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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Community of microorganisms from the lung</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 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.ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Lung_microbiota" title="Special:EditPage/Lung microbiota">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Lung+microbiota%22">"Lung microbiota"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Lung+microbiota%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Lung+microbiota%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Lung+microbiota%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Lung+microbiota%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Lung+microbiota%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2011</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>lung microbiota</b> is the <a href="/wiki/Lung" title="Lung">pulmonary</a> microbial community consisting of a complex variety of <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganisms</a> found in the lower <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_tract" title="Respiratory tract">respiratory tract</a> particularly on the mucous layer and the epithelial surfaces. These microorganisms include <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">fungi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">bacteriophages</a>. The bacterial part of the microbiota has been more closely studied. It consists of a core of nine <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genera</a>: <i><a href="/wiki/Prevotella" title="Prevotella">Prevotella</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Sphingomonas" title="Sphingomonas">Sphingomonas</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Pseudomonas" title="Pseudomonas">Pseudomonas</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Acinetobacter" title="Acinetobacter">Acinetobacter</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Fusobacterium" title="Fusobacterium">Fusobacterium</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Megasphaera" title="Megasphaera">Megasphaera</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Veillonella" title="Veillonella">Veillonella</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Staphylococcus" title="Staphylococcus">Staphylococcus</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Streptococcus" title="Streptococcus">Streptococcus</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are aerobes as well as anaerobes and aerotolerant bacteria. The microbial communities are highly variable in particular individuals and compose of about 140 distinct families. The bronchial tree for instance contains a mean of 2000 bacterial genomes per cm<sup>2</sup> surface. The harmful or potentially harmful bacteria are also detected routinely in respiratory specimens. The most significant are <i><a href="/wiki/Moraxella_catarrhalis" title="Moraxella catarrhalis">Moraxella catarrhalis</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Haemophilus_influenzae" title="Haemophilus influenzae">Haemophilus influenzae</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Streptococcus_pneumoniae" title="Streptococcus pneumoniae">Streptococcus pneumoniae</a></i>. They are known to cause respiratory disorders under particular conditions namely if the human immune system is impaired. The mechanism by which they persist in the lower airways in healthy individuals is unknown. </p><p>The fungal genera that are commonly found make up the lung <i>mycobiome</i>, in the microbiota of the lung, and include <i><a href="/wiki/Candida_(fungus)" title="Candida (fungus)">Candida</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Malassezia" title="Malassezia">Malassezia</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Neosartorya" class="mw-redirect" title="Neosartorya">Neosartorya</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces" title="Saccharomyces">Saccharomyces</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Aspergillus" title="Aspergillus">Aspergillus</a></i>, among others.<sup id="cite_ref-mycobiome_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mycobiome-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Richardson_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Richardson-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Role_of_the_epithelial_barrier">Role of the epithelial barrier</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung_microbiota&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Role of the epithelial barrier"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> The airway epithelium together with alveolar macrophages and dendritic cells play a major role in the initial recognition of bacterial products getting into the lower airways with the air. Since some of these products are potent proinflammatory stimuli it is extremely important for the immune system to distinguish between pathogens and non-pathogenic commensals. This prevents the development of constant inflammation and forms tolerance against harmless microbiota.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Commensals_vs_pathogens_mechanism.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Commensals_vs_pathogens_mechanism.png/400px-Commensals_vs_pathogens_mechanism.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="368" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Commensals_vs_pathogens_mechanism.png/600px-Commensals_vs_pathogens_mechanism.