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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Origins</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1950s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1950s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>1950s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1950s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1960–1975" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1960–1975"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>1960–1975</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1960–1975-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1975_and_beyond" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1975_and_beyond"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>1975 and beyond</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1975_and_beyond-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Approaches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Approaches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Approaches</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Approaches-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Approaches subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Approaches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Rule-based" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rule-based"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Rule-based</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rule-based-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Transfer-based_machine_translation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transfer-based_machine_translation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Transfer-based machine translation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transfer-based_machine_translation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interlingual" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interlingual"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Interlingual</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interlingual-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dictionary-based" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dictionary-based"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.3</span> <span>Dictionary-based</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dictionary-based-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Statistical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Statistical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Statistical</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Statistical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neural_MT" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neural_MT"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Neural MT</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neural_MT-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Issues</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Issues-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Issues subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Disambiguation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disambiguation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Disambiguation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disambiguation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-standard_speech" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-standard_speech"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Non-standard speech</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-standard_speech-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Named_entities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Named_entities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Named entities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Named_entities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Applications</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Applications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Applications subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Travel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Travel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Travel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Travel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_administration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_administration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Public administration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_administration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wikipedia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wikipedia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Wikipedia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wikipedia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Surveillance_and_military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surveillance_and_military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Surveillance and military</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Surveillance_and_military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_media" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_media"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Social media</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_media-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Online_games" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Online_games"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5.1</span> <span>Online games</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Online_games-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medicine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medicine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Medicine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medicine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7</span> <span>Law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ancient_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8</span> <span>Ancient languages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evaluation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evaluation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Evaluation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evaluation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Machine_translation_and_signed_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Machine_translation_and_signed_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Machine translation and signed languages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Machine_translation_and_signed_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Copyright" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Copyright"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Copyright</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Copyright-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Machine translation</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 84 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-84" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">84 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masjienvertaling" title="Masjienvertaling – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Masjienvertaling" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%A9_%D8%A2%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="ترجمة آلية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ترجمة آلية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma%C5%9F%C4%B1n_t%C9%99rc%C3%BCm%C9%99si" title="Maşın tərcüməsi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Maşın tərcüməsi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6" title="যন্ত্রানুবাদ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="যন্ত্রানুবাদ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%82%D3%99%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BC%D3%99%D2%BB%D0%B5" title="Машина тәржемәһе – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Машина тәржемәһе" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%88%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4" title="Машынны пераклад – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Машынны пераклад" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%88%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4" title="Машынны пераклад – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Машынны пераклад" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4" title="Машинен превод – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Машинен превод" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traducci%C3%B3_autom%C3%A0tica" title="Traducció automàtica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Traducció automàtica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC%C4%83%D0%BF%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D1%83%C3%A7%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Программăпа куçарни – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Программăпа куçарни" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strojov%C3%BD_p%C5%99eklad" title="Strojový překlad – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Strojový překlad" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peiriant_cyfieithu" title="Peiriant cyfieithu – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Peiriant cyfieithu" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maskinovers%C3%A6ttelse" title="Maskinoversættelse – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Maskinoversættelse" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maschinelle_%C3%9Cbersetzung" title="Maschinelle Übersetzung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Maschinelle Übersetzung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masint%C3%B5lge" title="Masintõlge – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Masintõlge" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B7%CF%87%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%BC%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%AC%CF%86%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%B7" title="Μηχανική μετάφραση – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μηχανική μετάφραση" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traducci%C3%B3n_autom%C3%A1tica" title="Traducción automática – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Traducción automática" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma%C5%9Dintradukado" title="Maŝintradukado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Maŝintradukado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itzulpengintza_automatiko" title="Itzulpengintza automatiko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Itzulpengintza automatiko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%AC%D9%85%D9%87_%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C" title="ترجمه ماشینی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ترجمه ماشینی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traduction_automatique" title="Traduction automatique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Traduction automatique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%ADomhaistri%C3%BAch%C3%A1n" title="Ríomhaistriúchán – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Ríomhaistriúchán" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traduci%C3%B3n_autom%C3%A1tica" title="Tradución automática – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Tradución automática" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B8%B0%EA%B3%84_%EB%B2%88%EC%97%AD" title="기계 번역 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="기계 번역" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A5%D6%84%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%A9%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A3%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Մեքենայական թարգմանություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մեքենայական թարգմանություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6" title="यान्त्रिक अनुवाद – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="यान्त्रिक अनुवाद" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strojno_prevo%C4%91enje" title="Strojno prevođenje – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Strojno prevođenje" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terjemahan_mesin" title="Terjemahan mesin – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Terjemahan mesin" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traduction_automatic" title="Traduction automatic – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Traduction automatic" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukuhumusha_kwenguxa" title="Ukuhumusha kwenguxa – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Ukuhumusha kwenguxa" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A9l%C3%BE%C3%BD%C3%B0ing" title="Vélþýðing – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Vélþýðing" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traduzione_automatica" title="Traduzione automatica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Traduzione automatica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%A8%D7%92%D7%95%D7%9D_%D7%9E%D7%9B%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%94" title="תרגום מכונה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="תרגום מכונה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A5%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%97%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%92%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90" title="მანქანური თარგმნა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მანქანური თარგმნა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Машиналық аударма – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Машиналық аударма" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%83" title="Машина котормосу – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Машина котормосу" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ltg mw-list-item"><a href="https://ltg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puorv%C4%81rstivs" title="Puorvārstivs – Latgalian" lang="ltg" hreflang="ltg" data-title="Puorvārstivs" data-language-autonym="Latgaļu" data-language-local-name="Latgalian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latgaļu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translatio_machinalis" title="Translatio machinalis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Translatio machinalis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma%C5%A1%C4%ABntulko%C5%A1ana" title="Mašīntulkošana – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Mašīntulkošana" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatinis_vertimas" title="Automatinis vertimas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Automatinis vertimas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tradu%C3%A7ion_automatica" title="Traduçion automatica – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Traduçion automatica" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9pi_ford%C3%ADt%C3%A1s" title="Gépi fordítás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Gépi fordítás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%9A%D0%B5" title="Машинско преведување – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Машинско преведување" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fandikan-teny_ataon%27_ny_milina" title="Fandikan-teny ataon' ny milina – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fandikan-teny ataon' ny milina" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%82" title="യന്ത്രവിവർത്തനം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="യന്ത്രവിവർത്തനം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="मशिन ट्रान्सलेशन – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="मशिन ट्रान्सलेशन" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A5%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%97%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%92%E1%83%A3%E1%83%90" title="მანქანური თანგუა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="მანქანური თანგუა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terjemahan_mesin" title="Terjemahan mesin – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Terjemahan mesin" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%80%E1%80%BD%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%95%E1%80%BB%E1%80%B0%E1%80%90%E1%80%AC%E1%80%98%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AC%E1%80%95%E1%80%BC%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%85%E1%80%94%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA" title="ကွန်ပျူတာဘာသာပြန်စနစ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ကွန်ပျူတာဘာသာပြန်စနစ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computervertaling" title="Computervertaling – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Computervertaling" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A9%9F%E6%A2%B0%E7%BF%BB%E8%A8%B3" title="機械翻訳 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="機械翻訳" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maskinoversettelse" title="Maskinoversettelse – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Maskinoversettelse" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maskinomsetjing" title="Maskinomsetjing – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Maskinomsetjing" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traduccion_automatica" title="Traduccion automatica – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Traduccion automatica" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AE%E0%AD%87%E0%AC%B8%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%A8_%E0%AC%9F%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%B0%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%A8%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%B8%E0%AC%B2%E0%AD%87%E0%AC%B8%E0%AC%A8" title="ମେସିନ ଟ୍ରାନ୍ସଲେସନ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ମେସିନ ଟ୍ରାନ୍ସଲେସନ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mashina_tarjimasi" title="Mashina tarjimasi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Mashina tarjimasi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%AC%D9%85%DB%81" title="مشینی ترجمہ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="مشینی ترجمہ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C5%82umaczenie_automatyczne" title="Tłumaczenie automatyczne – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Tłumaczenie automatyczne" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tradu%C3%A7%C3%A3o_autom%C3%A1tica" title="Tradução automática – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Tradução automática" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traducere_automat%C4%83" title="Traducere automată – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Traducere automată" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makiq_t%27ikray" title="Makiq t'ikray – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Makiq t'ikray" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4" title="Машинный перевод – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Машинный перевод" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tradutzione_autom%C3%A0tica" title="Tradutzione automàtica – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Tradutzione automàtica" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%ABrkthimi_makinerik" title="Përkthimi makinerik – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Përkthimi makinerik" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9A_%E0%B6%B4%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%80%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%AD%E0%B6%B1%E0%B6%BA" title="යාන්ත්‍රික පරිවර්තනය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="යාන්ත්‍රික පරිවර්තනය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_translation" title="Machine translation – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Machine translation" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B4%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A_%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%AC%D9%85%D9%88" title="مشيني ترجمو – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="مشيني ترجمو" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strojov%C3%BD_preklad" title="Strojový preklad – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Strojový preklad" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strojno_prevajanje" title="Strojno prevajanje – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Strojno prevajanje" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DB%95%D8%B1%DA%AF%DB%8E%DA%95%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%A6%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8E%D8%B1" title="وەرگێڕانی ئامێر – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="وەرگێڕانی ئامێر" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%92%D0%B5%D1%9A%D0%B5" title="Машинско превођење – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Машинско превођење" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konek%C3%A4%C3%A4nt%C3%A4minen" title="Konekääntäminen – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Konekääntäminen" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maskin%C3%B6vers%C3%A4ttning" title="Maskinöversättning – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Maskinöversättning" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81" title="இயந்திர மொழிபெயர்ப்பு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="இயந்திர மொழிபெயர்ப்பு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%95_%E0%B0%85%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A6%E0%B0%82" title="యాంత్రిక అనువాదం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="యాంత్రిక అనువాదం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%94%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A2%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B7%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87" title="การแปลด้วยเครื่อง – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การแปลด้วยเครื่อง" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%80%D2%B7%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B8_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D3%A3" title="Тарҷумаи мошинӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Тарҷумаи мошинӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makine_%C3%A7evirisi" title="Makine çevirisi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Makine çevirisi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4" title="Машинний переклад – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Машинний переклад" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%AC%D9%85%DB%81" title="مشینی ترجمہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="مشینی ترجمہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%E1%BB%8Bch_t%E1%BB%B1_%C4%91%E1%BB%99ng" title="Dịch tự động – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Dịch tự động" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9C%BA%E5%99%A8%E7%BF%BB%E8%AF%91" title="机器翻译 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="机器翻译" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A9%9F%E6%A2%B0%E7%BF%BB%E8%AD%AF" title="機械翻譯 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="機械翻譯" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Computerized translation between natural languages</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Computer-assisted_translation" title="Computer-assisted translation">Computer-assisted translation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Interactive_machine_translation" title="Interactive machine translation">Interactive machine translation</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Translator_(computing)" title="Translator (computing)">Translator (computing)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WordLensDemo5Feb2012.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/WordLensDemo5Feb2012.jpg/330px-WordLensDemo5Feb2012.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/WordLensDemo5Feb2012.jpg/500px-WordLensDemo5Feb2012.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/WordLensDemo5Feb2012.jpg/960px-WordLensDemo5Feb2012.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1366" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>A mobile phone app translating Spanish text into English</figcaption></figure> <style 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.sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Translation" title="Category:Translation">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:none;padding-top:0;"><a href="/wiki/Translation" title="Translation">Translation</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%C3%86toms_-_Translation.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/%C3%86toms_-_Translation.svg/100px-%C3%86toms_-_Translation.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/%C3%86toms_-_Translation.svg/150px-%C3%86toms_-_Translation.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/%C3%86toms_-_Translation.svg/200px-%C3%86toms_-_Translation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:antiquewhite;"> Types</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legal_translation" title="Legal translation">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translation#Literary_translation" title="Translation">Literary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bible_translations" title="Bible translations">Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quran_translations" title="Quran translations">Quran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirukkural_translations" title="Tirukkural translations">Kural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_validation" title="Linguistic validation">Linguistic validation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_translation" title="Medical translation">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulatory_translation" title="Regulatory translation">Regulatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_translation" title="Technical translation">Technical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_interpretation" title="Language interpretation">Interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_translation" title="Cultural translation">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">Word-for-word</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sense-for-sense_translation" title="Sense-for-sense translation">Sense-for-sense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homophonic_translation" title="Homophonic translation">Homophonic</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:antiquewhite;"> Theory</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Translation_studies" title="Translation studies">Translation studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skopos_theory" title="Skopos theory">Skopos theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translation_project" title="Translation project">Translation project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translation_criticism" title="Translation criticism">Translation criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equivalence_(translation)" title="Equivalence (translation)">Equivalence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contrastive_linguistics" title="Contrastive linguistics">Contrastive linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polysystem_theory" title="Polysystem theory">Polysystem theory</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:antiquewhite;"> Technologies</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer-assisted_translation" title="Computer-assisted translation">CAT</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Machine translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_translation" title="Mobile translation">Mobile translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translation_management_system" title="Translation management system">Translation management system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dubbing" title="Dubbing">Dubbing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subtitles" title="Subtitles">Subtitling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-editing" title="Pre-editing">Pre-editing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postediting" title="Postediting">Postediting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multimedia_translation" title="Multimedia translation">Multimedia translation</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:antiquewhite;"> Localization</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glocalization" title="Glocalization">Glocalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internationalization_and_localization" title="Internationalization and localization">Internationalization and localization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_localisation" title="Language localisation">Language localization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_game_localization" title="Video game localization">Video game localization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dubbing_(filmmaking)#Localization" class="mw-redirect" title="Dubbing (filmmaking)">Dub localization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Website_localization" title="Website localization">Website localization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internationalization_and_localization" title="Internationalization and localization">Software localization</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:antiquewhite;"> Institutional</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Translation_associations" title="Category:Translation associations">Associations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Translation_awards" title="Category:Translation awards">Awards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Translation_organizations" title="Category:Translation organizations">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Translation_and_interpreting_schools" title="Category:Translation and interpreting schools">Schools</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:antiquewhite;"> Related topics</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Untranslatability" title="Untranslatability">Untranslatability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcription_(linguistics)" title="Transcription (linguistics)">Transcription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transliteration" title="Transliteration">Transliteration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_relay_service" title="Video relay service">Video relay service</a> (VRS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telephone_interpreting" title="Telephone interpreting">Telephone interpreting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_barrier" title="Language barrier">Language barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fan_translation" title="Fan translation">Fan translation</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fan_translation_of_video_games" title="Fan translation of video games">of video games</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fansub" title="Fansub">Fansub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fandub" title="Fandub">Fandub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scanlation" title="Scanlation">Scanlation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journalistic_translation" title="Journalistic translation">Journalistic translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Translation_publications" title="Category:Translation publications">Books and magazines on translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Bible_translations_by_language" title="Category:Bible translations by language">Bible translations by language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Translations" title="Category:Translations">Translated books</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_literary_works_by_number_of_translations" title="List of literary works by number of translations">List of most translated works</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Translators" title="Category:Translators">Translators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Tirukkural_translations_by_language" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Tirukkural translations by language">Kural translations by language</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Translation_info" title="Template:Translation info"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Translation_info" title="Template talk:Translation info"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Translation_info" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Translation info"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Machine translation</b> is use of computational techniques to <a href="/wiki/Translation" title="Translation">translate</a> text or speech from one <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a> to another, including the contextual, idiomatic and pragmatic nuances of both languages. </p><p>Early approaches were mostly <a href="/wiki/Rule-based_machine_translation" title="Rule-based machine translation">rule-based</a> or <a href="/wiki/Statistical_machine_translation" title="Statistical machine translation">statistical</a>. These methods have since been superseded by <a href="/wiki/Neural_machine_translation" title="Neural machine translation">neural machine translation</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Large_language_model" title="Large language model">large language models</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Machine_translation&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_machine_translation" title="History of machine translation">History of machine translation</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origins">Origins</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Machine_translation&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The origins of machine translation can be traced back to the work of <a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi</a>, a ninth-century Arabic <a href="/wiki/Cryptographer" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryptographer">cryptographer</a> who developed techniques for systemic language translation, including <a href="/wiki/Cryptanalysis" title="Cryptanalysis">cryptanalysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frequency_analysis" title="Frequency analysis">frequency analysis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Probability" title="Probability">probability</a> and <a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">statistics</a>, which are used in modern machine translation.