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<li id="toc-Origins_and_characteristics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origins_and_characteristics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Origins and characteristics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origins_and_characteristics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Validity_of_West_Germanic_as_a_subgroup" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Validity_of_West_Germanic_as_a_subgroup"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Validity of West Germanic as a subgroup</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Validity_of_West_Germanic_as_a_subgroup-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_reconstruction_of_Proto-West_Germanic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_reconstruction_of_Proto-West_Germanic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>The reconstruction of Proto-West Germanic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_reconstruction_of_Proto-West_Germanic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dating_Early_West_Germanic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dating_Early_West_Germanic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Dating Early West Germanic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dating_Early_West_Germanic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Middle Ages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Family_tree" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Family_tree"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Family tree</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Family_tree-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparison_of_phonological_and_morphological_features" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparison_of_phonological_and_morphological_features"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Comparison of phonological and morphological features</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparison_of_phonological_and_morphological_features-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Phonology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Phonology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Consonants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Vowels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Morphology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Morphology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Nouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-West_Germanic_vocabulary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#West_Germanic_vocabulary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>West Germanic vocabulary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-West_Germanic_vocabulary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">West Germanic languages</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 80 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-80" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">80 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wes-Germaanse_tale" title="Wes-Germaanse tale – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Wes-Germaanse tale" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westgermanische_Sprachen" title="Westgermanische Sprachen – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Westgermanische Sprachen" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%A8%E1%88%9D%E1%8B%95%E1%88%AB%E1%89%A5-%E1%8C%80%E1%88%AD%E1%88%98%E1%8A%93%E1%8B%8A_%E1%89%8B%E1%8A%95%E1%89%8B%E1%8B%8E%E1%89%BD_%E1%89%A4%E1%89%B0%E1%88%A0%E1%89%A5" title="የምዕራብ-ጀርመናዊ ቋንቋዎች ቤተሠብ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="የምዕራብ-ጀርመናዊ ቋንቋዎች ቤተሠብ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westgermanisca_spr%C3%A6ca" title="Westgermanisca spræca – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Westgermanisca spræca" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ænglisc</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="لغات جرمانية غربية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="لغات جرمانية غربية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luengas_chermanicas_occidentals" title="Luengas chermanicas occidentals – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Luengas chermanicas occidentals" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lling%C3%BCes_xerm%C3%A1niques_occidentales" title="Llingües xermániques occidentales – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Llingües xermániques occidentales" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C_%DA%98%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%86_%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%84%D9%84%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="باتی ژرمن دیللری – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="باتی ژرمن دیللری" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AE_%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%B9" title="পশ্চিম জার্মানীয় ভাষাসমূহ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="পশ্চিম জার্মানীয় ভাষাসমূহ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sai_German_g%C3%AD-chi" title="Sai German gí-chi – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Sai German gí-chi" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B" title="Заходнегерманскія мовы – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Заходнегерманскія мовы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B" title="Заходнегерманскія мовы – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Заходнегерманскія мовы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9B%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="पच्छिमी जर्मनिक भाषा – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="पच्छिमी जर्मनिक भाषा" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tataramon_na_Sulnopan_na_Alemaniko" title="Tataramon na Sulnopan na Alemaniko – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Tataramon na Sulnopan na Alemaniko" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Западногермански езици – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Западногермански езици" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westgermanische_Sprochn" title="Westgermanische Sprochn – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Westgermanische Sprochn" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lleng%C3%BCes_germ%C3%A0niques_occidentals" title="Llengües germàniques occidentals – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Llengües germàniques occidentals" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C3%A1padogerm%C3%A1nsk%C3%A9_jazyky" title="Západogermánské jazyky – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Západogermánské