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Commensals_vs_pathogens_mechanism.png/800px-Commensals_vs_pathogens_mechanism.png 2x" data-file-width="834" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption> <b>Mechanisms underlying inflammation</b>. The airway epithelium has a complex structure consisting of at least seven diverse cell types interacting with each other by means of tight junctions. Epithelial cells can transmit immunostimulatory signals to underlying tissues taking part in the mechanisms of innate and adaptive immune response. The key transmitters of these signals are dendritic cells. Once pathogenic bacteria (e.g., <i>S. pneumoniae</i>, <i>P. aeruginosa</i>) have activated particular pattern recognition receptors on/in epithelial cells, the proinflammatory signaling pathways are activated. This results mainly in IL-1, IL-6 and IL-8 production. These cytokines induce chemotaxis to the site of infection in its target cells (e.g., neutrophils, dendritic cells and macrophages). On the other hand, representatives of standard microbiota induce only weak signals preventing inflammation. The mechanism of distinguishing between harmless and harmful bacteria on the molecular as well as on physiological levels is not completely understood.</figcaption></figure> <p>This process becomes much more intriguing when taking into account that commensals often share their surface molecules with pathogens. Epithelial cells are equipped with very sensitive recognition tools – <a href="/wiki/Toll_like_receptors" class="mw-redirect" title="Toll like receptors">toll like receptors</a> (TLRs), nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain <a href="/wiki/NOD-like_receptor" title="NOD-like receptor">(NOD)-like receptors</a> (NLRs) and retinoic acid-inducible gene <a href="/wiki/RIG-I-like_receptor" title="RIG-I-like receptor">(RIG)-I-like receptors</a> (RLRs) which recognize a broad variety of microbial structural components. After recognition of pathogenic bacteria proinflammatory pathways are activated and cellular components of the adaptive and innate immunity are recruited to the infection site.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One key regulator in this process is <a href="/wiki/NF-%CE%BAB" title="NF-κB">NF-κB</a> which translocates from the cytoplasm into the nucleus and activates pro-inflammatory genes in epithelial cells and macrophages. The DNA-binding protein complex recognizes a discrete nucleotide sequence (5’-GGG ACT TTC T-3’) in the upstream region of a variety of response genes. The activation of NF-κB by a number of stimuli: bacterial cell walls or inflammatory cytokines results in its translocation to the nucleus. </p><p>In contrast, harmless bacteria do not cause the translocation of NF-κB into the nucleus thus preventing the inflammation although they can express the same <a href="/wiki/Microbe-associated_molecular_patterns" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbe-associated molecular patterns">microbe-associated molecular patterns</a> (MAMPs). One possible mechanism explaining this effect was suggested by Neish showing that non-pathogenic <i>S. typhimurium</i> PhoPc and <i>S. pullorum</i> are able to prohibit the ubiquitination of NF-κB inhibitor molecule nuclear factor of NF-κB light polypeptide gene enhancer in B-cells inhibitor alpha (IκB-κ).<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another explanation of commensal tolerance of the epithelium refers to the post-translational modification of a protein by the covalent attachment of one or more ubiquitin (Ub) monomers. The inhibition of ubiquitination leads to reduction of inflammation, because only polyubiquitinated (IκB-κ is targeted for degradation by the 26 S proteasome, allowing NF-κB translocation to the nucleus and activation the transcription of effector genes (for example IL-8). Probiotic bacteria such as <i>Lactobacilli</i> are able to modulate the activity of the Ub-proteasome system via inducing reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in epithelial cells. In mammalian cells, ROS have been shown to serve as critical second messengers in multiple signal transduction pathways in response to proinflammatory cytokines. Bacterially induced ROS causes oxidative inactivation of the catalytic cysteine residue of Ub 12 resulting in incomplete but transient loss of cullin-1 neddylation and consequent effects on NF-κB and β-catenin signaling. Another commensal species, <i>B. thetaiotaomicron</i>, attenuates pro-inflammatory cytokine expression by promoting nuclear export of NF-κB subunit RelA, through a peroxisome proliferator activated receptor γ (PPAR-γ)-dependent pathway. PPAR-γ target transcriptionally active Rel A and induce early nuclear clearance limiting the duration of NF-κB action. </p><p>The balance between pathogens and commensals is extremely important in the maintenance of homeostasis in the respiratory tract. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physiology">Physiology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung_microbiota&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Physiology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The airways are continually exposed to a multitude of microorganisms, some of which are able to persist and even colonize respiratory tract. This is possible due to the presence of nutrients, oxygen, and optimal growth temperature. There are several host-derived nutrient sources for microbial residents: secretions from airway epithelial cells (especially goblet cells), secretions from submucosal glands and transudate from plasma. Moreover, the pool of available nutrients is increased by the activities of some members of the microbiota. Macromolecular components of respiratory secretions (proteins, glycoproteins, lipids, nucleic acids) are converted to nutrients (e.g. carbohydrates, amino acids). Thus, the metabolic activity of present bacteria allow for the colonization of new species. The commensal bacteria are nonpathogenic and defend our airways against the pathogens. There are several possible mechanisms. Commensals are the native competitors of pathogenic bacteria, because they tend to occupy the same ecological niche inside the human body. Secondly, they are able to produce antibacterial substances called bacteriocins which inhibit the growth of pathogens. </p><p>Genera <i>Bacillus</i>, <i>Lactobacillus</i>, <i>Lactococcus</i>, <i>Staphylococcus</i>, <i>Streptococcus</i>, and <i>Streptomyces</i> are the main producers of bacteriocins in respiratory tract. Moreover, commensals are known to induce Th1 response and anti-inflammatory interleukin (IL)-10, antimicrobial peptides, FOXP3, secretory <a href="/wiki/Immunoglobulin_A" title="Immunoglobulin A">immunoglobulin A</a> (sIgA) production. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Clinical_significance">Clinical significance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung_microbiota&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Clinical significance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ecological_modeling_of_the_respiratory_microbiome.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Ecological_modeling_of_the_respiratory_microbiome.jpg/220px-Ecological_modeling_of_the_respiratory_microbiome.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="252" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Ecological_modeling_of_the_respiratory_microbiome.jpg/330px-Ecological_modeling_of_the_respiratory_microbiome.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Ecological_modeling_of_the_respiratory_microbiome.jpg/440px-Ecological_modeling_of_the_respiratory_microbiome.jpg 2x" data-file-width="741" data-file-height="849" /></a><figcaption>Ecological modeling of the respiratory microbiome</figcaption></figure> <p>Changes in microbial community composition seem to play a role in progression of such pulmonary disorders as <a href="/wiki/Chronic_obstructive_pulmonary_disease" title="Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease">chronic obstructive pulmonary disease</a> (COPD), <a href="/wiki/Asthma" title="Asthma">asthma</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cystic_fibrosis" title="Cystic fibrosis">cystic fibrosis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In humans, <i>S. aureus</i> is part of the normal <a href="/wiki/Microbiota" title="Microbiota">microbiota</a> present in the upper respiratory tract,<sup id="cite_ref-URTmicribiome2016rev_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-URTmicribiome2016rev-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and on skin and in the gut mucosa.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>S. aureus</i>, along with similar species that can colonize and act symbiotically but can cause disease if they begin to take over the tissues they have colonized or invade other tissues, have been called "pathobionts".<sup id="cite_ref-URTmicribiome2016rev_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-URTmicribiome2016rev-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> MRSA can similarly colonize people without making them sick.<sup id="cite_ref-Evolution2014_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Evolution2014-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The presence of such genera as <i>Mycoplasma</i>, <i>Pseudomonas</i>, and <i>Staphylococcus</i> is correlated with stable COPD state. On the other hand, <i>Prevotella</i>, <i>Mesorhizobium</i>, <i>Microbacterium</i>, <i>Micrococcus</i>, <i>Veillonela</i>, <i>Rhizobium</i>, <i>Stenotrophomonas</i>, and <i>Lactococcus</i> present mostly in healthy individual cohort. The relative abundance of <i>Proteobacteria</i> is increased in asthmatic children. <i>Pseudomonas aeruginosa</i>, <i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>, and <i>Burkholderia cepacia</i> are found most often in cystic fibrosis patients. </p><p>High-throughput sequencing and the whole genome sequencing approaches will provide the further information about the complexity and physiological implication of commensal bacteria in the lower respiratory tract. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung_microbiota&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_microbiome" title="Human microbiome">Human microbiome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_flora" class="mw-redirect" title="List of human flora">List of human flora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriocin" title="Bacteriocin">Bacteriocin</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung_microbiota&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFErb-DownwardThompsonHanFreeman2011" class="citation journal cs1">Erb-Downward, John R.; Thompson, Deborah L.; Han, Meilan K.; Freeman, Christine M.; McCloskey, Lisa; Schmidt, Lindsay A.; Young, Vincent B.; Toews, Galen B.; et al. 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class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7164007">7164007</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27730630">27730630</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=FEBS+Letters&rft.atitle=Composition+and+immunological+significance+of+the+upper+respiratory+tract+microbiota.&rft.volume=590&rft.issue=21&rft.pages=3705-3720&rft.date=2016-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7164007%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27730630&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F1873-3468.12455&rft.aulast=Schenck&rft.aufirst=LP&rft.au=Surette%2C+MG&rft.au=Bowdish%2C+DM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7164007&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALung+microbiota" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWollina2017" class="citation journal cs1">Wollina, U (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5327846">"Microbiome in atopic dermatitis"</a>. <i>Clinical, Cosmetic and Investigational Dermatology</i>. <b>10</b>: 51–56. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2147%2Fccid.s130013">10.2147/ccid.s130013</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5327846">5327846</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28260936">28260936</a>.</cite><span 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