CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Tsunami - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"95052ee0-c37a-4a5c-a0d8-86c462815760","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Tsunami","wgTitle":"Tsunami","wgCurRevisionId":1259126149,"wgRevisionId":1259126149,"wgArticleId":31161,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["CS1 errors: periodical ignored","CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list","CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list","Webarchive template wayback links","All articles with dead external links","Articles with dead external links from April 2021","Articles with short description","Short description matches Wikidata","Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages","Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages","EngvarB from July 2019","Articles containing Japanese-language text","Pages with Japanese IPA", "Pages with plain IPA","All articles lacking reliable references","Articles lacking reliable references from February 2024","Articles using Mw magnitude scale","Articles needing additional references from July 2023","All articles needing additional references","Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback via Module:Annotated link","Commons category link is locally defined","Articles containing video clips","Tsunami"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Tsunami","wgRelevantArticleId":31161,"wgIsProbablyEditable":false,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":false,"wgRestrictionEdit":["autoconfirmed"],"wgRestrictionMove":["sysop"],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr", "pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":70000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q8070","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","mediawiki.page.gallery.styles": "ready","ext.math.styles":"ready","ext.tmh.player.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.gallery","mediawiki.page.media","ext.tmh.player","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface", "ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.math.styles%7Cext.tmh.player.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cmediawiki.page.gallery.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/2004-tsunami.jpg/1200px-2004-tsunami.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="870"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/2004-tsunami.jpg/800px-2004-tsunami.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="580"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/2004-tsunami.jpg/640px-2004-tsunami.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="464"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Tsunami - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Tsunami rootpage-Tsunami skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Tsunami" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Tsunami" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Tsunami" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Tsunami" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Terminology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Terminology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Terminology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Terminology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Terminology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Terminology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tsunami" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tsunami"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Tsunami</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tsunami-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tidal_wave" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tidal_wave"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Tidal wave</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tidal_wave-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Seismic_sea_wave" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Seismic_sea_wave"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Seismic sea wave</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Seismic_sea_wave-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_terms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_terms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Other terms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_terms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Causes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Causes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Causes</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Causes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Causes subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Causes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Seismicity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Seismicity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Seismicity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Seismicity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Landslides" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Landslides"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Landslides</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Landslides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Volcanic_eruptions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Volcanic_eruptions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Volcanic eruptions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Volcanic_eruptions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Meteorological" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Meteorological"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Meteorological</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Meteorological-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human-made_or_triggered_tsunamis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human-made_or_triggered_tsunamis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Human-made or triggered tsunamis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human-made_or_triggered_tsunamis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Characteristics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Characteristics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Characteristics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Characteristics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Drawback" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Drawback"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Drawback</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Drawback-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scales_of_intensity_and_magnitude" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scales_of_intensity_and_magnitude"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Scales of intensity and magnitude</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Scales_of_intensity_and_magnitude-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Scales of intensity and magnitude subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Scales_of_intensity_and_magnitude-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Intensity_scales" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intensity_scales"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Intensity scales</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intensity_scales-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Magnitude_scales" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Magnitude_scales"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Magnitude scales</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Magnitude_scales-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tsunami_heights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tsunami_heights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Tsunami heights</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tsunami_heights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Warnings_and_predictions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Warnings_and_predictions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Warnings and predictions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Warnings_and_predictions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Warnings and predictions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Warnings_and_predictions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Possible_animal_reaction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Possible_animal_reaction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Possible animal reaction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Possible_animal_reaction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mitigation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mitigation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Mitigation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mitigation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Footnotes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Tsunami</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 155 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-155" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">155 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ace mw-list-item"><a href="https://ace.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C3%AB_beuna" title="Ië beuna – Acehnese" lang="ace" hreflang="ace" data-title="Ië beuna" data-language-autonym="Acèh" data-language-local-name="Acehnese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Acèh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsoenami" title="Tsoenami – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Tsoenami" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80" title="त्सूनामी – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="त्सूनामी" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A" title="تسونامي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تسونامي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9B%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF" title="ছুনামি – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="ছুনামি" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun%C3%A1mi" title="Sunámi – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Sunámi" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunami" title="Sunami – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Sunami" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C" title="تسونامی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="تسونامی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Bali</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF" title="সুনামি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সুনামি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Banjar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A1i-ti%C3%B2ng" title="Hái-tiòng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hái-tiòng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-map-bms mw-list-item"><a href="https://map-bms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Banyumasan" lang="jv-x-bms" hreflang="jv-x-bms" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Basa Banyumasan" data-language-local-name="Banyumasan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Banyumasan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8" title="Цунами – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Цунами" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%96" title="Цунамі – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Цунамі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%96" title="Цунамі – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Цунамі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80" title="सुनामी – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="सुनामी" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolnop" title="Dolnop – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Dolnop" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8" title="Цунами – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Цунами" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cunami" title="Cunami – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Cunami" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8" title="Цунами – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Цунами" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A" title="تسونامي – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="تسونامي" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nv mw-list-item"><a href="https://nv.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%B3_nit%C3%A9%C3%A9l_nits%C3%A1go%CA%BC_ats%C3%A1g%C3%A1%C3%A1" title="Tó nitéél nitságoʼ atságáá – Navajo" lang="nv" hreflang="nv" data-title="Tó nitéél nitságoʼ atságáá" data-language-autonym="Diné bizaad" data-language-local-name="Navajo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Diné bizaad</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dty mw-list-item"><a href="https://dty.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80" title="सुनामी – Doteli" lang="dty" hreflang="dty" data-title="सुनामी" data-language-autonym="डोटेली" data-language-local-name="Doteli" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>डोटेली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CF%83%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%BD%CE%AC%CE%BC%CE%B9" title="Τσουνάμι – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Τσουνάμι" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cunamo" title="Cunamo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Cunamo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C" title="سونامی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سونامی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jwaarr_bhaata" title="Jwaarr bhaata – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Jwaarr bhaata" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fl%C3%B3%C3%B0aldur" title="Flóðaldur – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Flóðaldur" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ts%C3%BBnamy" title="Tsûnamy – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Tsûnamy" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BAn%C3%A1ma%C3%AD" title="Súnámaí – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Súnámaí" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E5%98%AF" title="海嘯 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="海嘯" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ki mw-list-item"><a href="https://ki.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Kikuyu" lang="ki" hreflang="ki" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Gĩkũyũ" data-language-local-name="Kikuyu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gĩkũyũ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B8%E0%AB%81%E0%AA%A8%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%AE%E0%AB%80" title="સુનામી – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="સુનામી" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%B3i-siau" title="Hói-siau – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Hói-siau" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A7%80%EC%A7%84%ED%95%B4%EC%9D%BC" title="지진해일 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="지진해일" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%91%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%AB" title="Ցունամի – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ցունամի" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80" title="सूनामी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="सूनामी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cunami" title="Cunami – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Cunami" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ondego" title="Ondego – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Ondego" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fl%C3%B3%C3%B0bylgja" title="Flóðbylgja – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Flóðbylgja" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maremoto" title="Maremoto – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Maremoto" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A6%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%99" title="צונאמי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="צונאמי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cunaami" title="Cunaami – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Cunaami" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%BF" title="ಸುನಾಮಿ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಸುನಾಮಿ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AA%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="ცუნამი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ცუნამი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8" title="Цунами – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Цунами" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radmare" title="Radmare – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Radmare" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunam%C3%AE" title="Tsunamî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Tsunamî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8" title="Цунами – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Цунами" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mrj mw-list-item"><a href="https://mrj.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8" title="Цунами – Western Mari" lang="mrj" hreflang="mrj" data-title="Цунами" data-language-autonym="Кырык мары" data-language-local-name="Western Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кырык мары</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%8A%E0%BA%B9%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%A1%E0%BA%B4" title="ຊູນາມິ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ຊູນາມິ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megacyma" title="Megacyma – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Megacyma" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cunami" title="Cunami – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Cunami" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cunamis" title="Cunamis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Cunamis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nia mw-list-item"><a href="https://nia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Nias" lang="nia" hreflang="nia" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Li Niha" data-language-local-name="Nias" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Li Niha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cunami" title="Cunami – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Cunami" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8" title="Цунами – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Цунами" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BF" title="സുനാമി – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സുനാമി" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80" title="त्सुनामी – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="त्सुनामी" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AA%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="ცუნამი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ცუნამი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C4%81i-l%C3%A2ung" title="Hāi-lâung – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Hāi-lâung" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8" title="Цунами – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Цунами" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%86%E1%80%B0%E1%80%94%E1%80%AC%E1%80%99%E1%80%AE" title="ဆူနာမီ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဆူနာမီ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vleuigolve" title="Vleuigolve – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Vleuigolve" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80" title="सुनामी – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="सुनामी" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80" title="शुनामी – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="शुनामी" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B4%A5%E6%B3%A2" title="津波 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="津波" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flodb%C3%B8lgje" title="Flodbølgje – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Flodbølgje" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%B8%E0%AD%81%E0%AC%A8%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%AE%E0%AC%BF" title="ସୁନାମି – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ସୁନାମି" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunamis" title="Tsunamis – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Tsunamis" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%80" title="ਸੁਨਾਮੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸੁਨਾਮੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C" title="سونامی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="سونامی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Papiamentu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%90" title="سونامې – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="سونامې" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsun%C3%A2mi" title="Tsunâmi – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Tsunâmi" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%96" title="Цунамі – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Цунамі" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8" title="Цунами – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Цунами" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8" title="Цунами – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Цунами" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/pabalad" title="pabalad – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="pabalad" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sakizaya</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80" title="सुनामी – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="सुनामी" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%A9%E1%B1%B1%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%A2%E1%B1%A4" title="ᱥᱩᱱᱟᱢᱤ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱥᱩᱱᱟᱢᱤ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cunami" title="Cunami – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Cunami" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%92" title="සුනාමි – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="සුනාමි" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A" title="سونامي – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="سونامي" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cunami" title="Cunami – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Cunami" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cunami" title="Cunami – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Cunami" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B3%DB%86%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C" title="تسۆنامی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="تسۆنامی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8" title="Цунами – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Цунами" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cunami" title="Cunami – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Cunami" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunami" title="Sunami – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Sunami" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%86%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%88" title="ஆழிப்பேரலை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஆழிப்பேரலை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8" title="Цунами – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Цунами" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%BF" title="సునామి – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="సునామి" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B6%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B4" title="สึนามิ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สึนามิ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%96" title="Цунамі – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Цунамі" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C" title="سونامی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="سونامی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haij_Rongx" title="Haij Rongx – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Haij Rongx" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vahcuengh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cunami" title="Cunami – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Cunami" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vepsän kel’</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B3ng_th%E1%BA%A7n" title="Sóng thần – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Sóng thần" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%BF%A4%E7%80%BE" title="濤瀾 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="濤瀾" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humatol" title="Humatol – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Humatol" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E5%98%AF" title="海嘯 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="海嘯" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A6%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%99" title="צונאמי – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="צונאמי" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E5%98%AF" title="海嘯 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="海嘯" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cunamis" title="Cunamis – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Cunamis" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E5%95%B8" title="海啸 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="海啸" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iba mw-list-item"><a href="https://iba.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami – Iban" lang="iba" hreflang="iba" data-title="Tsunami" data-language-autonym="Jaku Iban" data-language-local-name="Iban" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jaku Iban</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q8070#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Tsunami" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Tsunami" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Tsunami"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-viewsource" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsunami&action=edit" title="This page is protected.
