather+forecasting" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-models-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-models_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChan,_Johnny_C._L.Jeffrey_D._Kepert2010" class="citation book cs1">Chan, Johnny C. L. & Jeffrey D. Kepert (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6gFiunmKWWAC&pg=PA297"><i>Global Perspectives on Tropical Cyclones: From Science to Mitigation</i></a>. World Scientific. pp. 295–296. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-4293-47-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-4293-47-1"><bdi>978-981-4293-47-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Global+Perspectives+on+Tropical+Cyclones%3A+From+Science+to+Mitigation&rft.pages=295-296&rft.pub=World+Scientific&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-981-4293-47-1&rft.au=Chan%2C+Johnny+C.+L.&rft.au=Jeffrey+D.+Kepert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6gFiunmKWWAC%26pg%3DPA297&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeather+forecasting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolton,_James_R.2004" class="citation book cs1">Holton, James R. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fhW5oDv3EPsC&pg=PA474"><i>An introduction to dynamic meteorology, Volume 1</i></a>. Academic Press. p. 480. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-354015-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-354015-7"><bdi>978-0-12-354015-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+introduction+to+dynamic+meteorology%2C+Volume+1&rft.pages=480&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-12-354015-7&rft.au=Holton%2C+James+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfhW5oDv3EPsC%26pg%3DPA474&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeather+forecasting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown,_Molly_E.2008" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Molly E. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mTZvR3R6YdkC&pg=PA121"><i>Famine early warning systems and remote sensing data</i></a>. Springer. p. 121. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008fews.book.....B">2008fews.book.....B</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-75367-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-75367-4"><bdi>978-3-540-75367-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Famine+early+warning+systems+and+remote+sensing+data&rft.pages=121&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008fews.book.....B&rft.isbn=978-3-540-75367-4&rft.au=Brown%2C+Molly+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmTZvR3R6YdkC%26pg%3DPA121&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeather+forecasting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAhrens,_C._Donald2008" class="citation book cs1">Ahrens, C. Donald (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2Yn29IFukbgC&pg=PA244"><i>Essentials of meteorology: an invitation to the atmosphere</i></a>. Cengage Learning. p. 244. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-495-11558-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-495-11558-8"><bdi>978-0-495-11558-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essentials+of+meteorology%3A+an+invitation+to+the+atmosphere&rft.pages=244&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-495-11558-8&rft.au=Ahrens%2C+C.+Donald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2Yn29IFukbgC%26pg%3DPA244&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeather+forecasting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Daniel Andersson (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://his.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid=diva2%3A2675&dswid=-1516">"Improved accuracy of surrogate models using output postprocessing"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171012045146/http://his.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid=diva2%3A2675&dswid=-1516">Archived</a> October 12, 2017, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved May 25, 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCox,_John_D.2002" class="citation book cs1">Cox, John D. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/stormwatcherstur00cox_df1/page/222"><i>Storm Watchers</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/stormwatcherstur00cox_df1/page/222">222–224</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-38108-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-38108-2"><bdi>978-0-471-38108-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Storm+Watchers&rft.pages=222-224&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-471-38108-2&rft.au=Cox%2C+John+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstormwatcherstur00cox_df1%2Fpage%2F222&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeather+forecasting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPielke2002" class="citation book cs1">Pielke, Roger A. (2002). <i>Mesoscale Meteorological Modeling</i>. <a href="/wiki/Academic_Press" title="Academic Press">Academic Press</a>. pp. 48–49. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-554766-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-554766-6"><bdi>978-0-12-554766-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mesoscale+Meteorological+Modeling&rft.pages=48-49&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-12-554766-6&rft.aulast=Pielke&rft.aufirst=Roger+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeather+forecasting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPielke2002" class="citation book cs1">Pielke, Roger A. (2002). <i>Mesoscale Meteorological Modeling</i>. <a href="/wiki/Academic_Press" title="Academic Press">Academic Press</a>. pp. 18–19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-554766-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-554766-6"><bdi>978-0-12-554766-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mesoscale+Meteorological+Modeling&rft.pages=18-19&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-12-554766-6&rft.aulast=Pielke&rft.aufirst=Roger+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeather+forecasting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-finite-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-finite_63-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-finite_63-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrikwerda,_John_C.2004" class="citation book cs1">Strikwerda, John C. 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SIAM. pp. 165–170. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89871-567-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89871-567-5"><bdi>978-0-89871-567-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Finite+difference+schemes+and+partial+differential+equations&rft.pages=165-170&rft.pub=SIAM&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-89871-567-5&rft.au=Strikwerda%2C+John+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSH8R_flZBGIC%26pg%3DPA165&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeather+forecasting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPielke2002" class="citation book cs1">Pielke, Roger A. 