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The idea of machine translation later appeared in the 17th century. In 1629, <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a> proposed a universal language, with equivalent ideas in different tongues sharing one symbol.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The idea of using digital computers for translation of natural languages was proposed as early as 1947 by England's <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Donald_Booth" title="Andrew Donald Booth">A. D. Booth</a><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Warren_Weaver" title="Warren Weaver">Warren Weaver</a> at <a href="/wiki/Rockefeller_Foundation" title="Rockefeller Foundation">Rockefeller Foundation</a> in the same year. "The memorandum written by <a href="/wiki/Warren_Weaver" title="Warren Weaver">Warren Weaver</a> in 1949 is perhaps the single most influential publication in the earliest days of machine translation."<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others followed. A demonstration was made in 1954 on the <a href="/wiki/APEXC" title="APEXC">APEXC</a> machine at <a href="/wiki/Birkbeck,_University_of_London" title="Birkbeck, University of London">Birkbeck College</a> (<a href="/wiki/University_of_London" title="University of London">University of London</a>) of a rudimentary translation of English into French. Several papers on the topic were published at the time, and even articles in popular journals (for example an article by Cleave and Zacharov in the September 1955 issue of <i><a href="/wiki/Wireless_World" class="mw-redirect" title="Wireless World">Wireless World</a></i>). A similar application, also pioneered at Birkbeck College at the time, was reading and composing <a href="/wiki/Braille" title="Braille">Braille</a> texts by computer. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1950s">1950s</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Machine_translation&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: 1950s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first researcher in the field, <a href="/wiki/Yehoshua_Bar-Hillel" title="Yehoshua Bar-Hillel">Yehoshua Bar-Hillel</a>, began his research at MIT (1951). A <a href="/wiki/Georgetown_University" title="Georgetown University">Georgetown University</a> MT research team, led by Professor Michael Zarechnak, followed (1951) with a public demonstration of its <a href="/wiki/Georgetown-IBM_experiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Georgetown-IBM experiment">Georgetown-IBM experiment</a> system in 1954. MT research programs popped up in Japan<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Russia (1955), and the first MT conference was held in London (1956).<sup id="cite_ref-Nye_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nye-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Babel_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Babel-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/David_G._Hays" title="David G. Hays">David G. Hays</a> "wrote about computer-assisted language processing as early as 1957" and "was project leader on computational linguistics at <a href="/wiki/RAND_Corporation" title="RAND Corporation">Rand</a> from 1955 to 1968."<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1960–1975"><span id="1960.E2.80.931975"></span>1960–1975</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Machine_translation&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: 1960–1975"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Researchers continued to join the field as the Association for Machine Translation and Computational Linguistics was formed in the U.S. (1962) and the National Academy of Sciences formed the Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee (ALPAC) to study MT (1964). Real progress was much slower, however, and after the <a href="/wiki/ALPAC" title="ALPAC">ALPAC report</a> (1966), which found that the ten-year-long research had failed to fulfill expectations, funding was greatly reduced.<sup id="cite_ref-ueno_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ueno-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to a 1972 report by the Director of Defense Research and Engineering (DDR&E), the feasibility of large-scale MT was reestablished by the success of the Logos MT system in translating military manuals into Vietnamese during that conflict. </p><p>The French Textile Institute also used MT to translate abstracts from and into French, English, German and Spanish (1970); Brigham Young University started a project to translate Mormon texts by automated translation (1971). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1975_and_beyond">1975 and beyond</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Machine_translation&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: 1975 and beyond"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/SYSTRAN" title="SYSTRAN">SYSTRAN</a>, which "pioneered the field under contracts from the U.S. government"<sup id="cite_ref-MT1998.EmptyAtlantic_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MT1998.EmptyAtlantic-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in the 1960s, was used by Xerox to translate technical manuals (1978). Beginning in the late 1980s, as <a href="/wiki/Computation" title="Computation">computational</a> power increased and became less expensive, more interest was shown in <a href="/wiki/Statistical_machine_translation" title="Statistical machine translation">statistical models for machine translation</a>. MT became more popular after the advent of computers.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> SYSTRAN's first implementation system was implemented in 1988 by the online service of the <a href="/wiki/La_Poste_(France)" title="La Poste (France)">French Postal Service</a> called Minitel.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Various computer based translation companies were also launched, including Trados (1984), which was the first to develop and market Translation Memory technology (1989), though this is not the same as MT. The first commercial MT system for Russian / English / German-Ukrainian was developed at Kharkov State University (1991). </p><p>By 1998, "for as little as $29.95" one could "buy a program for translating in one direction between English and a major European language of your choice" to run on a PC.<sup id="cite_ref-MT1998.EmptyAtlantic_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MT1998.EmptyAtlantic-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>MT on the web started with SYSTRAN offering free translation of small texts (1996) and then providing this via AltaVista Babelfish,<sup id="cite_ref-MT1998.EmptyAtlantic_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MT1998.EmptyAtlantic-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which racked up 500,000 requests a day (1997).<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The second free translation service on the web was <a href="/wiki/Lernout_%26_Hauspie" title="Lernout & Hauspie">Lernout & Hauspie</a>'s GlobaLink.<sup id="cite_ref-MT1998.EmptyAtlantic_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MT1998.EmptyAtlantic-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Atlantic Magazine</i> wrote in 1998 that "Systran's Babelfish and GlobaLink's Comprende" handled "Don't bank on it" with a "competent performance."<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Franz_Josef_Och" title="Franz Josef Och">Franz Josef Och</a> (the future head of Translation Development AT Google) won DARPA's speed MT competition (2003).<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More innovations during this time included MOSES, the open-source statistical MT engine (2007), a text/SMS translation service for mobiles in Japan (2008), and a mobile phone with built-in speech-to-speech translation functionality for English, Japanese and Chinese (2009). In 2012, Google announced that <a href="/wiki/Google_Translate" title="Google Translate">Google Translate</a> translates roughly enough text to fill 1 million books in one day. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Approaches">Approaches</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Machine_translation&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Approaches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_machine_translation" title="Hybrid machine translation">Hybrid machine translation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Example-based_machine_translation" title="Example-based machine translation">Example-based machine translation</a></div> <p>Before the advent of <a href="/wiki/Deep_learning" title="Deep learning">deep learning</a> methods, statistical methods required a lot of rules accompanied by <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphological</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntactic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">semantic</a> annotations. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rule-based">Rule-based</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Machine_translation&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Rule-based"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rule-based_machine_translation" title="Rule-based machine translation">Rule-based machine translation</a></div> <p>The rule-based machine translation approach was used mostly in the creation of <a href="/wiki/Dictionaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Dictionaries">dictionaries</a> and grammar programs. Its biggest downfall was that everything had to be made explicit: orthographical variation and erroneous input must be made part of the source language analyser in order to cope with it, and lexical selection rules must be written for all instances of ambiguity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Transfer-based_machine_translation">Transfer-based machine translation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Machine_translation&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Transfer-based machine translation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Transfer-based_machine_translation" title="Transfer-based machine translation">Transfer-based machine translation</a></div> <p>Transfer-based machine translation was similar to <a href="/wiki/Interlingual_machine_translation" title="Interlingual machine translation">interlingual machine translation</a> in that it created a translation from an intermediate representation that simulated the meaning of the original sentence. Unlike interlingual MT, it depended partially on the language pair involved in the translation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Interlingual">Interlingual</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Machine_translation&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Interlingual"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Interlingual_machine_translation" title="Interlingual machine translation">Interlingual machine translation</a></div> <p>Interlingual machine translation was one instance of rule-based machine-translation approaches. In this approach, the source language, i.e. the text to be translated, was transformed into an interlingual language, i.e. a "language neutral" representation that is independent of any language. The target language was then generated out of the <a href="/wiki/Interlinguistics" title="Interlinguistics">interlingua</a>. The only interlingual machine translation system that was made operational at the commercial level was the KANT system (Nyberg and Mitamura, 1992), which was designed to translate Caterpillar Technical English (CTE) into other languages. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dictionary-based">Dictionary-based</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Machine_translation&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Dictionary-based"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dictionary-based_machine_translation" title="Dictionary-based machine translation">Dictionary-based machine translation</a></div> <p>Machine translation used a method based on <a href="/wiki/Dictionary" title="Dictionary">dictionary</a> entries, which means that the words were translated as they are by a dictionary. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Statistical">Statistical</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Machine_translation&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Statistical"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Statistical_machine_translation" title="Statistical machine translation">Statistical machine translation</a></div> <p>Statistical machine translation tried to generate translations using <a href="/wiki/Statistical_methods" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical methods">statistical methods</a> based on bilingual text corpora, such as the <a href="/wiki/Hansard#Translation" title="Hansard">Canadian Hansard</a> corpus, the English-French record of the Canadian parliament and <a href="/wiki/Europarl_corpus" class="mw-redirect" title="Europarl corpus">EUROPARL</a>, the record of the <a href="/wiki/European_Parliament" title="European Parliament">European Parliament</a>. Where such corpora were available, good results were achieved translating similar texts, but such corpora were rare for many language pairs. The first statistical machine translation software was <a href="/w/index.php?title=CANDIDE&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CANDIDE (page does not exist)">CANDIDE</a> from <a href="/wiki/IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a>. In 2005, Google improved its internal translation capabilities by using approximately 200 billion words from United Nations materials to train their system; translation accuracy improved.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>SMT's biggest downfall included it being dependent upon huge amounts of parallel texts, its problems with morphology-rich languages (especially with translating <i>into</i> such languages), and its inability to correct singleton errors. </p><p>Some work has been done in the utilization of multiparallel <a href="/wiki/Text_corpus" title="Text corpus">corpora</a>, that is a body of text that has been translated into 3 or more languages. Using these methods, a text that has been translated into 2 or more languages may be utilized in combination to provide a more accurate translation into a third language compared with if just one of those source languages were used alone.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neural_MT">Neural MT</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Machine_translation&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Neural MT"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Neural_machine_translation" title="Neural machine translation">Neural machine translation</a></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Deep_learning" title="Deep learning">deep learning</a>-based approach to MT, <a href="/wiki/Neural_machine_translation" title="Neural machine translation">neural machine translation</a> has made rapid progress in recent years. However, the current consensus is that the so-called human parity achieved is not real, being based wholly on limited domains, language pairs, and certain test benchmarks<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> i.e., it lacks statistical significance power.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Translations by neural MT tools like <a href="/wiki/DeepL_Translator" title="DeepL Translator">DeepL Translator</a>, which is thought to usually deliver the best machine translation results as of 2022, typically still need post-editing by a human.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Instead of training specialized translation models on parallel datasets, one can also <a href="/wiki/Prompt_engineering" title="Prompt engineering">directly prompt</a> generative <a href="/wiki/Large_language_model" title="Large language model">large language models</a> like <a href="/wiki/Generative_pre-trained_transformer" title="Generative pre-trained transformer">GPT</a> to translate a text.<sup id="cite_ref-Hendy2023_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hendy2023-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-arxiv221014250_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-arxiv221014250-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This approach is considered promising,<sup id="cite_ref-WMT2023_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WMT2023-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but is still more resource-intensive than specialized translation models. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Issues">Issues</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Machine_translation&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Issues"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stir_Fried_Wikipedia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Stir_Fried_Wikipedia.jpg/250px-Stir_Fried_Wikipedia.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Stir_Fried_Wikipedia.jpg/500px-Stir_Fried_Wikipedia.