You can view its source [e]" accesskey="e"><span>View source</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsunami&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Tsunami"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-viewsource" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsunami&action=edit"><span>View source</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsunami&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Tsunami" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Tsunami" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsunami&oldid=1259126149" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsunami&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Tsunami&id=1259126149&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FTsunami"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FTsunami"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Tsunami&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsunami&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikinews mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Category:Tsunamis" hreflang="en"><span>Wikinews</span></a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikivoyage mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Tsunami" hreflang="en"><span>Wikivoyage</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q8070" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected."><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Series of water waves caused by the displacement of a large volume of a body of water</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Tsunami_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Tsunami (disambiguation)">Tsunami (disambiguation)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tidal_wave_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Tidal wave (disambiguation)">Tidal wave</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Sunami" redirects here. For the hardcore punk band, see <a href="/wiki/Sunami_(band)" title="Sunami (band)">Sunami (band)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2004-tsunami.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/2004-tsunami.jpg/310px-2004-tsunami.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/2004-tsunami.jpg/465px-2004-tsunami.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/2004-tsunami.jpg/620px-2004-tsunami.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1114" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake_and_tsunami" title="2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami">2004 Indian Ocean tsunami</a> at <a href="/wiki/Ao_Nang" title="Ao Nang">Ao Nang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Krabi_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Krabi Province">Krabi Province</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/NOAA_Tsunami_Animation-2016.webm/310px--NOAA_Tsunami_Animation-2016.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="310" height="174" data-durationhint="88" data-mwtitle="NOAA_Tsunami_Animation-2016.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:NOAA_Tsunami_Animation-2016.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/af/NOAA_Tsunami_Animation-2016.webm/NOAA_Tsunami_Animation-2016.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/af/NOAA_Tsunami_Animation-2016.webm/NOAA_Tsunami_Animation-2016.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/NOAA_Tsunami_Animation-2016.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/af/NOAA_Tsunami_Animation-2016.webm/NOAA_Tsunami_Animation-2016.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/af/NOAA_Tsunami_Animation-2016.webm/NOAA_Tsunami_Animation-2016.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/af/NOAA_Tsunami_Animation-2016.webm/NOAA_Tsunami_Animation-2016.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/af/NOAA_Tsunami_Animation-2016.webm/NOAA_Tsunami_Animation-2016.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>3D tsunami animation</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>tsunami</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/(<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span></span>)<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/uː/: 'oo' in 'goose'">uː</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/ɑː/: 'a' in 'father'">ɑː</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span></span>,<span class="wrap"> </span>(<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span></span>)<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/ʊ/: 'u' in 'push'">ʊ</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span></span>-/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling">(t)soo-<span style="font-size:90%">NAH</span>-mee, (t)suu-</i></a>;<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> from <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a>: <span lang="ja">津波</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> </small>'harbour wave',<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">pronounced</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[tsɯnami]</a></span>) is a series of waves in a water body caused by the displacement of a large volume of water, generally in an ocean or a <a href="/wiki/Tsunamis_in_lakes" title="Tsunamis in lakes">large lake</a>. <a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">Earthquakes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_eruption" class="mw-redirect" title="Volcanic eruption">volcanic eruptions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Underwater_explosion" title="Underwater explosion">underwater explosions</a> (including detonations, <a href="/wiki/Landslide" title="Landslide">landslides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ice_calving" title="Ice calving">glacier calvings</a>, <a href="/wiki/Impact_event" title="Impact event">meteorite impacts</a> and other disturbances) above or below water all have the potential to generate a tsunami.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike normal <a href="/wiki/Wind_wave" title="Wind wave">ocean waves, which are generated by wind</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">tides</a>, which are in turn generated by the <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_pull" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitational pull">gravitational pull</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a>, a tsunami is generated by the displacement of water from a large event. </p><p>Tsunami waves do not resemble normal undersea currents or <a href="/wiki/Wind_wave" title="Wind wave">sea waves</a> because their <a href="/wiki/Wind_wave#Formation" title="Wind wave">wavelength</a> is far longer.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rather than appearing as a <a href="/wiki/Breaking_wave" title="Breaking wave">breaking wave</a>, a tsunami may instead initially resemble a rapidly rising <a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">tide</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For this reason, it is often referred to as a <b>tidal wave</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although this usage is not favoured by the scientific community because it might give the false impression of a causal relationship between tides and tsunamis.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tsunamis generally consist of a series of waves, with <a href="/wiki/Period_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Period (physics)">periods</a> ranging from minutes to hours, arriving in a so-called "<a href="/wiki/Wave_packet" title="Wave packet">wave train</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-Fradin_2008_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fradin_2008-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wave heights of tens of metres can be generated by large events. Although the impact of tsunamis is limited to coastal areas, their destructive power can be enormous, and they can affect entire ocean basins. The <a href="/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake_and_tsunami" title="2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami">2004 Indian Ocean tsunami</a> was among the deadliest natural disasters in human history, with at least 230,000 people killed or missing in 14 countries bordering the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greek</a> historian <a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a> suggested in his 5th century BC <i><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Peloponnesian_War" title="History of the Peloponnesian War">History of the Peloponnesian War</a></i> that tsunamis were related to <a href="/wiki/Submarine_earthquake" title="Submarine earthquake">submarine earthquakes</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Thucydides_3.89.1-4_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thucydides_3.89.1-4-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Smid,_T._C._103f._13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smid,_T._C._103f.-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but the understanding of tsunamis remained slim until the 20th century, and much remains unknown. Major areas of current research include determining why some large earthquakes do not generate tsunamis while other smaller ones do. This ongoing research is designed to help accurately forecast the passage of tsunamis across oceans as well as how tsunami waves interact with shorelines. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tsunami">Tsunami</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="color: #202122;background-color:#b0c4de">Tsunami</th></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image notheme" style="background-color: #f8f9fa;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Tsunami_(Chinese_characters).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Tsunami_%28Chinese_characters%29.svg/80px-Tsunami_%28Chinese_characters%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="41" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Tsunami_%28Chinese_characters%29.svg/120px-Tsunami_%28Chinese_characters%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Tsunami_%28Chinese_characters%29.svg/160px-Tsunami_%28Chinese_characters%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="413" data-file-height="212" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">"Tsunami" in <i><a href="/wiki/Kanji" title="Kanji">kanji</a></i></div></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Japanese name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Kanji" title="Kanji">Kanji</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">津波</span></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Japanese" title="Romanization of Japanese">Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Japanese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="ja-Latn">tsunami</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The term "tsunami" is a <a href="/wiki/Loan_word" class="mw-redirect" title="Loan word">borrowing</a> from the Japanese <i>tsunami</i> <span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">津波</span></span>, meaning "harbour wave." For the plural, one can either follow ordinary English practice and add an <i>s</i>, or use an invariable plural as in the Japanese.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some English speakers alter the word's initial <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolar affricate">ts</a>/</span> to an <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>/</span> by dropping the "t," since English does not natively permit <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ts/</span> at the beginning of words, though the original Japanese pronunciation is <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ts/</span>. The term has become commonly accepted in English, although its literal Japanese meaning is not necessarily descriptive of the waves, which do not occur only in harbours. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tidal_wave">Tidal wave</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tsunami_2004_aftermath._Aceh,_Indonesia,_2005._Photo-_AusAID_(10730863873).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Tsunami_2004_aftermath._Aceh%2C_Indonesia%2C_2005._Photo-_AusAID_%2810730863873%29.jpg/300px-Tsunami_2004_aftermath._Aceh%2C_Indonesia%2C_2005._Photo-_AusAID_%2810730863873%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Tsunami_2004_aftermath._Aceh%2C_Indonesia%2C_2005._Photo-_AusAID_%2810730863873%29.jpg/450px-Tsunami_2004_aftermath._Aceh%2C_Indonesia%2C_2005._Photo-_AusAID_%2810730863873%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Tsunami_2004_aftermath._Aceh%2C_Indonesia%2C_2005._Photo-_AusAID_%2810730863873%29.jpg/600px-Tsunami_2004_aftermath._Aceh%2C_Indonesia%2C_2005._Photo-_AusAID_%2810730863873%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption>Tsunami aftermath in <a href="/wiki/Aceh" title="Aceh">Aceh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, December 2004</figcaption></figure> <p>Tsunamis are sometimes referred to as <i>tidal waves</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This once-popular term derives from the most common appearance of a tsunami, which is that of an extraordinarily high <a href="/wiki/Tidal_bore" title="Tidal bore">tidal bore</a>. Tsunamis and tides both produce waves of water that move inland, but in the case of a tsunami, the inland movement of water may be much greater, giving the impression of an incredibly high and forceful tide. In recent years, the term "tidal wave" has fallen out of favour, especially in the scientific community, because the causes of tsunamis have nothing to do with those of <a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">tides</a>, which are produced by the gravitational pull of the moon and sun rather than the displacement of water. Although the meanings of "tidal" include "resembling"<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or "having the form or character of"<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> tides, use of the term <i>tidal wave</i> is discouraged by geologists and oceanographers. </p><p>A 1969 episode of the TV crime show <i><a href="/wiki/Hawaii_Five-O_(1968_TV_series)" title="Hawaii Five-O (1968 TV series)">Hawaii Five-O</a></i> entitled "Forty Feet High and It Kills!" used the terms "tsunami" and "tidal wave" interchangeably.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Seismic_sea_wave">Seismic sea wave</h3></div> <p>The term <i><b>seismic sea wave</b></i> is also used to refer to the phenomenon because the waves most often are generated by <a href="/wiki/Seismic" class="mw-redirect" title="Seismic">seismic</a> activity such as earthquakes.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prior to the rise of the use of the term <i>tsunami</i> in English, scientists generally encouraged the use of the term <i>seismic sea wave</i> rather than <i>tidal wave</i>. However, like <i>tidal wave</i>, <i>seismic sea wave</i> is not a completely accurate term, as forces other than earthquakes—including underwater <a href="/wiki/Landslide" title="Landslide">landslides</a>, volcanic eruptions, underwater explosions, land or ice <a href="/wiki/Slump_(geology)" title="Slump (geology)">slumping</a> into the ocean, <a href="/wiki/Meteorite" title="Meteorite">meteorite</a> impacts, and the weather when the atmospheric pressure changes very rapidly—can generate such waves by displacing water.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_terms">Other terms</h3></div> <p>The use of the term <i>tsunami</i> for waves created by landslides entering bodies of water has become internationally widespread in both scientific and popular literature, although such waves are distinct in origin from large waves generated by earthquakes. This distinction sometimes leads to the use of other terms for landslide-generated waves, including <i><b>landslide-triggered tsunami</b></i>, <i><b>displacement wave</b></i>, <i><b>non-seismic wave</b></i>, <i><b>impact wave</b></i>, and, simply, <i><b>giant wave</b></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_tsunamis" title="List of tsunamis">List of tsunamis</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1755_Lisbon_earthquake.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/1755_Lisbon_earthquake.jpg/300px-1755_Lisbon_earthquake.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/1755_Lisbon_earthquake.jpg/450px-1755_Lisbon_earthquake.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/1755_Lisbon_earthquake.jpg/600px-1755_Lisbon_earthquake.jpg 2x" data-file-width="998" data-file-height="593" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/1755_Lisbon_earthquake" title="1755 Lisbon earthquake">Lisbon earthquake and tsunami</a> in November 1755</figcaption></figure> <p>While Japan may have the longest <a href="/wiki/Recorded_history" title="Recorded history">recorded history</a> of tsunamis,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="The claim is only mentioned once without clarification (WP:NOTRS). (February 2024)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> the sheer destruction caused by the <a href="/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake_and_tsunami" title="2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami">2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami</a> event mark it as the most devastating of its kind in modern times, killing around 230,000 people.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Sumatra" title="Sumatra">Sumatran</a> region is also accustomed to tsunamis, with earthquakes of varying magnitudes regularly occurring off the coast of the island.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Tsunamis are an often underestimated hazard in the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a> and parts of Europe. Of historical and current (with regard to risk assumptions) importance are the <a href="/wiki/1755_Lisbon_earthquake" title="1755 Lisbon earthquake">1755 Lisbon earthquake and tsunami</a> (which was caused by the <a href="/wiki/Azores%E2%80%93Gibraltar_Transform_Fault" class="mw-redirect" title="Azores–Gibraltar Transform Fault">Azores–Gibraltar Transform Fault</a>), the <a href="/wiki/1783_Calabrian_earthquakes" title="1783 Calabrian earthquakes">1783 Calabrian earthquakes</a>, each causing several tens of thousands of deaths and the <a href="/wiki/1908_Messina_earthquake" title="1908 Messina earthquake">1908 Messina earthquake</a> and tsunami. The tsunami claimed more than 123,000 lives in Sicily and Calabria and is among the deadliest natural disasters in modern Europe. The <a href="/wiki/Storegga_Slide" title="Storegga Slide">Storegga Slide</a> in the Norwegian Sea and some examples of <a href="/wiki/Tsunamis_affecting_the_British_Isles" title="Tsunamis affecting the British Isles">tsunamis affecting the British Isles</a> refer to landslide and <a href="/wiki/Meteotsunami" title="Meteotsunami">meteotsunamis</a>, predominantly and less to earthquake-induced waves. </p><p><a href="/wiki/426_BC_Malian_Gulf_tsunami" title="426 BC Malian Gulf tsunami">As early as 426 BC</a> the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greek</a> historian <a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a> inquired in his book <i><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Peloponnesian_War" title="History of the Peloponnesian War">History of the Peloponnesian War</a></i> about the causes of tsunami, and was the first to argue that ocean earthquakes must be the cause.<sup id="cite_ref-Thucydides_3.89.1-4_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thucydides_3.89.1-4-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Smid,_T._C._103f._13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smid,_T._C._103f.-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The oldest human record of a tsunami dates back to <a href="/wiki/479_BC_Potidaea_earthquake" title="479 BC Potidaea earthquake">479 BC</a>, in the Greek colony of <a href="/wiki/Potidaea" title="Potidaea">Potidaea</a>, thought to be triggered by an earthquake. The tsunami may have saved the colony from an invasion by the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Smid,_T._C._103f._13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smid,_T._C._103f.-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>The cause, in my opinion, of this phenomenon must be sought in the earthquake. At the point where its shock has been the most violent the sea is driven back, and suddenly recoiling with redoubled force, causes the inundation. Without an earthquake I do not see how such an accident could happen.<sup id="cite_ref-Thucydides_3.89.5_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thucydides_3.89.5-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> historian <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a> (<i>Res Gestae</i> 26.10.15–19) described the typical sequence of a tsunami, including an incipient earthquake, the sudden retreat of the sea and a following gigantic wave, after the <a href="/wiki/365_Crete_earthquake" title="365 Crete earthquake">365 AD tsunami</a> devastated <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kelly,_Gavin_(2004)_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kelly,_Gavin_(2004)-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stanley,_Jean-Daniel_&_Jorstad,_Thomas_F._(2005)_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanley,_Jean-Daniel_&_Jorstad,_Thomas_F._(2005)-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes">Causes</h2></div> <p>The principal generation mechanism of a tsunami is the displacement of a substantial volume of water or perturbation of the sea.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This displacement of water is usually caused by earthquakes,<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but can also be attributed to landslides, volcanic eruptions, glacier calvings or more rarely by meteorites and nuclear tests.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the possibility of a meteorite causing a tsunami is debated.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Seismicity">Seismicity</h3></div> <p>Tsunamis can be generated when the sea floor abruptly deforms and vertically displaces the overlying water. Tectonic earthquakes are a particular kind of earthquake that are associated with the Earth's crustal deformation; when these earthquakes occur beneath the sea, the water above the deformed area is displaced from its equilibrium position.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More specifically, a tsunami can be generated when <a href="/wiki/Thrust_fault" title="Thrust fault">thrust faults</a> associated with <a href="/wiki/Convergent_boundary" title="Convergent boundary">convergent</a> or destructive <a href="/wiki/Plate_boundaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Plate boundaries">plate boundaries</a> move abruptly, resulting in water displacement, owing to the vertical component of movement involved. Movement on <a href="/wiki/Fault_(geology)#Dip-slip_faults" title="Fault (geology)">normal (extensional) faults</a> can also cause displacement of the seabed, but only the largest of such events (typically related to flexure in the <a href="/wiki/Outer_trench_swell" title="Outer trench swell">outer trench swell</a>) cause enough displacement to give rise to a significant tsunami, such as the <a href="/wiki/1977_Sumba_earthquake" title="1977 Sumba earthquake">1977 Sumba</a> and <a href="/wiki/1933_Sanriku_earthquake" title="1933 Sanriku earthquake">1933 Sanriku</a> events.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kanamori_1971_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kanamori_1971-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 220.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 218.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Eq-gen1.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Drawing of tectonic plate boundary before earthquake"><img alt="Drawing of tectonic plate boundary before earthquake" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Eq-gen1.svg/328px-Eq-gen1.svg.png" decoding="async" width="219" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Eq-gen1.svg/491px-Eq-gen1.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Eq-gen1.svg/655px-Eq-gen1.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="209" data-file-height="115" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Drawing of <a href="/wiki/Tectonic_plate_boundary" class="mw-redirect" title="Tectonic plate boundary">tectonic plate boundary</a> before <a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">earthquake</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 213.