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<span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Generation and applications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Generation_and_applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_the_atmosphere" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_the_atmosphere"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>In the atmosphere</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-In_the_atmosphere-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle In the atmosphere subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-In_the_atmosphere-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Effects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Size_distribution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Size_distribution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Size distribution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Size_distribution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Physics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Physics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Physics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Physics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Terminal_velocity_of_a_particle_in_a_fluid" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Terminal_velocity_of_a_particle_in_a_fluid"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Terminal velocity of a particle in a fluid</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Terminal_velocity_of_a_particle_in_a_fluid-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aerodynamic_diameter" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aerodynamic_diameter"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Aerodynamic diameter</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aerodynamic_diameter-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dynamics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dynamics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Dynamics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dynamics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Coagulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coagulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.1</span> <span>Coagulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coagulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dynamics_regimes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dynamics_regimes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.2</span> <span>Dynamics regimes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dynamics_regimes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Partitioning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Partitioning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.3</span> <span>Partitioning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Partitioning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Activation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Activation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.4</span> <span>Activation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Activation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Solution_to_the_general_dynamic_equation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Solution_to_the_general_dynamic_equation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.5</span> <span>Solution to the general dynamic equation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Solution_to_the_general_dynamic_equation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Detection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Detection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Detection</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Detection-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Detection subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Detection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_situ_observations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_situ_observations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span><i>In situ</i> observations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_situ_observations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Remote_sensing_approach" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Remote_sensing_approach"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Remote sensing approach</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Remote_sensing_approach-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Size_selective_sampling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Size_selective_sampling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Size selective sampling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Size_selective_sampling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Aerosol</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 71 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-71" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">71 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%C3%ABrosol" title="Aërosol – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Aërosol" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosol" title="Aerosol – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Aerosol" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ænglisc</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%8A" title="هباء جوي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="هباء جوي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosol" title="Aerosol – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Aerosol" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerozol" title="Aerozol – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Aerozol" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%B2" title="অ্যারোসল – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অ্যারোসল" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Аэразоль – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Аэразоль" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2" title="एरोसोल – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="एरोसोल" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%BB" title="Аерозол – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Аерозол" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosol" title="Aerosol – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Aerosol" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosol" title="Aerosol – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Aerosol" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosol" title="Aerosol – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Aerosol" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosol" title="Aerosol – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Aerosol" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosol" title="Aerosol – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Aerosol" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosol" title="Aerosol – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Aerosol" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosool" title="Aerosool – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Aerosool" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%B5%CF%81%CF%8C%CE%BB%CF%85%CE%BC%CE%B1" title="Αερόλυμα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αερόλυμα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosol" title="Aerosol – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Aerosol" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosolo" title="Aerosolo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Aerosolo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosol" title="Aerosol – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Aerosol" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%BE%D8%AE%D8%B4" title="هواپخش – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="هواپخش" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%C3%A9rosol" title="Aérosol – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Aérosol" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosol" title="Aerosol – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Aerosol" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeras%C3%B3l" title="Aerasól – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Aerasól" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosol" title="Aerosol – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Aerosol" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%97%B0%EB%AC%B4%EC%A7%88" title="연무질 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="연무질" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%B8%D5%A6%D5%B8%D5%AC%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Աերոզոլներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Աերոզոլներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7" title="प्रश्लिष – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="प्रश्लिष" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosol" title="Aerosol – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Aerosol" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosol" title="Aerosol – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Aerosol" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Igbo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosol" title="Aerosol – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Aerosol" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosol" title="Aerosol – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Aerosol" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosol" title="Aerosol – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Aerosol" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%9C" title="אירוסול – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אירוסול" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Аэрозоль – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Аэрозоль" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Аэрозолдор – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Аэрозолдор" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosols" title="Aerosols – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Aerosols" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerozolis" title="Aerozolis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Aerozolis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosol" title="Aerosol – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Aerosol" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeros%C3%B2l" title="Aerosòl – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Aerosòl" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeroszol" title="Aeroszol – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Aeroszol" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%8E%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8B%E0%B5%BE" title="എയറോസോൾ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="എയറോസോൾ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosol" title="Aerosol – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Aerosol" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%BB" title="Аэрозол – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Аэрозол" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosol" title="Aerosol – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Aerosol" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A8%E3%82%A2%E3%83%AD%E3%82%BE%E3%83%AB" title="エアロゾル – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="エアロゾル" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosool" title="Aerosool – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Aerosool" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosol" title="Aerosol – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Aerosol" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosol" title="Aerosol – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Aerosol" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerozollar" title="Aerozollar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Aerozollar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%90%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%B2" title="ਐਰੋਸੋਲ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਐਰੋਸੋਲ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosol" title="Aerosol – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Aerosol" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerozol" title="Aerozol – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Aerozol" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerossol" title="Aerossol – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Aerossol" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosol" title="Aerosol – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Aerosol" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Аэрозоль – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Аэрозоль" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosol" title="Aerosol – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Aerosol" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeros%C3%B3l" title="Aerosól – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Aerosól" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosol" title="Aerosol – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Aerosol" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BB" title="Аеросол – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Аеросол" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosol" title="Aerosol – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Aerosol" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%C3%A9rosol" title="Aérosol – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Aérosol" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosoli" title="Aerosoli – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Aerosoli" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosol" title="Aerosol – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Aerosol" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A2" title="ละอองลอย – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ละอองลอย" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosol" title="Aerosol – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Aerosol" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%96" title="Аерозолі – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Аерозолі" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosol" title="Aerosol – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Aerosol" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B0%94%E6%BA%B6%E8%83%B6" title="气溶胶 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="气溶胶" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B0%A3%E9%9C%A7" title="氣霧 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="氣霧" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B0%94%E6%BA%B6%E8%83%B6" title="气溶胶 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="气溶胶" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" 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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Suspension of fine solid particles or liquid droplets in a gas</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Aerosil" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerosil">aerosil</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the spray can, see <a href="/wiki/Aerosol_spray_dispenser" title="Aerosol spray dispenser">Aerosol spray dispenser</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Heavy_mist.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="photograph of heavy mist" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Heavy_mist.jpg/310px-Heavy_mist.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Heavy_mist.jpg/465px-Heavy_mist.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Heavy_mist.jpg/620px-Heavy_mist.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1067" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mist" title="Mist">Mist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fog" title="Fog">fog</a> are aerosols</figcaption></figure> <p>An <b>aerosol</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Suspension_(chemistry)" title="Suspension (chemistry)">suspension</a> of fine <a href="/wiki/Solid" title="Solid">solid</a> <a href="/wiki/Particle" title="Particle">particles</a> or <a href="/wiki/Liquid" title="Liquid">liquid</a> <a href="/wiki/Drop_(liquid)" title="Drop (liquid)">droplets</a> in <a href="/wiki/Air" class="mw-redirect" title="Air">air</a> or another <a href="/wiki/Gas" title="Gas">gas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds19993_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds19993-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aerosols can be generated from natural or <a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">human causes</a>. The term <i>aerosol</i> commonly refers to the mixture of <a href="/wiki/Particulates" title="Particulates">particulates</a> in air, and not to the particulate matter alone.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Examples of natural aerosols are <a href="/wiki/Fog" title="Fog">fog</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mist" title="Mist">mist</a> or <a href="/wiki/Dust" title="Dust">dust</a>. Examples of human caused aerosols include <a href="/wiki/Particulate" class="mw-redirect" title="Particulate">particulate</a> <a href="/wiki/Air_pollutants" class="mw-redirect" title="Air pollutants">air pollutants</a>, mist from the discharge at <a href="/wiki/Hydroelectric_dam" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydroelectric dam">hydroelectric dams</a>, irrigation mist, perfume from <a href="/wiki/Spray_nozzle" title="Spray nozzle">atomizers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Smoke" title="Smoke">smoke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dust" title="Dust">dust</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pesticide" title="Pesticide">sprayed pesticides</a>, and medical treatments for respiratory illnesses.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHidy1984254_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHidy1984254-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Several types of atmospheric aerosol have a significant effect on Earth's climate: volcanic, desert dust, sea-salt, that originating from biogenic sources and human-made. Volcanic aerosol forms in the stratosphere after an eruption as droplets of <a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric acid</a> that can prevail for up to two years, and reflect sunlight, lowering temperature. Desert dust, mineral particles blown to high altitudes, absorb heat and may be responsible for inhibiting storm cloud formation. Human-made <a href="/wiki/Sulfate_aerosol" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulfate aerosol">sulfate aerosols</a>, primarily from burning oil and coal, affect the behavior of clouds.