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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Characteristics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Characteristics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_modern_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_modern_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Early modern period</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Early_modern_period-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Early modern period subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Early_modern_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Late_15th_to_17th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_15th_to_17th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Late 15th to 17th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_15th_to_17th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Renaissance_and_early_Reformation_(c._1450–1600)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Renaissance_and_early_Reformation_(c._1450–1600)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Renaissance and early Reformation (c.<span> 1450</span>–1600)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Renaissance_and_early_Reformation_(c._1450–1600)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_Reformation_and_early_Baroque_(c._1600–1700)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_Reformation_and_early_Baroque_(c._1600–1700)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Late Reformation and early Baroque (c.<span> 1600</span>–1700)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_Reformation_and_early_Baroque_(c._1600–1700)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-18th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#18th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>18th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-18th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Age_of_Enlightenment_and_early_Age_of_Revolution_(ca._1700–1800)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Age_of_Enlightenment_and_early_Age_of_Revolution_(ca._1700–1800)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Age of Enlightenment and early Age of Revolution (ca. 1700–1800)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Age_of_Enlightenment_and_early_Age_of_Revolution_(ca._1700–1800)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-19th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#19th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>19th century</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-19th_century-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle 19th century subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Napoleonic_era_(1799–1815)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Napoleonic_era_(1799–1815)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Napoleonic era (1799–1815)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Napoleonic_era_(1799–1815)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spreading_of_the_Industrial_Revolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spreading_of_the_Industrial_Revolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Spreading of the Industrial Revolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spreading_of_the_Industrial_Revolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_19th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_19th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Late 19th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>20th century</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-20th_century-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle 20th century subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-World_War_I" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_I"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>World War I</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_I-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interwar_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interwar_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Interwar period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interwar_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>World War II</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cold_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cold_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Cold War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cold_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1990s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1990s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>1990s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1990s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Modern era</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 67 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-67" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">67 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuzeit" title="Neuzeit – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Neuzeit" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%AB" title="العصر الحديث – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="العصر الحديث" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%BCasir_tarix" title="Müasir tarix – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Müasir tarix" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%88%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%86_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="مودرن تاریخ – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="مودرن تاریخ" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%A7%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="আধুনিক ইতিহাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="আধুনিক ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hi%C4%81n-t%C4%81i" title="Hiān-tāi – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hiān-tāi" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B_%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%81" title="Новы час – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Новы час" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B_%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%81" title="Новы час – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Новы час" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5" title="Ново време – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Ново време" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neizeid" title="Neizeid – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Neizeid" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_moderna" title="Història moderna – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Història moderna" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87%C4%95%D0%BD%C4%95_%D0%B2%C4%83%D1%85%C4%83%D1%82" title="Çĕнĕ вăхăт – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Çĕнĕ вăхăт" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novov%C4%9Bk" title="Novověk – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Novověk" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyere_tid_(historisk_periode)" title="Nyere tid (historisk periode) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Nyere tid (historisk periode)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuzeit" title="Neuzeit – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Neuzeit" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uusaeg" title="Uusaeg – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Uusaeg" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9D%CE%B5%CF%8C%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B7_%CE%B5%CF%80%CE%BF%CF%87%CE%AE" title="Νεότερη εποχή – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Νεότερη εποχή" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_moderna" title="Historia moderna – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia moderna" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderna_epoko" title="Moderna epoko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Moderna epoko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_modernoa" title="Historia modernoa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Historia modernoa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%87_%D9%85%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%86" title="دوره مدرن – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دوره مدرن" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_moderne" title="Histoire moderne – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire moderne" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storie_moderne" title="Storie moderne – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Storie moderne" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B7%BC%EB%8C%80%EC%82%AC" title="근대사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="근대사" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zamanin_Zamani" title="Zamanin Zamani – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Zamanin Zamani" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%86%D5%B8%D6%80_%D5%B7%D6%80%D5%BB%D5%A1%D5%B6" title="Նոր շրջան – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Նոր շրջան" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="आधुनिक इतिहास – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="आधुनिक इतिहास" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novi_vijek" title="Novi vijek – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Novi vijek" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaman_modern" title="Zaman modern – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Zaman modern" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BD%C3%B6ld" title="Nýöld – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Nýöld" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%97%D7%93%D7%A9%D7%94" title="העת החדשה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="העת החדשה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%AE%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%93%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D" title="ახალი დრო – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ახალი დრო" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D2%A3%D0%B0_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Жаңа заман – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Жаңа заман" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tan_mod%C3%A8n" title="Tan modèn – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Tan modèn" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serdema_n%C3%BB" title="Serdema nû – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Serdema nû" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aevum_modernum" title="Aevum modernum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Aevum modernum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Ajkor" title="Újkor – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Újkor" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%A8_%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="നവീന ചരിത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="നവീന ചരിത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nieuwe_tijd" title="Nieuwe tijd – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Nieuwe tijd" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%97" title="आधुनिक युग – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="आधुनिक युग" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%BF%91%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3" title="近現代 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="近現代" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neitidj" title="Neitidj – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Neitidj" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yangi_tarix" title="Yangi tarix – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Yangi tarix" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%8A_%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%87" title="عصري دوره – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="عصري دوره" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutiet" title="Nutiet – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Nutiet" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epoca_modern%C4%83" title="Epoca modernă – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Epoca modernă" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%BA" title="Нововік – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Нововік" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%8F" title="Новое время – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Новое время" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/ayza-nisamihmihcaan_a_nasulitan" title="ayza-nisamihmihcaan a nasulitan – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="ayza-nisamihmihcaan a nasulitan" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sakizaya</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periudha_moderne" title="Periudha moderne – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Periudha moderne" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_history" title="Modern history – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Modern history" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novovek" title="Novovek – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Novovek" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novi_vek" title="Novi vek – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Novi vek" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8_%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%BA" title="Нови вијек – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Нови вијек" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novi_vijek" title="Novi vijek – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Novi vijek" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uusi_aika" title="Uusi aika – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Uusi aika" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_historia" title="Modern historia – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Modern historia" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B2_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81" title="புதுமைக்கால வரலாறு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="புதுமைக்கால வரலாறு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D2%A3%D0%B0_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Яңа заман – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Яңа заман" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A2%E0%B9%83%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%88" title="สมัยใหม่ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สมัยใหม่" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Нова історія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Нова історія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%E1%BB%8Bch_s%E1%BB%AD_hi%E1%BB%87n_%C4%91%E1%BA%A1i" title="Lịch sử hiện đại – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Lịch sử hiện đại" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vahts%C3%B5n%C3%B5_aig" title="Vahtsõnõ aig – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Vahtsõnõ aig" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaagi_moderno" title="Kaagi moderno – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Kaagi