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 211.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Eq-gen2.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Over-riding plate bulges under strain, causing tectonic uplift."><img alt="Over-riding plate bulges under strain, causing tectonic uplift." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Eq-gen2.svg/317px-Eq-gen2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="212" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Eq-gen2.svg/475px-Eq-gen2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Eq-gen2.svg/633px-Eq-gen2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="209" data-file-height="119" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Over-riding plate bulges under strain, causing <a href="/wiki/Tectonic_uplift" title="Tectonic uplift">tectonic uplift</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 190px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 188px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Eq-gen3.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Plate slips, causing subsidence and releasing energy into water."><img alt="Plate slips, causing subsidence and releasing energy into water." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Eq-gen3.svg/282px-Eq-gen3.svg.png" decoding="async" width="188" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Eq-gen3.svg/423px-Eq-gen3.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Eq-gen3.svg/564px-Eq-gen3.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="210" data-file-height="134" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Plate slips, causing <a href="/wiki/Subsidence" title="Subsidence">subsidence</a> and releasing energy into water.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 188px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 186px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Eq-gen4.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="The energy released produces tsunami waves."><img alt="The energy released produces tsunami waves." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Eq-gen4.svg/279px-Eq-gen4.svg.png" decoding="async" width="186" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Eq-gen4.svg/419px-Eq-gen4.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Eq-gen4.svg/558px-Eq-gen4.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="217" data-file-height="140" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The energy released produces tsunami waves.</div> </li> </ul> <p>Tsunamis have a small wave height offshore, and a very long <a href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">wavelength</a> (often hundreds of kilometres long, whereas normal ocean waves have a wavelength of only 30 or 40 metres),<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is why they generally pass unnoticed at sea, forming only a slight swell usually about 300 millimetres (12 in) above the normal sea surface. They grow in height when they reach shallower water, in a <a href="/wiki/Wave_shoaling" title="Wave shoaling">wave shoaling</a> process described below. A tsunami can occur in any tidal state and even at low tide can still inundate coastal areas. </p><p>On April 1, 1946, the 8.6 M<sub>w</sub>  <a href="/wiki/1946_Aleutian_Islands_earthquake" title="1946 Aleutian Islands earthquake">Aleutian Islands earthquake</a> occurred with a maximum <a href="/wiki/Mercalli_intensity_scale" class="mw-redirect" title="Mercalli intensity scale">Mercalli intensity</a> of VI (<i>Strong</i>). It generated a tsunami which inundated <a href="/wiki/Hilo,_Hawaii" title="Hilo, Hawaii">Hilo</a> on the island of Hawaii with a 14-metre high (46 ft) surge. Between 165 and 173 were killed. The area where the earthquake occurred is where the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a> floor is <a href="/wiki/Subducting" class="mw-redirect" title="Subducting">subducting</a> (or being pushed downwards) under Alaska. </p><p>Examples of tsunamis originating at locations away from convergent boundaries include <a href="/wiki/Storegga" class="mw-redirect" title="Storegga">Storegga</a> about 8,000 years ago, <a href="/wiki/Grand_Banks" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Banks">Grand Banks</a> in 1929, and <a href="/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a> in 1998 (Tappin, 2001). The Grand Banks and Papua New Guinea tsunamis came from earthquakes which destabilised sediments, causing them to flow into the ocean and generate a tsunami. They dissipated before travelling transoceanic distances. </p><p>The cause of the Storegga sediment failure is unknown. Possibilities include an overloading of the sediments, an earthquake or a release of gas hydrates (methane etc.). </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/1960_Valdivia_earthquake" title="1960 Valdivia earthquake">1960 Valdivia earthquake</a> (<a href="/wiki/Moment_magnitude_scale" title="Moment magnitude scale"><i>M</i><sub>w</sub></a> 9.5), <a href="/wiki/1964_Alaska_earthquake" title="1964 Alaska earthquake">1964 Alaska earthquake</a> (<i>M</i><sub>w</sub> 9.2), <a href="/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake" class="mw-redirect" title="2004 Indian Ocean earthquake">2004 Indian Ocean earthquake</a> (<i>M</i><sub>w</sub> 9.2), and <a href="/wiki/2011_T%C5%8Dhoku_earthquake_and_tsunami" title="2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami">2011 Tōhoku earthquake</a> (<i>M</i><sub>w</sub>9.0) are recent examples of powerful <a href="/wiki/Megathrust_earthquake" title="Megathrust earthquake">megathrust earthquakes</a> that generated tsunamis (known as <a href="/wiki/Teletsunamis" class="mw-redirect" title="Teletsunamis">teletsunamis</a>) that can cross entire oceans. Smaller (<i>M</i><sub>w</sub> 4.2) earthquakes in Japan can trigger tsunamis (called local and regional tsunamis) that can devastate stretches of coastline, but can do so in only a few minutes at a time. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Landslides">Landslides</h3></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Tauredunum_event" title="Tauredunum event">Tauredunum event</a> was a large tsunami on <a href="/wiki/Lake_Geneva" title="Lake Geneva">Lake Geneva</a> in 563 CE, caused by sedimentary deposits destabilised by a landslide. </p><p><span class="anchor" id="Tsunami_generated_by_landslides"></span> In the 1950s, it was discovered that tsunamis larger than had previously been believed possible can be caused by giant <a href="/wiki/Submarine_landslides" class="mw-redirect" title="Submarine landslides">submarine landslides</a>. These large volumes of rapidly displaced water transfer energy at a faster rate than the water can absorb. Their existence was confirmed in 1958, when a giant landslide in <a href="/wiki/1958_Lituya_Bay,_Alaska_earthquake_and_megatsunami" class="mw-redirect" title="1958 Lituya Bay, Alaska earthquake and megatsunami">Lituya Bay</a>, Alaska, caused the highest wave ever recorded, which had a height of 524 metres (1,719 ft).<sup id="cite_ref-drgeorgepc.com_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-drgeorgepc.com-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The wave did not travel far as it struck land almost immediately. The wave struck three boats—each with two people aboard—anchored in the bay. One boat rode out the wave, but the wave sank the other two, killing both people aboard one of them.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another landslide-tsunami event occurred in 1963 when a massive landslide from <a href="/wiki/Monte_Toc" title="Monte Toc">Monte Toc</a> entered the reservoir behind the <a href="/wiki/Vajont_Dam" title="Vajont Dam">Vajont Dam</a> in Italy. The resulting wave surged over the 262-metre (860 ft)-high dam by 250 metres (820 ft) and destroyed several towns. Around 2,000 people died.<sup id="cite_ref-petley-blog-vajont_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-petley-blog-vajont-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-bbc-50th-anniv_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bbc-50th-anniv-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scientists named these waves <a href="/wiki/Megatsunami" title="Megatsunami">megatsunamis</a>. </p><p>Some geologists claim that large landslides from volcanic islands, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Cumbre_Vieja" title="Cumbre Vieja">Cumbre Vieja</a> on <a href="/wiki/La_Palma" title="La Palma">La Palma</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cumbre_Vieja_tsunami_hazard" title="Cumbre Vieja tsunami hazard">Cumbre Vieja tsunami hazard</a>) in the <a href="/wiki/Canary_Islands" title="Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a>, may be able to generate megatsunamis that can cross oceans, but this is disputed by many others. </p><p>In general, landslides generate displacements mainly in the shallower parts of the coastline, and there is conjecture about the nature of large landslides that enter the water. This has been shown to subsequently affect water in enclosed bays and lakes, but a landslide large enough to cause a transoceanic tsunami has not occurred within recorded history. Susceptible locations are believed to be the <a href="/wiki/Hawaii_(island)" title="Hawaii (island)">Big Island</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hawaii" title="Hawaii">Hawaii</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fogo,_Cape_Verde" title="Fogo, Cape Verde">Fogo</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Cape_Verde_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Cape Verde Islands">Cape Verde Islands</a>, <a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9union" title="Réunion">La Reunion</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cumbre_Vieja" title="Cumbre Vieja">Cumbre Vieja</a> on the island of <a href="/wiki/La_Palma" title="La Palma">La Palma</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Canary_Islands" title="Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a>; along with other volcanic ocean islands. This is because large masses of relatively unconsolidated volcanic material occurs on the flanks and in some cases detachment planes are believed to be developing. However, there is growing controversy about how dangerous these slopes actually are.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Volcanic_eruptions">Volcanic eruptions</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_tsunami" title="Volcanic tsunami">Volcanic tsunami</a></div> <p>Other than by landslides or <a href="/wiki/Sector_collapse" title="Sector collapse">sector collapse</a>, volcanoes may be able to generate waves by <a href="/wiki/Pyroclastic_flow" title="Pyroclastic flow">pyroclastic flow</a> submergence, caldera collapse, or underwater explosions.<sup id="cite_ref-Paris_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Paris-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tsunamis have been triggered by a number of volcanic eruptions, including the <a href="/wiki/1883_eruption_of_Krakatoa#Tsunamis_and_distant_effects" title="1883 eruption of Krakatoa">1883 eruption of Krakatoa</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/2022_Hunga_Tonga%E2%80%93Hunga_Ha%27apai_eruption_and_tsunami" class="mw-redirect" title="2022 Hunga Tonga–Hunga Ha'apai eruption and tsunami">2022 Hunga Tonga–Hunga Ha'apai eruption</a>. Over 20% of all fatalities caused by volcanism during the past 250 years are estimated to have been caused by <a href="/wiki/Volcanogenic_tsunami" class="mw-redirect" title="Volcanogenic tsunami">volcanogenic</a> tsunamis.<sup id="cite_ref-Latter_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Latter-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Debate has persisted over the origins and source mechanisms of these types of tsunamis, such as those generated by Krakatoa in 1883,<sup id="cite_ref-Latter_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Latter-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and they remain lesser understood than their seismic relatives. This poses a large problem of awareness and preparedness, as exemplified by the eruption and collapse of <a href="/wiki/2018_Sunda_Strait_tsunami" title="2018 Sunda Strait tsunami">Anak Krakatoa in 2018</a>, which killed 426 and injured thousands when no warning was available. </p><p>It is still regarded that lateral landslides and ocean-entering pyroclastic currents are most likely to generate the largest and most hazardous waves from volcanism;<sup id="cite_ref-DayVolcano_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DayVolcano-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, field investigation of the <a href="/wiki/2022_Hunga_Tonga%E2%80%93Hunga_Ha%27apai_eruption_and_tsunami" class="mw-redirect" title="2022 Hunga Tonga–Hunga Ha'apai eruption and tsunami">Tongan event</a>, as well as developments in numerical modelling methods, currently aim to expand the understanding of the other source mechanisms.<sup id="cite_ref-Hayward_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hayward-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Battershill_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Battershill-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Meteorological">Meteorological</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Meteotsunami" title="Meteotsunami">Meteotsunami</a></div> <p>Some <a href="/wiki/Meteorological" class="mw-redirect" title="Meteorological">meteorological</a> conditions, especially rapid changes in barometric pressure, as seen with the passing of a front, can displace bodies of water enough to cause trains of waves with wavelengths. These are comparable to seismic tsunamis, but usually with lower energies. Essentially, they are dynamically equivalent to seismic tsunamis, the only differences being 1) that meteotsunamis lack the transoceanic reach of significant seismic tsunamis, and 2) that the force that displaces the water is sustained over some length of time such that meteotsunamis cannot be modelled as having been caused instantaneously. In spite of their lower energies, on shorelines where they can be amplified by resonance, they are sometimes powerful enough to cause localised damage and potential for loss of life. They have been documented in many places, including the Great Lakes, the Aegean Sea, the English Channel, and the Balearic Islands, where they are common enough to have a local name, <i>rissaga</i>. In Sicily they are called <i>marubbio</i> and in Nagasaki Bay, they are called <i>abiki</i>. Some examples of destructive meteotsunamis include 31 March 1979 at Nagasaki and 15 June 2006 at Menorca, the latter causing damage in the tens of millions of euros.<sup id="cite_ref-Monserrat_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Monserrat-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Meteotsunamis should not be confused with <a href="/wiki/Storm_surges" class="mw-redirect" title="Storm surges">storm surges</a>, which are local increases in sea level associated with the low barometric pressure of passing tropical cyclones, nor should they be confused with setup, the temporary local raising of sea level caused by strong on-shore winds. Storm surges and setup are also dangerous causes of <a href="/wiki/Coastal_flooding" title="Coastal flooding">coastal flooding</a> in severe weather but their dynamics are completely unrelated to tsunami waves.<sup id="cite_ref-Monserrat_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Monserrat-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are unable to propagate beyond their sources, as waves do. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Human-made_or_triggered_tsunamis">Human-made or triggered tsunamis</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Tsunami_bomb" title="Tsunami bomb">Tsunami bomb</a></div> <p>The accidental <a href="/wiki/Halifax_Explosion" title="Halifax Explosion">Halifax Explosion</a> in 1917 triggered an 18-metre (59 ft) high tsunami in the harbour at <a href="/wiki/Halifax,_Nova_Scotia" title="Halifax, Nova Scotia">Halifax</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nova_Scotia" title="Nova Scotia">Nova Scotia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There have been studies of the potential for the use of explosives to induce tsunamis as a <a href="/wiki/Tectonic_weapon" title="Tectonic weapon">tectonic weapon</a>. As early as <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> (1939–1945), consideration of the use of conventional explosives was explored, and <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_Defence_Force" title="New Zealand Defence Force">New Zealand's military forces</a> initiated <a href="/wiki/Project_Seal" class="mw-redirect" title="Project Seal">Project Seal</a>, which attempted to create small tsunamis with explosives in the area of what is now <a href="/wiki/Shakespear_Regional_Park" title="Shakespear Regional Park">Shakespear Regional Park</a> at the tip of the <a href="/wiki/Whangaparaoa_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Whangaparaoa Peninsula">Whangaparaoa Peninsula</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Auckland_Region" title="Auckland Region">Auckland Region</a> of <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>; the attempt failed.<sup id="cite_ref-PART2-P9_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PART2-P9-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There has been considerable speculation about the possibility of using <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a> to cause tsunamis near an enemy coastline. Nuclear testing in the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Proving_Ground" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific Proving Ground">Pacific Proving Ground</a> by the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> generated poor results. In <a href="/wiki/Operation_Crossroads" title="Operation Crossroads">Operation Crossroads</a> in July 1946, two 20-kilotonne-of-TNT (84 TJ) bombs were detonated, one in the air over and one underwater within the shallow waters of the 50-metre (164 ft) deep <a href="/wiki/Lagoon" title="Lagoon">lagoon</a> at <a href="/wiki/Bikini_Atoll" title="Bikini Atoll">Bikini Atoll</a>. The bombs detonated about 6 km (3.7 mi; 3.2 nmi) from the nearest island, where the waves were no higher than 3 to 4 m (9.8 to 13.1 ft) when they reached the shoreline. Other underwater tests, mainly <a href="/wiki/Operation_Hardtack_I" title="Operation Hardtack I">Operation Hardtack I</a>/Wahoo in deep water and Operation Hardtack I/Umbrella in shallow water, confirmed the results. Analysis of the effects of <a href="/wiki/Underwater_explosion#shallow_underwater_explosions" title="Underwater explosion">shallow</a> and <a href="/wiki/Underwater_explosion#deep_underwater_explosions" title="Underwater explosion">deep</a> underwater explosions indicate that the energy of the explosions does not easily generate the kind of deep, all-ocean waveforms typical of tsunamis because most of the energy creates <a href="/wiki/Steam" title="Steam">steam</a>, causes vertical fountains above the water, and creates compressional waveforms.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tsunamis are hallmarked by permanent large vertical displacements of very large volumes of water which do not occur in explosions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Characteristics">Characteristics</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Propagation_du_tsunami_en_profondeur_variable.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Propagation_du_tsunami_en_profondeur_variable.gif/220px-Propagation_du_tsunami_en_profondeur_variable.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Propagation_du_tsunami_en_profondeur_variable.gif/330px-Propagation_du_tsunami_en_profondeur_variable.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/Propagation_du_tsunami_en_profondeur_variable.gif 2x" data-file-width="429" data-file-height="225" /></a><figcaption>When the wave enters shallow water, it slows down and its amplitude (height) increases.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tsunami2.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Tsunami2.JPG/220px-Tsunami2.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Tsunami2.JPG/330px-Tsunami2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Tsunami2.JPG/440px-Tsunami2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="581" data-file-height="265" /></a><figcaption>The wave further slows and amplifies as it hits land. Only the largest waves crest.</figcaption></figure> <p>Tsunamis are caused by earthquakes, landslides, volcanic explosions, glacier calvings, and <a href="/wiki/Bolide" title="Bolide">bolides</a>. They cause damage by two mechanisms: the smashing force of a wall of water travelling at high speed, and the destructive power of a large volume of water draining off the land and carrying a large amount of debris with it, even with waves that do not appear to be large. </p><p>While everyday <a href="/wiki/Wind_wave" title="Wind wave">wind waves</a> have a <a href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">wavelength</a> (from crest to crest) of about 100 metres (330 ft) and a height of roughly 2 metres (6.6 ft), a tsunami in the deep ocean has a much larger wavelength of up to 200 kilometres (120 mi). Such a wave travels at well over 800 kilometres per hour (500 mph), but owing to the enormous wavelength the wave oscillation at any given point takes 20 or 30 minutes to complete a cycle and has an amplitude of only about 1 metre (3.3 ft).<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This makes tsunamis difficult to detect over deep water, where ships are unable to feel their passage. </p><p>The velocity of a tsunami can be calculated by obtaining the square root of the depth of the water in metres multiplied by the acceleration due to gravity (approximated to 10 m/s<sup>2</sup>). For example, if the Pacific Ocean is considered to have a depth of 5000 metres, the velocity of a tsunami would be <span class="nowrap">√<span style="border-top:1px solid; padding:0 0.1em;">5000 × 10</span></span> = <span class="nowrap">√<span style="border-top:1px solid; padding:0 0.1em;">50000</span></span> ≈ 224 metres per second (730 ft/s), which equates to a speed of about 806 kilometres per hour (501 mph). This is the formula used for calculating the velocity of <a href="/wiki/Shallow_water_equations#Wave_modelling_by_shallow_water_equations" title="Shallow water equations">shallow-water</a> waves. Even the deep ocean is shallow in this sense because a tsunami wave is so long (horizontally from crest to crest) by comparison. </p><p>The reason for the Japanese name "harbour wave" is that sometimes a village's <a href="/wiki/Fishermen" class="mw-redirect" title="Fishermen">fishermen</a> would sail out, and encounter no unusual waves while out at sea fishing, and come back to land to find their village devastated by a huge wave. </p><p>As the tsunami approaches the coast and the waters become shallow, <a href="/wiki/Wave_shoaling" title="Wave shoaling">wave shoaling</a> compresses the wave and its speed decreases below 80 kilometres per hour (50 mph). Its wavelength diminishes to less than 20 kilometres (12 mi) and its amplitude grows enormously—in accord with <a href="/wiki/Green%27s_law" title="Green's law">Green's law</a>. Since the wave still has the same very long <a href="/wiki/Frequency" title="Frequency">period</a>, the tsunami may take minutes to reach full height. Except for the very largest tsunamis, the approaching wave does not <a href="/wiki/Breaking_wave" title="Breaking wave">break</a>, but rather appears like a fast-moving <a href="/wiki/Tidal_bore" title="Tidal bore">tidal bore</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Walrus_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walrus-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Open bays and coastlines adjacent to very deep water may shape the tsunami further into a step-like wave with a steep-breaking front. </p><p>When the tsunami's wave peak reaches the shore, the resulting temporary rise in sea level is termed <i>run up</i>. Run up is measured in metres above a reference sea level.<sup id="cite_ref-Walrus_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walrus-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A large tsunami may feature multiple waves arriving over a period of hours, with significant time between the wave crests. The first wave to reach the shore may not have the highest run-up.<sup id="cite_ref-Tulane_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tulane-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>About 80% of tsunamis occur in the Pacific Ocean, but they are possible wherever there are large bodies of water, including lakes. However, tsunami interactions with shorelines and the seafloor topography are extremely complex, which leaves some countries more vulnerable than others. For example, the Pacific coasts of the United States and Mexico lie adjacent to each other, but the United States has recorded ten tsunamis in the region since 1788, while Mexico has recorded twenty-five since 1732.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, Japan has had more than a hundred tsunamis in recorded history, while the neighbouring island of Taiwan has registered only two, in 1781 and 1867.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Drawback">Drawback</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shallow_water_wave.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Shallow_water_wave.gif/440px-Shallow_water_wave.gif" decoding="async" width="440" height="66" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/Shallow_water_wave.