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="3888" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Machine translation could produce some non-understandable phrases, such as "<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">鸡枞</span></span>" (<i><a href="/wiki/Macrolepiota_albuminosa" title="Macrolepiota albuminosa">Macrolepiota albuminosa</a></i>) being rendered as "wikipedia".</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Machine_translation_in_Bali.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Machine_translation_in_Bali.jpg/250px-Machine_translation_in_Bali.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="333" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Machine_translation_in_Bali.jpg/500px-Machine_translation_in_Bali.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>Broken Chinese "<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">沒有進入</span></span>" from machine translation in <a href="/wiki/Bali,_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Bali, Indonesia">Bali, Indonesia</a>. The broken Chinese sentence sounds like "there does not exist an entry" or "have not entered yet".</figcaption></figure> <p>Studies using human evaluation (e.g. by professional literary translators or human readers) have <a href="/wiki/Problem-solving" class="mw-redirect" title="Problem-solving">systematically identified various issues</a> with the latest advanced MT outputs.<sup id="cite_ref-arxiv221014250_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-arxiv221014250-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Common issues include the translation of ambiguous parts whose correct translation requires common sense-like semantic language processing or context.<sup id="cite_ref-arxiv221014250_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-arxiv221014250-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There can also be errors in the source texts, missing high-quality training data and the severity of frequency of several types of problems may not get reduced with techniques used to date, requiring some level of human active participation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disambiguation">Disambiguation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Machine_translation&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Disambiguation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Word-sense_disambiguation" title="Word-sense disambiguation">Word-sense disambiguation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syntactic_disambiguation" class="mw-redirect" title="Syntactic disambiguation">Syntactic disambiguation</a></div> <p>Word-sense disambiguation concerns finding a suitable translation when a word can have more than one meaning. The problem was first raised in the 1950s by <a href="/wiki/Yehoshua_Bar-Hillel" title="Yehoshua Bar-Hillel">Yehoshua Bar-Hillel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He pointed out that without a "universal encyclopedia", a machine would never be able to distinguish between the two meanings of a word.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Today there are numerous approaches designed to overcome this problem. They can be approximately divided into "shallow" approaches and "deep" approaches. </p><p>Shallow approaches assume no knowledge of the text. They simply apply statistical methods to the words surrounding the ambiguous word. Deep approaches presume a comprehensive knowledge of the word. So far, shallow approaches have been more successful.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Claude_Piron" title="Claude Piron">Claude Piron</a>, a long-time translator for the United Nations and the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a>, wrote that machine translation, at its best, automates the easier part of a translator's job; the harder and more time-consuming part usually involves doing extensive research to resolve <a href="/wiki/Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">ambiguities</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Source_text" title="Source text">source text</a>, which the <a href="/wiki/Grammatical" class="mw-redirect" title="Grammatical">grammatical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lexical_(semiotics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lexical (semiotics)">lexical</a> exigencies of the <a href="/wiki/Translation" title="Translation">target language</a> require to be resolved: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Why does a translator need a whole workday to translate five pages, and not an hour or two? ..... About 90% of an average text corresponds to these simple conditions. But unfortunately, there's the other 10%. It's that part that requires six [more] hours of work. There are ambiguities one has to resolve. For instance, the author of the source text, an Australian physician, cited the example of an epidemic which was declared during World War II in a "Japanese prisoners of war camp". Was he talking about an American camp with Japanese prisoners or a Japanese camp with American prisoners? The English has two senses. It's necessary therefore to do research, maybe to the extent of a phone call to Australia.<sup id="cite_ref-piron_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-piron-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote> <p>The ideal deep approach would require the translation software to do all the research necessary for this kind of disambiguation on its own; but this would require a higher degree of <a href="/wiki/AI" class="mw-redirect" title="AI">AI</a> than has yet been attained. A shallow approach which simply guessed at the sense of the ambiguous English phrase that Piron mentions (based, perhaps, on which kind of prisoner-of-war camp is more often mentioned in a given corpus) would have a reasonable chance of guessing wrong fairly often. A shallow approach that involves "ask the user about each ambiguity" would, by Piron's estimate, only automate about 25% of a professional translator's job, leaving the harder 75% still to be done by a human. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-standard_speech">Non-standard speech</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Machine_translation&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Non-standard speech"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One of the major pitfalls of MT is its inability to translate non-standard language with the same accuracy as standard language. Heuristic or statistical based MT takes input from various sources in standard form of a language. Rule-based translation, by nature, does not include common non-standard usages. This causes errors in translation from a vernacular source or into colloquial language. Limitations on translation from casual speech present issues in the use of machine translation in mobile devices. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Named_entities">Named entities</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Machine_translation&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Named entities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Named_entity" title="Named entity">Named entity</a></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Information_extraction" title="Information extraction">information extraction</a>, named entities, in a narrow sense, refer to concrete or abstract entities in the real world such as people, organizations, companies, and places that have a proper name: George Washington, Chicago, Microsoft. It also refers to expressions of time, space and quantity such as 1 July 2011, $500. </p><p>In the sentence "Smith is the president of Fabrionix" both <i>Smith</i> and <i>Fabrionix</i> are named entities, and can be further qualified via first name or other information; "president" is not, since Smith could have earlier held another position at Fabrionix, e.g. Vice President. The term <a href="/wiki/Rigid_designator" title="Rigid designator">rigid designator</a> is what defines these usages for analysis in statistical machine translation. </p><p>Named entities must first be identified in the text; if not, they may be erroneously translated as common nouns, which would most likely not affect the <a href="/wiki/Bilingual_evaluation_understudy" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilingual evaluation understudy">BLEU</a> rating of the translation but would change the text's human readability.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They may be omitted from the output translation, which would also have implications for the text's readability and message. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Transliteration" title="Transliteration">Transliteration</a> includes finding the letters in the target language that most closely correspond to the name in the source language. This, however, has been cited as sometimes worsening the quality of translation.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For "Southern California" the first word should be translated directly, while the second word should be transliterated. Machines often transliterate both because they treated them as one entity. Words like these are hard for machine translators, even those with a transliteration component, to process. </p><p>Use of a "do-not-translate" list, which has the same end goal – transliteration as opposed to translation.<sup id="cite_ref-singla_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-singla-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> still relies on correct identification of named entities. </p><p>A third approach is a class-based model. Named entities are replaced with a token to represent their "class"; "Ted" and "Erica" would both be replaced with "person" class token. Then the statistical distribution and use of person names, in general, can be analyzed instead of looking at the distributions of "Ted" and "Erica" individually, so that the probability of a given name in a specific language will not affect the assigned probability of a translation. A study by Stanford on improving this area of translation gives the examples that different probabilities will be assigned to "David is going for a walk" and "Ankit is going for a walk" for English as a target language due to the different number of occurrences for each name in the training data. A frustrating outcome of the same study by Stanford (and other attempts to improve named recognition translation) is that many times, a decrease in the <a href="/wiki/Bilingual_evaluation_understudy" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilingual evaluation understudy">BLEU</a> scores for translation will result from the inclusion of methods for named entity translation.<sup id="cite_ref-singla_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-singla-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Machine_translation&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While no system provides the ideal of fully automatic high-quality machine translation of unrestricted text, many fully automated systems produce reasonable output.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The quality of machine translation is substantially improved if the domain is restricted and controlled.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This enables using machine translation as a tool to speed up and simplify translations, as well as producing flawed but useful low-cost or ad-hoc translations. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Travel">Travel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Machine_translation&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Travel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Machine translation applications have also been released for most mobile devices, including mobile telephones, pocket PCs, PDAs, etc. Due to their portability, such instruments have come to be designated as <a href="/wiki/Mobile_translation" title="Mobile translation">mobile translation</a> tools enabling mobile business networking between partners speaking different languages, or facilitating both foreign language learning and unaccompanied traveling to foreign countries without the need of the intermediation of a human translator. </p><p>For example, the Google Translate app allows foreigners to quickly translate text in their surrounding via <a href="/wiki/Augmented_reality" title="Augmented reality">augmented reality</a> using the smartphone camera that overlays the translated text onto the text.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It can also <a href="/wiki/Speech_recognition" title="Speech recognition">recognize speech</a> and then translate it.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_administration">Public administration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Machine_translation&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Public administration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Despite their inherent limitations, MT programs are used around the world. Probably the largest institutional user is the <a href="/wiki/European_Commission" title="European Commission">European Commission</a>. In 2012, with an aim to replace a rule-based MT by newer, statistical-based MT@EC, The European Commission contributed 3.072 million euros (via its ISA programme).<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Machine_translation&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Wikipedia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Machine translation has also been used for translating <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a> articles and could play a larger role in creating, updating, expanding, and generally improving articles in the future, especially as the MT capabilities may improve. There is a "content translation tool" which allows editors to more easily translate articles across several select languages.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> English-language articles are thought to usually be more comprehensive and less biased than their non-translated equivalents in other languages.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of 2022, <a href="/wiki/English_Wikipedia" title="English Wikipedia">English Wikipedia</a> has over 6.5 million articles while, for example, the <a href="/wiki/German_Wikipedia" title="German Wikipedia">German</a> and <a href="/wiki/Swedish_Wikipedia" title="Swedish Wikipedia">Swedish Wikipedias</a> each only have over 2.5 million articles,<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> each often far less comprehensive. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Surveillance_and_military">Surveillance and military</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Machine_translation&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Surveillance and military"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Following terrorist attacks in Western countries, including <a href="/wiki/9-11" class="mw-redirect" title="9-11">9-11</a>, the U.S. and its allies have been most interested in developing <a href="/wiki/Arabic_machine_translation" title="Arabic machine translation">Arabic machine translation</a> programs, but also in translating <a href="/wiki/Pashto_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Pashto language">Pashto</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dari_(Eastern_Persian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dari (Eastern Persian)">Dari</a> languages.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Within these languages, the focus is on key phrases and quick communication between military members and civilians through the use of mobile phone apps.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Information Processing Technology Office in <a href="/wiki/DARPA" title="DARPA">DARPA</a> hosted programs like <a href="/wiki/DARPA_TIDES_program" title="DARPA TIDES program">TIDES</a> and <a href="/wiki/Babylon_translator" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylon translator">Babylon translator</a>. US Air Force has awarded a $1 million contract to develop a language translation technology.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_media">Social media</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Machine_translation&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Social media"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The notable rise of <a href="/wiki/Social_networking" class="mw-redirect" title="Social networking">social networking</a> on the web in recent years has created yet another niche for the application of machine translation software – in utilities such as <a href="/wiki/Facebook" title="Facebook">Facebook</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Instant_messaging" title="Instant messaging">instant messaging</a> clients such as <a href="/wiki/Skype" title="Skype">Skype</a>, <a href="/wiki/Google_Talk" title="Google Talk">Google Talk</a>, <a href="/wiki/MSN_Messenger" title="MSN Messenger">MSN Messenger</a>, etc. – allowing users speaking different languages to communicate with each other. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Online_games">Online games</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Machine_translation&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Online games"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Lineage_W" title="Lineage W">Lineage W</a> gained popularity in Japan because of its machine translation features allowing players from different countries to communicate.