moderno" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8F%B2" title="現代史 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="現代史" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarixo_modern" title="Tarixo modern – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Tarixo modern" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8F%B2" title="現代史 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="現代史" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q3281534#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:20.0em;border-spacing:0;padding:0;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:World_history" title="Category:World history">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">Human history</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <span style="font-size:120%">↑</span> <a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">Prehistory</a> (<a href="/wiki/Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">Stone Age</a>) <span class="nowrap">  </span>(<small><i><b><a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene epoch</a></b></i></small>)</td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Holocene</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timelines_of_world_history" title="Timelines of world history">Timelines</a><br /><small><b><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic</a> – <a href="/wiki/Contemporary_history" title="Contemporary history">Contemporary</a></b></small><br /><small>(<a href="/wiki/10,000_BCE" class="mw-redirect" title="10,000 BCE">10,000 BCE</a> – <a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Portal:Current events">Present</a>)</small></li></ul> </div> <hr /> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_human_antiquity" title="Discovery of human antiquity">Age of the human race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recorded_history" title="Recorded history">Recorded history</a> (<a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">Common Era</a>)</li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_writing" title="History of writing">Earliest records</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protohistory" title="Protohistory">Protohistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-writing" title="Proto-writing">Proto-writing</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Copper Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axial_Age" title="Axial Age">Axial Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul> </div> <hr /> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Africa#Antiquity" title="History of Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andean_civilizations" title="Andean civilizations">South America</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oceania#Prehistory" title="History of Oceania">Oceania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_East_Asia" title="History of East Asia">East Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_South_Asian_history" title="Outline of South Asian history">South Asia</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Southeast_Asia#Early_historical_era" title="History of Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">West Asia</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Europe</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Postclassical</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of the Middle Ages">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div> <hr /> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Africa#500_to_1800" title="History of Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Americas</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oceania" title="History of Oceania">Oceania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_East_Asia" title="History of East Asia">East Asia</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_kingdoms_of_India" title="Middle kingdoms of India">South Asia</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Southeast_Asia#Medieval_history" title="History of Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Middle_East#Medieval_Near_East" title="History of the Middle East">West Asia</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Europe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Modern</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0.4em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_history" title="Contemporary history">Contemporary</a></li></ul> </div> <hr /> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Africa#Modern" title="History of Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_America#Modern" title="History of North America">North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_America#Modern" title="History of South America">South America</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oceania#Modern_age" title="History of Oceania">Oceania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_East_Asia#Modern" title="History of East Asia">East Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_South_Asian_history#Modern" title="Outline of South Asian history">South Asia</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Southeast_Asia#Modern" title="History of Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Middle_East" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Middle East">West Asia</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe#From_revolution_to_imperialism_(1789–1914)" title="History of Europe">Europe</a></li></ul> </div> <hr /></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight:normal;padding-bottom:0;"> See also</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postmodernity" title="Postmodernity">Postmodernity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Futures_studies" title="Futures studies">Futurology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_world" title="Political history of the world">Political history</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span style="font-size:120%">↓</span> <a href="/wiki/Future" title="Future">Future</a> <span class="nowrap">  </span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Human_history" title="Template:Human history"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Human_history" title="Template talk:Human history"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Human_history" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Human history"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>modern era</b> or the <b>modern period</b> is considered the current <a href="/wiki/Historical_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical period">historical period</a> of <a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">human history</a>. It was originally applied to the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">history of Europe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Western history">Western history</a> for events that came after the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, often from around the year 1500. From the 1990s, it is more common among historians to refer to the period after the Middle Ages and up to the 19th century as the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern period</a>. The modern period is today more often used for events from the 19th century until today. The time from the end of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> (1945) can also be described as being part of <a href="/wiki/Contemporary_history" title="Contemporary history">contemporary history</a>. The common definition of the modern period today is often associated with events like the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>, and the transition to <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalism</a> towards the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_international_order" title="Liberal international order">liberal international order</a>. </p><p>The modern period has been a period of significant development in the fields of <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">politics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Warfare">warfare</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">technology</a>. It has also been an <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a>. During this time, the <a href="/wiki/European_powers" class="mw-redirect" title="European powers">European powers</a> and later their colonies, strengthened its political, economic, and cultural <a href="/wiki/Colonization" title="Colonization">colonization</a> of the rest of the world. It also created a new modern lifestyle and has permanently changed the way people around the world live.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#19th_century">19th</a> and early <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#20th_century">20th century</a>, <a href="/wiki/Modernist" class="mw-redirect" title="Modernist">modernist</a> <a href="/wiki/Art" title="Art">art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">politics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a> have come to dominate not only <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a> and <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a>, but almost every area on the globe, including <a href="/wiki/Anti-Western_sentiment" title="Anti-Western sentiment">movements thought of as opposed to</a> the <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">western world</a> and <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a>. The modern era is closely associated with the development of <a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">individualism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanization</a>, and a belief in the positive possibilities of technological and political <a href="/wiki/Progress" title="Progress">progress</a>. </p><p>The <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#World_War_I">brutal</a> <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#World_War_II">wars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">other conflicts of this era</a>, many of which come from the effects of rapid change, and the connected <a href="/wiki/Detraditionalization" title="Detraditionalization">loss of strength of traditional religious</a> and ethical norms, have led to many <a href="/wiki/Modernism#Criticism_of_late_modernity" title="Modernism">reactions against modern development</a>. <a href="/wiki/Optimism" title="Optimism">Optimism</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Whig_history" title="Whig history">belief in constant progress</a> have been most recently criticized by <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">postmodernism</a>, while the <a href="/wiki/Eurocentrism" title="Eurocentrism">dominance</a> of Western Europe and North America over the rest of the world has been criticized by <a href="/wiki/Postcolonialism" title="Postcolonialism">postcolonial theory</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_era&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Terminology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Eras can not easily be defined. 1500 is an approximate starting period for the modern era because many major events caused the Western world to change around that time: from the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">fall of Constantinople</a> (1453), <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg">Gutenberg</a>'s moveable type <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a> (1450s), completion of the <a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a> (1492) and <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a>'s voyage to the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a> (also 1492), to the <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a> begun with <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Ninety-five_Theses" title="Ninety-five Theses">Ninety-five Theses</a> (1517).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag needs further explanation. (April 2024)">further explanation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The term "modern" was coined shortly before 1585 to describe the beginning of a new era.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The term "early modern" was introduced in the English language by American historians at the turn of the 20th century (around 1900).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENipperdey2022199_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENipperdey2022199-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was long thought that the concept was invented either in the 1930s to distinguish the time between the Middle Ages and time of the late Enlightenment (1800),<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or that "early modern" was not coined until the mid-20th century and only gained substantial traction in the 1960s and 1970s.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENipperdey2022199_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENipperdey2022199-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nipperdey (2022) pointed to its widespread usage by American historians around 1900 already, adding: 'In the interwar years the term permeated all areas of professional activity from textbooks and graduate school seminars to conferences, research articles, and job descriptions.'<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENipperdey2022199_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENipperdey2022199-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The difference between "early modern" and just "modern" was defined by the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENipperdey2022199_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENipperdey2022199-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sometimes distinct from the modern periods themselves, the terms "<a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">modernity</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">modernism</a>" refer to a new way of thinking, distinct, from previous ways of thinking such as medieval thinking. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">European</a> <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> (about 1420–1630) is an important transition period beginning between the <a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a> and Early Modern Times, which started in Italy. </p><p>"<a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">Postmodernism</a>", coined 1949, on the other hand, would describe rather a movement in <a href="/wiki/Art" title="Art">art</a> than a period of history, and is usually applied to arts, but not to any events of the very recent history.