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="70" /></a><figcaption>An illustration of the rhythmic "drawback" of surface water associated with a wave. It follows that a very large drawback may herald the arrival of a very large wave.</figcaption></figure> <p>All <a href="/wiki/Wave" title="Wave">waves</a> have a positive and negative peak; that is, a ridge and a trough. In the case of a propagating wave like a tsunami, either may be the first to arrive. If the first part to arrive at the shore is the ridge, a massive breaking wave or sudden flooding will be the first effect noticed on land. However, if the first part to arrive is a trough, a drawback will occur as the shoreline recedes dramatically, exposing normally submerged areas. The drawback can exceed hundreds of metres, and people unaware of the danger sometimes remain near the shore to satisfy their curiosity or to collect fish from the exposed seabed. </p><p>A typical wave period for a damaging tsunami is about twelve minutes. Thus, the sea recedes in the drawback phase, with areas well below sea level exposed after three minutes. For the next six minutes, the wave trough builds into a ridge which may flood the coast, and destruction ensues. During the next six minutes, the wave changes from a ridge to a trough, and the flood waters recede in a second drawback. Victims and debris may be swept into the ocean. The process repeats with succeeding waves. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scales_of_intensity_and_magnitude">Scales of intensity and magnitude</h2></div> <p>As with earthquakes, several attempts have been made to set up scales of tsunami intensity or magnitude to allow comparison between different events.<sup id="cite_ref-Gusiakov_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gusiakov-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intensity_scales">Intensity scales</h3></div> <p>The first scales used routinely to measure the intensity of tsunamis were the <i><a href="/wiki/August_Heinrich_Sieberg" title="August Heinrich Sieberg">Sieberg</a>-<a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Ambraseys" title="Nicholas Ambraseys">Ambraseys</a> scale</i> (1962), used in the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a> and the <i>Imamura-Iida intensity scale</i> (1963), used in the Pacific Ocean. The latter scale was modified by Soloviev (1972), who calculated the tsunami intensity "<i>I</i>" according to the formula: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\mathit {I}}={\frac {1}{2}}+\log _{2}{\mathit {H}}_{av}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi class="MJX-tex-mathit" mathvariant="italic">I</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>log</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>⁡</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi class="MJX-tex-mathit" mathvariant="italic">H</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>a</mi> <mi>v</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\mathit {I}}={\frac {1}{2}}+\log _{2}{\mathit {H}}_{av}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f99bd3423c50839012730472df0aa233d9520855" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:16.874ex; height:5.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\mathit {I}}={\frac {1}{2}}+\log _{2}{\mathit {H}}_{av}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\mathit {H}}_{av}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi class="MJX-tex-mathit" mathvariant="italic">H</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>a</mi> <mi>v</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\mathit {H}}_{av}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b1102c9e9bccf34cf4c1acd823fed93a88f77b28" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.626ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\mathit {H}}_{av}}"></span> is the "tsunami height" in metres, averaged along the nearest coastline, with the tsunami height defined as the rise of the water level above the normal tidal level at the time of occurrence of the tsunami.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This scale, known as the <i>Soloviev-Imamura tsunami intensity scale</i>, is used in the global tsunami catalogues compiled by the NGDC/NOAA<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the Novosibirsk Tsunami Laboratory as the main parameter for the size of the tsunami. </p><p>This formula yields: </p> <ul><li><i>I</i> = 2 for <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\mathit {H}}_{av}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi class="MJX-tex-mathit" mathvariant="italic">H</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>a</mi> <mi>v</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\mathit {H}}_{av}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b1102c9e9bccf34cf4c1acd823fed93a88f77b28" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.626ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\mathit {H}}_{av}}"></span> = 2.8 metres</li> <li><i>I</i> = 3 for <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\mathit {H}}_{av}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi class="MJX-tex-mathit" mathvariant="italic">H</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>a</mi> <mi>v</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\mathit {H}}_{av}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b1102c9e9bccf34cf4c1acd823fed93a88f77b28" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.626ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\mathit {H}}_{av}}"></span> = 5.5 metres</li> <li><i>I</i> = 4 for <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\mathit {H}}_{av}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi class="MJX-tex-mathit" mathvariant="italic">H</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>a</mi> <mi>v</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\mathit {H}}_{av}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b1102c9e9bccf34cf4c1acd823fed93a88f77b28" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.626ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\mathit {H}}_{av}}"></span> = 11 metres</li> <li><i>I</i> = 5 for <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\mathit {H}}_{av}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi class="MJX-tex-mathit" mathvariant="italic">H</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>a</mi> <mi>v</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\mathit {H}}_{av}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b1102c9e9bccf34cf4c1acd823fed93a88f77b28" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.626ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\mathit {H}}_{av}}"></span> = 22.5 metres</li> <li>etc.</li></ul> <p>In 2013, following the intensively studied tsunamis in 2004 and 2011, a new 12-point scale was proposed, the Integrated Tsunami Intensity Scale (ITIS-2012), intended to match as closely as possible to the modified <a href="/wiki/Environmental_Seismic_Intensity_scale" title="Environmental Seismic Intensity scale">ESI2007</a> and <a href="/wiki/European_Macroseismic_Scale" class="mw-redirect" title="European Macroseismic Scale">EMS</a> earthquake intensity scales.<sup id="cite_ref-Lekkas_et_al_2013_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lekkas_et_al_2013-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Magnitude_scales">Magnitude scales</h3></div> <p>The first scale that genuinely calculated a magnitude for a tsunami, rather than an intensity at a particular location was the ML scale proposed by Murty & Loomis based on the potential energy.<sup id="cite_ref-Gusiakov_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gusiakov-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Difficulties in calculating the potential energy of the tsunami mean that this scale is rarely used. Abe introduced the <i>tsunami magnitude scale <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\mathit {M}}_{t}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi class="MJX-tex-mathit" mathvariant="italic">M</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\mathit {M}}_{t}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/792dd1d4f7bfd797f21266809fb7dbeb5796b352" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.91ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\mathit {M}}_{t}}"></span></i>, calculated from, </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\mathit {M}}_{t}={a}\log h+{b}\log R+{\mathit {D}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi class="MJX-tex-mathit" mathvariant="italic">M</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>a</mi> </mrow> <mi>log</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mi>h</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>b</mi> </mrow> <mi>log</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mi>R</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi class="MJX-tex-mathit" mathvariant="italic">D</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\mathit {M}}_{t}={a}\log h+{b}\log R+{\mathit {D}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/dacbcd854fcf703ecf6598a5cd090ddf8da74409" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-right: -0.046ex; width:26.313ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\mathit {M}}_{t}={a}\log h+{b}\log R+{\mathit {D}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where <i>h</i> is the maximum tsunami-wave amplitude (in m) measured by a tide gauge at a distance <i>R</i> from the epicentre, <i>a</i>, <i>b</i> and <i>D</i> are constants used to make the M<sub>t</sub> scale match as closely as possible with the moment magnitude scale.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tsunami_heights">Tsunami heights</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tsunami_run-up,_height,_and_inundation.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Tsunami_run-up%2C_height%2C_and_inundation.png/220px-Tsunami_run-up%2C_height%2C_and_inundation.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="84" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Tsunami_run-up%2C_height%2C_and_inundation.png/330px-Tsunami_run-up%2C_height%2C_and_inundation.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Tsunami_run-up%2C_height%2C_and_inundation.png 2x" data-file-width="415" data-file-height="159" /></a><figcaption>Diagram showing several measures to describe a tsunami size, including height, inundation and run-up</figcaption></figure> <p>Several terms are used to describe the different characteristics of tsunami in terms of their height:<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Amplitude, Wave Height, or Tsunami Height: Refers to the height of a tsunami relative to the normal sea level at the time of the tsunami, which may be tidal High Water, or Low Water. It is different from the crest-to-trough height which is commonly used to measure other type of wave height.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Run-up Height, or Inundation Height: The height reached by a tsunami on the ground above sea level, Maximum run-up height refers to the maximum height reached by water above sea level, which is sometimes reported as the maximum height reached by a tsunami.</li> <li>Flow Depth: Refers to the height of tsunami above ground, regardless of the height of the location or sea level.</li> <li>(Maximum) Water Level: Maximum height above sea level as seen from trace or water mark. Different from maximum run-up height in the sense that they are not necessarily water marks at inundation line/limit.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Warnings_and_predictions">Warnings and predictions</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Tsunami_warning_system" title="Tsunami warning system">Tsunami warning system</a></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This Section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Tsunami" title="Special:EditPage/Tsunami">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this Section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Tsunami%22">"Tsunami"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Tsunami%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Tsunami%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Tsunami%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Tsunami%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Tsunami%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Calculated_Travel_Time_Map_for_1964_Alaska_Tsunami.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Calculated_Travel_Time_Map_for_1964_Alaska_Tsunami.jpg/300px-Calculated_Travel_Time_Map_for_1964_Alaska_Tsunami.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Calculated_Travel_Time_Map_for_1964_Alaska_Tsunami.jpg/450px-Calculated_Travel_Time_Map_for_1964_Alaska_Tsunami.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Calculated_Travel_Time_Map_for_1964_Alaska_Tsunami.jpg/600px-Calculated_Travel_Time_Map_for_1964_Alaska_Tsunami.jpg 2x" data-file-width="859" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Calculated travel time map for the 1964 Alaska tsunami (in hours)</figcaption></figure> <p>Drawbacks can serve as a brief warning. People who observe drawback (many survivors report an accompanying sucking sound) can survive only if they immediately run for high ground or seek the upper floors of nearby buildings. </p><p>In 2004, ten-year-old <a href="/wiki/Tilly_Smith" title="Tilly Smith">Tilly Smith</a> of <a href="/wiki/Surrey" title="Surrey">Surrey</a>, England, was on <a href="/w/index.php?title=Maikhao_beach&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Maikhao beach (page does not exist)">Maikhao beach</a> in <a href="/wiki/Phuket_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Phuket Province">Phuket</a>, Thailand with her parents and sister, and having learned about tsunamis recently in school, told her family that a tsunami might be imminent. Her parents warned others minutes before the wave arrived, saving dozens of lives. She credited her geography teacher, Andrew Kearney. </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake" class="mw-redirect" title="2004 Indian Ocean earthquake">2004 Indian Ocean tsunami</a> drawback was not reported on the African coast or any other east-facing coasts that it reached. This was because the initial wave moved downwards on the eastern side of the <a href="/wiki/Megathrust_earthquake" title="Megathrust earthquake">megathrust</a> and upwards on the western side. The western pulse hit coastal Africa and other western areas. </p><p>A tsunami cannot be precisely predicted, even if the magnitude and location of an earthquake is known. <a href="/wiki/Geologist" title="Geologist">Geologists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oceanographer" class="mw-redirect" title="Oceanographer">oceanographers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Seismologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Seismologist">seismologists</a> analyse each earthquake and based on many factors may or may not issue a tsunami warning. However, there are some warning signs of an impending tsunami, and automated systems can provide warnings immediately after an earthquake in time to save lives. One of the most successful systems uses bottom pressure sensors, attached to buoys, which constantly monitor the pressure of the overlying water column. </p><p>Regions with a high tsunami risk typically use <a href="/wiki/Tsunami_warning_system" title="Tsunami warning system">tsunami warning systems</a> to warn the population before the wave reaches land. On the west coast of the United States, which is prone to tsunamis from the Pacific Ocean, warning signs indicate evacuation routes. In Japan, the populace is well-educated about earthquakes and tsunamis, and along Japanese shorelines, tsunami warning signs remind people of the natural hazards along with a network of warning sirens, typically at the top of the cliffs of surrounding hills.<sup id="cite_ref-Chanson_2010_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chanson_2010-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Tsunami_Warning_Center" title="Pacific Tsunami Warning Center">Pacific Tsunami Warning System</a> is based in <a href="/wiki/Honolulu" title="Honolulu">Honolulu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hawaii" title="Hawaii">Hawaiʻi</a>. It monitors Pacific Ocean seismic activity. A sufficiently large earthquake magnitude and other information triggers a tsunami warning. While the subduction zones around the Pacific are seismically active, not all earthquakes generate a tsunami. Computers assist in analysing the tsunami risk of every earthquake that occurs in the Pacific Ocean and the adjoining land masses. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bamfield_Tsunami_Hazard_Zone_sign.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Tsunami hazard sign at Bamfield, British Columbia"><img alt="Tsunami hazard sign at Bamfield, British Columbia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Bamfield_Tsunami_Hazard_Zone_sign.jpg/240px-Bamfield_Tsunami_Hazard_Zone_sign.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Bamfield_Tsunami_Hazard_Zone_sign.jpg/360px-Bamfield_Tsunami_Hazard_Zone_sign.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Bamfield_Tsunami_Hazard_Zone_sign.jpg/480px-Bamfield_Tsunami_Hazard_Zone_sign.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Tsunami hazard sign at <a href="/wiki/Bamfield" title="Bamfield">Bamfield</a>, <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 182px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_tsunami_warning_sign_in_Kamakura,_Japan.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A tsunami warning sign in Kamakura, Japan"><img alt="A tsunami warning sign in Kamakura, Japan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/A_tsunami_warning_sign_in_Kamakura%2C_Japan.jpg/270px-A_tsunami_warning_sign_in_Kamakura%2C_Japan.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/A_tsunami_warning_sign_in_Kamakura%2C_Japan.jpg/405px-A_tsunami_warning_sign_in_Kamakura%2C_Japan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/A_tsunami_warning_sign_in_Kamakura%2C_Japan.jpg/540px-A_tsunami_warning_sign_in_Kamakura%2C_Japan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3984" data-file-height="2656" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A tsunami warning sign in <a href="/wiki/Kamakura,_Kanagawa" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamakura, Kanagawa">Kamakura</a>, Japan</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 92px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 90px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Zona_de_Inundabilidad.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A Tsunami hazard sign (Spanish – English) in Iquique, Chile"><img alt="A Tsunami hazard sign (Spanish – English) in Iquique, Chile" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Zona_de_Inundabilidad.jpg/135px-Zona_de_Inundabilidad.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Zona_de_Inundabilidad.jpg/202px-Zona_de_Inundabilidad.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Zona_de_Inundabilidad.jpg/270px-Zona_de_Inundabilidad.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="2560" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A Tsunami hazard sign (Spanish – English) in <a href="/wiki/Iquique" title="Iquique">Iquique</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 122px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 120px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tsunami_Evacuation_Route_signage_south_of_Aberdeen_Washington.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Tsunami Evacuation Route signage along U.S. Route 101, in Washington"><img alt="Photo of evacuation sign" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Tsunami_Evacuation_Route_signage_south_of_Aberdeen_Washington.jpg/180px-Tsunami_Evacuation_Route_signage_south_of_Aberdeen_Washington.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Tsunami_Evacuation_Route_signage_south_of_Aberdeen_Washington.jpg/270px-Tsunami_Evacuation_Route_signage_south_of_Aberdeen_Washington.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Tsunami_Evacuation_Route_signage_south_of_Aberdeen_Washington.jpg/361px-Tsunami_Evacuation_Route_signage_south_of_Aberdeen_Washington.jpg 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="549" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Tsunami Evacuation Route signage along <a href="/wiki/U.S._Route_101_in_Washington" title="U.S. Route 101 in Washington">U.S. Route 101</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Washington_(state)" title="Washington (state)">Washington</a></div> </li> </ul> <p>As a direct result of the Indian Ocean tsunami, a re-appraisal of the tsunami threat for all coastal areas is being undertaken by national governments and the United Nations Disaster Mitigation Committee. A tsunami warning system is being installed in the Indian Ocean. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dart_tsunamicover.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Dart_tsunamicover.jpg/170px-Dart_tsunamicover.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Dart_tsunamicover.jpg/255px-Dart_tsunamicover.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Dart_tsunamicover.jpg/340px-Dart_tsunamicover.jpg 2x" data-file-width="529" data-file-height="650" /></a><figcaption>One of the deep water <a href="/wiki/Buoy" title="Buoy">buoys</a> used in the <a href="/wiki/Deep-ocean_Assessment_and_Reporting_of_Tsunamis" title="Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis">DART</a> tsunami warning system</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Computer_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer model">Computer models</a> can predict tsunami arrival, usually within minutes of the arrival time. Bottom pressure sensors can relay information in <a href="/wiki/Present" title="Present">real time</a>. Based on these pressure readings and other seismic information and the seafloor's shape (<a href="/wiki/Bathymetry" title="Bathymetry">bathymetry</a>) and coastal <a href="/wiki/Topography" title="Topography">topography</a>, the models estimate the amplitude and surge height of the approaching tsunami. All <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Rim" title="Pacific Rim">Pacific Rim</a> countries collaborate in the Tsunami Warning System and most regularly practise evacuation and other procedures. In Japan, such preparation is mandatory for government, local authorities, emergency services and the population. </p><p>Along the United States west coast, in addition to sirens, warnings are sent on television and radio via the <a href="/wiki/National_Weather_Service" title="National Weather Service">National Weather Service</a>, using the <a href="/wiki/Emergency_Alert_System" title="Emergency Alert System">Emergency Alert System</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Possible_animal_reaction">Possible animal reaction</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Infrasound#Animal_reaction" title="Infrasound">Infrasound § Animal reaction</a></div> <p>Some zoologists hypothesise that some animal species have an ability to sense subsonic <a href="/wiki/Rayleigh_wave" title="Rayleigh wave">Rayleigh waves</a> from an earthquake or a tsunami. If correct, monitoring their behaviour could provide advance warning of earthquakes and tsunamis. However, the evidence is controversial and is not widely accepted. There are unsubstantiated claims about the <a href="/wiki/1755_Lisbon_earthquake" title="1755 Lisbon earthquake">Lisbon quake</a> that some animals escaped to higher ground, while many other animals in the same areas drowned. The phenomenon was also noted by media sources in <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> in the <a href="/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake" class="mw-redirect" title="2004 Indian Ocean earthquake">2004 Indian Ocean earthquake</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is possible that certain animals (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Elephant" title="Elephant">elephants</a>) may have heard the sounds of the tsunami as it approached the coast. The elephants' reaction was to move away from the approaching noise. By contrast, some humans went to the shore to investigate and many drowned as a result. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mitigation">Mitigation</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Seawall" title="Seawall">Seawall</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tsunami_wall.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photo of seawall, with building in background" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Tsunami_wall.jpg/170px-Tsunami_wall.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Tsunami_wall.jpg/255px-Tsunami_wall.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Tsunami_wall.jpg/340px-Tsunami_wall.jpg 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Seawall" title="Seawall">seawall</a> at <a href="/wiki/Tsu,_Mie" title="Tsu, Mie">Tsu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mie_Prefecture" title="Mie Prefecture">Mie Prefecture</a> in Japan</figcaption></figure> <p>In some tsunami-prone countries, <a href="/wiki/Earthquake_engineering" title="Earthquake engineering">earthquake engineering</a> measures have been taken to reduce the damage caused onshore. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>, where tsunami science and response measures first began following a <a href="/wiki/1896_Sanriku_earthquake" title="1896 Sanriku earthquake">disaster in 1896</a>, has produced ever-more elaborate countermeasures and response plans.