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medicine">Medicine</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Machine_translation&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Medicine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Despite being labelled as an unworthy competitor to human translation in 1966 by the Automated Language Processing Advisory Committee put together by the United States government,<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the quality of machine translation has now been improved to such levels that its application in online collaboration and in the medical field are being investigated. The application of this technology in medical settings where human translators are absent is another topic of research, but difficulties arise due to the importance of accurate translations in medical diagnoses.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Researchers caution that the use of machine translation in medicine could risk mistranslations that can be dangerous in critical situations.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Machine translation can make it easier for doctors to communicate with their patients in day to day activities, but it is recommended to only use machine translation when there is no other alternative, and that translated medical texts should be reviewed by human translators for accuracy.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Law">Law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Machine_translation&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Legal_English" title="Legal English">Legal language</a> poses a significant challenge to machine translation tools due to its precise nature and atypical use of normal words. For this reason, specialized algorithms have been developed for use in legal contexts.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to the risk of mistranslations arising from machine translators, researchers recommend that machine translations should be reviewed by human translators for accuracy, and some courts prohibit its use in <a href="/wiki/Legal_proceeding" title="Legal proceeding">formal proceedings</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The use of machine translation in law has raised concerns about translation errors and <a href="/wiki/Client_confidentiality" title="Client confidentiality">client confidentiality</a>. Lawyers who use free translation tools such as Google Translate may accidentally violate client confidentiality by exposing private information to the providers of the translation tools.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, there have been arguments that consent for a police search that is obtained with machine translation is invalid, with different courts issuing different verdicts over whether or not these arguments are valid.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_languages">Ancient languages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Machine_translation&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Ancient languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The advancements in <a href="/wiki/Convolutional_neural_network" title="Convolutional neural network">convolutional neural networks</a> in recent years and in low resource machine translation (when only a very limited amount of data and examples are available for training) enabled machine translation for ancient languages, such as <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a> and its dialects Babylonian and Assyrian.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evaluation">Evaluation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Machine_translation&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Evaluation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Evaluation_of_machine_translation" title="Evaluation of machine translation">Evaluation of machine translation</a></div> <p>There are many factors that affect how machine translation systems are evaluated. These factors include the intended use of the translation, the nature of the machine translation software, and the nature of the translation process. </p><p>Different programs may work well for different purposes. For example, <a href="/wiki/Statistical_machine_translation" title="Statistical machine translation">statistical machine translation</a> (SMT) typically outperforms <a href="/wiki/Example-based_machine_translation" title="Example-based machine translation">example-based machine translation</a> (EBMT), but researchers found that when evaluating English to French translation, EBMT performs better.<sup id="cite_ref-Way_295–309_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Way_295–309-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The same concept applies for technical documents, which can be more easily translated by SMT because of their formal language. </p><p>In certain applications, however, e.g., product descriptions written in a <a href="/wiki/Controlled_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Controlled language">controlled language</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Dictionary-based_machine_translation" title="Dictionary-based machine translation">dictionary-based machine-translation</a> system has produced satisfactory translations that require no human intervention save for quality inspection.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are various means for evaluating the output quality of machine translation systems. The oldest is the use of human judges<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to assess a translation's quality. Even though human evaluation is time-consuming, it is still the most reliable method to compare different systems such as rule-based and statistical systems.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Automate" class="mw-redirect" title="Automate">Automated</a> means of evaluation include <a href="/wiki/Bilingual_evaluation_understudy" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilingual evaluation understudy">BLEU</a>, <a href="/wiki/NIST_(metric)" title="NIST (metric)">NIST</a>, <a href="/wiki/METEOR" title="METEOR">METEOR</a>, and <a href="/wiki/LEPOR" title="LEPOR">LEPOR</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Relying exclusively on unedited machine translation ignores the fact that communication in <a href="/wiki/Natural_language" title="Natural language">human language</a> is context-embedded and that it takes a person to comprehend the <a href="/wiki/Context_(language_use)" class="mw-redirect" title="Context (language use)">context</a> of the original text with a reasonable degree of probability. It is certainly true that even purely human-generated translations are prone to error. Therefore, to ensure that a machine-generated translation will be useful to a human being and that publishable-quality translation is achieved, such translations must be reviewed and edited by a human.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The late <a href="/wiki/Claude_Piron" title="Claude Piron">Claude Piron</a> wrote that machine translation, at its best, automates the easier part of a translator's job; the harder and more time-consuming part usually involves doing extensive research to resolve <a href="/wiki/Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">ambiguities</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Source_text" title="Source text">source text</a>, which the <a href="/wiki/Grammatical" class="mw-redirect" title="Grammatical">grammatical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lexical_(semiotics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lexical (semiotics)">lexical</a> exigencies of the target language require to be resolved. Such research is a necessary prelude to the pre-editing necessary in order to provide input for machine-translation software such that the output will not be <a href="/wiki/Garbage_in_garbage_out" class="mw-redirect" title="Garbage in garbage out">meaningless</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NIST_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NIST-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to disambiguation problems, decreased accuracy can occur due to varying levels of training data for machine translating programs. Both example-based and statistical machine translation rely on a vast array of real example sentences as a base for translation, and when too many or too few sentences are analyzed accuracy is jeopardized. Researchers found that when a program is trained on 203,529 sentence pairings, accuracy actually decreases.<sup id="cite_ref-Way_295–309_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Way_295–309-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The optimal level of training data seems to be just over 100,000 sentences, possibly because as training data increases, the number of possible sentences increases, making it harder to find an exact translation match. </p><p>Flaws in machine translation have been noted for <a href="/wiki/Humour_in_translation" title="Humour in translation">their entertainment value</a>. Two videos uploaded to <a href="/wiki/YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a> in April 2017 involve two Japanese <a href="/wiki/Hiragana" title="Hiragana">hiragana</a> characters えぐ (<i><a href="/wiki/E_(kana)" title="E (kana)">e</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Ku_(kana)" title="Ku (kana)">gu</a></i>) being repeatedly pasted into Google Translate, with the resulting translations quickly degrading into nonsensical phrases such as "DECEARING EGG" and "Deep-sea squeeze trees", which are then read in increasingly absurd voices;<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the full-length version of the video currently has 6.9 million views as of March 2022.<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Machine_translation&action=edit">[update]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Machine_translation_and_signed_languages">Machine translation and signed languages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Machine_translation&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Machine translation and signed languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Machine_translation_of_sign_languages" title="Machine translation of sign languages">Machine translation of sign languages</a></div> <p>In the early 2000s, options for machine translation between spoken and signed languages were severely limited. It was a common belief that deaf individuals could use traditional translators. However, stress, intonation, pitch, and timing are conveyed much differently in spoken languages compared to signed languages. Therefore, a deaf individual may misinterpret or become confused about the meaning of written text that is based on a spoken language.<sup id="cite_ref-Zhao,_L._2000_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zhao,_L._2000-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Researchers Zhao, et al. (2000), developed a prototype called TEAM (translation from English to ASL by machine) that completed English to <a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">American Sign Language</a> (ASL) translations. The program would first analyze the syntactic, grammatical, and morphological aspects of the English text. Following this step, the program accessed a sign synthesizer, which acted as a dictionary for ASL. This synthesizer housed the process one must follow to complete ASL signs, as well as the meanings of these signs. Once the entire text is analyzed and the signs necessary to complete the translation are located in the synthesizer, a computer generated human appeared and would use ASL to sign the English text to the user.<sup id="cite_ref-Zhao,_L._2000_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zhao,_L._2000-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Copyright">Copyright</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Machine_translation&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Copyright"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Only <a href="/wiki/Creative_work" title="Creative work">works</a> that are <a href="/wiki/Originality" title="Originality">original</a> are subject to <a href="/wiki/Copyright" title="Copyright">copyright</a> protection, so some scholars claim that machine translation results are not entitled to copyright protection because MT does not involve <a href="/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">creativity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The copyright at issue is for a <a href="/wiki/Derivative_work" title="Derivative work">derivative work</a>; the author of the <a href="/wiki/Originality" title="Originality">original work</a> in the original language does not lose his <a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">rights</a> when a work is translated: a translator must have permission to <a href="/wiki/Publishing" title="Publishing">publish</a> a translation.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Machine_translation&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 18em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AI-complete" title="AI-complete">AI-complete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cache_language_model" title="Cache language model">Cache language model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_machine_translation_applications" title="Comparison of machine translation applications">Comparison of machine translation applications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_different_machine_translation_approaches" title="Comparison of different machine translation approaches">Comparison of different machine translation approaches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_linguistics" title="Computational linguistics">Computational linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer-assisted_translation" title="Computer-assisted translation">Computer-assisted translation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Translation_memory" title="Translation memory">Translation memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Controlled_language_in_machine_translation" title="Controlled language in machine translation">Controlled language in machine translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Controlled_natural_language" title="Controlled natural language">Controlled natural language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_language_writing_aid" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign language writing aid">Foreign language writing aid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuzzy_matching_(computer-assisted_translation)" title="Fuzzy matching (computer-assisted translation)">Fuzzy matching (computer-assisted translation)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_machine_translation" title="History of machine translation">History of machine translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_language_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Human language technology">Human language technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humour_in_translation" title="Humour in translation">Humour in translation</a> ("howlers")</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_and_Communication_Technologies" title="Language and Communication Technologies">Language and Communication Technologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_barrier" title="Language barrier">Language barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_emerging_technologies" title="List of emerging technologies">List of emerging technologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_research_laboratories_for_machine_translation" title="List of research laboratories for machine translation">List of research laboratories for machine translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_translation" title="Mobile translation">Mobile translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_machine_translation" title="Neural machine translation">Neural machine translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OpenLogos" title="OpenLogos">OpenLogos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phraselator" title="Phraselator">Phraselator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postediting" title="Postediting">Postediting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-translation" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudo-translation">Pseudo-translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Round-trip_translation" title="Round-trip translation">Round-trip translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_machine_translation" title="Statistical machine translation">Statistical machine translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translation#Machine_translation" title="Translation">Translation § Machine translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translation_memory" title="Translation memory">Translation memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ULTRA_(machine_translation_system)" title="ULTRA (machine translation system)">ULTRA (machine translation system)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Networking_Language" title="Universal Networking Language">Universal Networking Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_translator" title="Universal translator">Universal translator</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Machine_translation&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/google-translate-gets-a-deep-learning-upgrade">"Google Translate Gets a Deep-Learning Upgrade"</a>. <i>IEEE Spectrum</i>. 