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Retrieved May 25, 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131124214601/http://www.weather.gov/mission.shtml">Archived</a> November 24, 2013, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Environment_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Environment Canada">Environment Canada</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/cd/brochures/warning_e.cfm?">"Weather watches, warnings and advisories"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060703204148/http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/cd/brochures/warning_e.cfm">Archived</a> July 3, 2006, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Retrieved May 26, 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission" title="Federal Communications Commission">Federal Communications Commission</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fcc.gov/general/emergency-alert-system-eas">"Emergency Alert System"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171012055644/https://www.fcc.gov/general/emergency-alert-system-eas">Archived</a> October 12, 2017, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. 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Retrieved May 26, 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Military" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Military">United States Military</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usmilitary.com/coastguardenlistedoccupations.html#engineeringscienceandtechnical">"US Coast Guard Jobs – Enlisted Occupations"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160312201542/http://www.usmilitary.com/coastguardenlistedoccupations.html#engineeringscienceandtechnical">Archived</a> March 12, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved May 26, 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rod Powers. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thebalance.com/field-meteorology-oceanography-3345698">"United States Marine Corps Enlisted Job Descriptions and Qualification Factors: Field 68 – Meteorology and Oceanography (METOC)"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170806102458/https://www.thebalance.com/field-meteorology-oceanography-3345698">Archived</a> August 6, 2017, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved 2008-05-26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Keesler_Air_Force_Base" title="Keesler Air Force Base">Keesler Air Force Base</a>. Military officers usually received their education from a civilian institution. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.keesler.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-061113-086.pdf">"Keesler News: March 9, 2006"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080910142826/http://www.keesler.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-061113-086.pdf">Archived</a> September 10, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">United States Air Force</a> Retrieved May 26, 2008.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weather_forecasting&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlum2019" class="citation book cs1">Blum, Andrew (2019). <i>The Weather Machine: A Journey Inside the Forecast</i>. New York: HarperCollins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-062-36861-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-062-36861-4"><bdi>978-0-062-36861-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Weather+Machine%3A+A+Journey+Inside+the+Forecast&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-062-36861-4&rft.aulast=Blum&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeather+forecasting" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIan_RoulstoneJohn_Norbury2013" class="citation book cs1">Ian Roulstone & John Norbury (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qnMrFEHMrWwC"><i>Invisible in the Storm: the role of mathematics in understanding weather</i></a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691152721" title="Special:BookSources/978-0691152721"><bdi>978-0691152721</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Invisible+in+the+Storm%3A+the+role+of+mathematics+in+understanding+weather&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0691152721&rft.au=Ian+Roulstone&rft.au=John+Norbury&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqnMrFEHMrWwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeather+forecasting" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weather_forecasting&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Weather_forecasting" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Weather forecasting">Weather forecasting</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/WxForecasting/wx2.php">Weather Forecasting Through the Ages</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/classes/met130/notes/chapter1/history.html">Meteorology – A brief history</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.slideshare.net/florenceann/history-of-meteorology-6955121">History of meteorology</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_weather_analysis" title="Surface weather analysis">Surface weather analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visibility" title="Visibility">Visibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vorticity" title="Vorticity">Vorticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind" title="Wind">Wind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_shear" title="Wind shear">Wind shear</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: skyblue;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Condensation" title="Condensation">Condensation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cloud" title="Cloud">Cloud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_condensation_nuclei" title="Cloud condensation nuclei">Cloud condensation nuclei (CCN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fog" title="Fog">Fog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convective_condensation_level" title="Convective condensation level">Convective condensation level (CCL)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lifting_condensation_level" title="Lifting condensation level">Lifting condensation level (LCL)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precipitable_water" title="Precipitable water">Precipitable water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precipitation" title="Precipitation">Precipitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_vapor" title="Water vapor">Water vapor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: skyblue;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_convection" title="Atmospheric convection">Convection</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convective_available_potential_energy" title="Convective available potential energy">Convective available potential energy (CAPE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convective_inhibition" title="Convective inhibition">Convective inhibition (CIN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convective_instability" title="Convective instability">Convective