jazyky" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westgermanische_Sprachen" title="Westgermanische Sprachen – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Westgermanische Sprachen" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%B3dwjacornogermaniske_r%C4%9Bcy" title="Pódwjacornogermaniske rěcy – Lower Sorbian" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Pódwjacornogermaniske rěcy" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="Lower Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dolnoserbski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A4%C3%A4negermaani_keeled" title="Läänegermaani keeled – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Läänegermaani keeled" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CF%85%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AD%CF%82_%CE%B3%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AD%CF%82_%CE%B3%CE%BB%CF%8E%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B5%CF%82" title="Δυτικές γερμανικές γλώσσες – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Δυτικές γερμανικές γλώσσες" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenguas_germ%C3%A1nicas_occidentales" title="Lenguas germánicas occidentales – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Lenguas germánicas occidentales" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okcident%C4%9Dermana_lingvaro" title="Okcidentĝermana lingvaro – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Okcidentĝermana lingvaro" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendebaldeko_germaniar_hizkuntzak" title="Mendebaldeko germaniar hizkuntzak – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Mendebaldeko germaniar hizkuntzak" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%DA%98%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A8%DB%8C" title="زبان‌های ژرمنی غربی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان‌های ژرمنی غربی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesturgermansk_m%C3%A1l" title="Vesturgermansk mál – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Vesturgermansk mál" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langues_germaniques_occidentales" title="Langues germaniques occidentales – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Langues germaniques occidentales" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westgermaanske_talen" title="Westgermaanske talen – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Westgermaanske talen" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguas_xerm%C3%A1nicas_occidentais" title="Linguas xermánicas occidentais – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Linguas xermánicas occidentais" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%84%9C%EA%B2%8C%EB%A5%B4%EB%A7%8C%EC%96%B4%EA%B5%B0" title="서게르만어군 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="서게르만어군" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D6%80%D6%87%D5%B4%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%AC%D5%A5%D5%A6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Արևմտագերմանական լեզուներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Արևմտագերմանական լեզուներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zapadogermanske_r%C4%9B%C4%8De" title="Zapadogermanske rěče – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Zapadogermanske rěče" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hornjoserbsce</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zapadnogermanski_jezici" title="Zapadnogermanski jezici – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Zapadnogermanski jezici" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westala_Germana" title="Westala Germana – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Westala Germana" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumpun_bahasa_Jermanik_Barat" title="Rumpun bahasa Jermanik Barat – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Rumpun bahasa Jermanik Barat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesturgerm%C3%B6nsk_tungum%C3%A1l" title="Vesturgermönsk tungumál – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Vesturgermönsk tungumál" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingue_germaniche_occidentali" title="Lingue germaniche occidentali – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingue germaniche occidentali" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%9E%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%91%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA" title="שפות גרמאניות מערביות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="שפות גרמאניות מערביות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rujenedes_germaniches_uzidenteles" title="Rujenedes germaniches uzidenteles – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Rujenedes germaniches uzidenteles" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguae_Germanicae_occidentales" title="Linguae Germanicae occidentales – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Linguae Germanicae occidentales" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rietum%C4%A3erm%C4%81%C5%86u_valodas" title="Rietumģermāņu valodas – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Rietumģermāņu valodas" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vakar%C5%B3_german%C5%B3_kalbos" title="Vakarų germanų kalbos – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Vakarų germanų kalbos" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wes-Germaanse_taole" title="Wes-Germaanse taole – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Wes-Germaanse taole" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyugati_germ%C3%A1n_nyelvek" title="Nyugati germán nyelvek – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Nyugati germán nyelvek" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Западногермански јазици – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Западногермански јазици" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa-bahasa_Jermanik_Barat" title="Bahasa-bahasa Jermanik Barat – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bahasa-bahasa Jermanik Barat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/West-Germaanse_talen" title="West-Germaanse talen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="West-Germaanse talen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/West-Germoanse_toalen" title="West-Germoanse toalen – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="West-Germoanse toalen" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E3%82%B2%E3%83%AB%E3%83%9E%E3%83%B3%E8%AA%9E%E7%BE%A4" title="西ゲルマン語群 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="西ゲルマン語群" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waastgermaans_spriaken" title="Waastgermaans spriaken – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Waastgermaans