3 October 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 July</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Spectrum&rft.atitle=Google+Translate+Gets+a+Deep-Learning+Upgrade&rft.date=2016-10-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspectrum.ieee.org%2Fgoogle-translate-gets-a-deep-learning-upgrade&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+translation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uk.pcmag.com/ai/151950/google-translate-vs-chatgpt-which-one-is-the-best-language-translator">"Google Translate vs. ChatGPT: Which One Is the Best Language Translator?"</a>. <i>PCMag UK</i>. 23 February 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 July</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=PCMag+UK&rft.atitle=Google+Translate+vs.+ChatGPT%3A+Which+One+Is+the+Best+Language+Translator%3F&rft.date=2024-02-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fuk.pcmag.com%2Fai%2F151950%2Fgoogle-translate-vs-chatgpt-which-one-is-the-best-language-translator&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+translation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDuPont2018" class="citation web cs1">DuPont, Quinn (January 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190814061915/http://amodern.net/article/cryptological-origins-machine-translation/">"The Cryptological Origins of Machine Translation: From al-Kindi to Weaver"</a>. <i>Amodern</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amodern.net/article/cryptological-origins-machine-translation/">the original</a> on 14 August 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 September</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Amodern&rft.atitle=The+Cryptological+Origins+of+Machine+Translation%3A+From+al-Kindi+to+Weaver&rft.date=2018-01&rft.aulast=DuPont&rft.aufirst=Quinn&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Famodern.net%2Farticle%2Fcryptological-origins-machine-translation%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+translation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKnowlson1975" class="citation book cs1">Knowlson, James (1975). <i>Universal Language Schemes in England and France, 1600-1800</i>. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8020-5296-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8020-5296-7"><bdi>0-8020-5296-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Universal+Language+Schemes+in+England+and+France%2C+1600-1800&rft.place=Toronto&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=0-8020-5296-7&rft.aulast=Knowlson&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+translation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBooth1953" class="citation book cs1">Booth, Andrew D. (1 May 1953). "MECHANICAL TRANSLATION". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sim_computers-and-people_1953-05_2_4/page/n8/"><i>Computers and Automation 1953-05: Vol 2 Iss 4</i></a>. Berkeley Enterprises. p. 6.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=MECHANICAL+TRANSLATION&rft.btitle=Computers+and+Automation+1953-05%3A+Vol+2+Iss+4&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=Berkeley+Enterprises&rft.date=1953-05-01&rft.aulast=Booth&rft.aufirst=Andrew+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsim_computers-and-people_1953-05_2_4%2Fpage%2Fn8%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+translation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJ._Hutchins2000" class="citation book cs1">J. Hutchins (2000). "Warren Weaver and the launching of MT". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200228015454/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/eaa9/ccf94b4d129c26faf45a1353ffcbbe9d4fda.pdf"><i>Early Years in Machine Translation</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Studies in the History of the Language Sciences. Vol. 97. p. 17. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1075%2Fsihols.97.05hut">10.1075/sihols.97.05hut</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-272-4586-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-272-4586-1"><bdi>978-90-272-4586-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163460375">163460375</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/eaa9/ccf94b4d129c26faf45a1353ffcbbe9d4fda.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 28 February 2020 – via <a href="/wiki/Semantic_Scholar" title="Semantic Scholar">Semantic Scholar</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Warren+Weaver+and+the+launching+of+MT&rft.btitle=Early+Years+in+Machine+Translation&rft.series=Studies+in+the+History+of+the+Language+Sciences&rft.pages=17&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A163460375%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1075%2Fsihols.97.05hut&rft.isbn=978-90-272-4586-1&rft.au=J.+Hutchins&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpdfs.semanticscholar.org%2Feaa9%2Fccf94b4d129c26faf45a1353ffcbbe9d4fda.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+translation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Warren-Weaver">"Warren Weaver, American mathematician"</a>. 13 July 2020. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210306061225/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Warren-Weaver">Archived</a> from the original on 6 March 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 August</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Warren+Weaver%2C+American+mathematician&rft.date=2020-07-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FWarren-Weaver&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+translation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREF上野1986" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">上野, 俊夫 (13 August 1986). <i>パーソナルコンピュータによる機械翻訳プログラムの制作</i> (in Japanese). Tokyo: (株)ラッセル社. p. 16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/494762700X" title="Special:BookSources/494762700X"><bdi>494762700X</bdi></a>. <q>わが国では1956年、当時の電気試験所が英和翻訳専用機「ヤマト」を実験している。この機械は1962年頃には中学1年の教科書で90点以上の能力に達したと報告されている。(translation (assisted by <a href="/wiki/Google_Translate" title="Google Translate">Google Translate</a>): In 1959 Japan, the <a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E6%B0%97%E8%A9%A6%E9%A8%93%E6%89%80" class="extiw" title="jp:電気試験所">National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology</a>(AIST) tested the proper English-Japanese translation machine <i>Yamato</i>, which reported in 1964 as that reached the power level over the score of 90-point on the textbook of first grade of junior hi-school.)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E3%83%91%E3%83%BC%E3%82%BD%E3%83%8A%E3%83%AB%E3%82%B3%E3%83%B3%E3%83%94%E3%83%A5%E3%83%BC%E3%82%BF%E3%81%AB%E3%82%88%E3%82%8B%E6%A9%9F%E6%A2%B0%E7%BF%BB%E8%A8%B3%E3%83%97%E3%83%AD%E3%82%B0%E3%83%A9%E3%83%A0%E3%81%AE%E5%88%B6%E4%BD%9C&rft.place=Tokyo&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=%28%E6%A0%AA%29%E3%83%A9%E3%83%83%E3%82%BB%E3%83%AB%E7%A4%BE&rft.date=1986-08-13&rft.isbn=494762700X&rft.aulast=%E4%B8%8A%E9%87%8E&rft.aufirst=%E4%BF%8A%E5%A4%AB&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+translation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://museum.ipsj.or.jp/computer/dawn/0027.html">"機械翻訳専用機「やまと」-コンピュータ博物館"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161019171540/http://museum.ipsj.or.jp/computer/dawn/0027.html">Archived</a> from the original on 19 October 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 April</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E6%A9%9F%E6%A2%B0%E7%BF%BB%E8%A8%B3%E5%B0%82%E7%94%A8%E6%A9%9F%E3%80%8C%E3%82%84%E3%81%BE%E3%81%A8%E3%80%8D-%E3%82%B3%E3%83%B3%E3%83%94%E3%83%A5%E3%83%BC%E3%82%BF%E5%8D%9A%E7%89%A9%E9%A4%A8&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmuseum.ipsj.or.jp%2Fcomputer%2Fdawn%2F0027.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+translation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nye-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nye_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNye2016" class="citation journal cs1">Nye, Mary Jo (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/speaking-in-tongues">"Speaking in Tongues: Science's centuries-long hunt for a common language"</a>. <i>Distillations</i>. <b>2</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">40–</span>43. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200803130801/https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/speaking-in-tongues">Archived</a> from the original on 3 August 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Distillations&rft.atitle=Speaking+in+Tongues%3A+Science%27s+centuries-long+hunt+for+a+common+language&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E40-%3C%2Fspan%3E43&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Nye&rft.aufirst=Mary+Jo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencehistory.org%2Fdistillations%2Fmagazine%2Fspeaking-in-tongues&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+translation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Babel-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Babel_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGordin2015" class="citation book cs1">Gordin, Michael D. (2015). <i>Scientific Babel: How Science Was Done Before and After Global English</i>. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226000299" title="Special:BookSources/9780226000299"><bdi>9780226000299</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Scientific+Babel%3A+How+Science+Was+Done+Before+and+After+Global+English&rft.place=Chicago%2C+Illinois&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780226000299&rft.aulast=Gordin&rft.aufirst=Michael+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+translation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWolfgang_Saxon1995" class="citation news cs1">Wolfgang Saxon (28 July 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1995/07/28/obituaries/david-g-hays-66-a-developer-of-language-study-by-computer.html">"David G. Hays, 66, a Developer Of Language Study by Computer"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200207035914/https://www.nytimes.com/1995/07/28/obituaries/david-g-hays-66-a-developer-of-language-study-by-computer.html">Archived</a> from the original on 7 February 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 August</span> 2020</span>. <q>wrote about computer-assisted language processing as early as 1957.. was project leader on computational linguistics at Rand from 1955 to 1968.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=David+G.+Hays%2C+66%2C+a+Developer+Of+Language+Study+by+Computer&rft.date=1995-07-28&rft.au=Wolfgang+Saxon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1995%2F07%2F28%2Fobituaries%2Fdavid-g-hays-66-a-developer-of-language-study-by-computer.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+translation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ueno-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ueno_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREF上野1986" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">上野, 俊夫 (13 August 1986). <i>パーソナルコンピュータによる機械翻訳プログラムの制作</i> (in Japanese). Tokyo: (株)ラッセル社. p. 16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/494762700X" title="Special:BookSources/494762700X"><bdi>494762700X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E3%83%91%E3%83%BC%E3%82%BD%E3%83%8A%E3%83%AB%E3%82%B3%E3%83%B3%E3%83%94%E3%83%A5%E3%83%BC%E3%82%BF%E3%81%AB%E3%82%88%E3%82%8B%E6%A9%9F%E6%A2%B0%E7%BF%BB%E8%A8%B3%E3%83%97%E3%83%AD%E3%82%B0%E3%83%A9%E3%83%A0%E3%81%AE%E5%88%B6%E4%BD%9C&rft.place=Tokyo&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=%28%E6%A0%AA%29%E3%83%A9%E3%83%83%E3%82%BB%E3%83%AB%E7%A4%BE&rft.date=1986-08-13&rft.isbn=494762700X&rft.aulast=%E4%B8%8A%E9%87%8E&rft.aufirst=%E4%BF%8A%E5%A4%AB&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+translation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MT1998.EmptyAtlantic-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MT1998.EmptyAtlantic_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MT1998.EmptyAtlantic_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MT1998.EmptyAtlantic_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MT1998.EmptyAtlantic_14-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBudiansky1998" class="citation magazine cs1">Budiansky, Stephen (December 1998). "Lost in Translation". <i><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Magazine" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlantic Magazine">Atlantic Magazine</a></i>. pp. <span class="nowrap">81–</span>84.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Atlantic+Magazine&rft.atitle=Lost+in+Translation&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E81-%3C%2Fspan%3E84&rft.date=1998-12&rft.aulast=Budiansky&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+translation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSchank2014" class="citation book cs1">Schank, Roger C. (2014). <i>Conceptual Information Processing</i>. New York: Elsevier. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781483258799" title="Special:BookSources/9781483258799"><bdi>9781483258799</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conceptual+Information+Processing&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781483258799&rft.aulast=Schank&rft.aufirst=Roger+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+translation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFarwellGerberHovy2003" class="citation book cs1">Farwell, David; Gerber, Laurie; Hovy, Eduard (29 June 2003). <i>Machine Translation and the Information Soup: Third Conference of the Association for Machine Translation in the Americas, AMTA'98, Langhorne, PA, USA, October 28–31, 1998 Proceedings</i>. Berlin: Springer. p. 276. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3540652590" title="Special:BookSources/3540652590"><bdi>3540652590</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Machine+Translation+and+the+Information+Soup%3A+Third+Conference+of+the+Association+for+Machine+Translation+in+the+Americas%2C+AMTA%2798%2C+Langhorne%2C+PA%2C+USA%2C+October+28%E2%80%9331%2C+1998+Proceedings&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=276&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2003-06-29&rft.isbn=3540652590&rft.aulast=Farwell&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Gerber%2C+Laurie&rft.au=Hovy%2C+Eduard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+translation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBarron2019" class="citation web cs1">Barron, Brenda (18 November 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digital.com/about/babel-fish/">"Babel Fish: What Happened To The Original Translation Application?: We Investigate"</a>. <i>Digital.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191120032732/https://digital.com/about/babel-fish/">Archived</a> from the original on 20 November 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Digital.com&rft.atitle=Babel+Fish%3A+What+Happened+To+The+Original+Translation+Application%3F%3A+We+Investigate&rft.date=2019-11-18&rft.aulast=Barron&rft.aufirst=Brenda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigital.com%2Fabout%2Fbabel-fish%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+translation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">and gave other examples too</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFChan2015" class="citation book cs1">Chan, Sin-Wai (2015). <i>Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Technology</i>. Oxon: Routledge. p. 385. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415524841" title="Special:BookSources/9780415524841"><bdi>9780415524841</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Routledge+Encyclopedia+of+Translation+Technology&rft.place=Oxon&rft.pages=385&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780415524841&rft.aulast=Chan&rft.aufirst=Sin-Wai&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+translation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blog.outer-court.com/archive/2005-05-22-n83.html">"Google Translator: The Universal Language"</a>. Blog.outer-court.com. 25 January 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081120030225/http://blog.outer-court.com/archive/2005-05-22-n83.html">Archived</a> from the original on 20 November 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Google+Translator%3A+The+Universal+Language&rft.pub=Blog.outer-court.com&rft.date=2007-01-25&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblog.outer-court.com%2Farchive%2F2005-05-22-n83.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+translation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSchwartz2008" class="citation conference cs1">Schwartz, Lane (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dowobeha.github.io/papers/amta08.pdf"><i>Multi-Source Translation Methods</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Paper presented at the 8th Biennial Conference of the Association for Machine Translation in the Americas. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160629171944/http://dowobeha.github.io/papers/amta08.