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When aerosols absorb pollutants, it facilitates the deposition of pollutants to the surface of the earth as well as to bodies of water.<sup id="cite_ref-kommalapati_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kommalapati-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This has the potential to be damaging to both the environment and human health. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ship_tracks" title="Ship tracks">Ship tracks</a> are <a href="/wiki/Cloud" title="Cloud">clouds</a> that form around the <a href="/wiki/Exhaust_gas" title="Exhaust gas">exhaust</a> released by ships into the still ocean air. Water <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecules</a> collect around the tiny particles (<a href="/wiki/Particulate" class="mw-redirect" title="Particulate">aerosols</a>) from exhaust to form a <a href="/wiki/Cloud_seed" class="mw-redirect" title="Cloud seed">cloud seed</a>. More and more water accumulates on the seed until a visible cloud is formed. In the case of ship tracks, the cloud seeds are stretched over a long narrow path where the wind has blown the ship's exhaust, so the resulting clouds resemble long strings over the ocean. </p><p>The warming caused by human-produced greenhouse gases has been somewhat offset by the cooling effect of human-produced aerosols. In 2020, regulations on fuel significantly cut sulfur dioxide emissions from international shipping by approximately 80%, leading to an unexpected global geoengineering termination shock.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The liquid or solid particles in an aerosol have diameters typically less than <a href="/wiki/Micrometre" title="Micrometre">1 μm</a>. Larger particles with a significant settling speed make the mixture a <a href="/wiki/Suspension_(chemistry)" title="Suspension (chemistry)">suspension</a>, but the distinction is not clear. In everyday language, <i>aerosol</i> often refers to a <a href="/wiki/Aerosol_spray" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerosol spray">dispensing system</a> that delivers a consumer product from a <a href="/wiki/Spray_can" class="mw-redirect" title="Spray can">spray can</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Airborne_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Airborne disease">Diseases can spread</a> by means of small droplets in the <a href="/wiki/Breath" class="mw-redirect" title="Breath">breath</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> sometimes called <a href="/wiki/Bioaerosols" class="mw-redirect" title="Bioaerosols">bioaerosols</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definitions">Definitions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aerosol&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definitions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Particulates" title="Particulates">Particulates</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fly_Ash_FHWA_dot_gov.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Fly ash particles shown at 2,000 times magnification" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Fly_Ash_FHWA_dot_gov.jpg/220px-Fly_Ash_FHWA_dot_gov.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Fly_Ash_FHWA_dot_gov.jpg/330px-Fly_Ash_FHWA_dot_gov.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Fly_Ash_FHWA_dot_gov.jpg 2x" data-file-width="347" data-file-height="274" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Photomicrograph" class="mw-redirect" title="Photomicrograph">Photomicrograph</a> made with a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM): <a href="/wiki/Fly_ash" class="mw-redirect" title="Fly ash">Fly ash</a> particles at 2,000× magnification. Most of the particles in this aerosol are nearly spherical.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aerosol.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Aerosol.png/220px-Aerosol.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Aerosol.png/330px-Aerosol.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Aerosol.png/440px-Aerosol.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Aerosol_spray_dispenser" title="Aerosol spray dispenser">Aerosol spray can</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Aerosol is defined as a suspension system of solid or liquid particles in a gas. An aerosol includes both the particles and the suspending gas, which is usually air.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds19993_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds19993-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meteorologists and climatologists often refer to them as particle matter, while the classification in sizes ranges like PM2.5 or PM10,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-auto_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is useful in the field of atmospheric pollution as these size range play a role in ascertain the harmful effects in human health.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Frederick_G._Donnan" title="Frederick G. Donnan">Frederick G. Donnan</a> presumably first used the term <i>aerosol</i> during <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> to describe an aero-<a href="/wiki/Solution_(chemistry)" title="Solution (chemistry)">solution</a>, clouds of microscopic particles in air. This term developed analogously to the term <a href="/wiki/Sol_(colloid)" title="Sol (colloid)">hydrosol</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Colloid" title="Colloid">colloid</a> system with water as the dispersed medium.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHidy19845_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHidy19845-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Primary aerosols</i> contain particles introduced directly into the gas; <i>secondary aerosols</i> form through gas-to-particle conversion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds19998_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds19998-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Key aerosol groups include sulfates, organic carbon, black carbon, nitrates, mineral dust, and sea salt, they usually clump together to form a complex mixture.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Various types of aerosol, classified according to physical form and how they were generated, include dust, fume, mist, smoke and fog.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEColbeckLazaridis2014Ch._1.1_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEColbeckLazaridis2014Ch._1.1-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are several measures of aerosol concentration. <a href="/wiki/Environmental_science" title="Environmental science">Environmental science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Environmental_health" title="Environmental health">environmental health</a> often use the <i><a href="/wiki/Mass_concentration_(chemistry)" title="Mass concentration (chemistry)">mass concentration</a></i> (<i>M</i>), defined as the mass of particulate matter per unit volume, in units such as μg/m<sup>3</sup>. Also commonly used is the <i><a href="/wiki/Number_density" title="Number density">number concentration</a></i> (<i>N</i>), the number of particles per unit volume, in units such as number per m<sup>3</sup> or number per cm<sup>3</sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds199910–11_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds199910–11-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Particle size has a major influence on particle properties, and the aerosol particle radius or diameter (<i>d<sub>p</sub></i>) is a key property used to characterise aerosols. </p><p>Aerosols vary in their <a href="/wiki/Dispersity" title="Dispersity">dispersity</a>. A <i>monodisperse</i> aerosol, producible in the laboratory, contains particles of uniform size. Most aerosols, however, as <i>polydisperse</i> colloidal systems, exhibit a range of particle sizes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds19998_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds19998-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Liquid droplets are almost always nearly spherical, but scientists use an <i>equivalent diameter</i> to characterize the properties of various shapes of solid particles, some very irregular. The equivalent diameter is the diameter of a spherical particle with the same value of some physical property as the irregular particle.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds199910_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds199910-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>equivalent volume diameter</i> (<i>d<sub>e</sub></i>) is defined as the diameter of a sphere of the same volume as that of the irregular particle.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds199951_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds199951-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also commonly used is the <a href="#Aerodynamic_diameter">aerodynamic diameter</a>,  <i>d<sub>a</sub></i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Generation_and_applications">Generation and applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aerosol&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Generation and applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>People generate aerosols for various purposes, including: </p> <ul><li>as test aerosols for <a href="/wiki/Calibration" title="Calibration">calibrating</a> instruments, performing research, and testing sampling equipment and air filters;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds1999428_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1999428-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>to deliver <a href="/wiki/Deodorant" title="Deodorant">deodorants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paint" title="Paint">paints</a>, and other consumer products in sprays;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHidy1984255_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHidy1984255-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>for dispersal and agricultural application</li> <li>for medical treatment of <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_disease" title="Respiratory disease">respiratory disease</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHidy1984274_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHidy1984274-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and</li> <li>in <a href="/wiki/Fuel_injection" title="Fuel injection">fuel injection</a> systems and other <a href="/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion">combustion</a> technology.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHidy1984278_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHidy1984278-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Some devices for generating aerosols are:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHidy1984254_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHidy1984254-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerosol_spray" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerosol spray">Aerosol spray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomizer_nozzle" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomizer nozzle">Atomizer nozzle</a> or <a href="/wiki/Nebulizer" title="Nebulizer">nebulizer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrospray" title="Electrospray">Electrospray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_cigarette" title="Electronic cigarette">Electronic cigarette</a></li> <li>Vibrating orifice aerosol generator (VOAG)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_the_atmosphere">In the atmosphere</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aerosol&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: In the atmosphere"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aerosol-India.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Satellite photo showing aerosol pollution visible from space" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Aerosol-India.jpg/220px-Aerosol-India.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="290" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Aerosol-India.jpg/330px-Aerosol-India.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Aerosol-India.jpg/440px-Aerosol-India.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="1450" /></a><figcaption>Aerosol pollution over northern <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_global_aerosols.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Portrait_of_global_aerosols.jpg/350px-Portrait_of_global_aerosols.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Portrait_of_global_aerosols.jpg/525px-Portrait_of_global_aerosols.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Portrait_of_global_aerosols.jpg/700px-Portrait_of_global_aerosols.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>Overview of large clouds of aerosols around Earth (green: smoke, blue: salt, yellow: dust, white: sulfuric)</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Particulates" title="Particulates">Particulates</a></div> <p>Several types of atmospheric aerosol have a significant effect on Earth's climate: volcanic, desert dust, sea-salt, that originating from biogenic sources and human-made. Volcanic aerosol forms in the stratosphere after an eruption as droplets of <a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric acid</a> that can prevail for up to two years, and reflect sunlight, lowering temperature. Desert dust, mineral particles blown to high altitudes, absorb heat and may be responsible for inhibiting storm cloud formation. Human-made <a href="/wiki/Sulfate_aerosol" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulfate aerosol">sulfate aerosols</a>, primarily from burning oil and coal, affect the behavior of clouds.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although all <a href="/wiki/Precipitation#Hydrometeor_definition" title="Precipitation">hydrometeors</a>, solid and liquid, can be described as aerosols, a distinction is commonly made between such dispersions (i.e. clouds) containing activated drops and crystals, and aerosol particles.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">atmosphere of Earth</a> contains aerosols of various types and concentrations, including quantities of: </p> <ul><li>natural <a href="/wiki/Inorganic_chemistry" title="Inorganic chemistry">inorganic</a> materials: fine dust, sea salt, or water droplets</li> <li>natural <a href="/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry">organic</a> materials: smoke, <a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">pollen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">spores</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">anthropogenic</a> products of combustion such as: smoke, <a href="/wiki/Fly_ash" class="mw-redirect" title="Fly ash">ashes</a> or dusts</li></ul> <p>Aerosols can be found in urban <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystems</a> in various forms, for example: </p> <ul><li>Dust</li> <li>Cigarette smoke</li> <li>Mist from <a href="/wiki/Aerosol_spray" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerosol spray">aerosol spray</a> cans</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soot" title="Soot">Soot</a> or fumes in car exhaust</li></ul> <p>The presence of aerosols in the Earth's atmosphere can influence its climate, as well as human health. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effects">Effects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aerosol&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Particulates#Climate_effects" title="Particulates">Particulates § Climate effects</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:20231206_Radiative_forcing_(warming_influence)_-_global_warming.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/20231206_Radiative_forcing_%28warming_influence%29_-_global_warming.svg/220px-20231206_Radiative_forcing_%28warming_influence%29_-_global_warming.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/20231206_Radiative_forcing_%28warming_influence%29_-_global_warming.svg/330px-20231206_Radiative_forcing_%28warming_influence%29_-_global_warming.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/20231206_Radiative_forcing_%28warming_influence%29_-_global_warming.svg/440px-20231206_Radiative_forcing_%28warming_influence%29_-_global_warming.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="760" /></a><figcaption>Aerosols have a cooling effect that is small compared to the radiative forcing (warming effect) of greenhouse gases.<sup id="cite_ref-ESSD_2022_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ESSD_2022-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure><p>Volcanic eruptions release large amounts of <a href="/wiki/Sulphuric_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulphuric acid">sulphuric acid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">hydrogen sulfide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid" title="Hydrochloric acid">hydrochloric acid</a> into the atmosphere. These gases represent aerosols and eventually return to earth as <a href="/wiki/Acid_rain" title="Acid rain">acid rain</a>, having a number of <a href="/wiki/Acid_rain#Adverse_effects" title="Acid rain">adverse effects</a> on the environment and human life.<sup id="cite_ref-nasa_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nasa-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When aerosols absorb pollutants, it facilitates the deposition of pollutants to the surface of the earth as well as to bodies of water.<sup id="cite_ref-kommalapati_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kommalapati-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This has the potential to be damaging to both the environment and human health. </p><p>Aerosols interact with the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_energy_budget" title="Earth's energy budget">Earth's energy budget</a> in two ways, directly and indirectly. </p> <dl><dd><ul><li>E.g., a <i>direct</i> effect is that aerosols scatter and absorb incoming solar radiation.