spriaken" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestgermanske_spr%C3%A5k" title="Vestgermanske språk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Vestgermanske språk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestgermanske_spr%C3%A5k" title="Vestgermanske språk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Vestgermanske språk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengas_germanicas_occidentalas" title="Lengas germanicas occidentalas – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Lengas germanicas occidentalas" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%AF%DB%8C_%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%86_%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C" title="لیندی جرمن بولی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="لیندی جرمن بولی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenganan_west_german" title="Lenganan west german – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Lenganan west german" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Papiamentu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wes_Joermanik_languij" title="Wes Joermanik languij – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Wes Joermanik languij" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westgermaansche_Spraken" title="Westgermaansche Spraken – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Westgermaansche Spraken" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyki_zachodniogerma%C5%84skie" title="Języki zachodniogermańskie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Języki zachodniogermańskie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADnguas_germ%C3%A2nicas_ocidentais" title="Línguas germânicas ocidentais – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Línguas germânicas ocidentais" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbi_germanice_de_vest" title="Limbi germanice de vest – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Limbi germanice de vest" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Западногерманские языки – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Западногерманские языки" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wast_Germanic_leids" title="Wast Germanic leids – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Wast Germanic leids" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C3%A4%C3%A4stgermaniske_Sproaken" title="Wäästgermaniske Sproaken – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Wäästgermaniske Sproaken" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gjuh%C3%ABt_perendimore_gjermanike" title="Gjuhët perendimore gjermanike – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Gjuhët perendimore gjermanike" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="West Germanic languages" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C3%A1padogerm%C3%A1nske_jazyky" title="Západogermánske jazyky – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Západogermánske jazyky" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Западногермански језици – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Западногермански језици" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A4nsigermaaniset_kielet" title="Länsigermaaniset kielet – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Länsigermaaniset kielet" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tutlayin_ti%C7%A7ermanin_tutrimin" title="Tutlayin tiǧermanin tutrimin – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tutlayin tiǧermanin tutrimin" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B8%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%81" title="กลุ่มภาษาเจอร์แมนิกตะวันตก – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="กลุ่มภาษาเจอร์แมนิกตะวันตก" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bat%C4%B1_Cermen_dilleri" title="Batı Cermen dilleri – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Batı Cermen dilleri" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="width:22em;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color: #c9ffd9;">West Germanic</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Geographic<br />distribution</th><td class="infobox-data">Originally between the <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alps" title="Alps">Alps</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elbe" title="Elbe">Elbe</a>, and <a href="/wiki/North_Sea" title="North Sea">North Sea</a>; today worldwide</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Linguistic classification</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a><ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:15px;padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a><ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:5px;padding-left:0"><li><b>West Germanic</b></li></ul></li></ul></td></tr><tr class="plainlist"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Subdivisions</th><td class="infobox-data"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Germanic" title="North Sea Germanic">North Sea Germanic</a> – <small><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Frisian_languages" title="Anglo-Frisian languages">Anglo-Frisian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Low_German" title="Low German">Low German</a></small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weser%E2%80%93Rhine_Germanic" title="Weser–Rhine Germanic">Weser–Rhine Germanic</a> – <small><a href="/wiki/Low_Franconian" title="Low Franconian">Low Franconian</a></small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elbe_Germanic" title="Elbe Germanic">Elbe Germanic</a> – <small><a href="/wiki/High_German" class="mw-redirect" title="High German">High German</a></small></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-5" title="ISO 639-5">ISO 639-5</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><samp><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/gmw" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:gmw">gmw</a></code></samp></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Linguasphere_Observatory" title="Linguasphere Observatory">Linguasphere</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><samp><code>52-AB & 52-AC</code></samp></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><samp><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/west2793">west2793</a></code></samp></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Germanic_languages_in_Europe.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Germanic_languages_in_Europe.png/300px-Germanic_languages_in_Europe.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="321" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Germanic_languages_in_Europe.png/450px-Germanic_languages_in_Europe.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Germanic_languages_in_Europe.png/600px-Germanic_languages_in_Europe.