instability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convective_momentum_transport" title="Convective momentum transport">Convective momentum transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conditional_symmetric_instability" title="Conditional symmetric instability">Conditional symmetric instability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convective_temperature" title="Convective temperature">Convective temperature (<i>T</i><sub>c</sub>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equilibrium_level" title="Equilibrium level">Equilibrium level (EL)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_convective_layer" title="Free convective layer">Free convective layer (FCL)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrodynamical_helicity#Meteorology" title="Hydrodynamical helicity">Helicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-index_(meteorology)" title="K-index (meteorology)">K Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Level_of_free_convection" title="Level of free convection">Level of free convection (LFC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lifted_index" title="Lifted index">Lifted index (LI)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_parcel_level" title="Maximum parcel level">Maximum parcel level (MPL)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulk_Richardson_number" title="Bulk Richardson number">Bulk Richardson number (BRN)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: skyblue;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">Temperature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dew_point" title="Dew point">Dew point (<i>T</i><sub>d</sub>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dew_point_depression" title="Dew point depression">Dew point depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry-bulb_temperature" title="Dry-bulb temperature">Dry-bulb temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equivalent_temperature" title="Equivalent temperature">Equivalent temperature (<i>T</i><sub>e</sub>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_fire_weather_index" title="Forest fire weather index">Forest fire weather index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haines_Index" title="Haines Index">Haines Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_index" title="Heat index">Heat index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humidex" title="Humidex">Humidex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humidity" title="Humidity">Humidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_humidity" class="mw-redirect" title="Relative humidity">Relative humidity (RH)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixing_ratio" title="Mixing ratio">Mixing ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potential_temperature" title="Potential temperature">Potential temperature (<i>θ</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equivalent_potential_temperature" title="Equivalent potential temperature">Equivalent potential temperature (<i>θ</i><sub>e</sub>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">Sea surface temperature (SST)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperature_anomaly" title="Temperature anomaly">Temperature anomaly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_temperature" title="Thermodynamic temperature">Thermodynamic temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vapor_pressure" title="Vapor pressure">Vapor pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_temperature" title="Virtual temperature">Virtual temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet-bulb_temperature" title="Wet-bulb temperature">Wet-bulb temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet-bulb_globe_temperature" title="Wet-bulb globe temperature">Wet-bulb globe temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet-bulb_potential_temperature" title="Wet-bulb potential temperature">Wet-bulb potential temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_chill" title="Wind chill">Wind chill</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: skyblue;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">Pressure</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_pressure" title="Atmospheric pressure">Atmospheric pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroclinity" title="Baroclinity">Baroclinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barotropic" class="mw-redirect" title="Barotropic">Barotropicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressure_gradient" title="Pressure gradient">Pressure gradient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressure-gradient_force" title="Pressure-gradient force">Pressure-gradient force (PGF)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: skyblue;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Velocity" title="Velocity">Velocity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_potential_intensity" title="Maximum potential 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title="Barometer">Barometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceiling_balloon" title="Ceiling balloon">Ceiling balloon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceiling_projector" title="Ceiling projector">Ceiling projector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceilometer" title="Ceilometer">Ceilometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_adaptor_goggles" title="Dark adaptor goggles">Dark adaptor goggles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dewcell" title="Dewcell">Dewcell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disdrometer" title="Disdrometer">Disdrometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dropsonde" title="Dropsonde">Dropsonde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_mill" title="Field mill">Field mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_flux_sensor" title="Heat flux sensor">Heat flux sensor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hygrometer" title="Hygrometer">Hygrometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_accretion_indicator" title="Ice accretion indicator">Ice accretion indicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lidar" title="Lidar">Lidar</a></li> <li><a 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href="/wiki/SODAR" class="mw-redirect" title="SODAR">SODAR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solarimeter" title="Solarimeter">Solarimeter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sounding_rocket" title="Sounding rocket">Sounding rocket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stevenson_screen" title="Stevenson screen">Stevenson screen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunshine_recorder" title="Sunshine recorder">Sunshine recorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tethersonde" title="Tethersonde">Tethersonde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermo-hygrograph" title="Thermo-hygrograph">Thermo-hygrograph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermometer" title="Thermometer">Thermometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_gauge" title="Tide gauge">Tide