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The country has built many tsunami walls of up to 12 metres (39 ft) high to protect populated coastal areas. Other localities have built <a href="/wiki/Floodgate" title="Floodgate">floodgates</a> of up to 15.5 metres (51 ft) high and channels to redirect the water from an incoming tsunami. However, their effectiveness has been questioned, as tsunamis often overtop the barriers. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_Daiichi_nuclear_disaster" class="mw-redirect" title="Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster">Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster</a> was directly triggered by the <a href="/wiki/2011_T%C5%8Dhoku_earthquake_and_tsunami" title="2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami">2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami</a>, when waves exceeded the height of the plant's sea wall.<sup id="cite_ref-:18_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:18-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Iwate_Prefecture" title="Iwate Prefecture">Iwate Prefecture</a>, which is an area at high risk from tsunami, had tsunami barriers walls (<a href="/wiki/Taro_sea_wall" class="mw-redirect" title="Taro sea wall">Taro sea wall</a>) totalling 25 kilometres (16 mi) long at coastal towns. The 2011 tsunami toppled more than 50% of the walls and caused catastrophic damage.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/1993_Okushiri_earthquake#Tsunami" title="1993 Okushiri earthquake">Okushiri, Hokkaidō tsunami</a>, which struck within two to five minutes of the <a href="/wiki/1993_Okushiri_earthquake" title="1993 Okushiri earthquake">earthquake on July 12, 1993</a>, created waves 30 metres (100 ft) tall—as high as a 10-storey building. The port town of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Aonae&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aonae (page does not exist)">Aonae</a> was completely surrounded by a tsunami wall, but the waves washed right over the wall and destroyed all the wood-framed structures in the area. The wall may have succeeded in slowing down and moderating the height of the tsunami, but it did not prevent major destruction and loss of life.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/TsunamiHazardSign.svg/32px-TsunamiHazardSign.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/TsunamiHazardSign.svg/48px-TsunamiHazardSign.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/TsunamiHazardSign.svg/64px-TsunamiHazardSign.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="524" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Tsunamis" title="Portal:Tsunamis">Tsunamis portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/32px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/48px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/64px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1358" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Oceans" title="Portal:Oceans">Oceans portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_management" title="Emergency management">Emergency management</a> – Dealing with all humanitarian aspects of emergencies</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Higher_Ground_Project" title="Higher Ground Project">Higher Ground Project</a> – Worldwide campaign following 2004 tsunami</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_wave_articles" title="Index of wave articles">Index of wave articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaik%C5%8Dura_Peninsula" title="Kaikōura Peninsula">Kaikoura Canyon landslide tsunami hazard</a> – peninsular mountain on New Zealand's South Island<span style="display:none" class="category-wikidata-fallback-annotation">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tsunamis" title="List of tsunamis">List of tsunamis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_natural_disasters_by_death_toll" title="List of natural disasters by death toll">List of natural disasters by death toll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_earthquakes" title="Lists of earthquakes">Lists of earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tsunamis_affecting_New_Zealand" title="List of tsunamis affecting New Zealand">List of tsunamis affecting New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minoan_eruption" title="Minoan eruption">Minoan eruption</a> – Major volcanic eruption around 1600 BCE</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_wave" title="Rogue wave">Rogue wave</a> – Unexpectedly large transient ocean surface wave</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seiche" title="Seiche">Seiche</a> – Standing wave in an enclosed or partially enclosed body of water</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sneaker_wave" title="Sneaker wave">Sneaker wave</a> – Disproportionately large coastal wave</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supervolcano" title="Supervolcano">Supervolcano</a> – Volcano that has had an eruption with a volcanic explosivity index (VEI) of 8</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tauredunum_event" title="Tauredunum event">Tauredunum event</a> – Ancient Tsunami on Lake Geneva</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsunami_deposit" title="Tsunami deposit">Tsunami deposit</a> – Sedimentary unit deposited by a tsunami</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsunami-proof_building" title="Tsunami-proof building">Tsunami-proof building</a> – Building designed to withstand extreme floods</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWells1990" class="citation book cs1">Wells, John C. (1990). <i>Longman pronunciation dictionary</i>. Harlow, England: Longman. p. 736. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-05383-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-582-05383-0"><bdi>978-0-582-05383-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Longman+pronunciation+dictionary&rft.place=Harlow%2C+England&rft.pages=736&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-582-05383-0&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span> Entry: "tsunami"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.macmillandictionary.com/pronunciation/british/tsunami">"tsunami"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Macmillan_Dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Macmillan Dictionary">Macmillan Dictionary</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-11-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Macmillan+Dictionary&rft.atitle=tsunami&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.macmillandictionary.com%2Fpronunciation%2Fbritish%2Ftsunami&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/tsunami">"tsunami"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Merriam-Webster" title="Merriam-Webster">Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary</a></i>. Merriam-Webster<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 August</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Merriam-Webster.com+Dictionary&rft.atitle=tsunami&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Ftsunami&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ldoceonline.com/dictionary/tsunami">"tsunami"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Longman_Dictionary_of_Contemporary_English" title="Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English">Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Longman" title="Longman">Longman</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 August</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Longman+Dictionary+of+Contemporary+English&rft.atitle=tsunami&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ldoceonline.com%2Fdictionary%2Ftsunami&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110225143835/http://nthmp-history.pmel.noaa.gov/terms.html">"Tsunami Terminology"</a>. <a href="/wiki/NOAA" class="mw-redirect" title="NOAA">NOAA</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nthmp-history.pmel.noaa.gov/terms.html">the original</a> on 2011-02-25<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-07-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tsunami+Terminology&rft.pub=NOAA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnthmp-history.pmel.noaa.gov%2Fterms.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarbara_Ferreira2011" class="citation journal cs1">Barbara Ferreira (April 17, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111104140755/http://blogs.nature.com/barbaraferreira/2011/04/17/when-icebergs-capsize">"When icebergs capsize, tsunamis may ensue"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blogs.nature.com/barbaraferreira/2011/04/17/when-icebergs-capsize">the original</a> on 2011-11-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-04-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=When+icebergs+capsize%2C+tsunamis+may+ensue&rft.date=2011-04-17&rft.au=Barbara+Ferreira&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblogs.nature.com%2Fbarbaraferreira%2F2011%2F04%2F17%2Fwhen-icebergs-capsize&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2011-374">"NASA Finds Japan Tsunami Waves Merged, Doubling Power"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Jet_Propulsion_Laboratory" title="Jet Propulsion Laboratory">Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 November</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Jet+Propulsion+Laboratory&rft.atitle=NASA+Finds+Japan+Tsunami+Waves+Merged%2C+Doubling+Power&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jpl.nasa.gov%2Fnews%2Fnews.php%3Frelease%3D2011-374&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://courses.washington.edu/larescue/Tsunami101/Tsunami101.htm">"Tsunami 101"</a>. University of Washington<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 December</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tsunami+101&rft.pub=University+of+Washington&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcourses.washington.edu%2Flarescue%2FTsunami101%2FTsunami101.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/tidal%20wave">"Definition of Tidal Wave"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Definition+of+Tidal+Wave&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Ftidal%2520wave&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://earthweb.ess.washington.edu/tsunami/general/physics/meaning.html">"What does "tsunami" mean?"</a>. Earth and Space Sciences, University of Washington<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 December</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+does+%22tsunami%22+mean%3F&rft.pub=Earth+and+Space+Sciences%2C+University+of+Washington&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fearthweb.ess.washington.edu%2Ftsunami%2Fgeneral%2Fphysics%2Fmeaning.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fradin_2008-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Fradin_2008_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFradin2008" class="citation book cs1">Fradin, Judith Bloom and Dennis Brindell (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120406091721/http://shop.nationalgeographic.com/ngs/product/books/kids-books-and-atlases/animals-and-nature/witness-to-disaster:-tsunamis"><i>Witness to Disaster: Tsunamis</i></a>. Washington, D.C.: <a href="/wiki/National_Geographic_Society" title="National Geographic Society">National Geographic Society</a>. pp. 42–43. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://shop.nationalgeographic.com/ngs/product/books/kids-books-and-atlases/animals-and-nature/witness-to-disaster%3A-tsunamis">the original</a> on 2012-04-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Witness+to+Disaster%3A+Tsunamis&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pages=42-43&rft.pub=National+Geographic+Society&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Fradin&rft.aufirst=Judith+Bloom+and+Dennis+Brindell&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fshop.nationalgeographic.com%2Fngs%2Fproduct%2Fbooks%2Fkids-books-and-atlases%2Fanimals-and-nature%2Fwitness-to-disaster%253A-tsunamis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thucydides_3.89.1-4-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Thucydides_3.89.1-4_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Thucydides_3.89.1-4_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Thuc.+3.89.1">“A History of the Peloponnesian War”, 3.89.1–4</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Smid,_T._C._103f.-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Smid,_T._C._103f._13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Smid,_T._C._103f._13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Smid,_T._C._103f._13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmid1970" class="citation book cs1">Smid, T. C. (April 1970). <i><span></span>'Tsunamis' in Greek Literature</i>. Vol. 17 (2nd ed.). pp. 100–104.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%27Tsunamis%27+in+Greek+Literature&rft.pages=100-104&rft.edition=2nd&rft.date=1970-04&rft.aulast=Smid&rft.aufirst=T.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">[a. Jap. tsunami, tunami, f. tsu harbour + nami waves.—<i>Oxford English Dictionary</i>]</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/tidal%20wave">"Definition of Tidal Wave"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 November</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Definition+of+Tidal+Wave&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Ftidal%2520wave&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Tidal", The American Heritage Stedman's Medical Dictionary. <a href="/wiki/Houghton_Mifflin_Harcourt" title="Houghton Mifflin Harcourt">Houghton Mifflin Company</a>. 11 November 2008.<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/tidal">Dictionary.reference.com</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">-al. (n.d.). Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Retrieved November 11, 2008, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/-al">Dictionary.reference.com</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Forty Feet High and It Kills!" <i>Hawaii Five-O</i>. Writ. Robert C. Dennis and Edward J. Lakso. Dir. Michael O'Herlihy. CBS, 8 Oct. 1969. Television.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://weready.org/tsunami/index.php?option=com_glossary&letter=S&id=56">"Seismic Sea Wave – Tsunami Glossary"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 November</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Seismic+Sea+Wave+%E2%80%93+Tsunami+Glossary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweready.org%2Ftsunami%2Findex.php%3Foption%3Dcom_glossary%26letter%3DS%26id%3D56&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://earthsci.org/education/teacher/basicgeol/tsumami/tsunami.html">"tsunamis"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 November</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=tsunamis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fearthsci.org%2Feducation%2Fteacher%2Fbasicgeol%2Ftsumami%2Ftsunami.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFpostcode=3001" class="citation web cs1">postcode=3001, corporateName=Bureau of Meteorology; address=GPO Box 1289, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bom.gov.au/tsunami/info/faq.shtml">"Joint Australian Tsunami Warning Centre"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 November</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Joint+Australian+Tsunami+Warning+Centre&rft.aulast=postcode%3D3001&rft.aufirst=corporateName%3DBureau+of+Meteorology%3B+address%3DGPO+Box+1289%2C+Melbourne%2C+Victoria%2C+Australia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bom.gov.au%2Ftsunami%2Finfo%2Ffaq.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSvennevigHermannsKeidingBinder2022" class="citation journal cs1">Svennevig, Kristian; Hermanns, Reginald L.; Keiding, Marie; Binder, Daniel; Citterio, Michelle; Dahl-Jensen, Trine; Mertl, Stefan; Sørensen, Erik Vest; Voss, Peter H. (23 July 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10346-022-01922-7">"A large frozen debris avalanche entraining warming permafrost ground—the June 2021 Assapaat landslide, West Greenland"</a>. <i>Landslides</i>. <b>19</b> (11). Springer Link: 2549–2567. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022Lands..19.2549S">2022Lands..19.2549S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10346-022-01922-7">10.1007/s10346-022-01922-7</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1612-510X">1612-510X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Landslides&rft.atitle=A+large+frozen+debris+avalanche+entraining+warming+permafrost+ground%E2%80%94the+June+2021+Assapaat+landslide%2C+West+Greenland&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=2549-2567&rft.date=2022-07-23&rft.issn=1612-510X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10346-022-01922-7&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2022Lands..19.2549S&rft.aulast=Svennevig&rft.aufirst=Kristian&rft.au=Hermanns%2C+Reginald+L.&rft.au=Keiding%2C+Marie&rft.au=Binder%2C+Daniel&rft.au=Citterio%2C+Michelle&rft.au=Dahl-Jensen%2C+Trine&rft.au=Mertl%2C+Stefan&rft.au=S%C3%B8rensen%2C+Erik+Vest&rft.au=Voss%2C+Peter+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fs10346-022-01922-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usgs.gov/centers/pcmsc/news/international-team-studies-tsunami-deposits-japan-improve-understanding-and">"International Team Studies Tsunami Deposits in Japan to Improve Understanding and Mitigation of Tsunami Hazards | U.S. Geological Survey"</a>. United States Geological Survey<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-01-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=International+Team+Studies+Tsunami+Deposits+in+Japan+to+Improve+Understanding+and+Mitigation+of+Tsunami+Hazards+%7C+U.S.+Geological+Survey&rft.pub=United+States+Geological+Survey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usgs.gov%2Fcenters%2Fpcmsc%2Fnews%2Finternational-team-studies-tsunami-deposits-japan-improve-understanding-and&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-30602159">Indian Ocean tsunami anniversary: Memorial events held</a> 26 December 2014, BBC News</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/journal/the-10-biggest-tsunamis-in-history.htm/">The 10 most destructive tsunamis in history</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131204022559/http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/journal/the-10-biggest-tsunamis-in-history.htm">Archived</a> 2013-12-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Australian Geographic, March 16, 2011.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thucydides_3.89.5-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Thucydides_3.89.5_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Thuc.+3.89.1">“A History of the Peloponnesian War”, 3.89.5</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kelly,_Gavin_(2004)-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kelly,_Gavin_(2004)_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKelly2004" class="citation journal cs1">Kelly, Gavin (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.research.ed.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/ammianus-and-the-great-tsunami(635a4807-14c9-4044-9caa-8f8e3005cb24).html">"Ammianus and the Great Tsunami"</a>. <i>The Journal of Roman Studies</i>. <b>94</b> (141): 141–167. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F4135013">10.2307/4135013</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11820%2F635a4807-14c9-4044-9caa-8f8e3005cb24">20.500.11820/635a4807-14c9-4044-9caa-8f8e3005cb24</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4135013">4135013</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:160152988">160152988</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Roman+Studies&rft.atitle=Ammianus+and+the+Great+Tsunami&rft.volume=94&rft.issue=141&rft.pages=141-167&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F20.500.11820%2F635a4807-14c9-4044-9caa-8f8e3005cb24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A160152988%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4135013%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F4135013&rft.aulast=Kelly&rft.aufirst=Gavin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.research.ed.ac.uk%2Fportal%2Fen%2Fpublications%2Fammianus-and-the-great-tsunami%28635a4807-14c9-4044-9caa-8f8e3005cb24%29.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stanley,_Jean-Daniel_&_Jorstad,_Thomas_F._(2005)-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stanley,_Jean-Daniel_&_Jorstad,_Thomas_F._(2005)_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stanley, Jean-Daniel & Jorstad, Thomas F. (2005), "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2005AM/finalprogram/abstract_96386.htm">The 365 A.D. Tsunami Destruction of Alexandria, Egypt: Erosion, Deformation of Strata and Introduction of Allochthonous Material</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170525095324/https://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2005AM/finalprogram/abstract_96386.htm">Archived</a> 2017-05-25 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaugenLovholtHarbitz2005" class="citation journal cs1">Haugen, K; Lovholt, F; Harbitz, C (2005). "Fundamental mechanisms for tsunami generation by submarine mass flows in idealised geometries". <i><a href="/wiki/Marine_and_Petroleum_Geology" title="Marine and Petroleum Geology">Marine and Petroleum Geology</a></i>. <b>22</b> (1–2): 209–217. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005MarPG..22..209H">2005MarPG..22..209H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.marpetgeo.2004.10.016">10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2004.10.016</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Marine+and+Petroleum+Geology&rft.atitle=Fundamental+mechanisms+for+tsunami+generation+by+submarine+mass+flows+in+idealised+geometries&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=209-217&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.marpetgeo.2004.10.016&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005MarPG..22..209H&rft.aulast=Haugen&rft.aufirst=K&rft.au=Lovholt%2C+F&rft.au=Harbitz%2C+C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.weather.gov/jetstream/locations">"Tsunami Locations & Occurrences"</a>. National Weather Service<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 January</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tsunami+Locations+%26+Occurrences&rft.pub=National+Weather+Service&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.weather.gov%2Fjetstream%2Flocations&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrieger2022" class="citation news cs1">Krieger, Lisa M. (15 January 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mercurynews.com/2022/01/15/volcanic-tsunamis-why-they-are-so-difficult-to-predict/">"Volcanic tsunamis: Why they are so difficult to predict"</a>. <i>The Mercury News</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 January</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Mercury+News&rft.atitle=Volcanic+tsunamis%3A+Why+they+are+so+difficult+to+predict&rft.date=2022-01-15&rft.aulast=Krieger&rft.aufirst=Lisa+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mercurynews.com%2F2022%2F01%2F15%2Fvolcanic-tsunamis-why-they-are-so-difficult-to-predict%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210412193722/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/tsunamis">"Tsunamis"</a>. <i>National Geographic</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/tsunamis">the original</a> on April 12, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 January</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=National+Geographic&rft.atitle=Tsunamis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalgeographic.com%2Fenvironment%2Farticle%2Ftsunamis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMargaritondo2005" class="citation journal cs1">Margaritondo, G (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190219220116/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/1b83/2dd51b201c4ee597b374780e359604e8b781.pdf">"Explaining the physics of tsunamis to undergraduate and non-physics students"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>European Journal of Physics</i>. <b>26</b> (3): 401–407. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005EJPh...26..401M">2005EJPh...26..401M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0143-0807%2F26%2F3%2F007">10.1088/0143-0807/26/3/007</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7512603">7512603</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/1b83/2dd51b201c4ee597b374780e359604e8b781.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2019-02-19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+Physics&rft.atitle=Explaining+the+physics+of+tsunamis+to+undergraduate+and+non-physics+students&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=401-407&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A7512603%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F0143-0807%2F26%2F3%2F007&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005EJPh...26..401M&rft.aulast=Margaritondo&rft.aufirst=G&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpdfs.semanticscholar.org%2F1b83%2F2dd51b201c4ee597b374780e359604e8b781.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVoit1987" class="citation journal cs1">Voit, S.S (1987). "Tsunamis". <i>Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics</i>. <b>19</b> (1): 217–236. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1987AnRFM..19..217V">1987AnRFM..19..217V</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.fl.19.010187.001245">10.1146/annurev.fl.19.010187.001245</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Fluid+Mechanics&rft.atitle=Tsunamis&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=217-236&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.fl.19.010187.001245&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1987AnRFM..19..217V&rft.aulast=Voit&rft.aufirst=S.S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTia_Ghose2014" class="citation news cs1">Tia Ghose (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livescience.com/49298-asteroids-causing-tsunamis.html">"Are Ocean Asteroid Impacts Really a Serious Threat?"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Are+Ocean+Asteroid+Impacts+Really+a+Serious+Threat%3F&rft.date=2014&rft.au=Tia+Ghose&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.livescience.com%2F49298-asteroids-causing-tsunamis.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070203154326/http://www.geophys.washington.edu/tsunami/general/physics/earthquake.html">"How do earthquakes generate tsunamis?"</a>. University of Washington. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geophys.washington.edu/tsunami/general/physics/earthquake.html">the original</a> on 2007-02-03.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+do+earthquakes+generate+tsunamis%3F&rft.pub=University+of+Washington&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.geophys.washington.edu%2Ftsunami%2Fgeneral%2Fphysics%2Fearthquake.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLynnesLay1988" class="citation cs2">Lynnes, C. S.; Lay, T. (1988), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~thorne/TL.pdfs/LL_Sumba_JGR1988.pdf">"Source Process of the Great 1977 Sumba Earthquake"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>Geophysical Research Letters</i>, <b>93</b> (B11), <a href="/wiki/American_Geophysical_Union" title="American Geophysical Union">American Geophysical Union</a>: 13, 407–13, 420, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1988JGR....9313407L">1988JGR....9313407L</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2FJB093iB11p13407">10.1029/JB093iB11p13407</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geophysical+Research+Letters&rft.atitle=Source+Process+of+the+Great+1977+Sumba+Earthquake&rft.volume=93&rft.issue=B11&rft.pages=13%2C+407-13%2C+420&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2FJB093iB11p13407&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1988JGR....9313407L&rft.aulast=Lynnes&rft.aufirst=C.+S.&rft.au=Lay%2C+T.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.es.ucsc.edu%2F~thorne%2FTL.pdfs%2FLL_Sumba_JGR1988.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kanamori_1971-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kanamori_1971_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKanamori_H.1971" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hiroo_Kanamori" title="Hiroo Kanamori">Kanamori H.</a> (1971). "Seismological evidence for a lithospheric normal faulting – the Sanriku earthquake of 1933". <i>Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors</i>. <b>4</b> (4): 298–300. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1971PEPI....4..289K">1971PEPI....4..289K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0031-9201%2871%2990013-6">10.1016/0031-9201(71)90013-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+of+the+Earth+and+Planetary+Interiors&rft.atitle=Seismological+evidence+for+a+lithospheric+normal+faulting+%E2%80%93+the+Sanriku+earthquake+of+1933&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=298-300&rft.date=1971&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0031-9201%2871%2990013-6&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1971PEPI....4..289K&rft.au=Kanamori+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/journal/facts-and-figures-how-tsunamis-form.htm/">Facts and figures: how tsunamis form</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131105033906/http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/journal/facts-and-figures-how-tsunamis-form.htm/">Archived</a> 2013-11-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Australian Geographic, March 18, 2011.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-drgeorgepc.com-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-drgeorgepc.com_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeorge_Pararas-Carayannis1999" class="citation web cs1">George Pararas-Carayannis (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.drgeorgepc.com/Tsunami1958LituyaB.html">"The Mega-Tsunami of July 9, 1958 in Lituya Bay, Alaska"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-02-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Mega-Tsunami+of+July+9%2C+1958+in+Lituya+Bay%2C+Alaska&rft.date=1999&rft.au=George+Pararas-Carayannis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.drgeorgepc.com%2FTsunami1958LituyaB.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://alaskashipwreck.com/shipwrecks-a-z/alaska-shipwrecks-b/">"alaskashipwreck.com Alaska Shipwrecks (B)"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=alaskashipwreck.com+Alaska+Shipwrecks+%28B%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Falaskashipwreck.com%2Fshipwrecks-a-z%2Falaska-shipwrecks-b%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://alaskashipwreck.com/shipwrecks-a-z/alaska-shipwrecks-s/">"alaskashipwreck.com Alaska Shipwrecks (S)"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=alaskashipwreck.com+Alaska+Shipwrecks+%28S%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Falaskashipwreck.com%2Fshipwrecks-a-z%2Falaska-shipwrecks-s%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://earthquake.alaska.edu/60-years-ago-1958-earthquake-and-lituya-bay-megatsunami">"Dickson, Ian, "60 Years Ago: The 1958 Earthquake and Lituya Bay Megatsunami," University of Alaska Fairbanks Alaska Earthquake Center, July 13, 2018 Retrieved December 2, 2018"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dickson%2C+Ian%2C+%2260+Years+Ago%3A+The+1958+Earthquake+and+Lituya+Bay+Megatsunami%2C%22+University+of+Alaska+Fairbanks+Alaska+Earthquake+Center%2C+July+13%2C+2018+Retrieved+December+2%2C+2018.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fearthquake.alaska.edu%2F60-years-ago-1958-earthquake-and-lituya-bay-megatsunami&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-petley-blog-vajont-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-petley-blog-vajont_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPetley,_Dave_(Professor)2008" class="citation web cs1">Petley, Dave (Professor) (2008-12-11). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131206033431/http://www.landslideblog.org/2008/12/vaiont-vajont-landslide-of-1963.html">"The Vaiont (Vajont) landslide of 1963"</a>. The Landslide Blog. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.landslideblog.org/2008/12/vaiont-vajont-landslide-of-1963.html">the original</a> on 2013-12-06<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-02-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Vaiont+%28Vajont%29+landslide+of+1963&rft.pub=The+Landslide+Blog&rft.date=2008-12-11&rft.au=Petley%2C+Dave+%28Professor%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.landslideblog.org%2F2008%2F12%2Fvaiont-vajont-landslide-of-1963.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bbc-50th-anniv-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-bbc-50th-anniv_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuff2013" class="citation web cs1">Duff, Mark (2013-10-10). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-24464867">"Italy Vajont anniversary: Night of the 'tsunami'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. BBC News<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-02-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Italy+Vajont+anniversary%3A+Night+of+the+%27tsunami%27&rft.pub=BBC+News&rft.date=2013-10-10&rft.aulast=Duff&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworld-europe-24464867&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPararas-Carayannis2002" class="citation journal cs1">Pararas-Carayannis, George (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3963563.stm">"Evaluation of the threat of mega tsunami generation from postulated massive slope failures of the island volcanoes on La Palma, Canary Islands, and on the island of Hawaii"</a>. <i>Science of Tsunami Hazards</i>. <b>20</b> (5): 251–277<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 September</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+of+Tsunami+Hazards&rft.atitle=Evaluation+of+the+threat+of+mega+tsunami+generation+from+postulated+massive+slope+failures+of+the+island+volcanoes+on+La+Palma%2C+Canary+Islands%2C+and+on+the+island+of+Hawaii&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=251-277&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Pararas-Carayannis&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fscience%2Fnature%2F3963563.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Paris-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Paris_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParis2015" class="citation journal cs1">Paris, R. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsta.2014.0380">"Source mechanisms of volcanic tsunamis"</a>. <i>Phil. Trans. R. Soc</i>. <b>373</b> (2053). <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015RSPTA.37340380P">2015RSPTA.37340380P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsta.2014.0380">10.1098/rsta.2014.0380</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26392617">26392617</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:43187708">43187708</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Phil.+Trans.+R.+Soc.&rft.atitle=Source+mechanisms+of+volcanic+tsunamis&rft.volume=373&rft.issue=2053&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frsta.2014.0380&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A43187708%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26392617&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015RSPTA.37340380P&rft.aulast=Paris&rft.aufirst=R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1098%252Frsta.2014.0380&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Latter-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Latter_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Latter_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLatter1981" class="citation journal cs1">Latter, J. H. (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02600578">"Tsunamis of volcanic origin: Summary of causes, with particular reference to Krakatoa, 1883"</a>. <i>Bulletin Volcanologique</i>. <b>44</b> (3): 467–490. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1981BVol...44..467L">1981BVol...44..467L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF02600578">10.1007/BF02600578</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:129637214">129637214</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+Volcanologique&rft.atitle=Tsunamis+of+volcanic+origin%3A+Summary+of+causes%2C+with+particular+reference+to+Krakatoa%2C+1883&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=467-490&rft.date=1981&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A129637214%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF02600578&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1981BVol...44..467L&rft.aulast=Latter&rft.aufirst=J.+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Farticle%2F10.1007%2FBF02600578&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-DayVolcano-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-DayVolcano_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDay2015" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Day, Simon J. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780123859389000584">"Volcanic Tsunamis"</a>. <i>The Encyclopedia of Volcanoes</i>. <a href="/wiki/Elsevier" title="Elsevier">Elsevier</a>. pp. 993–1009. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-12-385938-9.00058-4">10.1016/B978-0-12-385938-9.00058-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780123859389" title="Special:BookSources/9780123859389"><bdi>9780123859389</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-03-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Volcanic+Tsunamis&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Volcanoes&rft.pages=993-1009&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-0-12-385938-9.00058-4&rft.isbn=9780123859389&rft.aulast=Day&rft.aufirst=Simon+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FB9780123859389000584&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hayward-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hayward_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaywardWhittakerLanePower2022" class="citation journal cs1">Hayward, Matthew. W.; Whittaker, C. N.; Lane, E. M.; Power, W. L.; Popinet, S.; White, J.D.L. (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nhess.copernicus.org/articles/22/617/2022/">"Multilayer modelling of waves generated by explosive subaqueous volcanism"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Natural_Hazards_and_Earth_System_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences">Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences</a></i>. <b>22</b> (2): 617–637. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022NHESS..22..617H">2022NHESS..22..617H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5194%2Fnhess-22-617-2022">10.5194/nhess-22-617-2022</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Natural+Hazards+and+Earth+System+Sciences&rft.atitle=Multilayer+modelling+of+waves+generated+by+explosive+subaqueous+volcanism&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=617-637&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5194%2Fnhess-22-617-2022&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2022NHESS..22..617H&rft.aulast=Hayward&rft.aufirst=Matthew.+W.&rft.au=Whittaker%2C+C.+N.&rft.au=Lane%2C+E.+M.&rft.au=Power%2C+W.+L.&rft.au=Popinet%2C+S.&rft.au=White%2C+J.D.L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnhess.copernicus.org%2Farticles%2F22%2F617%2F2022%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Battershill-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Battershill_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBattershill2021" class="citation journal cs1">Battershill, L. (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230603121655/https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2021JB022855">"Numerical Simulations of a Fluidized Granular Flow Entry into Water: Insights into Modeling Tsunami Generation by Pyroclastic Density Currents"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Geophysical_Research:_Solid_Earth" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth">Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth</a></i>. <b>126</b> (11). <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021JGRB..12622855B">2021JGRB..12622855B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2021JB022855">10.1029/2021JB022855</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:243837214">243837214</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2021JB022855">the original</a> on June 3, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Geophysical+Research%3A+Solid+Earth&rft.atitle=Numerical+Simulations+of+a+Fluidized+Granular+Flow+Entry+into+Water%3A+Insights+into+Modeling+Tsunami+Generation+by+Pyroclastic+Density+Currents&rft.volume=126&rft.issue=11&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A243837214%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F2021JB022855&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021JGRB..12622855B&rft.aulast=Battershill&rft.aufirst=L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fagupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1029%2F2021JB022855&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Monserrat-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Monserrat_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Monserrat_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMonserratVilibícRabinovich2006" class="citation journal cs1">Monserrat, S.; Vilibíc, I.; Rabinovich, A. B. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5194%2Fnhess-6-1035-2006">"Meteotsunamis: atmospherically induced destructive ocean waves in the tsunami frequency band"</a>. <i>Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences</i>. <b>6</b> (6): 1035–1051. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006NHESS...6.1035M">2006NHESS...6.1035M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5194%2Fnhess-6-1035-2006">10.5194/nhess-6-1035-2006</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Natural+Hazards+and+Earth+System+Sciences&rft.atitle=Meteotsunamis%3A+atmospherically+induced+destructive+ocean+waves+in+the+tsunami+frequency+band&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1035-1051&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5194%2Fnhess-6-1035-2006&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006NHESS...6.1035M&rft.aulast=Monserrat&rft.aufirst=S.&rft.au=Vilib%C3%ADc%2C+I.&rft.au=Rabinovich%2C+A.+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.5194%252Fnhess-6-1035-2006&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMac_Donald2005" class="citation book cs1">Mac Donald, Laura (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/curseofnarrowsth00macd"><i>Curse of the Narrows: The Halifax Explosion of 1917</i></a>. HarperCollins. p. 66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-00-200787-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-00-200787-0"><bdi>978-0-00-200787-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Curse+of+the+Narrows%3A+The+Halifax+Explosion+of+1917&rft.pages=66&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-00-200787-0&rft.aulast=Mac+Donald&rft.aufirst=Laura&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcurseofnarrowsth00macd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrehl2007" class="citation book cs1">Krehl, Peter (2007). <i>History of shock waves, explosions and impact a chronological and biographical reference</i>. Springer. p. 459. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-30421-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-30421-0"><bdi>978-3-540-30421-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+shock+waves%2C+explosions+and+impact+a+chronological+and+biographical+reference&rft.pages=459&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-3-540-30421-0&rft.aulast=Krehl&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PART2-P9-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PART2-P9_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1">"The Hauraki Gulf Marine Park, Part 2". <i>Inset to <a href="/wiki/The_New_Zealand_Herald" title="The New Zealand Herald">The New Zealand Herald</a></i>. 3 March 2010. p. 9.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Inset+to+The+New+Zealand+Herald&rft.atitle=The+Hauraki+Gulf+Marine+Park%2C+Part+2&rft.pages=9&rft.date=2010-03-03&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlasstoneDolan1977" class="citation book cs1">Glasstone, Samuel; Dolan, Philip (1977). <i>Shock effects of surface and subsurface bursts – The effects of nuclear weapons</i> (third ed.). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Defense; Energy Research and Development Administration.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shock+effects+of+surface+and+subsurface+bursts+%E2%80%93+The+effects+of+nuclear+weapons&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.edition=third&rft.pub=U.S.+Department+of+Defense%3B+Energy+Research+and+Development+Administration&rft.date=1977&rft.aulast=Glasstone&rft.aufirst=Samuel&rft.au=Dolan%2C+Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://earthsci.org/education/teacher/basicgeol/tsumami/tsunami.html">Earthsci.org</a>, Tsunamis</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Walrus-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Walrus_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Walrus_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://walrus.wr.usgs.gov/tsunami/basics.html">"Life of a Tsunami"</a>. <i>Western Coastal & Marine Geology</i>. United States Geographical Survey. 22 October 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-09-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Western+Coastal+%26+Marine+Geology&rft.atitle=Life+of+a+Tsunami&rft.date=2008-10-22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwalrus.wr.usgs.gov%2Ftsunami%2Fbasics.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tulane-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Tulane_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFProf._Stephen_A._Nelson2009" class="citation web cs1">Prof. Stephen A. Nelson (28 January 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/geol204/tsunami.htm">"Tsunami"</a>. Tulane University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-09-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tsunami&rft.pub=Tulane+University&rft.date=2009-01-28&rft.au=Prof.+Stephen+A.+Nelson&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tulane.edu%2F~sanelson%2Fgeol204%2Ftsunami.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worlddata.info/america/usa/tsunamis.php">"Tsunamis in the United States"</a>. <i>WorldData</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=WorldData&rft.atitle=Tsunamis+in+the+United+States&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worlddata.info%2Famerica%2Fusa%2Ftsunamis.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worlddata.info/america/mexico/tsunamis.php">"Tsunamis in Mexico"</a>. <i>WorldData</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=WorldData&rft.atitle=Tsunamis+in+Mexico&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worlddata.info%2Famerica%2Fmexico%2Ftsunamis.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worlddata.info/asia/japan/tsunamis.php">"Tsunamis in Japan"</a>. <i>Worlddata.info</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Worlddata.info&rft.atitle=Tsunamis+in+Japan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worlddata.info%2Fasia%2Fjapan%2Ftsunamis.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worlddata.info/asia/taiwan/tsunamis.php">"Tsunamis in Taiwan"</a>. <i>Worlddata.info</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Worlddata.info&rft.atitle=Tsunamis+in+Taiwan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worlddata.info%2Fasia%2Ftaiwan%2Ftsunamis.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gusiakov-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gusiakov_64-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gusiakov_64-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGusiakov_V." class="citation web cs1">Gusiakov V. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/hazard/data/presentations/jtc/gusiakov.pdf">"Tsunami Quantification: how we measure the overall size of tsunami (Review of tsunami intensity and magnitude scales)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-10-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tsunami+Quantification%3A+how+we+measure+the+overall+size+of+tsunami+%28Review+of+tsunami+intensity+and+magnitude+scales%29&rft.au=Gusiakov+V.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ngdc.noaa.gov%2Fhazard%2Fdata%2Fpresentations%2Fjtc%2Fgusiakov.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Soloviev, S., & Go, N., 1974 (English transl. 1984), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/Library/69881.pdf">“Catalogue of tsunamis on the western shore of the Pacific Ocean”</a>, Canadian Translation of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, No. 5077, (310 p).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCenter" class="citation web cs1">Center, National Geophysical Data. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ngdc.noaa.gov/hazard/tsu_db.shtml">"NGDC/WDS Global Historical Tsunami Database – NCEI"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 November</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=NGDC%2FWDS+Global+Historical+Tsunami+Database+%E2%80%93+NCEI&rft.aulast=Center&rft.aufirst=National+Geophysical+Data&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fngdc.noaa.gov%2Fhazard%2Ftsu_db.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lekkas_et_al_2013-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lekkas_et_al_2013_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLekkas_E.Andreadakis_E.Kostaki_I.Kapourani_E.2013" class="citation journal cs1">Lekkas E.; Andreadakis E.; Kostaki I. & Kapourani E. (2013). "A Proposal for a New Integrated Tsunami Intensity Scale (ITIS-2012)". <i>Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America</i>. <b>103</b> (2B): 1493–1502. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013BuSSA.103.1493L">2013BuSSA.103.1493L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1785%2F0120120099">10.1785/0120120099</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+Seismological+Society+of+America&rft.atitle=A+Proposal+for+a+New+Integrated+Tsunami+Intensity+Scale+%28ITIS-2012%29&rft.volume=103&rft.issue=2B&rft.pages=1493-1502&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1785%2F0120120099&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013BuSSA.103.1493L&rft.au=Lekkas+E.&rft.au=Andreadakis+E.&rft.au=Kostaki+I.&rft.au=Kapourani+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Katsetsiadou, K.N., Andreadakis, E. and Lekkas, E., 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pagepress.org/journals/index.php/rg/article/view/5857">Tsunami intensity mapping: applying the integrated Tsunami Intensity Scale (ITIS2012) on Ishinomaki Bay Coast after the mega-tsunami of Tohoku, March 11, 2011</a>. <i>Research in Geophysics</i>, <i>5</i>(1).