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="857" /></a></span><div style="text-align:left;">Extent of Germanic languages in present day Europe<br /> <p><b>North Germanic languages</b> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#00FFFF; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Icelandic_language" title="Icelandic language">Icelandic</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#00CED1; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Faroese_language" title="Faroese language">Faroese</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#007ffe; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#003f7f; color:white;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#0000FF; color:white;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a></div> <p><b>West Germanic languages</b> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#D2691E; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Scots_language" title="Scots language">Scots</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffa500; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#E2BD00; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Frisian_languages" title="Frisian languages">West, North and Saterland Frisian</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#FFF435; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#418824; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Low_German" title="Low German">Low German</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#008000; color:white;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/High_German_languages" title="High German languages">High German</a></div> Dots indicate areas where <a href="/wiki/Multilingualism" title="Multilingualism">multilingualism</a> is common.</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Afrikaans_Map-Africa.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Afrikaans_Map-Africa.svg/300px-Afrikaans_Map-Africa.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Afrikaans_Map-Africa.svg/450px-Afrikaans_Map-Africa.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Afrikaans_Map-Africa.svg/600px-Afrikaans_Map-Africa.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span><br /><div style="text-align:left;">Extent of Germanic languages in present day Africa <p><b>West Germanic languages</b> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#FF0A0A; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Afrikaans" title="Afrikaans">Afrikaans</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>West Germanic languages</b> constitute the largest of the three branches of the <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a> family of <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">languages</a> (the others being the <a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North Germanic</a> and the extinct <a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East Germanic</a> languages). The West Germanic branch is classically subdivided into three branches: <a href="/wiki/Ingvaeonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ingvaeonic">Ingvaeonic</a>, which includes <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Low_German" title="Low German">Low German languages</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Frisian_languages" title="Frisian languages">Frisian languages</a>; <a href="/wiki/Istvaeonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Istvaeonic">Istvaeonic</a>, which encompasses <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a> and its close relatives; and <a href="/wiki/Irminonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Irminonic">Irminonic</a>, which includes <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a> and its close relatives and variants. </p><p>English is by far the most-spoken West Germanic language, with more than 1 billion speakers worldwide. Within Europe, the three most prevalent West Germanic languages are English, German, and Dutch. Frisian, spoken by about 450,000 people, constitutes a fourth distinct variety of West Germanic. The language family also includes <a href="/wiki/Afrikaans" title="Afrikaans">Afrikaans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yiddish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Yiddish language">Yiddish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Low_Saxon" title="Low Saxon">Low Saxon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Luxembourgish" title="Luxembourgish">Luxembourgish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hunsrik" title="Hunsrik">Hunsrik</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Scots_language" title="Scots language">Scots</a>. Additionally, several <a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">creoles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Patois" title="Patois">patois</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pidgin" title="Pidgin">pidgins</a> are based on Dutch, English, or German. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=West_Germanic_languages&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origins_and_characteristics">Origins and characteristics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=West_Germanic_languages&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Origins and characteristics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Germanic languages are traditionally divided into three groups: West, <a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East</a> and <a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North</a> Germanic.<sup id="cite_ref-Hawkins_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hawkins-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some cases, their exact relation was difficult to determine from the sparse evidence of runic inscriptions, so that some individual varieties have been difficult to classify. This is especially true for the unattested <a href="/wiki/Jutes" title="Jutes">Jutish language</a>; today, most scholars classify Jutish as a West Germanic variety with several features of North Germanic.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Until the late 20th century, some scholars claimed that all Germanic languages remained mutually intelligible throughout the <a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a>, while others hold that speakers of West Germanic dialects like <a href="/wiki/Old_Frankish" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Frankish">Old Frankish</a> and speakers of <a href="/wiki/Gothic_language" title="Gothic language">Gothic</a> were already unable to communicate fluently by around the 3rd century AD. As a result of the substantial progress in the study of Proto-West Germanic in the early 21st century, there is a growing consensus that East and West Germanic indeed would have been mutually unintelligible at that time,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whereas West and North Germanic remained partially intelligible.