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This will mainly lead to a cooling of the surface (solar radiation is scattered back to space) but may also contribute to a warming of the surface (caused by the absorption of incoming solar energy).<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This will be an additional element to the <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_effect" title="Greenhouse effect">greenhouse effect</a> and therefore contributing to the global climate change.<sup id="cite_ref-kommalapati_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kommalapati-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <i>indirect</i> effects refer to the aerosol interfering with formations that interact directly with radiation. For example, they are able to modify the size of the cloud particles in the lower atmosphere, thereby changing the way clouds reflect and absorb light and therefore modifying the Earth's energy budget.<sup id="cite_ref-nasa_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nasa-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>There is evidence to suggest that anthropogenic aerosols actually offset the effects of greenhouse gases in some areas, which is why the Northern Hemisphere shows slower surface warming than the Southern Hemisphere, although that just means that the Northern Hemisphere will absorb the heat later through ocean currents bringing warmer waters from the South.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On a global scale however, aerosol cooling decreases greenhouse-gases-induced heating without offsetting it completely.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></dd></dl> <p><a href="/wiki/Ship_tracks" title="Ship tracks">Ship tracks</a> are <a href="/wiki/Cloud" title="Cloud">clouds</a> that form around the <a href="/wiki/Exhaust_gas" title="Exhaust gas">exhaust</a> released by ships into the still ocean air. Water <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecules</a> collect around the tiny particles (<a href="/wiki/Particulate" class="mw-redirect" title="Particulate">aerosols</a>) from exhaust to form a <a href="/wiki/Cloud_seed" class="mw-redirect" title="Cloud seed">cloud seed</a>. More and more water accumulates on the seed until a visible cloud is formed. In the case of ship tracks, the cloud seeds are stretched over a long narrow path where the wind has blown the ship's exhaust, so the resulting clouds resemble long strings over the ocean.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The warming caused by human-produced greenhouse gases has been somewhat offset by the cooling effect of human-produced aerosols. In 2020, regulations on fuel significantly cut <a href="/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide" title="Sulfur dioxide">sulfur dioxide</a> emissions from international shipping by approximately 80%, leading to an unexpected global geoengineering termination shock.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aerosols in the 20 μm range show a particularly long persistence time in air conditioned rooms due to their "jet rider" behaviour (move with air jets, gravitationally fall out in slowly moving air);<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as this aerosol size is most effectively adsorbed in the human nose,<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the primordial infection site in <a href="/wiki/COVID-19" title="COVID-19">COVID-19</a>, such aerosols may contribute to the pandemic.<sup id="cite_ref-McNeill_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McNeill-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aerosol particles with an effective diameter smaller than 10 μm can enter the bronchi, while the ones with an effective diameter smaller than 2.5 μm can enter as far as the gas exchange region in the lungs,<sup id="cite_ref-volcanic_emissions_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-volcanic_emissions-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which can be hazardous to human health. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Size_distribution">Size distribution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aerosol&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Size distribution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Particulates#Size,_shape,_and_solubility_matter" title="Particulates">Particulates § Size, shape, and solubility matter</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Synthetic_aerosol_distribution_in_number_area_and_volume_space.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="graph showing the size distribution of aerosols over different variables" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/dc/Synthetic_aerosol_distribution_in_number_area_and_volume_space.png/290px-Synthetic_aerosol_distribution_in_number_area_and_volume_space.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="392" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/dc/Synthetic_aerosol_distribution_in_number_area_and_volume_space.png/435px-Synthetic_aerosol_distribution_in_number_area_and_volume_space.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/dc/Synthetic_aerosol_distribution_in_number_area_and_volume_space.png/580px-Synthetic_aerosol_distribution_in_number_area_and_volume_space.png 2x" data-file-width="1320" data-file-height="1784" /></a><figcaption>The same hypothetical log-normal (bi-modal) aerosol distribution plotted, from top to bottom, as a number vs. diameter distribution, a surface area vs. diameter distribution, and a volume vs. diameter distribution. Typical mode names are shown at the top. Each distribution is normalized so that the total area is 1000.</figcaption></figure> <p>For a monodisperse aerosol, a single number—the particle diameter—suffices to describe the size of the particles. However, more complicated <a href="/wiki/Particle-size_distribution" title="Particle-size distribution">particle-size distributions</a> describe the sizes of the particles in a polydisperse aerosol. This distribution defines the relative amounts of particles, sorted according to size.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One approach to defining the particle size distribution uses a list of the sizes of every particle in a sample. However, this approach proves tedious to ascertain in aerosols with millions of particles and awkward to use. Another approach splits the size range into intervals and finds the number (or proportion) of particles in each interval. These data can be presented in a <a href="/wiki/Histogram" title="Histogram">histogram</a> with the area of each bar representing the proportion of particles in that size bin, usually normalised by dividing the number of particles in a bin by the width of the interval so that the area of each bar is proportionate to the number of particles in the size range that it represents.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds199975–77_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds199975–77-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If the width of the bins <a href="/wiki/Limit_(mathematics)" title="Limit (mathematics)">tends to zero</a>, the frequency function is:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds199979_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds199979-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {d} f=f(d_{p})\,\mathrm {d} d_{p}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> </mrow> <mi>f</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> </mrow> <msub> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {d} f=f(d_{p})\,\mathrm {d} d_{p}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6ac0f60d588faa9509ec7fa28e472e8c16082299" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:14.973ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {d} f=f(d_{p})\,\mathrm {d} d_{p}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle d_{p}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle d_{p}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/58a3efb685b5e6d0fa5be00ba01cf4e30a5641ce" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:2.268ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle d_{p}}"></span> is the diameter of the particles</dd> <dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \,\mathrm {d} f}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> </mrow> <mi>f</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \,\mathrm {d} f}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/df61942ef4e775383ae49854d79e3ef93ef59bd1" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.958ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \,\mathrm {d} f}"></span> is the fraction of particles having diameters between <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle d_{p}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle d_{p}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/58a3efb685b5e6d0fa5be00ba01cf4e30a5641ce" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:2.268ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle d_{p}}"></span> and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle d_{p}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle d_{p}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/58a3efb685b5e6d0fa5be00ba01cf4e30a5641ce" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:2.268ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle d_{p}}"></span> + <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {d} d_{p}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> </mrow> <msub> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {d} d_{p}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4bf7cbda263e4f62b51521683cb4ad4a69da303d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:3.561ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {d} d_{p}}"></span></dd> <dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f(d_{p})}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f(d_{p})}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/cfd9acf5b597cc977e454743d723ab11ddb9e177" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:5.356ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f(d_{p})}"></span> is the frequency function</dd></dl> <p>Therefore, the area under the frequency curve between two sizes a and <i>b</i> represents the total fraction of the particles in that size range:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds199979_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds199979-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f_{ab}=\int _{a}^{b}f(d_{p})\,\mathrm {d} d_{p}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>f</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>a</mi> <mi>b</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>a</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>b</mi> </mrow> </msubsup> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> </mrow> <msub> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f_{ab}=\int _{a}^{b}f(d_{p})\,\mathrm {d} d_{p}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/dac768fd6ce707c58a0124cb4cf4f196d7dd341b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:19.137ex; height:6.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f_{ab}=\int _{a}^{b}f(d_{p})\,\mathrm {d} d_{p}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>It can also be formulated in terms of the total number density <i>N</i>:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHidy198458_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHidy198458-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle dN=N(d_{p})\,\mathrm {d} d_{p}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>d</mi> <mi>N</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>N</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> </mrow> <msub> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle dN=N(d_{p})\,\mathrm {d} d_{p}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b15d6a1494b6856ee5d9e724b912a387219fa41a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:16.467ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle dN=N(d_{p})\,\mathrm {d} d_{p}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>Assuming spherical aerosol particles, the aerosol surface area per unit volume (<i>S</i>) is given by the second <a href="/wiki/Moment_(mathematics)" title="Moment (mathematics)">moment</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHidy198458_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHidy198458-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S=\pi /2\int _{0}^{\infty }N(d_{p})d_{p}^{2}\,\mathrm {d} d_{p}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>S</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>π</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">∞</mi> </mrow> </msubsup> <mi>N</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <msubsup> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> </mrow> <msub> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S=\pi /2\int _{0}^{\infty }N(d_{p})d_{p}^{2}\,\mathrm {d} d_{p}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/adfc64fe4acfd1bea7594e070a2f4c1f68488634" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:25.729ex; height:5.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S=\pi /2\int _{0}^{\infty }N(d_{p})d_{p}^{2}\,\mathrm {d} d_{p}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>And the third moment gives the total volume concentration (<i>V</i>) of the particles:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHidy198458_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHidy198458-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle V=\pi /6\int _{0}^{\infty }N(d_{p})d_{p}^{3}\,\mathrm {d} d_{p}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>V</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>π</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>6</mn> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">∞</mi> </mrow> </msubsup> <mi>N</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <msubsup> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> </mrow> <msub> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V=\pi /6\int _{0}^{\infty }N(d_{p})d_{p}^{3}\,\mathrm {d} d_{p}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1e9ffac6f7c9f413a2ac6f92f2a606fafde41c24" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:26.017ex; height:5.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle V=\pi /6\int _{0}^{\infty }N(d_{p})d_{p}^{3}\,\mathrm {d} d_{p}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>The particle size distribution can be approximated. The <a href="/wiki/Normal_distribution" title="Normal distribution">normal distribution</a> usually does not suitably describe particle size distributions in aerosols because of the <a href="/wiki/Skewness" title="Skewness">skewness</a> associated with a <a href="/wiki/Long_tail" title="Long tail">long tail</a> of larger particles. Also for a quantity that varies over a large range, as many aerosol sizes do, the width of the distribution implies negative particles sizes, which is not physically realistic. However, the normal distribution can be suitable for some aerosols, such as test aerosols, certain <a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">pollen</a> grains and <a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">spores</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds199990_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds199990-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A more widely chosen <a href="/wiki/Log-normal_distribution" title="Log-normal distribution">log-normal distribution</a> gives the number frequency as:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds199990_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds199990-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {d} f={\frac {1}{d_{p}\sigma {\sqrt {2\pi }}}}e^{-{\frac {(ln(d_{p})-{\bar {d_{p}}})^{2}}{2\sigma ^{2}}}}\mathrm {d} d_{p}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> </mrow> <mi>f</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mrow> <msub> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <mn>2</mn> <mi>π</mi> </msqrt> </mrow> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>l</mi> <mi>n</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <msub> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> <msup> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> </mrow> <msub> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {d} f={\frac {1}{d_{p}\sigma {\sqrt {2\pi }}}}e^{-{\frac {(ln(d_{p})-{\bar {d_{p}}})^{2}}{2\sigma ^{2}}}}\mathrm {d} d_{p}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/14842f601bb080f1e05a181a3d61c1a692d47fbb" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.005ex; width:29.637ex; height:7.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {d} f={\frac {1}{d_{p}\sigma {\sqrt {2\pi }}}}e^{-{\frac {(ln(d_{p})-{\bar {d_{p}}})^{2}}{2\sigma ^{2}}}}\mathrm {d} d_{p}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sigma }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>σ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sigma }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/59f59b7c3e6fdb1d0365a494b81fb9a696138c36" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sigma }"></span> is the <a href="/wiki/Standard_deviation" title="Standard deviation">standard deviation</a> of the size distribution and</dd> <dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\bar {d_{p}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <msub> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\bar {d_{p}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b26c823d49288f112d926b80fd17fce4566ba1ff" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:2.268ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\bar {d_{p}}}}"></span> is the <a href="/wiki/Arithmetic_mean" title="Arithmetic mean">arithmetic mean</a> diameter.</dd></dl> <p>The log-normal distribution has no negative values, can cover a wide range of values, and fits many observed size distributions reasonably well.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds199991_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds199991-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other distributions sometimes used to characterise particle size include: the <a href="/wiki/Weibull_distribution" title="Weibull distribution">Rosin-Rammler distribution</a>, applied to coarsely dispersed dusts and sprays; the Nukiyama–Tanasawa distribution, for sprays of extremely broad size ranges; the <a href="/wiki/Power_law#Power-law_probability_distributions" title="Power law">power function distribution</a>, occasionally applied to atmospheric aerosols; the <a href="/wiki/Exponential_distribution" title="Exponential distribution">exponential distribution</a>, applied to powdered materials; and for cloud droplets, the Khrgian–Mazin distribution.