gauge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmissometer" title="Transmissometer">Transmissometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weather_balloon" title="Weather balloon">Weather balloon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weather_buoy" title="Weather buoy">Weather buoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weather_radar" title="Weather radar">Weather radar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weather_vane" title="Weather vane">Weather vane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whole_sky_camera" title="Whole sky camera">Whole sky camera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_profiler" title="Wind profiler">Wind profiler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windsock" title="Windsock">Windsock</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Earth-based_meteorological_observation_systems_and_weather_stations" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Earth-based_meteorological_observation" title="Template:Earth-based meteorological observation"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Earth-based_meteorological_observation" title="Template talk:Earth-based meteorological observation"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Earth-based_meteorological_observation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Earth-based meteorological observation"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Earth-based_meteorological_observation_systems_and_weather_stations" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Earth-based meteorological observation systems and <a href="/wiki/Weather_station" title="Weather station">weather stations</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="General" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">General</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_report" class="mw-redirect" title="Aircraft report">Aircraft report (AIREP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automated_airport_weather_station" title="Automated airport weather station">Automated airport weather station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automatic_weather_station" title="Automatic weather station">Automatic weather station (AWS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BUFR" title="BUFR">Binary Universal Form for the Representation of meteorological data (BUFR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dropsonde" title="Dropsonde">Dropsonde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Hunters" class="mw-redirect" title="Hurricane Hunters">Hurricane Hunters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesonet" title="Mesonet">Mesonet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/METAR" title="METAR">Meteorological Aerodrome Report (METAR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pilot_report" title="Pilot report">Pilot report (PIREP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weather_ship" title="Weather ship">Weather ship</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By region</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Worldwide</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_Communications_Addressing_and_Reporting_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System">Aircraft Communication Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_Meteorological_Data_Relay" title="Aircraft Meteorological Data Relay">Aircraft Meteorological Data Relay (AMDAR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argo_(oceanography)" title="Argo (oceanography)">Argo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automated_Meteorological_Data_Acquisition_System" title="Automated Meteorological Data Acquisition System">Automated Meteorological Data Acquisition System (AMeDAS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-ocean_Assessment_and_Reporting_of_Tsunamis" title="Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis">Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis (DART)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FluxNet" class="mw-redirect" title="FluxNet">FluxNet Project (FluxNet)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Atmosphere_Watch" title="Global Atmosphere Watch">Global Atmosphere Watch (GAW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Sea_Level_Observing_System" title="Global Sea Level Observing System">Global Sea Level Observing System (GLOSS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prediction_and_Research_Moored_Array_in_the_Atlantic" title="Prediction and Research Moored Array in the Atlantic">Prediction and Research Moored Array in the Atlantic (PIRATA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_Moored_Array_for_African-Asian-Australian_Monsoon_Analysis_and_Prediction" title="Research Moored Array for African-Asian-Australian Monsoon Analysis and Prediction">Research Moored Array for African-Asian-Australian Monsoon Analysis and Prediction (RAMA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_Atmosphere_Ocean_project" title="Tropical Atmosphere Ocean project">Tropical Atmosphere Ocean project (TAO/TRITON)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voluntary_observing_ship_program" title="Voluntary observing ship program">Voluntary observing ship program</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">United States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Citizen_Weather_Observer_Program" title="Citizen Weather Observer Program">Citizen Weather Observer Program (CWOP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal-Marine_Automated_Network" title="Coastal-Marine Automated Network">Coastal-Marine Automated Network (C-MAN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NEXRAD" title="NEXRAD">NEXRAD radar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SNOTEL" title="SNOTEL">Snow Telemetry (SNOTEL)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remote_Automated_Weather_Station" title="Remote Automated Weather Station">Remote Automated Weather Station (RAWS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road_Weather_Information_System" title="Road Weather Information System">Road Weather Information System (RWIS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TAMDAR" title="TAMDAR">Tropospheric Airborne Meteorological Data Reporting (TAMDAR)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Journalism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Journalism" title="Template:Journalism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Journalism" title="Template talk:Journalism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Journalism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Journalism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Journalism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Journalism" title="Journalism">Journalism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Roles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Journalist" title="Journalist">Journalists (reporters)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columnist" title="Columnist">Columnist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blog" title="Blog">Blogger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Editing" title="Editing">Editor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copy_editing" title="Copy