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This changed, when <a href="/wiki/Postmodernity" title="Postmodernity">postmodernity</a> was coined to describe the major changes in the 1950s and 1960s in economy, society, culture, and philosophy. </p><p>These terms stem from European History; in worldwide usage, such as in China, India, and Islam, the terms are applied in a very different way, but often in the context with their contact with European culture in the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discoveries" class="mw-redirect" title="Age of Discoveries">Age of Discoveries</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Characteristics">Characteristics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_era&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Characteristics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Changes, mostly seen as advances, in all areas of human activity—<a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">politics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Industry_(economics)" title="Industry (economics)">industry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">society</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Commerce" title="Commerce">commerce</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transport" title="Transport">transport</a>, <a href="/wiki/Communication" title="Communication">communication</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mechanization" title="Mechanization">mechanization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Automation" title="Automation">automation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">technology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Arts" class="mw-redirect" title="Arts">arts</a>, and other aspects of <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a>—appear to have transformed an <i>Old World</i> into the <i>Modern</i> or <i>New World</i>. In each case, the identification of the change over time can be used to demarcate the old and old-fashioned from the modern.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Starting in western countries, the modern world has seen a systematic re-evaluation of <a href="/wiki/Value_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Value system">value systems</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">monarchical</a> regimes, and <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudal</a> economic systems. These have often been replaced by <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democratic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberal</a> ideas in the areas of <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">politics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some events of modern history, though born out of context not entirely new, show a new way of perceiving the world. The concept of modernity interprets the general meaning of these events and seeks explanations for major developments.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historians analyze the events taking place in Modern Times, since the so-called "<a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>" (between Modern and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Times">Ancient Times</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_modern_period">Early modern period</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_era&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Early modern period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern period</a> and <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">Early modern Europe</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_15th_to_17th_century">Late 15th to 17th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_era&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Late 15th to 17th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/16th_century" title="16th century">16th century</a> and <a href="/wiki/17th_century" title="17th century">17th century</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Renaissance_and_early_Reformation_(c._1450–1600)"><span id="Renaissance_and_early_Reformation_.28c._1450.E2.80.931600.29"></span><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> and early <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1450</span>–1600)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_era&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Renaissance and early Reformation (c. 1450–1600)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg">Gutenberg</a>'s moveable type <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a> (1450s): information age and <a href="/wiki/Newspaper" title="Newspaper">newspapers</a>.</li> <li>Conquest of <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> (1453).</li> <li>Discovery of <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">America</a> (1492): <a href="/wiki/Voyages_of_Christopher_Columbus" title="Voyages of Christopher Columbus">Voyages of Christopher Columbus</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machiavelli" class="mw-redirect" title="Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Prince" title="The Prince"><i>Il Principe</i> (<i>The Prince</i>)</a> started to circulate.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copernicus" class="mw-redirect" title="Copernicus">Copernicus</a> and the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a> challenges the Church on <a href="/wiki/31_October" class="mw-redirect" title="31 October">31 October</a> <a href="/wiki/1517" title="1517">1517</a> with <a href="/wiki/The_95_Theses" class="mw-redirect" title="The 95 Theses">the 95 Theses</a>: <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Reformation</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">Mercantilist</a> economic theory and policy</li> <li>Fall of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armada" title="Spanish Armada">Spanish Armada</a> <a href="/wiki/8_August" class="mw-redirect" title="8 August">8 August</a> <a href="/wiki/1588" title="1588">1588</a> enabled the Rise of the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Late_Reformation_and_early_Baroque_(c._1600–1700)"><span id="Late_Reformation_and_early_Baroque_.28c._1600.E2.80.931700.29"></span>Late <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a> and early <a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1600</span>–1700)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_era&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Late Reformation and early Baroque (c. 1600–1700)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The "<a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a>" is a term usually applied to the history of art, architecture and music during this period. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a> 1618–1648 in <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central Europe</a> decimated the population by up to 20%.</li> <li>The treaties of the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</a> are signed in 1648, which ended several wars in Europe and established the beginning of sovereign states.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a> of 1688 establishes modern <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_democracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Parliamentary democracy">parliamentary democracy</a> in England.</li> <li>Continuation of the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li>The beginning of the reign of <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV" title="Louis XIV">Louis XIV</a> r. 1643–1715, an example of the <a href="/wiki/Absolutism_(European_history)" title="Absolutism (European history)">Age of Absolutism</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="18th_century">18th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_era&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: 18th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/18th_century" title="18th century">18th century</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Age_of_Enlightenment_and_early_Age_of_Revolution_(ca._1700–1800)"><span id="Age_of_Enlightenment_and_early_Age_of_Revolution_.28ca._1700.E2.80.931800.29"></span><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a> and early <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Revolution" title="Age of Revolution">Age of Revolution</a> (ca. 1700–1800)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_era&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Age of Enlightenment and early Age of Revolution (ca. 1700–1800)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a> (1701–1714)</li> <li>The 1713 <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Utrecht" title="Peace of Utrecht">Peace of Utrecht</a> marked the change from <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish</a> to <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">British</a> naval supremacy.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Austrian_Succession" title="War of the Austrian Succession">War of the Austrian Succession</a> (1740–1748)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a> (1754–1763)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> (1765–1783)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> (1789–1799)</li> <li>The beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> around 1760.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="19th_century">19th century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_era&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: 19th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/19th_century" title="19th century">19th century</a></div> <p>Historians sometimes define a nineteenth century <a href="/wiki/List_of_time_periods" title="List of time periods">historical era</a> stretching from 1815 (the Congress of Vienna) to 1914 (the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">First World War</a>); alternatively, Eric Hobsbawm defined the "<a href="/wiki/Long_nineteenth_century" title="Long nineteenth century">long nineteenth century</a>" as spanning the years 1789 to 1914. </p><p>During this century, the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empires</a> began to crumble and the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empires</a> ceased. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Napoleonic_era_(1799–1815)"><span id="Napoleonic_era_.281799.E2.80.931815.29"></span>Napoleonic era (1799–1815)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_era&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Napoleonic era (1799–1815)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_era" title="Napoleonic era">Napoleonic era</a></div> <p>The Napoleonic era is a period in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">history of France</a> and Europe. It is generally classified as the fourth stage of the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>, the first being the <a href="/wiki/National_Assembly" title="National Assembly">National Assembly</a>, the second being the <a href="/wiki/Legislative_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Legislative Assembly">Legislative Assembly</a>, and the third being the <a href="/wiki/French_Directory" title="French Directory">Directory</a>. The Napoleonic era begins roughly with Napoleon's <a href="/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="Coup d'état">coup d'état</a>, overthrowing the Directory and ends at the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Days" title="Hundred Days">Hundred Days</a> and his defeat at <a href="/wiki/Waterloo,_Belgium" title="Waterloo, Belgium">Waterloo</a> (<a href="/wiki/November_9" title="November 9">November 9</a> <a href="/wiki/1799" title="1799">1799</a> – <a href="/wiki/June_28" title="June 28">June 28</a> <a href="/wiki/1815" title="1815">1815</a>). The <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a> soon set out to restore Europe to pre-French Revolution days. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spreading_of_the_Industrial_Revolution">Spreading of the Industrial Revolution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_era&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Spreading of the Industrial Revolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg/211px-Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg" decoding="async" width="211" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg/317px-Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg/422px-Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="760" /></a><figcaption>A Watt steam engine in <a href="/wiki/Madrid" title="Madrid">Madrid</a>. The development of the <a href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">steam engine</a> started the industrial revolution in England. The steam engine was created to pump water from coal mines, enabling them to be deepened beyond <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> levels.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Industrial Revolution was the major <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">technological</a>, <a href="/wiki/Socioeconomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Socioeconomics">socioeconomic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">cultural</a> change in late 18th and early 19th century that began in <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Britain</a> and spread throughout the world. During that time, an <a href="/wiki/Economic_system" title="Economic system">economy</a> based on <a href="/wiki/Manual_labour" title="Manual labour">manual labour</a> was replaced by one dominated by industry and the <a href="/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">manufacture</a> of <a href="/wiki/Machine" title="Machine">machinery</a>. It began with the mechanisation of the <a href="/wiki/Textile" title="Textile">textile</a> industries and the development of <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>-making techniques, and trade expansion was enabled by the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Canal" title="Canal">canals</a>, improved <a href="/wiki/Road" title="Road">roads</a>, and then <a href="/wiki/Rail_transport" title="Rail transport">railways</a>. The introduction of <a href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">steam power</a> (fuelled primarily by <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a>) and powered machinery (mainly in <a href="/wiki/Textile_manufacturing" title="Textile manufacturing">textile manufacturing</a>) underpinned the dramatic increases in production capacity.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The development of all-metal <a href="/wiki/Machine_tool" title="Machine tool">machine tools</a> in the first two decades of the 19th century facilitated the manufacture of more production machines for manufacturing in other industries. </p><p>The date of the Industrial Revolution is not exact. <a href="/wiki/Eric_Hobsbawm" title="Eric Hobsbawm">Eric Hobsbawm</a> held that it "broke out" in the 1780s and was not fully felt until the 1830s or 1840s,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while <a href="/wiki/T._S._Ashton" title="T. S. Ashton">T. S. Ashton</a> held that it occurred roughly between 1760 and 1830 (in effect the reigns of <a href="/wiki/George_III" title="George III">George III</a>, The <a href="/wiki/Regency_era" title="Regency era">Regency</a>, and <a href="/wiki/George_IV" title="George IV">George IV</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The effects spread throughout <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a> and <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a> during the 19th century, eventually affecting the majority of the world. The impact of this change on <a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">society</a> was enormous and is often compared to the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a>, when mankind developed <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a> and gave up its <a href="/wiki/Nomad" title="Nomad">nomadic</a> lifestyle.