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbe_K.1995" class="citation book cs1">Abe K. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5YjaGdQOJIwC&pg=PA21"><i>Estimate of Tsunami Run-up Heights from Earthquake Magnitudes</i></a>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-3483-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-3483-5"><bdi>978-0-7923-3483-5</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-10-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Estimate+of+Tsunami+Run-up+Heights+from+Earthquake+Magnitudes&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-7923-3483-5&rft.au=Abe+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5YjaGdQOJIwC%26pg%3DPA21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://itic.ioc-unesco.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=1142&Itemid=1142">"Tsunami Glossary"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tsunami+Glossary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fitic.ioc-unesco.org%2Findex.php%3Foption%3Dcom_content%26view%3Dcategory%26layout%3Dblog%26id%3D1142%26Itemid%3D1142&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://walrus.wr.usgs.gov/news/tsu-terms.html">"Tsunami Terms"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tsunami+Terms&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwalrus.wr.usgs.gov%2Fnews%2Ftsu-terms.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jma.go.jp/jma/kishou/know/faq/faq26.html">"津波について"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E6%B4%A5%E6%B3%A2%E3%81%AB%E3%81%A4%E3%81%84%E3%81%A6&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jma.go.jp%2Fjma%2Fkishou%2Fknow%2Ffaq%2Ffaq26.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.coastal.jp/ttjt/index.php?%E6%B4%A5%E6%B3%A2">"津波の高さの定義"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-02-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E6%B4%A5%E6%B3%A2%E3%81%AE%E9%AB%98%E3%81%95%E3%81%AE%E5%AE%9A%E7%BE%A9&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.coastal.jp%2Fttjt%2Findex.php%3F%25E6%25B4%25A5%25E6%25B3%25A2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged April 2021">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://weready.org/tsunami/index.php?option=com_glossary&letter=T&id=73">"Tsunami Amplitude"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tsunami+Amplitude&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweready.org%2Ftsunami%2Findex.php%3Foption%3Dcom_glossary%26letter%3DT%26id%3D73&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chanson_2010-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Chanson_2010_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChanson,_H.2010" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hubert_Chanson" title="Hubert Chanson">Chanson, H.</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:203103">"Tsunami Warning Signs on the Enshu Coast of Japan"</a>. <i>Shore & Beach</i>. <b>78</b> (1): 52–54. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0037-4237">0037-4237</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Shore+%26+Beach&rft.atitle=Tsunami+Warning+Signs+on+the+Enshu+Coast+of+Japan&rft.volume=78&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=52-54&rft.date=2010&rft.issn=0037-4237&rft.au=Chanson%2C+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fespace.library.uq.edu.au%2Fview%2FUQ%3A203103&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLambourne2005" class="citation news cs1">Lambourne, Helen (2005-03-27). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/4269847.stm">"Tsunami: Anatomy of a disaster"</a>. BBC.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Tsunami%3A+Anatomy+of+a+disaster&rft.date=2005-03-27&rft.aulast=Lambourne&rft.aufirst=Helen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F1%2Fhi%2Fworld%2Fsouth_asia%2F4269847.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKenneally2004" class="citation magazine cs1">Kenneally, Christine (2004-12-30). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.slate.com/id/2111608">"Surviving the Tsunami: What Sri Lanka's animals knew that humans didn't"</a>. <i>Slate Magazine</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Slate+Magazine&rft.atitle=Surviving+the+Tsunami%3A+What+Sri+Lanka%27s+animals+knew+that+humans+didn%27t&rft.date=2004-12-30&rft.aulast=Kenneally&rft.aufirst=Christine&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.slate.com%2Fid%2F2111608&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journalistsresource.org/studies/government/international/tsunami-japan/">"Journalist's Resource: Research for Reporting, from Harvard Shorenstein Center"</a>. Content.hks.harvard.edu. 2012-05-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-06-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Journalist%27s+Resource%3A+Research+for+Reporting%2C+from+Harvard+Shorenstein+Center&rft.pub=Content.hks.harvard.edu&rft.date=2012-05-30&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournalistsresource.org%2Fstudies%2Fgovernment%2Finternational%2Ftsunami-japan%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:18-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:18_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Phillip Lipscy, Kenji Kushida, and Trevor Incerti. 2013. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stanford.edu/~plipscy/LipscyKushidaIncertiEST2013.pdf">The Fukushima Disaster and Japan’s Nuclear Plant Vulnerability in Comparative Perspective</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131029200435/http://www.stanford.edu/~plipscy/LipscyKushidaIncertiEST2013.pdf">Archived</a> 2013-10-29 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>". <i>Environmental Science and Technology</i> 47 (May), 6082–6088.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFukada,_Takahiro2011" class="citation news cs1">Fukada, Takahiro (21 September 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20110921f1.html">"Iwate fisheries continue struggle to recover"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Japan_Times" title="The Japan Times">The Japan Times</a></i>. p. 3<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-09-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Japan+Times&rft.atitle=Iwate+fisheries+continue+struggle+to+recover&rft.pages=3&rft.date=2011-09-21&rft.au=Fukada%2C+Takahiro&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsearch.japantimes.co.jp%2Fcgi-bin%2Fnn20110921f1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeorge_Pararas-Carayannis" class="citation web cs1">George Pararas-Carayannis. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.drgeorgepc.com/Tsunami1993JAPANOkushiri.html">"The Earthquake and Tsunami of July 12, 1993 in the Sea of Japan/East Sea"</a>. <i>drgeorgepc.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-09-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=drgeorgepc.com&rft.atitle=The+Earthquake+and+Tsunami+of+July+12%2C+1993+in+the+Sea+of+Japan%2FEast+Sea&rft.au=George+Pararas-Carayannis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.drgeorgepc.com%2FTsunami1993JAPANOkushiri.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://itic.ioc-unesco.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1328&Itemid=1142&lang=en">IOC Tsunami Glossary</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Oceanographic_Commission" title="Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission">Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission</a> (IOC) at the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://itic.ioc-unesco.org/index.php">International Tsunami Information Centre</a> (ITIC) of <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110225143835/http://nthmp-history.pmel.noaa.gov/terms.html">Tsunami Terminology</a> at <a href="/wiki/NOAA" class="mw-redirect" title="NOAA">NOAA</a></li> <li>In June 2011, the VOA <a href="/wiki/Special_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Special English">Special English</a> service of the <a href="/wiki/Voice_of_America" title="Voice of America">Voice of America</a> broadcast a 15-minute programme on tsunamis as part of its weekly Science in the News series. The programme included an interview with an NOAA official who oversees the agency's tsunami warning system. A transcript and MP3 of the programme, intended for English learners, can be found at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.voanews.com/learningenglish/home/science-technology/Large-Tsunamis-Do-Not-Happen-Often-But-the-Threat-is-Always-Present-123226568.html">The Ever-Present Threat of Tsunamis.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.abelard.org/briefings/tsunami.php">abelard.org.</a> <i>tsunamis: tsunamis travel fast but not at infinite speed</i>. retrieved March 29, 2005.</li> <li>Dudley, Walter C. & Lee, Min (1988: 1st edition) <i>Tsunami!</i> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8248-1125-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8248-1125-9">0-8248-1125-9</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120717025233/http://www.tsunami.org/references.html">website</a></li> <li>Iwan, W.D., <i>editor</i>, 2006, Summary report of the Great Sumatra Earthquakes and Indian Ocean tsunamis of December 26, 2004 and March 28, 2005: Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, EERI Publication #2006-06, 11 chapters, 100-page summary, plus CD-ROM with complete text and supplementary photographs, EERI Report 2006–06. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-932884-19-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-932884-19-X">1-932884-19-X</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.eeri.org/">website</a></li> <li>Kenneally, Christine (December 30, 2004). "Surviving the Tsunami." <i>Slate</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.slate.com/id/2111608/">website</a></li> <li>Lambourne, Helen (March 27, 2005). "Tsunami: Anatomy of a disaster." <a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4381395.stm">website</a></li> <li>Macey, Richard (January 1, 2005). "The Big Bang that Triggered A Tragedy," <i><a href="/wiki/The_Sydney_Morning_Herald" title="The Sydney Morning Herald">The Sydney Morning Herald</a></i>, p 11—quoting Dr Mark Leonard, seismologist at Geoscience Australia.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://maps.ngdc.noaa.gov/viewers/hazards/">Interactive Map of Historical Tsunamis</a> from NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information</li> <li>Tappin, D; 2001. Local tsunamis. Geoscientist. 11–8, 4–7.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/1480192/Girl-10-used-geography-lesson-to-save-lives.html">Girl, 10, used geography lesson to save lives</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Telegraph.co.uk" class="mw-redirect" title="Telegraph.co.uk">Telegraph.co.uk</a></i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.noypi.ph/index.php/nation/3283-key-locations-in-philippines-warned-to-prepare-for-tsunami.html">Philippines warned to prepare for Japan's tsunami</a>, <i>Noypi.ph</i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <ul><li>Boris Levin, Mikhail Nosov: <i>Physics of tsunamis</i>. Springer, Dordrecht 2009, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-8855-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-8855-1">978-1-4020-8855-1</a>.</li> <li>Kontar, Y. A. et al.: <i>Tsunami Events and Lessons Learned: Environmental and Societal Significance.</i> Springer, 2014. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-007-7268-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-007-7268-7">978-94-007-7268-7</a> (print); <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-007-7269-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-007-7269-4">978-94-007-7269-4</a> (eBook).</li> <li>Kristy F. Tiampo: <i>Earthquakes: simulations, sources and tsunamis</i>. Birkhäuser, Basel 2008, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7643-8756-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-7643-8756-3">978-3-7643-8756-3</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linda_Maria_Koldau" title="Linda Maria Koldau">Linda Maria Koldau</a>: Tsunamis. Entstehung, Geschichte, Prävention, (Tsunami development, history and prevention) C.H. Beck, Munich 2013 (C.H. Beck Reihe Wissen 2770), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-406-64656-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-406-64656-0">978-3-406-64656-0</a> (in German).</li> <li>Walter C. Dudley, Min Lee: <i>Tsunami!</i> University of Hawaii Press, 1988, 1998, Tsunami! University of Hawai'i Press 1999, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8248-1125-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8248-1125-9">0-8248-1125-9</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1969-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1969-9">978-0-8248-1969-9</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_L._Mader" title="Charles L. Mader">Charles L. Mader</a>: <i>Numerical Modeling of Water Waves</i> CRC Press, 2004, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8493-2311-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8493-2311-8">0-8493-2311-8</a>.</li> <li>Harvey Segur, Anjan Kundu, <i>Tsunami and Nonlinear Waves,</i> Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2007 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-71255-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-71255-8">978-3-540-71255-8</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/tsunami" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/tsunami">tsunami</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Tsunamis" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Tsunamis">Tsunamis</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <dl><dt>Reporting Centers</dt></dl> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jma.go.jp/en/tsunami/joho.html">Tsunami alert</a> page (in English) from <a href="/wiki/Japan_Meteorological_Agency" title="Japan Meteorological Agency">Japan Meteorological Agency</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tsunami.noaa.gov/">NOAA Centre</a> – <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ctic.ioc-unesco.org/">Caribbean Tsunami Information Centre</a> (CTIC)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nctr.pmel.noaa.gov/database_devel.html">Recent and Historical Tsunami Events and Relevant Data</a> – <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Marine_Environmental_Laboratory" title="Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory">Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>History & Research</dt></dl> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://itic.ioc-unesco.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1328&Itemid=1142&lang=en">IOC Tsunami Glossary</a> – International Tsunami Information Center (<a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ngdc.noaa.gov/hazard/tsu.shtml">Tsunami Data and Information</a> – <a href="/wiki/National_Centers_for_Environmental_Information" title="National Centers for Environmental Information">National Centers for Environmental Information</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://geology.com/records/biggest-tsunami.shtml">World's Tallest Tsunami</a> – geology.com</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://walrus.wr.usgs.gov/tsunami/">Tsunami & Earthquake Research at the USGS</a> – <a href="/wiki/United_States_Geological_Survey" title="United States Geological Survey">United States Geological Survey</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/ioc-oceans/">Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission</a> – <a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Oceanographic_Commission" title="Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission">Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/tsunami/">Wave That Shook The World</a> – <i><a href="/wiki/Nova_(American_TV_series)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nova (American TV series)">Nova</a></i></li></ul> <dl><dt>News & animations</dt></dl> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k4w27IczOTk">Raw Video: Tsunami Slams Northeast Japan</a> – <a href="/wiki/Associated_Press" title="Associated Press">Associated Press</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=feXCIfatJYo">Tsunami animation – Geoscience Australia</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Physical_oceanography" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Physical_oceanography" title="Template:Physical oceanography"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Physical_oceanography" title="Template talk:Physical oceanography"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Physical_oceanography" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Physical oceanography"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Physical_oceanography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Physical_oceanography" title="Physical oceanography">Physical oceanography</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave" title="Wind wave">Waves</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airy_wave_theory" title="Airy wave theory">Airy wave theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballantine_scale" title="Ballantine scale">Ballantine scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modulational_instability" title="Modulational instability">Benjamin–Feir instability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boussinesq_approximation_(water_waves)" title="Boussinesq approximation (water waves)">Boussinesq approximation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breaking_wave" title="Breaking wave">Breaking wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clapotis" title="Clapotis">Clapotis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cnoidal_wave" title="Cnoidal wave">Cnoidal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross_sea" title="Cross sea">Cross sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dispersion_(water_waves)" title="Dispersion (water waves)">Dispersion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge_wave" title="Edge wave">Edge wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equatorial_wave" title="Equatorial wave">Equatorial waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_wave" title="Gravity wave">Gravity wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green%27s_law" title="Green's law">Green's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infragravity_wave" title="Infragravity wave">Infragravity wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_wave" title="Internal wave">Internal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iribarren_number" title="Iribarren number">Iribarren number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin_wave" title="Kelvin wave">Kelvin wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinematic_wave" title="Kinematic wave">Kinematic wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longshore_drift" title="Longshore drift">Longshore drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luke%27s_variational_principle" title="Luke's variational principle">Luke's variational principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mild-slope_equation" title="Mild-slope equation">Mild-slope equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_stress" title="Radiation stress">Radiation stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_wave" title="Rogue wave">Rogue wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rossby_wave" title="Rossby wave">Rossby wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rossby-gravity_waves" title="Rossby-gravity waves">Rossby-gravity waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_state" title="Sea state">Sea state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seiche" title="Seiche">Seiche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Significant_wave_height" title="Significant wave height">Significant wave height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soliton" title="Soliton">Soliton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_drift" title="Stokes drift">Stokes drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_problem" title="Stokes problem">Stokes problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_wave" title="Stokes wave">Stokes wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swell_(ocean)" title="Swell (ocean)">Swell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trochoidal_wave" title="Trochoidal wave">Trochoidal wave</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Tsunami</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megatsunami" title="Megatsunami">megatsunami</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Undertow_(water_waves)" title="Undertow (water waves)">Undertow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ursell_number" title="Ursell number">Ursell number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_action_(continuum_mechanics)" title="Wave action (continuum mechanics)">Wave action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_base" title="Wave base">Wave base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_height" title="Wave height">Wave height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_nonlinearity" title="Wave nonlinearity">Wave nonlinearity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_power" title="Wave power">Wave power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_radar" title="Wave radar">Wave radar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_setup" title="Wave setup">Wave setup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_shoaling" title="Wave shoaling">Wave shoaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_turbulence" title="Wave turbulence">Wave turbulence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave%E2%80%93current_interaction" title="Wave–current interaction">Wave–current interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waves_and_shallow_water" title="Waves and shallow water">Waves and shallow water</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/One-dimensional_Saint-Venant_equations" class="mw-redirect" title="One-dimensional Saint-Venant equations">one-dimensional Saint-Venant equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shallow_water_equations" title="Shallow water equations">shallow water equations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_fetch" title="Wind fetch">Wind fetch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_setup" title="Wind setup">Wind setup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave" title="Wind wave">Wind wave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave_model" title="Wind wave model">model</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="10" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Upwelling.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Upwelling"><img alt="Upwelling" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/120px-Upwelling.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/180px-Upwelling.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/240px-Upwelling.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="365" data-file-height="242" /></a></span><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Antarctic_bottom_water.