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds1999104–5_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1999104–5-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physics">Physics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aerosol&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Physics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Terminal_velocity_of_a_particle_in_a_fluid">Terminal velocity of a particle in a fluid</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aerosol&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Terminal velocity of a particle in a fluid"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For low values of the <a href="/wiki/Reynolds_number" title="Reynolds number">Reynolds number</a> (<1), true for most aerosol motion, <a href="/wiki/Stokes%27_law" title="Stokes' law">Stokes' law</a> describes the force of resistance on a solid spherical particle in a fluid. However, Stokes' law is only valid when the velocity of the gas at the surface of the particle is zero. For small particles (< 1 μm) that characterize aerosols, however, this assumption fails. To account for this failure, one can introduce the <a href="/wiki/Cunningham_correction_factor" title="Cunningham correction factor">Cunningham correction factor</a>, always greater than 1. Including this factor, one finds the relation between the resisting force on a particle and its velocity:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds199944-49_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds199944-49-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle F_{D}={\frac {3\pi \eta Vd}{C_{c}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>F</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>D</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mn>3</mn> <mi>π</mi> <mi>η</mi> <mi>V</mi> <mi>d</mi> </mrow> <msub> <mi>C</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>c</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle F_{D}={\frac {3\pi \eta Vd}{C_{c}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f16fda473e56f2346db7e413e34baaf71f0a714f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:13.689ex; height:5.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle F_{D}={\frac {3\pi \eta Vd}{C_{c}}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle F_{D}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>F</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>D</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle F_{D}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ac0e98e9397b14b2f9399967a0c2154fa2c14d69" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.088ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle F_{D}}"></span> is the resisting force on a spherical particle</dd> <dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \eta }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>η</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \eta }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e4d701857cf5fbec133eebaf94deadf722537f64" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:1.169ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \eta }"></span> is the dynamic <a href="/wiki/Viscosity" title="Viscosity">viscosity</a> of the gas</dd> <dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle V}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>V</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/af0f6064540e84211d0ffe4dac72098adfa52845" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.787ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle V}"></span> is the particle velocity</dd> <dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle C_{c}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>C</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>c</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle C_{c}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/671b82c8d748437191d28baaa2210758825b723c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.606ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle C_{c}}"></span> is the Cunningham correction factor.</dd></dl> <p>This allows us to calculate the <a href="/wiki/Terminal_velocity" title="Terminal velocity">terminal velocity</a> of a particle undergoing gravitational settling in still air. Neglecting <a href="/wiki/Buoyancy" title="Buoyancy">buoyancy</a> effects, we find:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds199949_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds199949-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle V_{TS}={\frac {\rho _{p}d^{2}gC_{c}}{18\eta }}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>T</mi> <mi>S</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msub> <mi>ρ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msup> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mi>g</mi> <msub> <mi>C</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>c</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>18</mn> <mi>η</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V_{TS}={\frac {\rho _{p}d^{2}gC_{c}}{18\eta }}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/50af25ace526ced190702f53e51561e0236555d3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:15.995ex; height:6.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle V_{TS}={\frac {\rho _{p}d^{2}gC_{c}}{18\eta }}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle V_{TS}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>T</mi> <mi>S</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V_{TS}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/89464740f54196b1320926c61f346bfa7d53c416" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.805ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle V_{TS}}"></span> is the terminal settling velocity of the particle.</dd></dl> <p>The terminal velocity can also be derived for other kinds of forces. If Stokes' law holds, then the resistance to motion is directly proportional to speed. The constant of proportionality is the mechanical mobility (<i>B</i>) of a particle:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds199947_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds199947-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle B={\frac {V}{F_{D}}}={\frac {C_{c}}{3\pi \eta d}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>B</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>V</mi> <msub> <mi>F</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>D</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>C</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>c</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mrow> <mn>3</mn> <mi>π</mi> <mi>η</mi> <mi>d</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle B={\frac {V}{F_{D}}}={\frac {C_{c}}{3\pi \eta d}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5a34b690f8a3ff5190cc5cc5d19a6357ded619a4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:17.6ex; height:5.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle B={\frac {V}{F_{D}}}={\frac {C_{c}}{3\pi \eta d}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>A particle traveling at any reasonable initial velocity approaches its terminal velocity <a href="/wiki/Exponential_decay" title="Exponential decay">exponentially</a> with an <i>e</i>-folding time equal to the relaxation time:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds1999115_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1999115-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle V(t)=V_{f}-(V_{f}-V_{0})e^{-{\frac {t}{\tau }}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>V</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>f</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>f</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>t</mi> <mi>τ</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V(t)=V_{f}-(V_{f}-V_{0})e^{-{\frac {t}{\tau }}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0eb093b8caf3f9d2f5b1a7809a89af222f4045dd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:26.538ex; height:4.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle V(t)=V_{f}-(V_{f}-V_{0})e^{-{\frac {t}{\tau }}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle V(t)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>V</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V(t)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/383b47023708ac9df0e198448491048ec7acb2cf" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.436ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle V(t)}"></span> is the particle speed at time t</dd> <dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle V_{f}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>f</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V_{f}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/cdc0d1604bbf75069df35d14afa9fac3e883be3f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:2.492ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle V_{f}}"></span> is the final particle speed</dd> <dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle V_{0}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V_{0}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7ae15ff9b845587dc4e1816f59c3fed0e71a132f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.409ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle V_{0}}"></span> is the initial particle speed</dd></dl> <p>To account for the effect of the shape of non-spherical particles, a correction factor known as the <i>dynamic shape factor</i> is applied to Stokes' law. It is defined as the ratio of the resistive force of the irregular particle to that of a spherical particle with the same volume and velocity:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds199951_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds199951-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \chi ={\frac {F_{D}}{3\pi \eta Vd_{e}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>χ</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>F</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>D</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mrow> <mn>3</mn> <mi>π</mi> <mi>η</mi> <mi>V</mi> <msub> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>e</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \chi ={\frac {F_{D}}{3\pi \eta Vd_{e}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/46b42c00911f46105bb83a7664fdefbe4a174f65" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:13.048ex; height:5.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \chi ={\frac {F_{D}}{3\pi \eta Vd_{e}}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \chi }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>χ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \chi }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/656111758322ace96d80a9371771aa6d3de25437" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.455ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \chi }"></span> is the dynamic shape factor</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aerodynamic_diameter">Aerodynamic diameter</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aerosol&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Aerodynamic diameter"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The aerodynamic diameter of an irregular particle is defined as the diameter of the spherical particle with a density of 1000 kg/m<sup>3</sup> and the same settling velocity as the irregular particle.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds199953_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds199953-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Neglecting the slip correction, the particle settles at the terminal velocity proportional to the square of the <a href="/wiki/Aerodynamic" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerodynamic">aerodynamic</a> diameter, <i>d<sub>a</sub></i>:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds199953_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds199953-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle V_{TS}={\frac {\rho _{0}d_{a}^{2}g}{18\eta }}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>T</mi> <mi>S</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msub> <mi>ρ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msubsup> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>a</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <mi>g</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>18</mn> <mi>η</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V_{TS}={\frac {\rho _{0}d_{a}^{2}g}{18\eta }}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/18d5affce708b2aaef308b3be98e211b0962e7c7" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:13.422ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle V_{TS}={\frac {\rho _{0}d_{a}^{2}g}{18\eta }}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \ \rho _{0}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mtext> </mtext> <msub> <mi>ρ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \ \rho _{0}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f1d90f979d60787a1445ccf0a3288c1f004b0609" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:2.837ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \ \rho _{0}}"></span> = standard particle density (1000 kg/m<sup>3</sup>).</dd></dl> <p>This equation gives the aerodynamic diameter:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds199954_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds199954-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle d_{a}=d_{e}\left({\frac {\rho _{p}}{\rho _{0}\chi }}\right)^{\frac {1}{2}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>a</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>e</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msup> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>ρ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mrow> <msub> <mi>ρ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mi>χ</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle d_{a}=d_{e}\left({\frac {\rho _{p}}{\rho _{0}\chi }}\right)^{\frac {1}{2}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/cec6c17927616a86006aef1254ef9f365af62649" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:17.321ex; height:7.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle d_{a}=d_{e}\left({\frac {\rho _{p}}{\rho _{0}\chi }}\right)^{\frac {1}{2}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>One can apply the aerodynamic diameter to particulate pollutants or to inhaled drugs to predict where in the respiratory tract such particles deposit. Pharmaceutical companies typically use aerodynamic diameter, not geometric diameter, to characterize particles in inhalable drugs. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dynamics">Dynamics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aerosol&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Dynamics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The previous discussion focused on single aerosol particles. In contrast, <i>aerosol dynamics</i> explains the evolution of complete aerosol populations. The concentrations of particles will change over time as a result of many processes. External processes that move particles outside a volume of gas under study include <a href="/wiki/Diffusion" title="Diffusion">diffusion</a>, gravitational settling, and <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">electric charges</a> and other external forces that cause particle migration. A second set of processes internal to a given volume of gas include particle formation (nucleation), evaporation, chemical reaction, and coagulation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHidy198460_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHidy198460-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Differential_equation" title="Differential equation">differential equation</a> called the <i>Aerosol General Dynamic Equation</i> (GDE) characterizes the evolution of the number density of particles in an aerosol due to these processes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHidy198460_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHidy198460-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial {n_{i}}}{\partial {t}}}=-\nabla \cdot n_{i}\mathbf {q} +\nabla \cdot D_{p}\nabla _{i}n_{i}+\left({\frac {\partial {n_{i}}}{\partial {t}}}\right)_{\mathrm {growth} }+\left({\frac {\partial {n_{i}}}{\partial {t}}}\right)_{\mathrm {coag} }-\nabla \cdot \mathbf {q} _{F}n_{i}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">∇</mi> <mo>⋅</mo> <msub> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">q</mi> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">∇</mi> <mo>⋅</mo> <msub> <mi>D</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi mathvariant="normal">∇</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">g</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">r</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">o</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">w</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">t</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">h</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">c</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">o</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">a</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">g</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">∇</mi> <mo>⋅</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">q</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>F</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial {n_{i}}}{\partial {t}}}=-\nabla \cdot n_{i}\mathbf {q} +\nabla \cdot D_{p}\nabla _{i}n_{i}+\left({\frac {\partial {n_{i}}}{\partial {t}}}\right)_{\mathrm {growth} }+\left({\frac {\partial {n_{i}}}{\partial {t}}}\right)_{\mathrm {coag} }-\nabla \cdot \mathbf {q} _{F}n_{i}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/70d4bebbc9bdb0e64aaf01d1e0eae9f8b4aef592" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.838ex; width:72.282ex; height:6.