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The First Industrial Revolution gave way to the <a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a> around 1850, when technological and economic progress gained momentum with the development of steam-powered <a href="/wiki/Ship" title="Ship">ships</a> and railways, and later in the nineteenth century with the <a href="/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine" title="Internal combustion engine">internal combustion engine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electric_power" title="Electric power">electric power</a> generation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_19th_century">Late 19th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_era&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Late 19th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Following the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a>, the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> became the world's leading power, controlling one-quarter of the world's population and one-third of the land area.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It enforced a <a href="/wiki/Pax_Britannica" title="Pax Britannica">Pax Britannica</a>, encouraged trade, and battled rampant piracy.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">Slavery</a> was greatly reduced around the world. Following a successful <a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">slave revolt in Haiti</a>, Britain forced the <a href="/wiki/Barbary_pirates" title="Barbary pirates">Barbary pirates</a> to halt their practice of kidnapping and enslaving Europeans, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_Abolition_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery Abolition Act">banned slavery throughout its domain</a> in 1833, and charged its navy with ending the global slave trade.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Slavery was then abolished in <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_reform_of_1861_in_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Emancipation reform of 1861 in Russia">Russia</a> in 1861,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by the <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a> in the United States in 1863,<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in <a href="/wiki/Lei_%C3%81urea" title="Lei Áurea">Brazil</a> in 1888.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (see <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a>). </p><p>Following the abolition of the <a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery" title="History of slavery">slave trade</a>, and propelled by economic exploitation, the <a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa" title="Scramble for Africa">Scramble for Africa</a> was initiated formally at the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_West_Africa_Conference" class="mw-redirect" title="Berlin West Africa Conference">Berlin West Africa Conference</a> in 1884–1885.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All the major European powers laid claim to the areas of <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> where they could exhibit a sphere of influence over the area. These claims did not have to have any substantial land holdings or treaties to be legitimate.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">French</a> gained major ground in <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">British</a> in <a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">East Africa</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Portugal_(1834%E2%80%931910)" title="History of Portugal (1834–1910)">Portuguese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Restoration_(Spain)" title="Restoration (Spain)">Spanish</a> at various points throughout the continent, while <a href="/wiki/Leopold_II_of_Belgium" title="Leopold II of Belgium">Leopold II of Belgium</a> was able to retain his personal fiefdom, <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo" title="Belgian Congo">Congo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Electricity, steel, and petroleum fuelled a <a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a> which enabled <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">Germany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japan</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> to become <a href="/wiki/Great_power" title="Great power">great powers</a> that <a href="/wiki/New_Imperialism" title="New Imperialism">raced to create empires of their own</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">China</a> failed to keep pace with the other world powers, which led to massive social unrest in both empires.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="20th_century">20th century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_era&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: 20th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/20th_century" title="20th century">20th century</a></div> <p>While earlier centuries also saw significant developments, the <i>20th century</i> was distinguished by the unprecedented pace and global scale of economic, technological, and cultural changes.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Still, advancing technology and medicine have had a great impact even in the <a href="/wiki/Global_South" class="mw-redirect" title="Global South">Global South</a>. Large-scale industry and more centralized <a href="/wiki/Mass_media" title="Mass media">media</a> made brutal dictatorships possible on an unprecedented scale in the middle of the century, leading to wars that were also unprecedented.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the increased communications contributed to <a href="/wiki/Democratization" title="Democratization">democratization</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Technological developments included the development of <a href="/wiki/Airplane" title="Airplane">airplanes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Space_exploration" title="Space exploration">space exploration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_technology" title="Nuclear technology">nuclear technology</a>, advancement in <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a>, and the dawning of the <a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information Age</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Major political developments included the <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israeli</a>–<a href="/wiki/Palestinian_territories" class="mw-redirect" title="Palestinian territories">Palestinian</a> conflict,<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> two world wars,<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also saw the former British Empire lose most of its remaining political power over Commonwealth countries, most notably by the dividing of the British crown into several sovereignties by the <a href="/wiki/Statute_of_Westminster_1931" title="Statute of Westminster 1931">Statute of Westminster</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Patriation" title="Patriation">patriation</a> of constitutions by the <a href="/wiki/Canada_Act_1982" title="Canada Act 1982">Canada Act 1982</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Australia_Act_1986" title="Australia Act 1986">Australia Act 1986</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as the independence of countries like <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland" title="Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_I">World War I</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_era&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: World War I"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></div> <p>The First World War was a <a href="/wiki/World_war" title="World war">world conflict</a>, ranging from July 1914 to the final <a href="/wiki/Armistice_with_Germany_(Compi%C3%A8gne)" class="mw-redirect" title="Armistice with Germany (Compiègne)">Armistice</a> on 11 November 1918. The <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Allied Powers</a>, led by the <a href="/wiki/Britain_in_World_War_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Britain in World War I">British Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">France</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> until March 1918, <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> after 1917, defeated the <a href="/wiki/Central_Powers" title="Central Powers">Central Powers</a>, led by the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Austro-Hungarian Empire">Austro-Hungarian Empire</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>. The war caused the disintegration of four empires — the Austro-Hungarian, German, Ottoman, and Russian ones — as well as radical change in the European and Middle Eastern maps. The Allied powers before 1917 are sometimes referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Triple_Entente" title="Triple Entente">Triple Entente</a>, and the Central Powers are sometimes referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Triple_Alliance_(1882)" title="Triple Alliance (1882)">Triple Alliance</a>. </p><p>Much of the fighting in World War I took place along the <a href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Western Front (World War I)">Western Front</a>, within a system of opposing manned trenches and fortifications (separated by a "<a href="/wiki/No_man%27s_land" title="No man's land">no man's land</a>") running from the <a href="/wiki/North_Sea" title="North Sea">North Sea</a> to the border of <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>. On the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Eastern Front (World War I)">Eastern Front</a>, the vast eastern plains and limited rail network prevented a trench warfare stalemate from developing, although the scale of the conflict was just as large. Hostilities also occurred on and under the sea and — for the first time — from the air. More than 9 million soldiers died on the various battlefields, and nearly that many more in the participating countries' home fronts on account of food shortages and <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a> committed under the cover of various civil wars and internal conflicts. Notably, more people died of the worldwide <a href="/wiki/Spanish_flu" title="Spanish flu">influenza outbreak</a> at the end of the war and shortly after than died in the hostilities. The unsanitary conditions engendered by the war, severe overcrowding in barracks, wartime propaganda interfering with public health warnings, and migration of so many soldiers around the world helped the outbreak become a <a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">pandemic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ultimately, World War I created a decisive break with the old <a href="/wiki/New_world_order_(politics)" title="New world order (politics)">world order</a> that had emerged after the Napoleonic Wars, which was modified by the mid-19th century's nationalistic revolutions. The results of World War I would be important factors in the development of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> approximately 20 years later. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interwar_period">Interwar period</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_era&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Interwar period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></div> <p>The Interwar period was the period between the end of World War I in 1918 and the beginning of World War II in 1939. It included the <a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a>, and the rise of <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</a> in Russia and <a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">fascism</a> in Italy and Germany. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_II">World War II</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_era&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: World War II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></div> <p>World War II was a <a href="/wiki/World_war" title="World war">global</a> <a href="/wiki/War" title="War">military conflict</a> that took place in 1939–1945. It was the largest and deadliest war in history, culminating in <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a> and ending with the dropping of the <a href="/wiki/Atom_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Atom bomb">atom bomb</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although Japan had invaded China in 1937, the conventional view is that World War II began on September 1, 1939, when <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> invaded Poland. Within two days, the United Kingdom and France declared war on Germany, even though the fighting was confined to Poland. Pursuant to a then-secret provision of its non-aggression <a href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact</a>, the Soviet Union joined Germany on September 17, 1939, to conquer Poland and divide Eastern Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies</a> were initially made up of Poland, the United Kingdom, France, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, as well as <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">British Commonwealth</a> countries which were controlled directly by the UK, such as the <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">Indian Empire</a>. All of these countries declared war on Germany in September 1939.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the lull in fighting, known as the "<a href="/wiki/Phoney_War" title="Phoney War">Phoney War</a>", Germany invaded western Europe in May 1940. Six weeks later, France, in the meantime attacked by Italy as well, surrendered to Germany, which then tried unsuccessfully to conquer Britain. On September 27, Germany, Italy, and Japan signed a mutual defense agreement, the <a href="/wiki/Tripartite_Pact" title="Tripartite Pact">Tripartite Pact</a>, and were known as the <a href="/wiki/Axis_Powers" class="mw-redirect" title="Axis Powers">Axis Powers</a>. Nine months later, on June 22, 1941, Germany launched a massive invasion of the Soviet Union, which prompted it to join the Allies. Germany was now engaged in fighting a war on two fronts.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On December 7, 1941, <a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">Japan attacked the United States at Pearl Harbor</a>, bringing it too into the war on the side of the Allies. China also joined the Allies, as did most of the rest of the world. China was in turmoil at the time and attacked Japanese armies through guerrilla-type warfare. By the beginning of 1942, the alignment of the major combatants was as follows: the British Commonwealth, the Soviet Union, and the United States were fighting Germany and Italy; China, the British Commonwealth, and the United States were fighting Japan.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The United Kingdom, the United States, the Soviet Union, and China were referred to as a "trusteeship of the powerful" during World War II<sup id="cite_ref-Justus_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Justus-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and were recognized as the Allied "Big Four" in the <a href="/wiki/Declaration_by_United_Nations" title="Declaration by United Nations">Declaration by United Nations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These four countries were considered the "<a href="/wiki/Four_Policemen" title="Four Policemen">Four Policemen</a>" or "Four Sheriffs" of the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies</a> and were the primary victors of World War II.