editing">Copy editor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteorologist" title="Meteorologist">Meteorologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/News_presenter" title="News presenter">News presenter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photojournalism" title="Photojournalism">Photographer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pundit" title="Pundit">Pundit / commentator</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Profession</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li><a href="/wiki/News" title="News">News</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/News_style" title="News style">Writing style</a> (<a href="/wiki/Five_Ws" title="Five Ws">Five Ws</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journalism_ethics_and_standards" title="Journalism ethics and standards">Ethics</a> (<a href="/wiki/Code_of_ethics_in_media" title="Code of ethics in media">code of ethics</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journalism_culture" title="Journalism culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journalistic_objectivity" title="Journalistic objectivity">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/News_values" title="News values">News values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Source_(journalism)" title="Source (journalism)">Attribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defamation" title="Defamation">Defamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensationalism" title="Sensationalism">Sensationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Editorial_independence" title="Editorial independence">Editorial independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journalism_school" title="Journalism school">Journalism school</a></li></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li><a href="/wiki/Arts_journalism" title="Arts journalism">Arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_journalism" title="Business journalism">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_journalism" title="Data journalism">Data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entertainment_journalism" title="Entertainment journalism">Entertainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_journalism" title="Environmental journalism">Environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fashion_journalism" title="Fashion journalism">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_journalism" title="Medical journalism">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_journalism" title="Music journalism">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_journalism" title="Political journalism">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_journalism" title="Science journalism">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_journalism" title="Sports journalism">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_journalism" title="Technology journalism">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_reporting" title="Traffic reporting">Traffic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_game_journalism" title="Video game journalism">Video games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_correspondent" title="War correspondent">War</a></li> <li>Weather</li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_news" title="World news">World</a></li></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Journalism_genres" title="Journalism genres">Genres</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li><a href="/wiki/Adversarial_journalism" title="Adversarial journalism">Adversarial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advocacy_journalism" title="Advocacy journalism">Advocacy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Journalistic_interventionism" title="Journalistic interventionism">Interventionism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_journalism" title="Analytic journalism">Analytic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blog" title="Blog">Blogging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broadcast_journalism" title="Broadcast journalism">Broadcast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Churnalism" title="Churnalism">Churnalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizen_journalism" title="Citizen journalism">Citizen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civic_journalism" title="Civic journalism">Civic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collaborative_journalism" title="Collaborative journalism">Collaborative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comics_journalism" title="Comics journalism">Comics-based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_journalism" title="Community journalism">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_journalism" title="Data journalism">Data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Database_journalism" title="Database journalism">Database</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_journalism" title="Digital journalism">Digital/Online</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explanatory_journalism" title="Explanatory journalism">Explanatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fact-checking" title="Fact-checking">Fact-checking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gonzo_journalism" title="Gonzo journalism">Gonzo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human-interest_story" title="Human-interest story">Human-interest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immersion_journalism" title="Immersion journalism">Immersion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpretive_journalism" title="Interpretive journalism">Interpretive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investigative_journalism" title="Investigative journalism">Investigative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multimedia_journalism" title="Multimedia journalism">Multimedia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_journalism" title="Narrative journalism">Narrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Journalism" title="New Journalism">New Journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-profit_journalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-profit journalism">Non-profit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opinion_journalism" title="Opinion journalism">Opinion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_journalism" title="Peace journalism">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photojournalism" title="Photojournalism">Photojournalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Press_release" title="Press release">Press release</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensor_journalism" title="Sensor journalism">Sensor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabloid_journalism" title="Tabloid journalism">Tabloid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_press" title="Underground