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Antarctic bottom water"><img alt="Antarctic bottom water" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/120px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="76" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/180px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/240px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="745" data-file-height="470" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">Circulation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_circulation" title="Atmospheric circulation">Atmospheric circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroclinity" title="Baroclinity">Baroclinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boundary_current" title="Boundary current">Boundary current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coriolis_force" title="Coriolis force">Coriolis force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coriolis%E2%80%93Stokes_force" title="Coriolis–Stokes force">Coriolis–Stokes force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craik%E2%80%93Leibovich_vortex_force" title="Craik–Leibovich vortex force">Craik–Leibovich vortex force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downwelling" title="Downwelling">Downwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eddy_(fluid_dynamics)" title="Eddy (fluid dynamics)">Eddy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_layer" title="Ekman layer">Ekman layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_spiral" title="Ekman spiral">Ekman spiral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_transport" title="Ekman transport">Ekman transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation" title="El Niño–Southern Oscillation">El Niño–Southern Oscillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_circulation_model" title="General circulation model">General circulation model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemical_Ocean_Sections_Study" title="Geochemical Ocean Sections Study">Geochemical Ocean Sections Study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geostrophic_current" title="Geostrophic current">Geostrophic current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Ocean_Data_Analysis_Project" title="Global Ocean Data Analysis Project">Global Ocean Data Analysis Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Stream" title="Gulf Stream">Gulf Stream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humboldt_Current" title="Humboldt Current">Humboldt Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_circulation" title="Hydrothermal circulation">Hydrothermal circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langmuir_circulation" title="Langmuir circulation">Langmuir circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longshore_drift" title="Longshore drift">Longshore drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loop_Current" title="Loop Current">Loop Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modular_Ocean_Model" title="Modular Ocean Model">Modular Ocean Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">Ocean current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_dynamical_thermostat" title="Ocean dynamical thermostat">Ocean dynamical thermostat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_dynamics" title="Ocean dynamics">Ocean dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_gyre" title="Ocean gyre">Ocean gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overflow_(oceanography)" title="Overflow (oceanography)">Overflow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeton_Ocean_Model" title="Princeton Ocean Model">Princeton Ocean Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rip_current" title="Rip current">Rip current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsurface_ocean_current" title="Subsurface ocean current">Subsurface ocean current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sverdrup_balance" title="Sverdrup balance">Sverdrup balance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermohaline_circulation" title="Thermohaline circulation">Thermohaline circulation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shutdown_of_thermohaline_circulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Shutdown of thermohaline circulation">shutdown</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">Upwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whirlpool" title="Whirlpool">Whirlpool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_generated_current" title="Wind generated current">Wind generated current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Ocean_Circulation_Experiment" title="World Ocean Circulation Experiment">World Ocean Circulation Experiment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">Tides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amphidromic_point" title="Amphidromic point">Amphidromic point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_tide" title="Earth tide">Earth tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head_of_tide" title="Head of tide">Head of tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_tide" title="Internal tide">Internal tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunitidal_interval" title="Lunitidal interval">Lunitidal interval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perigean_spring_tide" title="Perigean spring tide">Perigean spring tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rip_tide" title="Rip tide">Rip tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_twelfths" title="Rule of twelfths">Rule of twelfths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slack_tide" title="Slack tide">Slack tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_tides" title="Theory of tides">Theory of tides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_bore" title="Tidal bore">Tidal bore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_force" title="Tidal force">Tidal force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">Tidal power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_race" title="Tidal race">Tidal race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_range" title="Tidal range">Tidal range</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_resonance" title="Tidal resonance">Tidal resonance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_gauge" title="Tide gauge">Tide gauge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tideline" title="Tideline">Tideline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Landform" title="Landform">Landforms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abyssal_fan" title="Abyssal fan">Abyssal fan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abyssal_plain" title="Abyssal plain">Abyssal plain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atoll" title="Atoll">Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathymetric_chart" title="Bathymetric chart">Bathymetric chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonate_platform" title="Carbonate platform">Carbonate platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_geography" title="Coastal geography">Coastal geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">Cold seep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_margin" title="Continental margin">Continental margin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_rise" title="Continental rise">Continental rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">Continental shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contourite" title="Contourite">Contourite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guyot" title="Guyot">Guyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">Hydrography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knoll_(oceanography)" title="Knoll (oceanography)">Knoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_bank" title="Ocean bank">Ocean bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_basin" title="Oceanic basin">Oceanic basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_plateau" title="Oceanic plateau">Oceanic plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_trench" title="Oceanic trench">Oceanic trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_margin" title="Passive margin">Passive margin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seabed" title="Seabed">Seabed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seamount" title="Seamount">Seamount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_canyon" title="Submarine canyon">Submarine canyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_volcano" title="Submarine volcano">Submarine volcano</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate<br />tectonics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convergent_boundary" title="Convergent boundary">Convergent boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divergent_boundary" title="Divergent boundary">Divergent boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fracture_zone" title="Fracture zone">Fracture zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">Hydrothermal vent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_geology" title="Marine geology">Marine geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">Mid-ocean ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohorovi%C4%8Di%C4%87_discontinuity" title="Mohorovičić discontinuity">Mohorovičić discontinuity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_crust" title="Oceanic crust">Oceanic crust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outer_trench_swell" title="Outer trench swell">Outer trench swell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ridge_push" title="Ridge push">Ridge push</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seafloor_spreading" title="Seafloor spreading">Seafloor spreading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_pull" title="Slab pull">Slab pull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_suction" title="Slab suction">Slab suction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_window" title="Slab window">Slab window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">Subduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transform_fault" title="Transform fault">Transform fault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vine%E2%80%93Matthews%E2%80%93Morley_hypothesis" title="Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis">Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_arc" title="Volcanic arc">Volcanic arc</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ocean zones</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_zone" title="Benthic zone">Benthic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_ocean_water" title="Deep ocean water">Deep ocean water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_sea" title="Deep sea">Deep sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_zone" title="Littoral zone">Littoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopelagic_zone" title="Mesopelagic zone">Mesopelagic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_zone" title="Oceanic zone">Oceanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">Pelagic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photic_zone" title="Photic zone">Photic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surf_zone" title="Surf zone">Surf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swash" title="Swash">Swash</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sea_level" title="Sea level">Sea level</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep-ocean_Assessment_and_Reporting_of_Tsunamis" title="Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis">Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Sea_Level_Observing_System" title="Global Sea Level Observing System">Global Sea Level Observing System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_West_Shelf_Operational_Oceanographic_System" title="North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System">North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea-level_curve" title="Sea-level curve">Sea-level curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_drop" title="Sea level drop">Sea level drop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Geodetic_System" title="World Geodetic System">World Geodetic System</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Acoustical_oceanography" class="mw-redirect" title="Acoustical oceanography">Acoustics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep_scattering_layer" title="Deep scattering layer">Deep scattering layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acoustic_tomography" title="Ocean acoustic tomography">Ocean acoustic tomography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sofar_bomb" title="Sofar bomb">Sofar bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SOFAR_channel" title="SOFAR channel">SOFAR channel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_acoustics" title="Underwater acoustics">Underwater acoustics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Satellites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jason-1" title="Jason-1">Jason-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OSTM/Jason-2" title="OSTM/Jason-2">OSTM/Jason-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jason-3" title="Jason-3">Jason-3</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argo_(oceanography)" title="Argo (oceanography)">Argo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_lander" title="Benthic lander">Benthic lander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_of_water" title="Color of water">Color of water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSV_Alvin" title="DSV Alvin">DSV <i>Alvin</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_sea" class="mw-redirect" title="Marginal sea">Marginal sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_energy" title="Marine energy">Marine energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mooring_(oceanography)" title="Mooring (oceanography)">Mooring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Oceanographic_Data_Center" title="National Oceanographic Data Center">National Oceanographic Data Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_exploration" title="Ocean exploration">Explorations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_observations" title="Ocean observations">Observations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_reanalysis" title="Ocean reanalysis">Reanalysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_surface_topography" title="Ocean surface topography">Ocean surface topography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_temperature" title="Ocean temperature">Ocean temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion" title="Ocean thermal energy conversion">Ocean thermal energy conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">Oceanography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_oceanography" title="Outline of oceanography">Outline of oceanography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_sediment" title="Pelagic sediment">Pelagic sediment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_microlayer" title="Sea surface microlayer">Sea surface microlayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">Sea surface temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seawater" title="Seawater">Seawater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_On_a_Sphere" title="Science On a Sphere">Science On a Sphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_stratification" title="Ocean stratification">Stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermocline" title="Thermocline">Thermocline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_glider" title="Underwater glider">Underwater glider</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_column" title="Water column">Water column</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Ocean_Atlas" title="World Ocean Atlas">World Ocean Atlas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Physical_oceanography" title="Category:Physical oceanography">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Physical_oceanography" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Physical oceanography">Commons</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/16px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/24px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/32px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1358" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Oceans" title="Portal:Oceans">Oceans portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Natural_disasters_–_list_by_death_toll" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Natural_disasters" title="Template:Natural disasters"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Natural_disasters" title="Template talk:Natural disasters"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Natural_disasters" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Natural disasters"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Natural_disasters_–_list_by_death_toll" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Natural_disaster" title="Natural disaster">Natural disasters</a> – <a href="/wiki/List_of_natural_disasters_by_death_toll" title="List of natural disasters by death toll">list by death toll</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geological_hazard" title="Geological hazard">Geological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mass_wasting" title="Mass wasting">Mass wasting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Landslide" title="Landslide">Landslide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avalanche" title="Avalanche">Avalanche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudflow" title="Mudflow">Mudflow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debris_flow" title="Debris flow">Debris flow</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">Earthquake</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Lists_of_earthquakes" title="Lists of earthquakes">List</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seismic_hazard" title="Seismic hazard">Seismic hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seismic_risk" title="Seismic risk">Seismic risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_liquefaction" title="Soil liquefaction">Soil liquefaction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Types_of_volcanic_eruptions" title="Types of volcanic eruptions">Volcano eruption</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyroclastic_flow" title="Pyroclastic flow">Pyroclastic flow</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lahar" title="Lahar">Lahar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_ash" title="Volcanic ash">Volcanic ash</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">Natural erosion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sinkhole" title="Sinkhole">Sinkhole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Hydrological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">Flood</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/List_of_floods" title="List of floods">List</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_flood" class="mw-redirect" title="Coastal flood">Coastal flood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flash_flood" title="Flash flood">Flash flood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storm_surge" title="Storm surge">Storm surge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Tsunami</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megatsunami" title="Megatsunami">Megatsunami</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limnic_eruption" title="Limnic eruption">Limnic eruption</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Meteorological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Temperature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blizzard" title="Blizzard">Blizzard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_wave" title="Cold wave">Cold wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_storm" title="Ice storm">Ice storm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_wave" title="Heat wave">Heat wave</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">Drought</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megadrought" title="Megadrought">Megadrought</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cyclonic storms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bomb_cyclone" class="mw-redirect" title="Bomb cyclone">Bomb cyclone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thunderstorm" title="Thunderstorm">Thunderstorm</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hail" title="Hail">Hail</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado">Tornado</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tornado_outbreak" title="Tornado outbreak">Tornado outbreak</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone" title="Tropical cyclone">Tropical cyclone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Derecho" title="Derecho">Derecho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">Wildfire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Firestorm" title="Firestorm">Firestorm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ARkStorm" title="ARkStorm">ARkStorm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Astronomical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Potentially_hazardous_object" title="Potentially hazardous object">Potentially hazardous object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_event" title="Impact event">Impact event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteor_shower" title="Meteor shower">Meteor shower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomagnetic_storm" title="Geomagnetic storm">Geomagnetic storm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_flare" title="Solar flare">Solar flare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova">Supernova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypernova" title="Hypernova">Hypernova</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8070#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8070#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8070#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4261303-6">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85138348">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="津波"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00573521">Japan</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="tsunami"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph305439&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Maremotos"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX541964">Spain</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000136677&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007553520605171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10648584">NARA</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tsunami&oldid=1259126149">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tsunami&oldid=1259126149</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Category</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Tsunami" title="Category:Tsunami">Tsunami</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_errors:_periodical_ignored" title="Category:CS1 errors: periodical ignored">CS1 errors: periodical ignored</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_dead_external_links" title="Category:All articles with dead external links">All articles with dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_dead_external_links_from_April_2021" title="Category:Articles with dead external links from April 2021">Articles with dead external links from April 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_indefinitely_semi-protected_pages" title="Category:Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages">Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_indefinitely_move-protected_pages" title="Category:Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages">Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:EngvarB_from_July_2019" title="Category:EngvarB from July 2019">EngvarB from July 2019</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Japanese-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Japanese-language text">Articles containing Japanese-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_with_Japanese_IPA" title="Category:Pages with Japanese IPA">Pages with Japanese IPA</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_with_plain_IPA" title="Category:Pages with plain IPA">Pages with plain IPA</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_lacking_reliable_references" title="Category:All articles lacking reliable references">All articles lacking reliable references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_lacking_reliable_references_from_February_2024" title="Category:Articles lacking reliable references from February 2024">Articles lacking reliable references from February 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_using_Mw_magnitude_scale" title="Category:Articles using Mw magnitude scale">Articles using Mw magnitude scale</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_additional_references_from_July_2023" title="Category:Articles needing additional references from July 2023">Articles needing additional references from July 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_needing_additional_references" title="Category:All articles needing additional references">All articles needing additional references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_displaying_wikidata_descriptions_as_a_fallback_via_Module:Annotated_link" title="Category:Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback via Module:Annotated link">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback via Module:Annotated link</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_is_locally_defined" title="Category:Commons category link is locally defined">Commons category link is locally defined</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_video_clips" title="Category:Articles containing video clips">Articles containing video clips</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 23 November 2024, at 14:27<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tsunami&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-lh5s9","wgBackendResponseTime":201,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.331","walltime":"1.773","ppvisitednodes":{"value":10512,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":216940,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":5369,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":17,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":20,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":311868,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1504.420 1 -total"," 29.79% 448.104 1 Template:Reflist"," 10.31% 155.157 16 Template:Annotated_link"," 8.12% 122.194 36 Template:Cite_web"," 7.41% 111.403 7 Template:Cite_book"," 6.84% 102.905 2 Template:Sister_project"," 6.72% 101.067 2 Template:Side_box"," 6.47% 97.321 5 Template:Navbox"," 6.25% 94.020 1 Template:Langx"," 5.92% 89.113 1 Template:Physical_oceanography"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.810","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":21718023,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-lzhrf","timestamp":"20241123235546","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Tsunami","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tsunami","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q8070","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q8070","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-11-20T20:53:57Z","dateModified":"2024-11-23T14:27:13Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/2\/2d\/2004-tsunami.jpg","headline":"series of water waves caused by the displacement of a large volume of a body of water"}</script> </body> </html>