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Battles raged across all of Europe, in the north <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a>, across North Africa, throughout Southeast Asia, throughout China, across the Pacific Ocean, and in the air over Japan. Italy surrendered in September 1943 and was split into a northern Germany-occupied <a href="/wiki/Puppet_state" title="Puppet state">puppet state</a> and an Allies-friendly state in the south; Germany surrendered in May 1945. Following the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a>, <a href="/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">Japan surrendered</a>, marking the end of the war on September 2, 1945.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is possible that around 62 million people <a href="/wiki/World_War_II_casualties" title="World War II casualties">died in the war</a>; estimates vary greatly. About 60% of all casualties were civilians, who died as a result of disease, starvation, <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a> (in particular, the <a href="/wiki/Holocaust" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust">Holocaust</a>), and aerial bombing.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The former Soviet Union and China suffered the most casualties. Estimates place deaths in the Soviet Union at around 23 million, while China suffered about 10 million. No country lost a greater portion of its population than Poland: approximately 5.6 million, or 16%, of its pre-war population of 34.8 million died.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Holocaust (which roughly means "burnt whole") was the deliberate and systematic murder of millions of Jews and other "unwanted" groups during World War II by the Nazi regime in Germany. Several differing views exist regarding whether it was intended to occur from the war's beginning or if the plans for it came about later. Regardless, persecution of Jews extended well before the war even started, such as during <i><a href="/wiki/Kristallnacht" title="Kristallnacht">Kristallnacht</a></i> (Night of Broken Glass). The Nazis used propaganda to great effect to stir up anti-Semitic feelings within ordinary Germans.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After World War II, <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> was informally split into Western and Soviet <a href="/wiki/Sphere_of_influence" title="Sphere of influence">spheres of influence</a>. <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a> later aligned as <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a>. There was a shift in power from Western Europe and the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> to the two new superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union. These two rivals would later face off in the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Asia, the defeat of Japan led to its <a href="/wiki/Democratization" title="Democratization">democratization</a>. <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">China's civil war</a> continued through and after the war, eventually resulting in the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a>. The former colonies of the European powers began their road to independence.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cold_War">Cold War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_era&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Cold War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Contemporary_history" title="Contemporary history">Contemporary history</a> and <a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Post–Cold War era">Post–Cold War era</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> between the "West" (the United States, Western Europe, and Japan) and the "East" (the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, and China) dominated politics from the end of World War II in 1945, until the <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">collapse of the Soviet Union</a> in 1991, at which point the Cold War ended and the <a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Post–Cold War era">post–Cold War era</a> began (which includes most of the <a href="/wiki/1990s" title="1990s">1990s</a>, the last decade of the 20th century).<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a>, impacted political life, while the <a href="/wiki/Counterculture_of_the_1960s" title="Counterculture of the 1960s">counterculture of the 1960s</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">rise of computers</a> changed society in different, complex ways, including higher social and local mobility.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1990s">1990s</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_era&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: 1990s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/1990s" title="1990s">1990s</a></div> <p>At the end of the twentieth century, the world was at a major crossroads. Throughout the century, more technological advances had been made than in all of preceding history. Computers, the Internet, and other technologies radically altered daily lives.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, several problems faced the world during the Cold War period and the 1990s that followed. </p><p>First of all, the gap between rich and poor nations continued to widen. Some said that this problem could not be fixed, arguing that there was a set amount of wealth and it could only be shared by so many.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others claimed that powerful nations with large economies were not doing enough to help improve the rapidly evolving economies of the <a href="/wiki/Third_World" title="Third World">Third World</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Developing countries faced many challenges, including the scale of the task to be surmounted, rapidly growing populations, and the need to protect the environment, along with the associated costs.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Secondly, disease threatened to destabilize many regions of the world. Viruses such as <a href="/wiki/West_Nile_virus" title="West Nile virus">West Nile</a> and <a href="/wiki/Avian_influenza" title="Avian influenza">Avian influenza</a> continued to spread quickly and easily.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In poor nations, <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a> and other diseases affected the majority of the population.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Millions were infected with <a href="/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a>, the virus that causes <a href="/wiki/AIDS" class="mw-redirect" title="AIDS">AIDS</a>, which was becoming an <a href="/wiki/AIDS_in_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="AIDS in Africa">epidemic in southern Africa</a> and around the world.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Increased <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a>, specifically <a href="/wiki/Americanization" title="Americanization">Americanization</a>, was also occurring. While not necessarily a threat, it was causing anti-Western and <a href="/wiki/Anti-Americanism" title="Anti-Americanism">anti-American</a> feelings in parts of the world, especially in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> English was quickly becoming the global language, with people who did not speak it becoming increasingly disadvantaged.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Terrorism" title="Terrorism">Terrorism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">dictatorship</a>, and the spread of nuclear weapons were also issues requiring immediate attention. Dictators such as <a href="/wiki/Kim_Jong-il" class="mw-redirect" title="Kim Jong-il">Kim Jong-il</a> in <a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a> continued to lead their nations toward the development of nuclear weapons.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fear existed that not only were terrorists already attempting to obtain nuclear weapons, but that they had already acquired them.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_era&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarrel_of_the_Ancients_and_the_Moderns" title="Quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns">Quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timelines_of_modern_history" title="Timelines of modern history">Timelines of modern history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_La_Fl%C3%A8che" title="History of La Flèche">History of La Flèche</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_era&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/colonialism">"Colonialism facts and information"</a>. <i>Culture</i>. 2023-10-06<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-08-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Culture&rft.atitle=Colonialism+facts+and+information&rft.date=2023-10-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalgeographic.com%2Fculture%2Farticle%2Fcolonialism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aljazeera.com/program/the-stream/2019/12/9/how-does-colonialism-shape-the-world-we-live-in">"How does colonialism shape the world we live in?"</a>. <i>Al Jazeera</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-08-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Al+Jazeera&rft.atitle=How+does+colonialism+shape+the+world+we+live+in%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aljazeera.com%2Fprogram%2Fthe-stream%2F2019%2F12%2F9%2Fhow-does-colonialism-shape-the-world-we-live-in&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080622132303/http://www.bartleby.com/61/28/M0362800.html">"modern"</a>. <i>The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language</i> (4th ed.). Houghton Mifflin. 2000. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bartleby.com/61/28/M0362800.html">the original</a> on June 22, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 19,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=modern&rft.btitle=The+American+Heritage+Dictionary+of+the+English+Language&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin&rft.date=2000&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bartleby.com%2F61%2F28%2FM0362800.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENipperdey2022199-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENipperdey2022199_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENipperdey2022199_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENipperdey2022199_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENipperdey2022199_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNipperdey2022">Nipperdey 2022</a>, p. 199.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>New Dictionary of the History of Ideas</i>, Volume 5, Detroit 2005. s.v. "Modernism and Modern".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/postmodern">"Definition of POSTMODERN"</a>. <i>www.merriam-webster.com</i>. 2 June 2023. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080101091725/http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/postmodern">Archived</a> from the original on 1 January 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 October</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.merriam-webster.com&rft.atitle=Definition+of+POSTMODERN&rft.date=2023-06-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fpostmodern&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/islamic_medical/islamic_14.html">"Islamic Culture and the Medical Arts: Late Medieval and Early Modern Medicine"</a>. <i>www.nlm.nih.gov</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180423084551/https://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/islamic_medical/islamic_14.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-04-23<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-10-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.nlm.nih.gov&rft.atitle=Islamic+Culture+and+the+Medical+Arts%3A+Late+Medieval+and+Early+Modern+Medicine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nlm.nih.gov%2Fexhibition%2Fislamic_medical%2Fislamic_14.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiddens1990" class="citation book cs1">Giddens, Anthony (1990). <i>The Consequences of Modernity</i>. 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Farrar, Straus and Giroux. pp. 321–323. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1846682568" title="Special:BookSources/978-1846682568"><bdi>978-1846682568</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+Political+Order%3A+From+Prehuman+Times+to+the+French+Revolution&rft.pages=321-323&rft.pub=Farrar%2C+Straus+and+Giroux&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1846682568&rft.aulast=Fukuyama&rft.aufirst=Francis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHabermas1989" class="citation book cs1">Habermas, Jürgen (1989). <i>The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere</i>. MIT Press. pp. 73–75. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0262581080" title="Special:BookSources/978-0262581080"><bdi>978-0262581080</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Structural+Transformation+of+the+Public+Sphere&rft.pages=73-75&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0262581080&rft.aulast=Habermas&rft.aufirst=J%C3%BCrgen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerman1982" class="citation book cs1">Berman, Marshall (1982). <i>All That Is Solid Melts into Air: The Experience of Modernity</i>. Verso. pp. 14–17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0140109627" title="Special:BookSources/978-0140109627"><bdi>978-0140109627</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=All+That+Is+Solid+Melts+into+Air%3A+The+Experience+of+Modernity&rft.pages=14-17&rft.pub=Verso&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0140109627&rft.aulast=Berman&rft.aufirst=Marshall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavis1975" class="citation book cs1">Davis, Natalie Zemon (1975). <i>Society and Culture in Early Modern France</i>. Stanford University Press. pp. 3–5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0804709729" title="Special:BookSources/978-0804709729"><bdi>978-0804709729</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Society+and+Culture+in+Early+Modern+France&rft.pages=3-5&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-0804709729&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=Natalie+Zemon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeierRauch2000" class="citation book cs1">Meier, Gerald M.; Rauch, James E. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CX9kBaVx4JkC&pg=PA98"><i>Leading Issues in Economic Development</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 98. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511589-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511589-5"><bdi>978-0-19-511589-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230331130624/https://books.google.com/books?id=CX9kBaVx4JkC&pg=PA98">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-03-31<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-02-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Leading+Issues+in+Economic+Development&rft.pages=98&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-19-511589-5&rft.aulast=Meier&rft.aufirst=Gerald+M.&rft.au=Rauch%2C+James+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCX9kBaVx4JkC%26pg%3DPA98&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eric Hobsbawm, <i>The Age of Revolution: Europe 1789–1848</i>, Weidenfeld and Nicolson Ltd. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-349-10484-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-349-10484-0">0-349-10484-0</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoseph_E_Inikori" class="citation book cs1">Joseph E Inikori. <i>Africans and the Industrial Revolution in England: A Study in International Trade and Economic Development</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 102. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-01079-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-01079-9"><bdi>0-521-01079-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Africans+and+the+Industrial+Revolution+in+England%3A+A+Study+in+International+Trade+and+Economic+Development&rft.pages=102&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.isbn=0-521-01079-9&rft.au=Joseph+E+Inikori&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown2003" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Lester Russell (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5aCyfUsHM6kC&pg=PA93"><i>Eco-economy: Building an Economy for the Earth</i></a>. Earthscan. p. 93. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85383-904-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85383-904-7"><bdi>978-1-85383-904-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230414231536/https://books.google.com/books?id=5aCyfUsHM6kC&pg=PA93">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-04-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-02-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eco-economy%3A+Building+an+Economy+for+the+Earth&rft.pages=93&rft.pub=Earthscan&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-85383-904-7&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Lester+Russell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5aCyfUsHM6kC%26pg%3DPA93&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerguson2004" class="citation book cs1">Ferguson, Niall (2004). <i>Empire: How Britain Made the Modern World</i>. Penguin. pp. 70–72. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0141007540" title="Special:BookSources/978-0141007540"><bdi>978-0141007540</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empire%3A+How+Britain+Made+the+Modern+World&rft.pages=70-72&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0141007540&rft.aulast=Ferguson&rft.aufirst=Niall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarshall2001" class="citation book cs1">Marshall, P. J. (2001). <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire</i>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 142–145. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521002547" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521002547"><bdi>978-0521002547</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Illustrated+History+of+the+British+Empire&rft.pages=142-145&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0521002547&rft.aulast=Marshall&rft.aufirst=P.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHochschild2005" class="citation book cs1">Hochschild, Adam (2005). <i>Bury the Chains: Prophets and Rebels in the Fight to Free an Empire's Slaves</i>. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. pp. 331–335. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0618619078" title="Special:BookSources/978-0618619078"><bdi>978-0618619078</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bury+the+Chains%3A+Prophets+and+Rebels+in+the+Fight+to+Free+an+Empire%27s+Slaves&rft.pages=331-335&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Harcourt&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0618619078&rft.aulast=Hochschild&rft.aufirst=Adam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRiasanovsky2005" class="citation book cs1">Riasanovsky, Nicholas (2005). <i>A History of Russia</i>. Oxford University Press. pp. 352–355. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195153941" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195153941"><bdi>978-0195153941</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Russia&rft.pages=352-355&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0195153941&rft.aulast=Riasanovsky&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcPherson1988" class="citation book cs1">McPherson, James (1988). <i>Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era</i>. Oxford University Press. pp. 557–560. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195038637" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195038637"><bdi>978-0195038637</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Battle+Cry+of+Freedom%3A+The+Civil+War+Era&rft.pages=557-560&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0195038637&rft.aulast=McPherson&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBethell1970" class="citation book cs1">Bethell, Leslie (1970). <i>The Abolition of the Brazilian Slave Trade: Britain, Brazil and the Slave Trade Question</i>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 412–415. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521074599" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521074599"><bdi>978-0521074599</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Abolition+of+the+Brazilian+Slave+Trade%3A+Britain%2C+Brazil+and+the+Slave+Trade+Question&rft.pages=412-415&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=978-0521074599&rft.aulast=Bethell&rft.aufirst=Leslie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPakenham1991" class="citation book cs1">Pakenham, Thomas (1991). <i>The Scramble for Africa</i>. Harper Collins. pp. 112–115. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0349104492" title="Special:BookSources/978-0349104492"><bdi>978-0349104492</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Scramble+for+Africa&rft.pages=112-115&rft.pub=Harper+Collins&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0349104492&rft.aulast=Pakenham&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChamberlain2010" class="citation book cs1">Chamberlain, M.E. (2010). <i>The Scramble for Africa</i>. Routledge. pp. 54–57. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781408220146" title="Special:BookSources/9781408220146"><bdi>9781408220146</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Scramble+for+Africa&rft.pages=54-57&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9781408220146&rft.aulast=Chamberlain&rft.aufirst=M.E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHochschild1998" class="citation book cs1">Hochschild, Adam (1998). <i>King Leopold's Ghost: A Story of Greed, Terror, and Heroism in Colonial Africa</i>. Houghton Mifflin. pp. 88–92. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0618001903" title="Special:BookSources/978-0618001903"><bdi>978-0618001903</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=King+Leopold%27s+Ghost%3A+A+Story+of+Greed%2C+Terror%2C+and+Heroism+in+Colonial+Africa&rft.pages=88-92&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0618001903&rft.aulast=Hochschild&rft.aufirst=Adam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMokyr1990" class="citation book cs1">Mokyr, Joel (1990). <i>The Lever of Riches: Technological Creativity and Economic Progress</i>. Oxford University Press. pp. 178–181. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195074772" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195074772"><bdi>978-0195074772</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Lever+of+Riches%3A+Technological+Creativity+and+Economic+Progress&rft.pages=178-181&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0195074772&rft.aulast=Mokyr&rft.aufirst=Joel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHobsbawm1987" class="citation book cs1">Hobsbawm, Eric (1987). <i>The Age of Empire: 1875–1914</i>. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pp. 134–136. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0297793670" title="Special:BookSources/978-0297793670"><bdi>978-0297793670</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Age+of+Empire%3A+1875%E2%80%931914&rft.pages=134-136&rft.pub=Weidenfeld+%26+Nicolson&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0297793670&rft.aulast=Hobsbawm&rft.aufirst=Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHobsbawm1994" class="citation book cs1">Hobsbawm, Eric (1994). <i>The Age of Extremes: The Short Twentieth Century, 1914-1991</i>. Michael Joseph. pp. 7–9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0679730057" title="Special:BookSources/978-0679730057"><bdi>978-0679730057</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Age+of+Extremes%3A+The+Short+Twentieth+Century%2C+1914-1991&rft.pages=7-9&rft.pub=Michael+Joseph&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0679730057&rft.aulast=Hobsbawm&rft.aufirst=Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOvery2005" class="citation book cs1">Overy, Richard (2005). <i>The Dictators: Hitler's Germany, Stalin's Russia</i>. Allen Lane. pp. 16–20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0140281491" title="Special:BookSources/978-0140281491"><bdi>978-0140281491</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dictators%3A+Hitler%27s+Germany%2C+Stalin%27s+Russia&rft.pages=16-20&rft.pub=Allen+Lane&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0140281491&rft.aulast=Overy&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiamond2008" class="citation book cs1">Diamond, Larry (2008). <i>The Spirit of Democracy: The Struggle to Build Free Societies Throughout the World</i>. Times Books. pp. 56–58. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0805089134" title="Special:BookSources/978-0805089134"><bdi>978-0805089134</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Spirit+of+Democracy%3A+The+Struggle+to+Build+Free+Societies+Throughout+the+World&rft.pages=56-58&rft.pub=Times+Books&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0805089134&rft.aulast=Diamond&rft.aufirst=Larry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStandage1998" class="citation book cs1">Standage, Tom (1998). <i>The Victorian Internet</i>. Walker & Company. pp. 100–102. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0802713667" title="Special:BookSources/978-0802713667"><bdi>978-0802713667</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Victorian+Internet&rft.pages=100-102&rft.pub=Walker+%26+Company&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0802713667&rft.aulast=Standage&rft.aufirst=Tom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShlaim2000" class="citation book cs1">Shlaim, Avi (2000). <i>The Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab World</i>. Penguin Books. pp. 4–7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0140288704" title="Special:BookSources/978-0140288704"><bdi>978-0140288704</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Iron+Wall%3A+Israel+and+the+Arab+World&rft.pages=4-7&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0140288704&rft.aulast=Shlaim&rft.aufirst=Avi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeegan1998" class="citation book cs1">Keegan, John (1998). <i>The First World War</i>. Knopf. pp. 14–17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780375400520" title="Special:BookSources/9780375400520"><bdi>9780375400520</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+First+World+War&rft.pages=14-17&rft.pub=Knopf&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9780375400520&rft.aulast=Keegan&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeevor2012" class="citation book cs1">Beevor, Antony (2012). <i>The Second World War</i>. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pp. 45–48. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0297860709" title="Special:BookSources/978-0297860709"><bdi>978-0297860709</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Second+World+War&rft.pages=45-48&rft.pub=Weidenfeld+%26+Nicolson&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0297860709&rft.aulast=Beevor&rft.aufirst=Antony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGaddis2005" class="citation book cs1">Gaddis, John Lewis (2005). <i>The Cold War: A New History</i>. Penguin Press. pp. 21–25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1594200625" title="Special:BookSources/978-1594200625"><bdi>978-1594200625</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cold+War%3A+A+New+History&rft.pages=21-25&rft.pub=Penguin+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1594200625&rft.aulast=Gaddis&rft.aufirst=John+Lewis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTownshend2011" class="citation book cs1">Townshend, Charles (2011). <i>The British Empire: A Very Short Introduction</i>. Oxford University Press. pp. 106–107. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199605415" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199605415"><bdi>978-0199605415</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+British+Empire%3A+A+Very+Short+Introduction&rft.pages=106-107&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0199605415&rft.aulast=Townshend&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell2004" class="citation book cs1">Russell, Peter H. (2004). <i>Constitutional Odyssey: Can Canadians Become a Sovereign People?</i>. University of Toronto Press. pp. 123–126. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0802085917" title="Special:BookSources/978-0802085917"><bdi>978-0802085917</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constitutional+Odyssey%3A+Can+Canadians+Become+a+Sovereign+People%3F&rft.pages=123-126&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0802085917&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Peter+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaunders2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Cheryl_Saunders" title="Cheryl Saunders">Saunders, Cheryl</a> (2011). <i>The Constitution of Australia: A Contextual Analysis</i>. Hart Publishing. pp. 68–70. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1841137346" title="Special:BookSources/978-1841137346"><bdi>978-1841137346</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Constitution+of+Australia%3A+A+Contextual+Analysis&rft.pages=68-70&rft.pub=Hart+Publishing&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1841137346&rft.aulast=Saunders&rft.aufirst=Cheryl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJudt2006" class="citation book cs1">Judt, Tony (2006). <i>Postwar: A History of Europe Since 1945</i>. Penguin Books. pp. 91–93. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0143037750" title="Special:BookSources/978-0143037750"><bdi>978-0143037750</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Postwar%3A+A+History+of+Europe+Since+1945&rft.pages=91-93&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0143037750&rft.aulast=Judt&rft.aufirst=Tony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarry2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_M._Barry" title="John M. Barry">Barry, John M.