press">Underground</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_journalism" title="Video journalism">Video</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_journalism" title="Visual journalism">Visual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watchdog_journalism" title="Watchdog journalism">Watchdog</a></li></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social impact</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li><a href="/wiki/Fake_news" title="Fake news">Fake news</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Estate" title="Fourth Estate">Fourth Estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Estate" title="Fifth Estate">Fifth Estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">Freedom of the press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infotainment" title="Infotainment">Infotainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horse_race_journalism" title="Horse race journalism">Horse race journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias" title="Media bias">Media bias</a> (<a href="/wiki/False_balance" title="False balance">False balance</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pink-slime_journalism" title="Pink-slime journalism">Pink-slime journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_relations" title="Public relations">Public relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_model" title="Propaganda model">Propaganda model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_journalism" title="Yellow journalism">Yellow journalism</a></li></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">News media</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li><a href="/wiki/Newspaper" title="Newspaper">Newspapers</a> (<a href="/wiki/Newspaper_of_record" title="Newspaper of record">Newspaper of record</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magazine" title="Magazine">Magazines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/News_broadcasting" title="News broadcasting">TV and radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Online_newspaper" title="Online newspaper">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/News_agency" title="News agency">News agencies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_media" title="Alternative media">Alternative media</a></li></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Index_of_journalism_articles" title="Index of journalism articles">List of journalism articles</a> – <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_journalism" title="Outline of journalism">Outline</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="National_meteorological_organizations" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:National_meteorological_organizations" title="Template:National meteorological organizations"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:National_meteorological_organizations" title="Template talk:National meteorological organizations"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:National_meteorological_organizations" title="Special:EditPage/Template:National meteorological organizations"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="National_meteorological_organizations" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">National <a href="/wiki/List_of_meteorology_institutions" title="List of meteorology institutions">meteorological organizations</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Meteorological_Office" title="National Meteorological Office">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghana_Meteorological_Agency" title="Ghana Meteorological Agency">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambique_National_Institute_of_Meteorology" title="Mozambique National Institute of Meteorology">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Weather_Service" title="South African Weather Service">South Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Servicio_Meteorol%C3%B3gico_Nacional_(Argentina)" title="Servicio Meteorológico Nacional (Argentina)">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bermuda_Weather_Service" title="Bermuda Weather Service">Bermuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Meteorology" title="National Institute of Meteorology">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteorological_Service_of_Canada" title="Meteorological Service of Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meteorological_Directorate_of_Chile&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Meteorological Directorate of Chile (page does not exist)">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Hydrology,_Meteorology_and_Environmental_Studies_(Colombia)" title="Institute of Hydrology, Meteorology and Environmental Studies (Colombia)">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instituto_Meteorol%C3%B3gico_Nacional" title="Instituto Meteorológico Nacional">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Meteorology_(Cuba)" class="mw-redirect" title="Institute of Meteorology (Cuba)">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instituto_Nacional_de_Meteorolog%C3%ADa_e_Hidrolog%C3%ADa_(Ecuador)" title="Instituto Nacional de Meteorología e Hidrología (Ecuador)">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instituto_Nacional_de_Sismolog%C3%ADa,_Vulcanolog%C3%ADa,_Meteorolog%C3%ADa_e_Hidrolog%C3%ADa" title="Instituto Nacional de Sismología, Vulcanología, Meteorología e Hidrología">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Servicio_Meteorol%C3%B3gico_Nacional_(Mexico)" title="Servicio Meteorológico Nacional (Mexico)">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Weather_Service" title="National Weather Service">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruguayan_Institute_of_Meteorology" title="Uruguayan Institute of Meteorology">Uruguay</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afghanistan_Meteorological_Authority" title="Afghanistan Meteorological Authority">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh_Meteorological_Department" title="Bangladesh Meteorological Department">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Hydrology_and_Meteorology" title="National Center for Hydrology and Meteorology">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Meteorological_Administration" title="China Meteorological Administration">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Observatory" title="Hong Kong Observatory">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteorological_and_Geophysical_Bureau" title="Meteorological and Geophysical Bureau">Macau</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India_Meteorological_Department" title="India Meteorological Department">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteorology,_Climatology,_and_Geophysical_Agency" title="Meteorology, Climatology, and Geophysical Agency">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_Meteorological_Organization" title="Iran Meteorological Organization">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel_Meteorological_Service" title="Israel Meteorological Service">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan_Meteorological_Agency" title="Japan