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial {n_{i}}}{\partial {t}}}=-\nabla \cdot n_{i}\mathbf {q} +\nabla \cdot D_{p}\nabla _{i}n_{i}+\left({\frac {\partial {n_{i}}}{\partial {t}}}\right)_{\mathrm {growth} }+\left({\frac {\partial {n_{i}}}{\partial {t}}}\right)_{\mathrm {coag} }-\nabla \cdot \mathbf {q} _{F}n_{i}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>Change in time = Convective transport + <a href="/wiki/Brownian_motion" title="Brownian motion">brownian diffusion</a> + gas-particle interactions + coagulation + migration by external forces </p><p>Where: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n_{i}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n_{i}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/57f87f905ba5a4d8c691ccaecd65fc47bd007ba4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.194ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n_{i}}"></span> is number density of particles of size category <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle i}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>i</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle i}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/add78d8608ad86e54951b8c8bd6c8d8416533d20" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.802ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle i}"></span></dd> <dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {q} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">q</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {q} }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7be005a326b7ac3fe4c24bca391369f44c4c2876" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.416ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {q} }"></span> is the particle velocity</dd> <dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle D_{p}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>D</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle D_{p}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/11d5e48022cbe5ea6e3f3964a54dc9ea2ebd6068" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:2.983ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle D_{p}}"></span> is the particle <a href="/wiki/Einstein_relation_(kinetic_theory)" title="Einstein relation (kinetic theory)">Stokes-Einstein</a> <a href="/wiki/Mass_diffusivity" title="Mass diffusivity">diffusivity</a></dd> <dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {q} _{F}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">q</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>F</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {q} _{F}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/bf9da318c9154202b2c9ca20c2c12bf2f1397245" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:2.874ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {q} _{F}}"></span> is the particle velocity associated with an external force</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Coagulation">Coagulation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aerosol&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Coagulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aerosol_1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Aerosol_1.png/220px-Aerosol_1.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Aerosol_1.png/330px-Aerosol_1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Aerosol_1.png/440px-Aerosol_1.png 2x" data-file-width="1139" data-file-height="704" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <p>As particles and droplets in an aerosol collide with one another, they may undergo coalescence or aggregation. This process leads to a change in the aerosol particle-size distribution, with the mode increasing in diameter as total number of particles decreases.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds1999260_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1999260-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On occasion, particles may shatter apart into numerous smaller particles; however, this process usually occurs primarily in particles too large for consideration as aerosols. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dynamics_regimes">Dynamics regimes</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aerosol&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Dynamics regimes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Knudsen_number" title="Knudsen number">Knudsen number</a> of the particle define three different dynamical regimes that govern the behaviour of an aerosol: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle K_{n}={\frac {2\lambda }{d}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>K</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mi>λ</mi> </mrow> <mi>d</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle K_{n}={\frac {2\lambda }{d}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/816bbb7665fc85975f081b3c8d4ef11550242474" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:9.644ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle K_{n}={\frac {2\lambda }{d}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \lambda }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>λ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \lambda }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b43d0ea3c9c025af1be9128e62a18fa74bedda2a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.355ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \lambda }"></span> is the <a href="/wiki/Mean_free_path" title="Mean free path">mean free path</a> of the suspending gas and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle d}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>d</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle d}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e85ff03cbe0c7341af6b982e47e9f90d235c66ab" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.216ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle d}"></span> is the diameter of the particle.<sup id="cite_ref-Baron&Willeke_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baron&Willeke-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For particles in the <i>free molecular regime</i>, <i>K<sub>n</sub></i> >> 1; particles small compared to the mean free path of the suspending gas.<sup id="cite_ref-DeCarlo2004_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DeCarlo2004-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this regime, particles interact with the suspending gas through a series of "ballistic" collisions with gas molecules. As such, they behave similarly to gas molecules, tending to follow streamlines and diffusing rapidly through Brownian motion. The mass flux equation in the free molecular regime is: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle I={\frac {\pi a^{2}}{k_{b}}}\left({\frac {P_{\infty }}{T_{\infty }}}-{\frac {P_{A}}{T_{A}}}\right)\cdot C_{A}\alpha }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>I</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>π</mi> <msup> <mi>a</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>b</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">∞</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">∞</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>A</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>A</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mo>⋅</mo> <msub> <mi>C</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>A</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mi>α</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I={\frac {\pi a^{2}}{k_{b}}}\left({\frac {P_{\infty }}{T_{\infty }}}-{\frac {P_{A}}{T_{A}}}\right)\cdot C_{A}\alpha }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1aa6c4a838354fa61c9e6629826d2fd67f9ead09" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:29.661ex; height:6.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I={\frac {\pi a^{2}}{k_{b}}}\left({\frac {P_{\infty }}{T_{\infty }}}-{\frac {P_{A}}{T_{A}}}\right)\cdot C_{A}\alpha }"></span></dd></dl> <p>where <i>a</i> is the particle radius, <i>P</i><sub>∞</sub> and <i>P<sub>A</sub></i> are the pressures far from the droplet and at the surface of the droplet respectively, <i>k<sub>b</sub></i> is the Boltzmann constant, <i>T</i> is the temperature, <i>C<sub>A</sub></i> is mean thermal velocity and <i>α</i> is mass accommodation coefficient.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The derivation of this equation assumes constant pressure and constant diffusion coefficient. </p><p>Particles are in the <i>continuum regime</i> when K<sub>n</sub> << 1.<sup id="cite_ref-DeCarlo2004_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DeCarlo2004-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this regime, the particles are big compared to the mean free path of the suspending gas, meaning that the suspending gas acts as a continuous fluid flowing round the particle.<sup id="cite_ref-DeCarlo2004_51-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DeCarlo2004-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The molecular flux in this regime is: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle I_{cont}\sim {\frac {4\pi aM_{A}D_{AB}}{RT}}\left(P_{A\infty }-P_{AS}\right)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>c</mi> <mi>o</mi> <mi>n</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>∼</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mn>4</mn> <mi>π</mi> <mi>a</mi> <msub> <mi>M</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>A</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>D</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>A</mi> <mi>B</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>R</mi> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>A</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">∞</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>A</mi> <mi>S</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I_{cont}\sim {\frac {4\pi aM_{A}D_{AB}}{RT}}\left(P_{A\infty }-P_{AS}\right)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/15e4bbdc236796e751acecf1c3f491b3ec439855" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:34.013ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I_{cont}\sim {\frac {4\pi aM_{A}D_{AB}}{RT}}\left(P_{A\infty }-P_{AS}\right)}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where <i>a</i> is the radius of the particle <i>A</i>, <i>M<sub>A</sub></i> is the molecular mass of the particle <i>A</i>, <i>D<sub>AB</sub></i> is the diffusion coefficient between particles <i>A</i> and <i>B</i>, <i>R</i> is the ideal gas constant, <i>T</i> is the temperature (in absolute units like kelvin), and <i>P<sub>A∞</sub></i> and <i>P<sub>AS</sub></i> are the pressures at infinite and at the surface respectively.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The <i>transition regime</i> contains all the particles in between the free molecular and continuum regimes or <i>K<sub>n</sub></i> ≈ 1. The forces experienced by a particle are a complex combination of interactions with individual gas molecules and macroscopic interactions. The semi-empirical equation describing mass flux is: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle I=I_{cont}\cdot {\frac {1+K_{n}}{1+1.71K_{n}+1.33{K_{n}}^{2}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>I</mi> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>c</mi> <mi>o</mi> <mi>n</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>⋅</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>K</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1.71</mn> <msub> <mi>K</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1.33</mn> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mi>K</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I=I_{cont}\cdot {\frac {1+K_{n}}{1+1.71K_{n}+1.33{K_{n}}^{2}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e07c8edbe3b2f5dee425ee9d39b807c03c4f7a9b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.671ex; width:33.679ex; height:6.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I=I_{cont}\cdot {\frac {1+K_{n}}{1+1.71K_{n}+1.33{K_{n}}^{2}}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where <i>I</i><sub>cont</sub> is the mass flux in the continuum regime.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> This formula is called the Fuchs-Sutugin interpolation formula. These equations do not take into account the heat release effect. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Partitioning">Partitioning</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aerosol&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Partitioning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cond_n_evap.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="graph showing the process of condensation and evaporation on a molecular level" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Cond_n_evap.svg/220px-Cond_n_evap.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="245" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Cond_n_evap.svg/330px-Cond_n_evap.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Cond_n_evap.svg/440px-Cond_n_evap.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="143" data-file-height="159" /></a><figcaption>Condensation and evaporation</figcaption></figure> <p>Aerosol partitioning theory governs <a href="/wiki/Condensation" title="Condensation">condensation</a> on and <a href="/wiki/Evaporation" title="Evaporation">evaporation</a> from an aerosol surface, respectively. Condensation of mass causes the mode of the particle-size distributions of the aerosol to increase; conversely, evaporation causes the mode to decrease. Nucleation is the process of forming aerosol mass from the condensation of a gaseous precursor, specifically a <a href="/wiki/Vapor" title="Vapor">vapor</a>. Net condensation of the vapor requires supersaturation, a <a href="/wiki/Partial_pressure" title="Partial pressure">partial pressure</a> greater than its <a href="/wiki/Vapor_pressure" title="Vapor pressure">vapor pressure</a>. This can happen for three reasons:<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <ol><li>Lowering the temperature of the system lowers the vapor pressure.</li> <li>Chemical reactions may increase the partial pressure of a gas or lower its vapor pressure.</li> <li>The addition of additional vapor to the system may lower the equilibrium vapor pressure according to <a href="/wiki/Raoult%27s_law" title="Raoult's law">Raoult's law</a>.</li></ol> <p>There are two types of nucleation processes. Gases preferentially condense onto surfaces of pre-existing aerosol particles, known as <b>heterogeneous nucleation</b>. This process causes the diameter at the mode of particle-size distribution to increase with constant number concentration.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds1999288_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1999288-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With sufficiently high supersaturation and no suitable surfaces, particles may condense in the absence of a pre-existing surface, known as <b>homogeneous nucleation</b>. This results in the addition of very small, rapidly growing particles to the particle-size distribution.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds1999288_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1999288-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Activation">Activation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aerosol&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Activation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Water coats particles in aerosols, making them <i>activated</i>, usually in the context of forming a cloud droplet (such as natural cloud seeding by aerosols from trees in a forest).<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the <a href="/wiki/Kelvin_equation" title="Kelvin equation">Kelvin equation</a> (based on the curvature of liquid droplets), smaller particles need a higher ambient <a href="/wiki/Relative_humidity" class="mw-redirect" title="Relative humidity">relative humidity</a> to maintain equilibrium than larger particles do. The following formula gives <a href="/wiki/Relative_humidity" class="mw-redirect" title="Relative humidity">relative humidity</a> at equilibrium: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle RH={\frac {p_{s}}{p_{0}}}\times 100\%=S\times 100\%}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>R</mi> <mi>H</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>s</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mn>100</mn> <mi mathvariant="normal">%</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>S</mi> <mo>×</mo> <mn>100</mn> <mi mathvariant="normal">%</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle RH={\frac {p_{s}}{p_{0}}}\times 100\%=S\times 100\%}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f8f72d41d28d3f48e1226c23c232f045cbf02cdb" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:31.111ex; height:5.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle RH={\frac {p_{s}}{p_{0}}}\times 100\%=S\times 100\%}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p_{s}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>s</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p_{s}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0a8201eb39454219ddec719cdb8b3ffd2b3be2f9" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:2.262ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p_{s}}"></span> is the <a href="/wiki/Saturation_vapor_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Saturation vapor pressure">saturation vapor pressure</a> above a particle at equilibrium (around a curved liquid droplet), <i>p</i><sub>0</sub> is the saturation vapor pressure (flat surface of the same liquid) and <i>S</i> is the saturation ratio. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Kelvin_equation" title="Kelvin equation">Kelvin equation</a> for saturation vapor pressure above a curved surface is: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \ln {p_{s} \over p_{0}}={\frac {2\sigma M}{RT\rho \cdot r_{p}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>ln</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>s</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mi>σ</mi> <mi>M</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>R</mi> <mi>T</mi> <mi>ρ</mi> <mo>⋅</mo> <msub> <mi>r</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \ln {p_{s} \over p_{0}}={\frac {2\sigma M}{RT\rho \cdot r_{p}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6ec619f97ae145284fd959616516ae2313b95f4f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:17.71ex; height:5.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \ln {p_{s} \over p_{0}}={\frac {2\sigma M}{RT\rho \cdot r_{p}}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where <i>r<sub>p</sub></i> droplet radius, <i>σ</i> surface tension of droplet, <i>ρ</i> density of liquid, <i>M</i> molar mass, <i>T</i> temperature, and <i>R</i> molar gas constant. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Solution_to_the_general_dynamic_equation">Solution to the general dynamic equation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aerosol&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Solution to the general dynamic equation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are no general <a href="/wiki/Equation_solving" title="Equation solving">solutions</a> to the general dynamic equation (GDE);<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHidy198462_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHidy198462-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> common methods used to solve the general dynamic equation include:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFriedlander2000_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFriedlander2000-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Moment method<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Modal/sectional method,<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and</li> <li>Quadrature method of moments<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>/Taylor-series expansion method of moments,<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and</li> <li>Monte Carlo method.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Detection">Detection</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aerosol&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Detection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Aerosols can either be measured <a href="/wiki/In-situ#Earth_and_atmospheric_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="In-situ">in-situ</a> or with <a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">remote sensing</a> techniques either ground-based on airborne-based. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_situ_observations"><i>In situ</i> observations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aerosol&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: In situ observations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some available in situ measurement techniques include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerosol_mass_spectrometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerosol mass spectrometer">Aerosol mass spectrometer</a> (AMS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_mobility_analyzer" class="mw-redirect" title="Differential mobility analyzer">Differential mobility analyzer</a> (DMA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_aerosol_spectrometer" title="Electrical aerosol spectrometer">Electrical aerosol spectrometer</a> (EAS)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aerodynamic_particle_sizer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aerodynamic particle sizer (page does not exist)">Aerodynamic particle sizer</a> (APS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerodynamic_aerosol_classifier" title="Aerodynamic aerosol classifier">Aerodynamic aerosol classifier</a> (AAC)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wide_range_particle_spectrometer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wide range particle spectrometer (page does not exist)">Wide range particle spectrometer</a> (WPS)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Micro-Orifice_Uniform_Deposit_Impactor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Micro-Orifice Uniform Deposit Impactor (page does not exist)">Micro-Orifice Uniform Deposit Impactor</a>(MOUDI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condensation_particle_counter" title="Condensation particle counter">Condensation particle counter</a> (CPC)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epiphaniometer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Epiphaniometer (page does not exist)">Epiphaniometer</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_low_pressure_impactor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Electrical low pressure impactor (page does not exist)">Electrical low pressure impactor</a> (ELPI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_mass_analyser" title="Particle mass analyser">Aerosol particle mass-analyser</a> (APM)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_mass_analyser" title="Particle mass analyser">Centrifugal Particle Mass Analyser</a> (CPMA)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Remote_sensing_approach">Remote sensing approach</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aerosol&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Remote sensing approach"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Remote sensing approaches include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sun_photometer" title="Sun photometer">Sun photometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lidar" title="Lidar">Lidar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imaging_spectroscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Imaging spectroscopy">Imaging spectroscopy</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Size_selective_sampling">Size selective sampling</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aerosol&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Size selective sampling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Particles can deposit in the <a href="/wiki/Human_nose" title="Human nose">nose</a>, <a href="/wiki/Human_mouth" title="Human mouth">mouth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Human_pharynx" class="mw-redirect" title="Human pharynx">pharynx</a> and <a href="/wiki/Larynx" title="Larynx">larynx</a> (the head airways region), deeper within the respiratory tract (from the <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate_trachea" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebrate trachea">trachea</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Terminal_bronchioles" class="mw-redirect" title="Terminal bronchioles">terminal bronchioles</a>), or in the <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_alveolus" title="Pulmonary alveolus">alveolar region</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds1999233_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1999233-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The location of deposition of aerosol particles within the respiratory system strongly determines the health effects of exposure to such aerosols.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds1999233_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1999233-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This phenomenon led people to invent aerosol samplers that select a subset of the aerosol particles that reach certain parts of the respiratory system.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds1999249_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1999249-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Examples of these subsets of the particle-size distribution of an aerosol, important in occupational health, include the inhalable, thoracic, and respirable fractions. The fraction that can enter each part of the respiratory system depends on the deposition of particles in the upper parts of the airway.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds1999244_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1999244-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The inhalable fraction of particles, defined as the proportion of particles originally in the air that can enter the nose or mouth, depends on external wind speed and direction and on the particle-size distribution by aerodynamic diameter.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds1999246_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1999246-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The thoracic fraction is the proportion of the particles in ambient aerosol that can reach the thorax or chest region.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds1999254_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1999254-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The respirable fraction is the proportion of particles in the air that can reach the alveolar region.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds1999250_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1999250-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To measure the respirable fraction of particles in air, a pre-collector is used with a sampling filter. The pre-collector excludes particles as the airways remove particles from inhaled air. The sampling filter collects the particles for measurement. It is common to use <a href="/wiki/Cyclonic_separation" title="Cyclonic separation">cyclonic separation</a> for the pre-collector, but other techniques include impactors, horizontal <a href="/wiki/Elutriator" class="mw-redirect" title="Elutriator">elutriators</a>, and large pore <a href="/wiki/Membrane_filter" class="mw-redirect" title="Membrane filter">membrane filters</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds1999252_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1999252-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Two alternative size-selective criteria, often used in atmospheric monitoring, are PM<sub>10</sub> and PM<sub>2.5</sub>. PM<sub>10</sub> is defined by <a href="/wiki/International_Organization_for_Standardization" title="International Organization for Standardization">ISO</a> as <i>particles which pass through a size-selective inlet with a 50% efficiency cut-off at 10 μm aerodynamic diameter</i> and PM<sub>2.5</sub> as <i>particles which pass through a size-selective inlet with a 50% efficiency cut-off at 2.5 μm aerodynamic diameter</i>. PM<sub>10</sub> corresponds to the "thoracic convention" as defined in ISO 7708:1995, Clause 6; PM<sub>2.5</sub> corresponds to the "high-risk respirable convention" as defined in ISO 7708:1995, 7.1.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="United States Environmental Protection Agency">United States Environmental Protection Agency</a> replaced the older standards for particulate matter based on Total Suspended Particulate with another standard based on PM<sub>10</sub> in 1987<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and then introduced standards for PM<sub>2.5</sub> (also known as fine particulate matter) in 1997.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aerosol&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerogel" title="Aerogel">Aerogel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aeroplankton" title="Aeroplankton">Aeroplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerosol_transmission" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerosol transmission">Aerosol transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioaerosol" title="Bioaerosol">Bioaerosol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deposition_(Aerosol_physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Deposition (Aerosol physics)">Deposition (Aerosol physics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_dimming" title="Global dimming">Global dimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nebulizer" title="Nebulizer">Nebulizer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoterpene" title="Monoterpene">Monoterpene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stratospheric_aerosol_injection" title="Stratospheric aerosol injection">Stratospheric aerosol injection</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aerosol&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds19993-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds19993_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds19993_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHinds1999">Hinds 1999</a>, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSeinfeldPandis1998" class="citation book cs1">Seinfeld J, Pandis S (1998). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/atmosphericchemi0000sein/page/97"><i>Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics: From Air Pollution to Climate Change</i></a></span> (2nd ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey: <a href="/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="John Wiley & Sons">John Wiley & Sons</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/atmosphericchemi0000sein/page/97">97</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-17816-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-17816-3"><bdi>978-0-471-17816-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atmospheric+Chemistry+and+Physics%3A+From+Air+Pollution+to+Climate+Change&rft.place=Hoboken%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pages=97&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-471-17816-3&rft.aulast=Seinfeld&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Pandis%2C+S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fatmosphericchemi0000sein%2Fpage%2F97&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAerosol" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHidy1984254-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHidy1984254_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHidy1984254_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHidy1984">Hidy 1984</a>, p. 254.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nasa.gov/centers/langley/news/factsheets/Aerosols.html">"Atmospheric Aerosols: What Are They, and Why Are They So Important?"</a>. NASA Langley Research Center. 22 Apr 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 December</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Atmospheric+Aerosols%3A+What+Are+They%2C+and+Why+Are+They+So+Important%3F&rft.pub=NASA+Langley+Research+Center&rft.date=2008-04-22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasa.gov%2Fcenters%2Flangley%2Fnews%2Ffactsheets%2FAerosols.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAerosol" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kommalapati-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-kommalapati_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kommalapati_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kommalapati_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKommalapatiValsaraj2009" class="citation book cs1">Kommalapati, Raghava R.; Valsaraj, Kalliat T. 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href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2024ComEE...5..281Y">2024ComEE...5..281Y</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs43247-024-01442-3">10.1038/s43247-024-01442-3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2662-4435">2662-4435</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11139642">11139642</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38826490">38826490</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Communications+Earth+%26+Environment&rft.atitle=Abrupt+reduction+in+shipping+emission+as+an+inadvertent+geoengineering+termination+shock+produces+substantial+radiative+warming&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=281&rft.date=2024-05-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC11139642%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2024ComEE...5..281Y&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F38826490&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs43247-024-01442-3&rft.issn=2662-4435&rft.aulast=Yuan&rft.aufirst=Tianle&rft.au=Song%2C+Hua&rft.au=Oreopoulos%2C+Lazaros&rft.au=Wood%2C+Robert&rft.au=Bian%2C+Huisheng&rft.au=Breen%2C+Katherine&rft.au=Chin%2C+Mian&rft.au=Yu%2C+Hongbin&rft.au=Barahona%2C+Donifan&rft.au=Meyer%2C+Kerry&rft.au=Platnick%2C+Steven&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC11139642&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAerosol" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunziker2021" class="citation journal cs1">Hunziker, Patrick (2021-10-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/11/10/e047772">"Minimising exposure to respiratory droplets, 'jet riders' and aerosols in air-conditioned hospital rooms by a 'Shield-and-Sink' strategy"</a>. <i>BMJ Open</i>. <b>11</b> (10): e047772. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmjopen-2020-047772">10.1136/bmjopen-2020-047772</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2044-6055">2044-6055</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8520596">8520596</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34642190">34642190</a>.</cite><span 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"A discrete-sectional model for particulate production by gas-phase chemical reaction and aerosol coagulation in the free-molecular regime". <i>Journal of Colloid and Interface Science</i>. <b>139</b> (1): 63–86. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1990JCIS..139...63L">1990JCIS..139...63L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0021-9797%2890%2990445-T">10.1016/0021-9797(90)90445-T</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Colloid+and+Interface+Science&rft.atitle=A+discrete-sectional+model+for+particulate+production+by+gas-phase+chemical+reaction+and+aerosol+coagulation+in+the+free-molecular+regime&rft.volume=139&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=63-86&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0021-9797%2890%2990445-T&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1990JCIS..139...63L&rft.aulast=Landgrebe&rft.aufirst=James+D.&rft.au=Pratsinis%2C+Sotiris+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAerosol" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGraw1997" class="citation journal cs1">McGraw, Robert (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F02786829708965471">"Description of Aerosol Dynamics by the Quadrature Method of Moments"</a>. <i>Aerosol Science and Technology</i>. <b>27</b> (2): 255–265. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1997AerST..27..255M">1997AerST..27..255M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F02786829708965471">10.1080/02786829708965471</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Aerosol+Science+and+Technology&rft.atitle=Description+of+Aerosol+Dynamics+by+the+Quadrature+Method+of+Moments&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=255-265&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F02786829708965471&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1997AerST..27..255M&rft.aulast=McGraw&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F02786829708965471&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAerosol" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarchisioFox2005" class="citation journal cs1">Marchisio, Daniele L.; Fox, Rodney O. (2005). "Solution of population balance equations using the direct quadrature method of moments". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Aerosol_Science" title="Journal of Aerosol Science">Journal of Aerosol Science</a></i>. <b>36</b> (1): 43–73. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005JAerS..36...43M">2005JAerS..36...43M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jaerosci.2004.07.009">10.1016/j.jaerosci.2004.07.009</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Aerosol+Science&rft.atitle=Solution+of+population+balance+equations+using+the+direct+quadrature+method+of+moments&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=43-73&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jaerosci.2004.07.009&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005JAerS..36...43M&rft.aulast=Marchisio&rft.aufirst=Daniele+L.&rft.au=Fox%2C+Rodney+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAerosol" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYuLinChan2008" class="citation journal cs1">Yu, Mingzhou; Lin, Jianzhong; Chan, Tatleung (2008). "A New Moment Method for Solving the Coagulation Equation for Particles in Brownian Motion". <i>Aerosol Science and Technology</i>. <b>42</b> (9): 705–713. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008AerST..42..705Y">2008AerST..42..705Y</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F02786820802232972">10.1080/02786820802232972</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10397%2F9612">10397/9612</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:120582575">120582575</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Aerosol+Science+and+Technology&rft.atitle=A+New+Moment+Method+for+Solving+the+Coagulation+Equation+for+Particles+in+Brownian+Motion&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=705-713&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10397%2F9612&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A120582575%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F02786820802232972&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008AerST..42..705Y&rft.aulast=Yu&rft.aufirst=Mingzhou&rft.au=Lin%2C+Jianzhong&rft.au=Chan%2C+Tatleung&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAerosol" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYuLin2009" class="citation journal cs1">Yu, Mingzhou; Lin, Jianzhong (2009). "Taylor-expansion moment method for agglomerate coagulation due to Brownian motion in the entire size regime". <i>Journal of Aerosol Science</i>. <b>40</b> (6): 549–562. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009JAerS..40..549Y">2009JAerS..40..549Y</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jaerosci.2009.03.001">10.1016/j.jaerosci.2009.03.001</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Aerosol+Science&rft.atitle=Taylor-expansion+moment+method+for+agglomerate+coagulation+due+to+Brownian+motion+in+the+entire+size+regime&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=549-562&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jaerosci.2009.03.001&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009JAerS..40..549Y&rft.aulast=Yu&rft.aufirst=Mingzhou&rft.au=Lin%2C+Jianzhong&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAerosol" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKraft2005" class="citation journal cs1">Kraft, Murkus (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.14356%2Fkona.2005007">"Modelling of Particulate Processes"</a>. <i>KONA Powder and Particle Journal</i>. <b>23</b>: 18–35. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.14356%2Fkona.2005007">10.14356/kona.2005007</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=KONA+Powder+and+Particle+Journal&rft.atitle=Modelling+of+Particulate+Processes&rft.volume=23&rft.pages=18-35&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.14356%2Fkona.2005007&rft.aulast=Kraft&rft.aufirst=Murkus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.14356%252Fkona.2005007&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAerosol" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1999233-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds1999233_63-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds1999233_63-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHinds1999">Hinds 1999</a>, p. 233.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1999249-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds1999249_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHinds1999">Hinds 1999</a>, p. 249.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1999244-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds1999244_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHinds1999">Hinds 1999</a>, p. 244.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1999246-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds1999246_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHinds1999">Hinds 1999</a>, p. 246.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1999254-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds1999254_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHinds1999">Hinds 1999</a>, p. 254.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1999250-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds1999250_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHinds1999">Hinds 1999</a>, p. 250.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1999252-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds1999252_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHinds1999">Hinds 1999</a>, p. 252.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://diamondenv.wordpress.com/2010/12/10/particulate-pollution-pm10-and-pm2-5/">"Particulate pollution – PM10 and PM2.5"</a>. <i>Recognition, Evaluation, Control. News and views from Diamond Environmental Limited</i>. 2010-12-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 September</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Recognition%2C+Evaluation%2C+Control.+News+and+views+from+Diamond+Environmental+Limited&rft.atitle=Particulate+pollution+%E2%80%93+PM10+and+PM2.5&rft.date=2010-12-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdiamondenv.wordpress.com%2F2010%2F12%2F10%2Fparticulate-pollution-pm10-and-pm2-5%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAerosol" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120901140447/http://www.epa.gov/airtrends/aqtrnd95/pm10.html">"Particulate Matter (PM-10)"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.epa.gov/airtrends/aqtrnd95/pm10.html">the original</a> on 1 September 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 September</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Particulate+Matter+%28PM-10%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fairtrends%2Faqtrnd95%2Fpm10.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAerosol" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.epa.gov/pmdesignations/basicinfo.htm">"Basic Information"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 September</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Basic+Information&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fpmdesignations%2Fbasicinfo.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAerosol" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aerosol&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFColbeckLazaridis2014" class="citation book cs1">Colbeck, Ian; Lazaridis, Mihalis, eds. (2014). <i>Aerosol Science: Technology and Applications</i>. John Wiley & Sons - Science. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-119-97792-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-119-97792-6"><bdi>978-1-119-97792-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aerosol+Science%3A+Technology+and+Applications&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons+-+Science&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-119-97792-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAerosol" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedlander2000" class="citation book cs1">Friedlander, S. K. (2000). <i>Smoke, Dust and Haze: Fundamentals of Aerosol Behavior</i> (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-512999-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-512999-7"><bdi>0-19-512999-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Smoke%2C+Dust+and+Haze%3A+Fundamentals+of+Aerosol+Behavior&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-19-512999-7&rft.aulast=Friedlander&rft.aufirst=S.+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAerosol" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHinds1999" class="citation book cs1">Hinds, William C. (1999). <i>Aerosol Technology</i> (2nd ed.). Wiley - Interscience. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-19410-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-19410-1"><bdi>978-0-471-19410-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aerosol+Technology&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Wiley+-+Interscience&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-471-19410-1&rft.aulast=Hinds&rft.aufirst=William+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAerosol" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHidy1984" class="citation book cs1">Hidy, George M. (1984). <i>Aerosols, An Industrial and Environmental Science</i>. Academic Press, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-412336-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-412336-6"><bdi>978-0-12-412336-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aerosols%2C+An+Industrial+and+Environmental+Science&rft.pub=Academic+Press%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-12-412336-6&rft.aulast=Hidy&rft.aufirst=George+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAerosol" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aerosol&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style 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Association for Aerosol Research</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/nmam/chapters.html">NIOSH Manual of Analytical Methods</a> (see chapters on aerosol sampling)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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id="Aerosol_terminology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Aerosol</a> terminology</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Aerosol types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioaerosol" title="Bioaerosol">Bioaerosol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indoor_bioaerosol" title="Indoor bioaerosol">Indoor</a></li></ul></li> <li>Cloud</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dust" title="Dust">Dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mist" title="Mist">Mist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fog" title="Fog">Fog</a></li></ul></li> <li>Fume</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haze" title="Haze">Haze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanoparticle" title="Nanoparticle">Nanoparticle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle" title="Particle">Particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particulates" title="Particulates">Particulates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smog" title="Smog">Smog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoke" title="Smoke">Smoke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spray_(liquid_drop)" title="Spray (liquid drop)">Spray</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Aerosol terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerosol_impaction" title="Aerosol impaction">Aerosol impaction</a></li> <li>Agglomerate <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Primary_particle&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Primary particle (page does not exist)">Primary particle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flocculation" title="Flocculation">Flocculate</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Primary_aerosol&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Primary aerosol (page does not exist)">Primary aerosol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Secondary_aerosol&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Secondary aerosol (page does not exist)">Secondary aerosol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deposition_(aerosol_physics)" title="Deposition (aerosol physics)">Deposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dispersity" title="Dispersity">Dispersity</a> <ul><li>Monodisperse</li> <li>Polydisperse</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Aerosol measurement</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Particle_counter" title="Particle counter">Particle counters</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Condensation_particle_counter" title="Condensation particle counter">Condensation particle counter</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laser_particle_counter&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Laser particle counter (page does not exist)">Laser particle counter</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Optical_particle_counter&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Optical particle counter (page does not exist)">Optical particle counter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Particle sizers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scanning_electrical_mobility_spectrometer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Scanning electrical mobility spectrometer (page does not exist)">Scanning electrical mobility spectrometer</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diffusion_battery&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Diffusion battery (page does not exist)">Diffusion battery</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inertial_classifier&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Inertial classifier (page does not exist)">Inertial classifier</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Time-of-flight</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Time-of-flight_mass_spectrometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Time-of-flight mass spectrometer">Time-of-flight mass spectrometer</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Time-of-flight_particle_sizer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Time-of-flight particle sizer (page does not exist)">Time-of-flight particle sizer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cascade_impactor" title="Cascade impactor">Cascade impactors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Low_pressure_impactor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Low pressure impactor (page does not exist)">Low pressure impactor</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Microorifice_imapctor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Microorifice imapctor (page does not exist)">Microorifice imapctor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andersen_sampler" title="Andersen sampler">Andersen impactor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Combination</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scanning_mobility_particle_sizer" title="Scanning mobility particle sizer">Scanning mobility particle sizer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Microscopy" title="Microscopy">Microscopy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Optical_microscope" title="Optical microscope">Optical microscope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scanning_electron_microscope" title="Scanning electron microscope">Scanning electron microscope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscope" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission electron microscope">Transmission electron microscope</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Aerosols" title="Category:Aerosols">Category</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Aerosol_measurement" title="Category:Aerosol measurement">Aerosol measurement</a></li></ul></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" 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style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Air</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acid_rain" title="Acid rain">Acid rain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_quality_index" title="Air quality index">Air quality index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_dispersion_modeling" title="Atmospheric dispersion modeling">Atmospheric dispersion modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorofluorocarbon" title="Chlorofluorocarbon">Chlorofluorocarbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion">Combustion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">Biofuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joss_paper" title="Joss paper">Joss paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_burning_of_waste" title="Open burning of waste">Open burning of waste</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction" title="Construction">Construction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renovation" title="Renovation">Renovation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demolition" title="Demolition">Demolition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exhaust_gas" title="Exhaust gas">Exhaust gas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diesel_exhaust" title="Diesel exhaust">Diesel exhaust</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haze" title="Haze">Haze</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Smoke" title="Smoke">Smoke</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indoor_air_quality" title="Indoor air quality">Indoor air quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine" title="Internal combustion engine">Internal combustion engine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_dimming" title="Global dimming">Global dimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_distillation" title="Global distillation">Global distillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particulates" title="Particulates">Particulates</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asbestos" title="Asbestos">Asbestos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal_working" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal working">Metal