</a> (2004). <i>The Great Influenza: The Epic Story of the Greatest Plague in History</i>. Viking Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-670-89473-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-670-89473-7"><bdi>0-670-89473-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Influenza%3A+The+Epic+Story+of+the+Greatest+Plague+in+History&rft.pub=Viking+Penguin&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-670-89473-7&rft.aulast=Barry&rft.aufirst=John+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeegan1989" class="citation book cs1">Keegan, John (1989). <i>The Second World War</i>. Penguin. pp. 5–6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0140113419" title="Special:BookSources/978-0140113419"><bdi>978-0140113419</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Second+World+War&rft.pages=5-6&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0140113419&rft.aulast=Keegan&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts1995" class="citation book cs1">Roberts, Geoffrey (1995). <i>The Soviet Union and the Origins of the Second World War</i>. Macmillan. pp. 55–58. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0333640685" title="Special:BookSources/978-0333640685"><bdi>978-0333640685</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Soviet+Union+and+the+Origins+of+the+Second+World+War&rft.pages=55-58&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0333640685&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOvery1995" class="citation book cs1">Overy, Richard (1995). <i>Why the Allies Won</i>. Pimlico. pp. 3–4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781845950651" title="Special:BookSources/9781845950651"><bdi>9781845950651</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Why+the+Allies+Won&rft.pages=3-4&rft.pub=Pimlico&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=9781845950651&rft.aulast=Overy&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeevor2012" class="citation book cs1">Beevor, Antony (2012). <i>The Second World War</i>. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pp. 137–139. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0297844976" title="Special:BookSources/978-0297844976"><bdi>978-0297844976</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Second+World+War&rft.pages=137-139&rft.pub=Weidenfeld+%26+Nicolson&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0297844976&rft.aulast=Beevor&rft.aufirst=Antony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilbert1989" class="citation book cs1">Gilbert, Martin (1989). <i>The Second World War: A Complete History</i>. Henry Holt. pp. 223–225. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780805005349" title="Special:BookSources/9780805005349"><bdi>9780805005349</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Second+World+War%3A+A+Complete+History&rft.pages=223-225&rft.pub=Henry+Holt&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=9780805005349&rft.aulast=Gilbert&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Justus-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Justus_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoeneckeStoler2005" class="citation book cs1">Doenecke, Justus D.; Stoler, Mark A. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xdMF9rX6mX8C&pg=PA62"><i>Debating Franklin D. Roosevelt's Foreign Policies, 1933–1945</i></a>. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 62–63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0847694167" title="Special:BookSources/978-0847694167"><bdi>978-0847694167</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161203230343/https://books.google.com/books?id=xdMF9rX6mX8C&pg=PA62">Archived</a> from the original on 2016-12-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-10-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Debating+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt%27s+Foreign+Policies%2C+1933%E2%80%931945&rft.pages=62-63&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0847694167&rft.aulast=Doenecke&rft.aufirst=Justus+D.&rft.au=Stoler%2C+Mark+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxdMF9rX6mX8C%26pg%3DPA62&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoopes, Townsend, and Douglas Brinkley. <i>FDR and the Creation of the U.N.</i> (Yale University Press, 1997), pp. 155–160.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGaddis1972" class="citation book cs1">Gaddis, John Lewis (1972). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesorig0000gadd"><i>The United States and the Origins of the Cold War, 1941–1947</i></a></span>. Columbia University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesorig0000gadd/page/24">24</a>–25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0231122399" title="Special:BookSources/978-0231122399"><bdi>978-0231122399</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+United+States+and+the+Origins+of+the+Cold+War%2C+1941%E2%80%931947&rft.pages=24-25&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-0231122399&rft.aulast=Gaddis&rft.aufirst=John+Lewis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Funitedstatesorig0000gadd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHastings2011" class="citation book cs1">Hastings, Max (2011). <i>Inferno: The World at War, 1939–1945</i>. Knopf. pp. 510–512. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0307273598" title="Special:BookSources/978-0307273598"><bdi>978-0307273598</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inferno%3A+The+World+at+War%2C+1939%E2%80%931945&rft.pages=510-512&rft.pub=Knopf&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0307273598&rft.aulast=Hastings&rft.aufirst=Max&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerguson2007" class="citation book cs1">Ferguson, Niall (2007). <i>The War of the World: Twentieth-Century Conflict and the Descent of the West</i>. Penguin. pp. 413–416. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0143112396" title="Special:BookSources/978-0143112396"><bdi>978-0143112396</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+War+of+the+World%3A+Twentieth-Century+Conflict+and+the+Descent+of+the+West&rft.pages=413-416&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0143112396&rft.aulast=Ferguson&rft.aufirst=Niall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSnyder2012" class="citation book cs1">Snyder, Timothy (2012). <i>Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin</i>. Basic Books. pp. 67–69. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0465032976" title="Special:BookSources/978-0465032976"><bdi>978-0465032976</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bloodlands%3A+Europe+Between+Hitler+and+Stalin&rft.pages=67-69&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0465032976&rft.aulast=Snyder&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvans2008" class="citation book cs1">Evans, Richard J. (2008). <i>The Third Reich at War</i>. Penguin. pp. 251–255. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1594202063" title="Special:BookSources/978-1594202063"><bdi>978-1594202063</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Third+Reich+at+War&rft.pages=251-255&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1594202063&rft.aulast=Evans&rft.aufirst=Richard+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeffler1993" class="citation book cs1">Leffler, Melvyn P. (1993). <i>A Preponderance of Power: National Security, the Truman Administration, and the Cold War</i>. Stanford University Press. pp. 15–17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0804719247" title="Special:BookSources/978-0804719247"><bdi>978-0804719247</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Preponderance+of+Power%3A+National+Security%2C+the+Truman+Administration%2C+and+the+Cold+War&rft.pages=15-17&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0804719247&rft.aulast=Leffler&rft.aufirst=Melvyn+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDarwin2008" class="citation book cs1">Darwin, John (2008). <i>After Tamerlane: The Rise and Fall of Global Empires, 1400–2000</i>. Bloomsbury Press. pp. 357–360. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1596913936" title="Special:BookSources/978-1596913936"><bdi>978-1596913936</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=After+Tamerlane%3A+The+Rise+and+Fall+of+Global+Empires%2C+1400%E2%80%932000&rft.pages=357-360&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1596913936&rft.aulast=Darwin&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGaddis2005" class="citation book cs1">Gaddis, John Lewis (2005). <i>The Cold War: A New History</i>. Penguin Press. pp. 35–40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1594200625" title="Special:BookSources/978-1594200625"><bdi>978-1594200625</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cold+War%3A+A+New+History&rft.pages=35-40&rft.pub=Penguin+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1594200625&rft.aulast=Gaddis&rft.aufirst=John+Lewis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeffler2007" class="citation book cs1">Leffler, Melvyn P. (2007). <i>For the Soul of Mankind: The United States, the Soviet Union, and the Cold War</i>. Hill and Wang. pp. 80–85. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780374531423" title="Special:BookSources/9780374531423"><bdi>9780374531423</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=For+the+Soul+of+Mankind%3A+The+United+States%2C+the+Soviet+Union%2C+and+the+Cold+War&rft.pages=80-85&rft.pub=Hill+and+Wang&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780374531423&rft.aulast=Leffler&rft.aufirst=Melvyn+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWestad2007" class="citation book cs1">Westad, Odd Arne (2007). <i>The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of Our Times</i>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 212–217. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521703147" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521703147"><bdi>978-0521703147</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Global+Cold+War%3A+Third+World+Interventions+and+the+Making+of+Our+Times&rft.pages=212-217&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0521703147&rft.aulast=Westad&rft.aufirst=Odd+Arne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCastells1996" class="citation book cs1">Castells, Manuel (1996). <i>The Rise of the Network Society</i>. Blackwell Publishers. pp. 3–8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1557866172" title="Special:BookSources/978-1557866172"><bdi>978-1557866172</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+the+Network+Society&rft.pages=3-8&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishers&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-1557866172&rft.aulast=Castells&rft.aufirst=Manuel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStandage1998" class="citation book cs1">Standage, Tom (1998). <i>The Victorian Internet: The Remarkable Story of the Telegraph and the Nineteenth Century's On-line Pioneers</i>. Walker & Company. pp. 200–202. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780802713421" title="Special:BookSources/9780802713421"><bdi>9780802713421</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Victorian+Internet%3A+The+Remarkable+Story+of+the+Telegraph+and+the+Nineteenth+Century%27s+On-line+Pioneers&rft.pages=200-202&rft.pub=Walker+%26+Company&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9780802713421&rft.aulast=Standage&rft.aufirst=Tom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSachs2005" class="citation book cs1">Sachs, Jeffrey D. 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Oxford University Press. pp. 40–42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195311457" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195311457"><bdi>978-0195311457</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Bottom+Billion%3A+Why+the+Poorest+Countries+are+Failing+and+What+Can+Be+Done+About+It&rft.pages=40-42&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0195311457&rft.aulast=Collier&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReiter2010" class="citation journal cs1">Reiter, Paul (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2807%2Fese.15.10.19508-en">"West Nile Virus in Europe: Understanding the Present to Gauge the Future"</a>. <i>Eurosurveillance</i>. <b>15</b> (10): 5–6. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2807%2Fese.15.10.19508-en">10.2807/ese.15.10.19508-en</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Eurosurveillance&rft.atitle=West+Nile+Virus+in+Europe%3A+Understanding+the+Present+to+Gauge+the+Future&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=5-6&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2807%2Fese.15.10.19508-en&rft.aulast=Reiter&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.2807%252Fese.15.10.19508-en&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/flu/avianflu/h5n1-people.htm">"Avian Influenza A (H5N1) Infection in Humans"</a>. <i>Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-09-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Health+Organization+%28WHO%29&rft.atitle=Malaria&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Fnews-room%2Ffact-sheets%2Fdetail%2Fmalaria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unaids.org/en/resources/fact-sheet">"Global HIV & AIDS Statistics"</a>. <i>UNAIDS</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-09-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=UNAIDS&rft.atitle=Global+HIV+%26+AIDS+Statistics&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unaids.org%2Fen%2Fresources%2Ffact-sheet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChomsky2003" class="citation book cs1">Chomsky, Noam (2003). <i>Hegemony or Survival: America's Quest for Global Dominance</i>. Metropolitan Books. pp. 45–47. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-7400-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-7400-0"><bdi>978-0-8050-7400-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hegemony+or+Survival%3A+America%27s+Quest+for+Global+Dominance&rft.pages=45-47&rft.pub=Metropolitan+Books&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8050-7400-0&rft.aulast=Chomsky&rft.aufirst=Noam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrystal1997" class="citation book cs1">Crystal, David (1997). <i>English as a Global Language</i>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 13–15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521592475" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521592475"><bdi>978-0521592475</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=English+as+a+Global+Language&rft.pages=13-15&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0521592475&rft.aulast=Crystal&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCha2012" class="citation book cs1">Cha, Victor D. (2012). <i>The Impossible State: North Korea, Past and Future</i>. Ecco. pp. 20–22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0061998508" title="Special:BookSources/978-0061998508"><bdi>978-0061998508</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Impossible+State%3A+North+Korea%2C+Past+and+Future&rft.pages=20-22&rft.pub=Ecco&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0061998508&rft.aulast=Cha&rft.aufirst=Victor+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllison2004" class="citation book cs1">Allison, Graham (2004). <i>Nuclear Terrorism: The Ultimate Preventable Catastrophe</i>. Henry Holt and Co. pp. 15–18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780805078527" title="Special:BookSources/9780805078527"><bdi>9780805078527</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nuclear+Terrorism%3A+The+Ultimate+Preventable+Catastrophe&rft.pages=15-18&rft.pub=Henry+Holt+and+Co.