Meteorological Agency">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Hydro-Meteorological_Administration" title="State Hydro-Meteorological Administration">Korea (DPRK)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korea_Meteorological_Administration" title="Korea Meteorological Administration">Korea (ROK)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Meteorological_Department" title="Malaysian Meteorological Department">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistan_Meteorological_Department" title="Pakistan Meteorological Department">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Meteorological_Department" title="Palestinian Meteorological Department">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PAGASA" title="PAGASA">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Service_for_Hydrometeorology_and_Environmental_Monitoring_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring of Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Meteorology_(Saudi_Arabia)" title="National Center for Meteorology (Saudi Arabia)">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteorological_Service_Singapore" title="Meteorological Service Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Weather_Administration" title="Central Weather Administration">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_Meteorological_Department" title="Thai Meteorological Department">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_State_Meteorological_Service" title="Turkish State Meteorological Service">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Institute_of_Seismology_and_Atmospheric_Physics_of_the_Academy_of_Sciences_of_Turkmenistan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Institute of Seismology and Atmospheric Physics of the Academy of Sciences of Turkmenistan (page does not exist)">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Meteorology_(United_Arab_Emirates)" title="National Center for Meteorology (United Arab Emirates)">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Hydro-Meteorological_Forecasting" title="National Center for Hydro-Meteorological Forecasting">Vietnam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Institution_for_Meteorology_and_Geodynamics" title="Central Institution for Meteorology and Geodynamics">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Meteorological_Institute" title="Royal Meteorological Institute">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatian_Meteorological_and_Hydrological_Service" title="Croatian Meteorological and Hydrological Service">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_Hydrometeorological_Institute" title="Czech Hydrometeorological Institute">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_Meteorological_Institute" title="Danish Meteorological Institute">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_Weather_Service" title="Estonian Weather Service">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_Meteorological_Institute" title="Finnish Meteorological Institute">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9t%C3%A9o-France" title="Météo-France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deutscher_Wetterdienst" title="Deutscher Wetterdienst">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenic_National_Meteorological_Service" title="Hellenic National Meteorological Service">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_Meteorological_Office" title="Icelandic Meteorological Office">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Met_%C3%89ireann" title="Met Éireann">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Servizio_Meteorologico" title="Servizio Meteorologico">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_Environment,_Geology_and_Meteorology_Centre" title="Latvian Environment, Geology and Meteorology Centre">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Hydrometeorological_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithuanian Hydrometeorological Service">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrometeorological_Institute_of_Montenegro" title="Hydrometeorological Institute of Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Netherlands_Meteorological_Institute" title="Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_Meteorological_Institute" title="Norwegian Meteorological Institute">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instituto_Portugu%C3%AAs_do_Mar_e_da_Atmosfera" title="Instituto Português do Mar e da Atmosfera">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administra%C8%9Bia_Na%C8%9Bional%C4%83_de_Meteorologie" title="Administrația Națională de Meteorologie">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Service_for_Hydrometeorology_and_Environmental_Monitoring_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring of Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_Hydrometeorological_Institute_of_Serbia" title="Republic Hydrometeorological Institute of Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovenian_Environment_Agency" title="Slovenian Environment Agency">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Meteorological_Agency" title="State Meteorological Agency">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Meteorological_and_Hydrological_Institute" title="Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MeteoSwiss" title="MeteoSwiss">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_State_Meteorological_Service" title="Turkish State Meteorological Service">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Met_Office" title="Met Office">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ukrainian_Hydrometeorological_Center&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ukrainian Hydrometeorological Center (page does not exist)">Ukraine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Meteorology" title="Bureau of Meteorology">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiji_Meteorological_Service" title="Fiji Meteorological Service">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MetService" title="MetService">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonga_Meteorological_Service" title="Tonga Meteorological Service">Tonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuvalu_Meteorological_Service" title="Tuvalu Meteorological Service">Tuvalu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>Regional: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Institute_for_Meteorology_and_Hydrology" title="Caribbean Institute for Meteorology and Hydrology">Caribbean Institute for Meteorology and Hydrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Centre_for_Medium-Range_Weather_Forecasts" title="European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts">European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Severe_Storms_Laboratory" title="European Severe Storms Laboratory">European Severe Storms Laboratory</a></li></ul></li> <li>Global: <a href="/wiki/World_Meteorological_Organization" title="World Meteorological Organization">World Meteorological Organization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output 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