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 29 June 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 November</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Multi-Source+Translation+Methods&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Schwartz&rft.aufirst=Lane&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdowobeha.github.io%2Fpapers%2Famta08.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+translation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCohnLapata2007" class="citation conference cs1">Cohn, Trevor; Lapata, Mirella (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://homepages.inf.ed.ac.uk/mlap/Papers/acl07.pdf"><i>Machine Translation by Triangulation: Making Effective Use of Multi-Parallel Corpora</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Paper presented at the 45th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics, June 23–30, 2007, Prague, Czech Republic. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151010171334/http://homepages.inf.ed.ac.uk/mlap/Papers/acl07.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 10 October 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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"Comparing Example-Based and Statistical Machine Translation". <i>Natural Language Engineering</i>. <b>11</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">295–</span>309. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1351324905003888">10.1017/S1351324905003888</a> (inactive 1 November 2024). <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3242163">3242163</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Natural+Language+Engineering&rft.atitle=Comparing+Example-Based+and+Statistical+Machine+Translation&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E295-%3C%2Fspan%3E309&rft.date=2005-09-20&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS1351324905003888&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A3242163%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Way&rft.aufirst=Andy&rft.au=Nano+Gough&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+translation" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Muegge (2006), "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mt-archive.info/Aslib-2006-Muegge.pdf">Fully Automatic High Quality Machine Translation of Restricted Text: A Case Study</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111017043848/http://www.mt-archive.info/Aslib-2006-Muegge.pdf">Archived</a> 17 October 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>," in <i>Translating and the computer 28. Proceedings of the twenty-eighth international conference on translating and the computer, 16–17 November 2006, London</i>, London: Aslib. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85142-483-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85142-483-5">978-0-85142-483-5</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120419072313/http://www.morphologic.hu/public/mt/2008/compare12.htm">"Comparison of MT systems by human evaluation, May 2008"</a>. Morphologic.hu. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.morphologic.hu/public/mt/2008/compare12.htm">the original</a> on 19 April 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Comparison+of+MT+systems+by+human+evaluation%2C+May+2008&rft.pub=Morphologic.hu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.morphologic.hu%2Fpublic%2Fmt%2F2008%2Fcompare12.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+translation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anderson, D.D. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.961.5377&rep=rep1&type=pdf">Machine translation as a tool in second language learning</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180104073518/http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.961.5377&rep=rep1&type=pdf">Archived</a> 4 January 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. CALICO Journal. 13(1). 68–96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Han et al. (2012), "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://repository.umac.mo/jspui/bitstream/10692/1747/1/10205_0_%5B2012-12-08~15%5D%20C.%20%28COLING2012%29%20LEPOR.pdf">LEPOR: A Robust Evaluation Metric for Machine Translation with Augmented Factors</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180104073506/http://repository.umac.mo/jspui/bitstream/10692/1747/1/10205_0_%5B2012-12-08~15%5D%20C.%20%28COLING2012%29%20LEPOR.pdf">Archived</a> 4 January 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>," in <i>Proceedings of the 24th International Conference on Computational Linguistics (COLING 2012): Posters, pages 441–450</i>, Mumbai, India.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J.M. Cohen observes (p.14): "Scientific translation is the aim of an age that would reduce all activities to <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">techniques</a>. It is impossible however to imagine a literary-translation machine less complex than the human brain itself, with all its knowledge, reading, and discrimination."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NIST-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NIST_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nist.gov/speech/tests/mt/">annually performed NIST tests since 2001</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090322202656/http://nist.gov/speech/tests/mt/">Archived</a> 22 March 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bilingual_Evaluation_Understudy" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilingual Evaluation Understudy">Bilingual Evaluation Understudy</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAbadi" class="citation web cs1">Abadi, Mark. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/google-translate-fails-2017-11">"4 times Google Translate totally dropped the ball"</a>. <i>Business Insider</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Business+Insider&rft.atitle=4+times+Google+Translate+totally+dropped+the+ball&rft.aulast=Abadi&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.businessinsider.com%2Fgoogle-translate-fails-2017-11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+translation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nlab.itmedia.co.jp/nl/articles/1704/16/news013.html">"回数を重ねるほど狂っていく Google翻訳で「えぐ」を英訳すると奇妙な世界に迷い込むと話題に"</a>. <i>ねとらぼ</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=%E3%81%AD%E3%81%A8%E3%82%89%E3%81%BC&rft.atitle=%E5%9B%9E%E6%95%B0%E3%82%92%E9%87%8D%E3%81%AD%E3%82%8B%E3%81%BB%E3%81%A9%E7%8B%82%E3%81%A3%E3%81%A6%E3%81%84%E3%81%8F+Google%E7%BF%BB%E8%A8%B3%E3%81%A7%E3%80%8C%E3%81%88%E3%81%90%E3%80%8D%E3%82%92%E8%8B%B1%E8%A8%B3%E3%81%99%E3%82%8B%E3%81%A8%E5%A5%87%E5%A6%99%E3%81%AA%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C%E3%81%AB%E8%BF%B7%E3%81%84%E8%BE%BC%E3%82%80%E3%81%A8%E8%A9%B1%E9%A1%8C%E3%81%AB&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnlab.itmedia.co.jp%2Fnl%2Farticles%2F1704%2F16%2Fnews013.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+translation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3-rfBsWmo0M">"えぐ"</a>. 12 April 2017 – via www.youtube.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E3%81%88%E3%81%90&rft.date=2017-04-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3D3-rfBsWmo0M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+translation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zhao,_L._2000-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Zhao,_L._2000_74-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zhao,_L._2000_74-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Zhao, L., Kipper, K., Schuler, W., Vogler, C., & Palmer, M. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1043&context=hms">A Machine Translation System from English to American Sign Language</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180720012839/https://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1043&context=hms">Archived</a> 20 July 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 1934: 54–67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.seo-translator.com/machine-translation-no-copyright-on-the-result/">"Machine Translation: No Copyright On The Result?"</a>. SEO Translator, citing <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe_Independent" title="Zimbabwe Independent">Zimbabwe Independent</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121129042959/http://www.seo-translator.com/machine-translation-no-copyright-on-the-result/">Archived</a> from the original on 29 November 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 November</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Machine+Translation%3A+No+Copyright+On+The+Result%3F&rft.pub=SEO+Translator%2C+citing+Zimbabwe+Independent&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.seo-translator.com%2Fmachine-translation-no-copyright-on-the-result%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+translation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Machine_translation&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2">Cohen, J. M. (1986), "Translation", <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_Americana" title="Encyclopedia Americana"><i>Encyclopedia Americana</i></a>, vol. 27, pp. <span class="nowrap">12–</span>15</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Translation&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Americana&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E12-%3C%2Fspan%3E15&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=J.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+translation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHutchinsSomers1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/W._John_Hutchins" title="W. John Hutchins">Hutchins, W. John</a>; Somers, Harold L. (1992). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontoma0000hutc"><i>An Introduction to Machine Translation</i></a></span>. London: Academic Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-12-362830-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-12-362830-X"><bdi>0-12-362830-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Machine+Translation&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-12-362830-X&rft.aulast=Hutchins&rft.aufirst=W.+John&rft.au=Somers%2C+Harold+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fintroductiontoma0000hutc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+translation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLewis-Kraus2015" class="citation magazine cs1">Lewis-Kraus, Gideon (7 June 2015). "Tower of Babble". <i>New York Times Magazine</i>. pp. <span class="nowrap">48–</span>52.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times+Magazine&rft.atitle=Tower+of+Babble&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E48-%3C%2Fspan%3E52&rft.date=2015-06-07&rft.aulast=Lewis-Kraus&rft.aufirst=Gideon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+translation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWeberMehandru2022" class="citation journal cs1">Weber, Steven; Mehandru, Nikita (2022). "The 2020s Political Economy of Machine Translation". <i>Business and Politics</i>. <b>24</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">96–</span>112. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2011.01007">2011.01007</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fbap.2021.17">10.1017/bap.2021.17</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:226236853">226236853</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Business+and+Politics&rft.atitle=The+2020s+Political+Economy+of+Machine+Translation&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E96-%3C%2Fspan%3E112&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F2011.01007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A226236853%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fbap.2021.17&rft.aulast=Weber&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft.au=Mehandru%2C+Nikita&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+translation" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Machine_translation&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/40px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="33" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/60px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/80px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiversity has learning resources about <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Topic:Computational_linguistics" class="extiw" title="v:Topic:Computational linguistics">Topic:Computational linguistics</a></b></i></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.omniglot.com/language/articles/machinetranslation.htm">The Advantages and Disadvantages of Machine Translation</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eamt.org/iamt.php">International Association for Machine Translation (IAMT)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100624162302/http://www.eamt.org/iamt.php">Archived</a> 24 June 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mt-archive.info">Machine Translation Archive</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190401232615/http://www.mt-archive.info/">Archived</a> 1 April 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by <a href="/wiki/W._John_Hutchins" title="W. John Hutchins">John Hutchins</a>. An electronic repository (and bibliography) of articles, books and papers in the field of machine translation and computer-based translation technology</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hutchinsweb.me.uk/">Machine translation (computer-based translation)</a> – Publications by John Hutchins (includes <a href="/wiki/PDF_format" class="mw-redirect" title="PDF format">PDFs</a> of several books on machine translation)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080120192259/http://bowland-files.lancs.ac.uk/monkey/ihe/mille/paper2.htm">Machine Translation and Minority Languages</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.foreignword.com/Technology/art/Hutchins/hutchins99.htm">John Hutchins 1999</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070907182416/http://www.foreignword.com/Technology/art/Hutchins/hutchins99.htm">Archived</a> 7 September 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://slator.com/machine-translation/">Slator News & analysis of the latest developments in machine translation</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.machinetranslation.com/blog/how-machine-translation-is-changing-the-landscape-of-foreign-language-learning">From Classroom to Real World: How Machine Translation is Changing the Landscape of Foreign Language Learning</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Natural_language_processing454" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Natural_language_processing" title="Template:Natural language processing"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Natural_language_processing" title="Template talk:Natural language processing"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Natural_language_processing" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Natural language processing"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Natural_language_processing454" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Natural_language_processing" title="Natural language processing">Natural language processing</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AI-complete" title="AI-complete">AI-complete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bag-of-words_model" title="Bag-of-words model">Bag-of-words</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N-gram" title="N-gram">n-gram</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bigram" title="Bigram">Bigram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trigram" title="Trigram">Trigram</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_linguistics" title="Computational linguistics">Computational linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_language_understanding" title="Natural language understanding">Natural language understanding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stop_word" title="Stop word">Stop words</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Text_processing" title="Text processing">Text processing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Text_mining" title="Text mining">Text analysis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argument_mining" title="Argument mining">Argument mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collocation_extraction" title="Collocation extraction">Collocation extraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concept_mining" title="Concept mining">Concept mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coreference#Coreference_resolution" title="Coreference">Coreference resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_linguistic_processing" title="Deep linguistic processing">Deep linguistic processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distant_reading" title="Distant reading">Distant reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_extraction" title="Information extraction">Information extraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Named-entity_recognition" title="Named-entity recognition">Named-entity recognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology_learning" title="Ontology learning">Ontology learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parsing" title="Parsing">Parsing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_parsing" title="Semantic parsing">Semantic parsing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntactic_parsing_(computational_linguistics)" title="Syntactic parsing (computational linguistics)">Syntactic parsing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Part-of-speech_tagging" title="Part-of-speech tagging">Part-of-speech tagging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_analysis_(machine_learning)" title="Semantic analysis (machine learning)">Semantic analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_role_labeling" title="Semantic role labeling">Semantic role labeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_decomposition_(natural_language_processing)" title="Semantic decomposition (natural language processing)">Semantic decomposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_similarity" title="Semantic similarity">Semantic similarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentiment_analysis" title="Sentiment analysis">Sentiment analysis</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terminology_extraction" title="Terminology extraction">Terminology extraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Text_mining" title="Text mining">Text mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textual_entailment" title="Textual entailment">Textual entailment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truecasing" title="Truecasing">Truecasing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Word-sense_disambiguation" title="Word-sense disambiguation">Word-sense disambiguation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Word-sense_induction" title="Word-sense induction">Word-sense induction</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Text_segmentation21" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Text_segmentation" title="Text segmentation">Text segmentation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compound-term_processing" title="Compound-term processing">Compound-term processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemmatisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Lemmatisation">Lemmatisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexical_analysis" title="Lexical analysis">Lexical analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shallow_parsing" title="Shallow parsing">Text chunking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stemming" title="Stemming">Stemming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentence_boundary_disambiguation" title="Sentence boundary disambiguation">Sentence segmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Word#Word_boundaries" title="Word">Word segmentation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Automatic_summarization" title="Automatic summarization">Automatic summarization</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multi-document_summarization" title="Multi-document summarization">Multi-document summarization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentence_extraction" title="Sentence extraction">Sentence extraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Text_simplification" title="Text simplification">Text simplification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Machine translation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer-assisted_translation" title="Computer-assisted translation">Computer-assisted</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Example-based_machine_translation" title="Example-based machine translation">Example-based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule-based_machine_translation" title="Rule-based machine translation">Rule-based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_machine_translation" title="Statistical machine translation">Statistical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfer-based_machine_translation" title="Transfer-based machine translation">Transfer-based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_machine_translation" title="Neural machine translation">Neural</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Distributional_semantics" title="Distributional semantics">Distributional semantics</a> models</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BERT_(language_model)" title="BERT (language model)">BERT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Document-term_matrix" title="Document-term matrix">Document-term matrix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explicit_semantic_analysis" title="Explicit semantic analysis">Explicit semantic analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FastText" title="FastText">fastText</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GloVe" title="GloVe">GloVe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_model" title="Language model">Language model</a> (<a href="/wiki/Large_language_model" title="Large language model">large</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latent_semantic_analysis" title="Latent semantic analysis">Latent semantic analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seq2seq" title="Seq2seq">Seq2seq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Word_embedding" title="Word embedding">Word embedding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Word2vec" title="Word2vec">Word2vec</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Language_resource" title="Language resource">Language resources</a>,<br />datasets and corpora</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types and<br />standards</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corpus_linguistics" title="Corpus linguistics">Corpus linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexical_resource" title="Lexical resource">Lexical resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_Linked_Open_Data" title="Linguistic Linked Open Data">Linguistic Linked Open Data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine-readable_dictionary" title="Machine-readable dictionary">Machine-readable dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_text" title="Parallel text">Parallel text</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PropBank" title="PropBank">PropBank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_network" title="Semantic network">Semantic network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_Knowledge_Organization_System" title="Simple Knowledge Organization System">Simple Knowledge Organization System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_corpus" title="Speech corpus">Speech corpus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Text_corpus" title="Text corpus">Text corpus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thesaurus_(information_retrieval)" title="Thesaurus (information retrieval)">Thesaurus (information retrieval)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treebank" title="Treebank">Treebank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Dependencies" title="Universal Dependencies">Universal Dependencies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Data</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BabelNet" title="BabelNet">BabelNet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bank_of_English" title="Bank of English">Bank of English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DBpedia" title="DBpedia">DBpedia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FrameNet" title="FrameNet">FrameNet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Google_Ngram_Viewer" class="mw-redirect" title="Google Ngram Viewer">Google Ngram Viewer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UBY" title="UBY">UBY</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WordNet" title="WordNet">WordNet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikidata" title="Wikidata">Wikidata</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Automatic_identification_and_data_capture" title="Automatic identification and data capture">Automatic identification<br />and data capture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Speech_recognition" title="Speech recognition">Speech recognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_segmentation" title="Speech segmentation">Speech segmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_synthesis" title="Speech synthesis">Speech synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_language_generation" title="Natural language generation">Natural language generation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_character_recognition" title="Optical character recognition">Optical character recognition</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Topic_model" title="Topic model">Topic model</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Document_classification" title="Document classification">Document classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latent_Dirichlet_allocation" title="Latent Dirichlet allocation">Latent Dirichlet allocation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pachinko_allocation" title="Pachinko allocation">Pachinko allocation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Computer-assisted_reviewing" title="Computer-assisted reviewing">Computer-assisted<br />reviewing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automated_essay_scoring" title="Automated essay scoring">Automated essay scoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concordancer" title="Concordancer">Concordancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammar_checker" title="Grammar checker">Grammar checker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predictive_text" title="Predictive text">Predictive text</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_assessment" title="Pronunciation assessment">Pronunciation assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spell_checker" title="Spell checker">Spell checker</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Natural-language_user_interface" title="Natural-language user interface">Natural language<br />user interface</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chatbot" title="Chatbot">Chatbot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interactive_fiction" title="Interactive fiction">Interactive fiction</a> (c.f. <a href="/wiki/Syntax_guessing" class="mw-redirect" title="Syntax guessing">Syntax guessing</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Question_answering" title="Question answering">Question answering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_assistant" title="Virtual assistant">Virtual assistant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voice_user_interface" title="Voice user interface">Voice user interface</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Formal_semantics_(natural_language)" title="Formal semantics (natural language)">Formal semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hallucination_(artificial_intelligence)" title="Hallucination (artificial intelligence)">Hallucination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_Language_Toolkit" title="Natural Language Toolkit">Natural Language Toolkit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SpaCy" title="SpaCy">spaCy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Approaches_to_machine_translation37" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Approaches_to_machine_translation" title="Template:Approaches to machine translation"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Approaches_to_machine_translation" title="Template talk:Approaches to machine translation"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Approaches_to_machine_translation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Approaches to machine translation"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Approaches_to_machine_translation37" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Approaches to <a class="mw-selflink selflink">machine translation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dictionary-based_machine_translation" title="Dictionary-based machine translation">Dictionary-based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule-based_machine_translation" title="Rule-based machine translation">Rule-based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfer-based_machine_translation" title="Transfer-based machine translation">Transfer-based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_machine_translation" title="Statistical machine translation">Statistical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Example-based_machine_translation" title="Example-based machine translation">Example-based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlingual_machine_translation" title="Interlingual machine translation">Interlingual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_machine_translation" title="Neural machine translation">Neural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_machine_translation" title="Hybrid machine translation">Hybrid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Emerging_technologies167" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Emerging_technologies" title="Template:Emerging technologies"><abbr 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line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Information_and_communications_technology" title="Information and communications technology">Information and<br />communications</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ambient_intelligence" title="Ambient intelligence">Ambient intelligence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet_of_things" title="Internet of things">Internet of things</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applications_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Applications of artificial intelligence">Applications of artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Machine translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_vision" title="Machine vision">Machine vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_translation" title="Mobile translation">Mobile translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progress_in_artificial_intelligence" title="Progress in artificial intelligence">Progress in artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_Web" title="Semantic Web">Semantic Web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_recognition" title="Speech recognition">Speech recognition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomtronics" title="Atomtronics">Atomtronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_nanotube_field-effect_transistor" title="Carbon nanotube field-effect transistor">Carbon nanotube field-effect transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybermethodology" title="Cybermethodology">Cybermethodology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_reality" title="Extended reality">Extended reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_disc#Fourth-generation" title="Optical disc">Fourth-generation optical discs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/3D_optical_data_storage" title="3D optical data storage">3D optical data storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holographic_data_storage" title="Holographic data storage">Holographic data storage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General-purpose_computing_on_graphics_processing_units" title="General-purpose computing on graphics processing units">GPGPU</a></li> <li>Memory <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Programmable_metallization_cell" title="Programmable metallization cell">CBRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrochemical_RAM" title="Electrochemical RAM">ECRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferroelectric_RAM" title="Ferroelectric RAM">FRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millipede_memory" title="Millipede memory">Millipede</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetoresistive_RAM" title="Magnetoresistive RAM">MRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nano-RAM" title="Nano-RAM">NRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phase-change_memory" title="Phase-change memory">PRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racetrack_memory" title="Racetrack memory">Racetrack memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistive_random-access_memory" title="Resistive random-access memory">RRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SONOS" title="SONOS">SONOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UltraRAM" title="UltraRAM">UltraRAM</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_computing" title="Optical computing">Optical computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio-frequency_identification" title="Radio-frequency identification">RFID</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chipless_RFID" title="Chipless RFID">Chipless RFID</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software-defined_radio" title="Software-defined radio">Software-defined radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-dimensional_integrated_circuit" title="Three-dimensional integrated circuit">Three-dimensional integrated circuit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a 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