&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780805078527&rft.aulast=Allison&rft.aufirst=Graham&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_era&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNipperdey2022" class="citation journal cs1">Nipperdey, Justus (6 July 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/view/journals/jemh/27/3/article-p199_2.xml?language=en">"Inventing "Early Modern" Europe: Fashioning a New Historical Period in American Historiography 1880–1945"</a>. <i>Journal of Early Modern History</i>. <b>27</b> (3). Brill: 199–223. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F15700658-bja10051">10.1163/15700658-bja10051</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1385-3783">1385-3783</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 June</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Early+Modern+History&rft.atitle=Inventing+%22Early+Modern%22+Europe%3A+Fashioning+a+New+Historical+Period+in+American+Historiography+1880%E2%80%931945&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=199-223&rft.date=2022-07-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F15700658-bja10051&rft.issn=1385-3783&rft.aulast=Nipperdey&rft.aufirst=Justus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrill.com%2Fview%2Fjournals%2Fjemh%2F27%2F3%2Farticle-p199_2.xml%3Flanguage%3Den&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+era" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_era&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/chinawh/index.html">China and Europe</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Europe" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Europe" title="Template talk:History of Europe"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">History of Europe</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Europe" title="Prehistoric Europe">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_Europe" title="Paleolithic Europe">Paleolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Europe" title="Neolithic Europe">Neolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">Bronze Age Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Europe" title="Iron Age Europe">Iron Age Europe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Christianity in late antiquity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of the Western Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Christianity in the Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li>Bulgarian Empire <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Maritime republics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Pisa" title="Republic of Pisa">Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Amalfi" title="Duchy of Amalfi">Amalfi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragon" title="Kingdom of Aragon">Aragon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Catalonia" title="Principality of Catalonia">Catalonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Valencia" title="Kingdom of Valencia">Valencia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Majorca" title="Kingdom of Majorca">Majorca</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmar_Union" title="Kalmar Union">Kalmar Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">Christianity in the modern era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Absolute monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern France">Early modern France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Cossack Hetmanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Swedish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_in_Europe" title="Rise of nationalism in Europe">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_integration" title="European integration">European integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_debt_crisis" title="European debt crisis">European debt crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Europe" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Europe">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_European_history" title="Bibliography of European history">Bibliography of European history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Europe" title="Genetic history of Europe">Genetic history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Mediterranean_region" title="History of the Mediterranean region">History of the Mediterranean region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_European_Union" title="History of the European Union">History of the European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History of Western civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Europe" title="Maritime history of Europe">Maritime history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Europe" title="Military history of Europe">Military history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Western_world_and_culture" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Western_world" title="Template:Western world"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Western_world" title="Template talk:Western world"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Western_world" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Western world"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Western_world_and_culture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">culture</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foundations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization" title="Cradle of civilization">Cradle of civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman world</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Roman legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_culture" title="Gallo-Roman culture">Gallo-Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">European Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">high</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">late</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Revolution" title="Age of Revolution">Age of Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_suffrage" title="Universal suffrage">Universal suffrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Post–Cold War era">Post–Cold War era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">Alphabet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Periods_in_Western_art_history" title="Periods in Western art history">Periods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_cuisine" title="European cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_pattern_diet" title="Western pattern diet">Diet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_tradition" title="Classical tradition">Classical tradition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">Studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_dress_codes" title="Western dress codes">Clothing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_fashion" title="History of Western fashion">History</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_dance_(Europe_and_North_America)" class="mw-redirect" title="Western dance (Europe and North America)">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_education" title="Western education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Esotericism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_astrology" title="Western astrology">Astrology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_folklore" title="European folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_Western_world" title="Immigration to the Western world">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_law" title="Western law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eurolinguistics" title="Eurolinguistics">Eurolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Average_European" title="Standard Average European">Standard Average European</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_literature" title="Western literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_canon" title="Western canon">Canon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_media" title="Western media">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chant" title="Chant">Chant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_music" title="Classical music">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_European_folk_music_traditions" title="List of European folk music traditions">Folk</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="European mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_painting" title="Western painting">Painting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/20th-century_Western_painting" title="20th-century Western painting">contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_(Western_philosophy)" title="Values (Western philosophy)">Values</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_physical_culture" title="Western physical culture">Physical culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_sports" title="Western sports">Sport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Christianity_in_the_Western_world" title="Decline of Christianity in the Western world">Decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Ancient Roman philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Christian_ethics" title="Judeo-Christian ethics">Judeo-Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian existentialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular humanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Tolerance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_tolerance" title="Paradox of tolerance">Paradox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Peritrope" title="Peritrope">Peritrope</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanticism" title="Atlanticism">Atlanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereigntism" title="Sovereigntism">Sovereigntism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_values" title="Western values">Values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_values" title="European values">European</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western</a>/<a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodoxy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Church" title="Greek Orthodox Church">Greek Orthodox Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Culture</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">Paganism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_paganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Finnish paganism">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankish mythology">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_paganism" title="Gothic paganism">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Old Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_religion" title="Hellenistic religion">Hellenistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_paganism" title="Modern paganism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_law" title="Western law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">Equality before the law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_life" title="Right to life">Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_thought" title="Freedom of thought">Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">Press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">Property</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">International law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary<br />integration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ABCANZ_Armies" title="ABCANZ Armies">ABCANZ Armies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_of_European_Regions" title="Assembly of European Regions">AER</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Portuguese_Alliance" title="Anglo-Portuguese Alliance">Anglo-Portuguese Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUK" title="ANZUK">ANZUK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUS" title="ANZUS">ANZUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Council" title="Arctic Council">Arctic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AUKUS" title="AUKUS">AUKUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AUSCANNZUKUS" title="AUSCANNZUKUS">AUSCANNZUKUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_Assembly" title="Baltic Assembly">Baltic Assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benelux" title="Benelux">Benelux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British%E2%80%93Irish_Council" title="British–Irish Council">British–Irish Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_the_Black_Sea_Economic_Cooperation" title="Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation">BSEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bucharest_Nine" title="Bucharest Nine">Bucharest Nine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CANZUK" title="CANZUK">CANZUK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Baltic_Sea_States" title="Council of the Baltic Sea States">CBSS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_European_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="Central European Free Trade Agreement">CEFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Europe" title="Council of Europe">Council of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craiova_Group" title="Craiova Group">Craiova Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_European_Group" title="Eastern European Group">Eastern European Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Partnership" title="Eastern Partnership">Eastern Partnership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Area" title="European Economic Area">EEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Free_Trade_Association" title="European Free Trade Association">EFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Political_Community" title="European Political Community">EPC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">ESA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">EU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union_Customs_Union" title="European Union Customs Union">EU Customs Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurozone" title="Eurozone">Eurozone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EU%E2%80%93UK_Trade_and_Cooperation_Agreement" title="EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement">EU–UK TCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Eyes" title="Five Eyes">Five Eyes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G7" title="G7">G7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lancaster_House_Treaties" title="Lancaster House Treaties">Lancaster House Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lublin_Triangle" title="Lublin Triangle">Lublin Triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Council" title="Nordic Council">Nordic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_American_States" title="Organization of American 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