working</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_refining" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil refining">Oil refining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood_dust" class="mw-redirect" title="Wood dust">Wood dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welding" title="Welding">Welding</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persistent_organic_pollutant" title="Persistent organic pollutant">Persistent organic pollutant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">Smelting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smog" title="Smog">Smog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soot" title="Soot">Soot</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_carbon" title="Black carbon">Black carbon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volatile_organic_compound" title="Volatile organic compound">Volatile organic compound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste" title="Waste">Waste</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Biological_pollution" title="Biological pollution">Biological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_hazard" title="Biological hazard">Biological hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_pollution" title="Genetic pollution">Genetic pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">Introduced species</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Digital</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_pollution" title="Information pollution">Information pollution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation_and_health" title="Electromagnetic radiation and health">Electromagnetic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Light_pollution" title="Light pollution">Light</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_light_pollution" title="Ecological light pollution">Ecological light pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overillumination" class="mw-redirect" title="Overillumination">Overillumination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_spectrum_pollution" title="Radio spectrum pollution">Radio spectrum pollution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Natural</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ozone" title="Ozone">Ozone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radium_and_radon_in_the_environment" title="Radium and radon in the environment">Radium and radon in the environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_ash" title="Volcanic ash">Volcanic ash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">Wildfire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Noise_pollution" title="Noise pollution">Noise</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of transport">Transportation</a> <ul><li>Land</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_shipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of shipping">Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_aviation" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of aviation">Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport" title="Rail transport">Rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_transport" title="Sustainable transport">Sustainable transport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonar" title="Sonar">Sonar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_mammals_and_sonar" title="Marine mammals and sonar">Marine mammals and sonar</a></li></ul></li> <li>Industrial</li> <li>Military</li> <li>Abstract</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noise_control" title="Noise control">Noise control</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">Radiation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actinides_in_the_environment" title="Actinides in the environment">Actinides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioremediation_of_radioactive_waste" title="Bioremediation of radioactive waste">Bioremediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission_product" title="Nuclear fission product">Nuclear fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">Nuclear fallout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium_in_the_environment" title="Plutonium in the environment">Plutonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acute_radiation_syndrome" title="Acute radiation syndrome">Poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_radioactivity" title="Environmental radioactivity">Radioactivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_in_the_environment" title="Uranium in the environment">Uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation_and_health" title="Electromagnetic radiation and health">Electromagnetic radiation and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste" title="Radioactive waste">Radioactive waste</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Soil_contamination" title="Soil contamination">Soil</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_pollution" title="Agricultural pollution">Agricultural pollution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Herbicide" title="Herbicide">Herbicides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manure_management" title="Manure management">Manure waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pesticide" title="Pesticide">Pesticides</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Land degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioremediation" title="Bioremediation">Bioremediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_defecation" title="Open defecation">Open defecation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistance_heating" title="Electrical resistance heating">Electrical resistance heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_guideline_value" title="Soil guideline value">Soil guideline values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytoremediation" title="Phytoremediation">Phytoremediation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Solid waste</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advertising_mail" title="Advertising mail">Advertising mail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodegradable_waste" title="Biodegradable waste">Biodegradable waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_waste" title="Brown waste">Brown waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_waste" title="Electronic waste">Electronic waste</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battery_recycling" title="Battery recycling">Battery recycling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foam_food_container" title="Foam food container">Foam food container</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_loss_and_waste" title="Food loss and waste">Food waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_waste" title="Green waste">Green waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazardous_waste" title="Hazardous waste">Hazardous waste</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biomedical_waste" title="Biomedical waste">Biomedical waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_waste" title="Chemical waste">Chemical waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_waste" title="Construction waste">Construction waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_poisoning" title="Lead poisoning">Lead poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercury_poisoning" title="Mercury poisoning">Mercury poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_waste" title="Toxic waste">Toxic waste</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_waste" title="Industrial waste">Industrial waste</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lead_smelting" title="Lead smelting">Lead smelting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litter" title="Litter">Litter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of mining">Mining</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coal_mining" title="Coal mining">Coal mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_mining" title="Gold mining">Gold mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_mining" title="Surface mining">Surface mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_sea_mining" title="Deep sea mining">Deep sea mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tailings" title="Tailings">Mining waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_mining" title="Uranium mining">Uranium mining</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_solid_waste" title="Municipal solid waste">Municipal solid waste</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Garbage" title="Garbage">Garbage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution_from_nanomaterials" title="Pollution from nanomaterials">Nanomaterials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_pollution" title="Plastic pollution">Plastic pollution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microplastics" title="Microplastics">Microplastics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Packaging_waste" title="Packaging waste">Packaging waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-consumer_waste" title="Post-consumer waste">Post-consumer waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management" title="Waste management">Waste management</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Landfill" title="Landfill">Landfill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_treatment" title="Thermal treatment">Thermal treatment</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Space_debris" title="Space debris"> Space</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">Satellite</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Visual_pollution" title="Visual pollution">Visual</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_travel" title="Air travel">Air travel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clutter_(advertising)" title="Clutter (advertising)">Clutter (advertising)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_sign" title="Traffic sign">Traffic signs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overhead_power_line" title="Overhead power line">Overhead power lines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandalism" title="Vandalism">Vandalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_war" title="Environmental impact of war">War</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare">Chemical warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbicidal_warfare" title="Herbicidal warfare">Herbicidal warfare</a> (<a href="/wiki/Agent_Orange" title="Agent Orange">Agent Orange</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_holocaust" title="Nuclear holocaust">Nuclear holocaust</a> (<a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">Nuclear fallout</a> - <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_famine" title="Nuclear famine">nuclear famine</a> - <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_winter" title="Nuclear winter">nuclear winter</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scorched_earth" title="Scorched earth">Scorched earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unexploded_ordnance" title="Unexploded ordnance">Unexploded ordnance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_and_environmental_law" title="War and environmental law">War and environmental law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_wastewater_treatment" title="Agricultural wastewater treatment">Agricultural wastewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_pollution" title="Biological pollution">Biological pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">Diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">Eutrophication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firewater_(fire_fighting)" title="Firewater (fire fighting)">Firewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_environmental_quality_parameters" title="Freshwater environmental quality parameters">Freshwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_pollution" title="Groundwater pollution">Groundwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">Hypoxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_wastewater_treatment" title="Industrial wastewater treatment">Industrial wastewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_debris" title="Marine debris">debris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_monitoring" title="Environmental monitoring">Monitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonpoint_source_pollution" title="Nonpoint source pollution">Nonpoint source pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrient_pollution" title="Nutrient pollution">Nutrient pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_exploitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil exploitation">Oil exploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_exploration" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil exploration">Oil exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_spill" title="Oil spill">Oil spill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pharmaceuticals_and_personal_care_products" title="Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products">Pharmaceuticals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage" title="Sewage">Sewage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Septic_tank" title="Septic tank">Septic tanks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pit_latrine" title="Pit latrine">Pit latrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_shipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of shipping">Shipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_stagnation" title="Water stagnation">Stagnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfur_water" title="Sulfur water">Sulfur water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">Surface runoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_pollution" title="Thermal pollution">Thermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turbidity" title="Turbidity">Turbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_runoff" title="Urban runoff">Urban runoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_quality" title="Water quality">Water quality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pollutant" title="Pollutant">Pollutants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_metals" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy metals">Heavy metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paint" title="Paint">Paint</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain_health_and_pollution" title="Brain health and pollution">Brain health and pollution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Misc</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Area_source_pollution" title="Area source pollution">Area source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debris" title="Debris">Debris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dust" title="Dust">Dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garbology" title="Garbology">Garbology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_pollution" title="Legacy pollution">Legacy pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midden" title="Midden">Midden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point_source_pollution" title="Point source pollution">Point source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste" title="Waste">Waste</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Responses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cleaner_production" title="Cleaner production">Cleaner production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">Industrial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution_haven_hypothesis" title="Pollution haven hypothesis">Pollution haven hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollutant_release_and_transfer_register" title="Pollutant release and transfer register">Pollutant release and transfer register</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polluter_pays_principle" title="Polluter pays principle">Polluter pays principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Pollution control">Pollution control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_minimisation" title="Waste minimisation">Waste minimisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero_waste" title="Zero waste">Zero waste</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Pollution-related_lists" title="Category:Pollution-related lists">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pollution-related_diseases" title="List of pollution-related diseases">Diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_laws_by_country" title="List of environmental laws by country">Law by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most-polluted_cities_by_particulate_matter_concentration" title="List of most-polluted cities by particulate matter concentration">Most polluted cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_least_polluted_cities_by_particulate_matter_concentration" class="mw-redirect" title="List of least polluted cities by particulate matter concentration">Least polluted cities by PM<sub>2.5</sub></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_air_pollution" title="List of countries by air pollution">Most polluted countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_international_environmental_agreements" title="List of international environmental agreements">Treaties</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#fadcc5"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Pollution" title="Category:Pollution">Categories</a> (<a href="/wiki/Category:Pollution_by_country" title="Category:Pollution by country">by country</a>) <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:pollution" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:pollution">Commons</a> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" 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class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4000595-1">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85001419">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11953075h">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11953075h">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00561761">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="aerosoly"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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