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Dialects with the features assigned to the western group formed from <a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Germanic">Proto-Germanic</a> in the late <a href="/wiki/Jastorf_culture" title="Jastorf culture">Jastorf culture</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1st century BC</span>). The West Germanic group is characterized by a number of <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonological</a>, <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphological</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vocabulary" title="Vocabulary">lexical</a> innovations or archaisms not found in North and East Germanic. Examples of West Germanic phonological particularities are:<sup id="cite_ref-Robinson_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robinson-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">delabialization</a> of all labiovelar consonants except word-initially.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Change of <i>*-zw-</i> and <i>*- đw-</i> to <i>*-ww-</i> e.g. <i>*izwiz</i> > <i>*iwwiz</i> 'you' dat.pl.; <i>*feđwōr</i> > <i>*fewwōr</i> 'four'.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ð]</span>, the fricative allophone of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d/</span>, becomes <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[d]</span> in all positions.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (The two other fricatives <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[β]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɣ]</span> are retained.). This must have occurred after <i>*-zw-</i> and <i>*- đw-</i> have become <i>*-ww-</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-P._Stiles_2013:_p._15_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-P._Stiles_2013:_p._15-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Replacement of the second-person singular preterite ending <i>-t</i> with <i>-ī</i> (<a href="/wiki/Indicative" class="mw-redirect" title="Indicative">indicative</a> and <a href="/wiki/Subjunctive_mood" title="Subjunctive mood">subjunctive mood</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For more than 150 years there has been a scientific debate on the best explanation of these difficult forms. Today, some linguists, beginning with J. v. Fierlinger in 1885<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and followed by R. Löwe (1907),<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> O. Behaghel (1922),<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Jakob_Sverdrup_(philologist)" title="Jakob Sverdrup (philologist)">Jakob Sverdrup</a> (1927), <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Hirt" title="Hermann Hirt">Hermann Hirt</a> (1932),<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Edgar_C._Polom%C3%A9" title="Edgar C. Polomé">E. Polomé</a> (1964),<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> W. Meid (1971),<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> E. Hill (2004),<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> K.-H. Mottausch<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and W. Euler (1992ff.)<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> explain this ending as a relic of the <a href="/wiki/Aorist_(Indo-European_linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aorist (Indo-European linguistics)">Indo-European aorist tense</a>. Under this assumption, the ending <i>-t</i> would have replaced older <i>-ī(z)</i>. Sceptical about this explanation – and mostly explaining these forms as influenced by <a href="/wiki/Optative_mood" title="Optative mood">optative</a> forms – are <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Scherer" title="Wilhelm Scherer">W. Scherer</a> (1868), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Willem_Lodewijk_van_Helten&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Willem Lodewijk van Helten (page does not exist)">W. L. van Helten</a> (before 1917), <a href="/wiki/Edward_Schr%C3%B6der" title="Edward Schröder">Edward Schröder</a> (1921), Bammesberger (1986) and <a href="/wiki/Donald_Ringe" title="Donald Ringe">Don Ringe</a> (2014).</li> <li>Loss of word-final <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/z/</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only Old High German preserves it at all (as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span>) and only in single-syllable words. Following the later loss of word-final <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/a/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/aN/</span>, this made the nominative and accusative of many nouns identical.</li> <li>Loss of final <i>*-a</i> (including from PGmc. <i>*-an#</i>) in polysyllables: e.g. acc. sg. OHG <i>horn</i> vs. ORu. <i>horna</i> 'horn'; this change must have occurred after the loss of word-final <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/z/</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-P._Stiles_2013:_p._15_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-P._Stiles_2013:_p._15-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_gemination" title="West Germanic gemination">West Germanic gemination</a>: lengthening of all consonants except <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span> before <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span>.;<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> this change must have occurred after the loss of final *-a.<sup id="cite_ref-P._Stiles_2013:_p._15_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-P._Stiles_2013:_p._15-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Change of Proto-Germanic <i>*e</i> to <i>i</i> before <i>i</i> and <i>j</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>A relative chronology of about 20 sound changes from Proto-Northwest Germanic to Proto-West Germanic (some of them only regional) was published by Don Ringe in 2014.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A phonological archaism of West Germanic is the preservation of <i><a href="/wiki/Grammatischer_Wechsel" title="Grammatischer Wechsel">grammatischer Wechsel</a></i> in most verbs, particularly in Old High German.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This implies the same for West Germanic,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whereas in East and North Germanic many of these alternations (in Gothic almost all of them) had been levelled out analogically by the time of the earliest texts. </p><p>A common morphological innovation of the West Germanic languages is the development of a <a href="/wiki/Gerund" title="Gerund">gerund</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Common morphological archaisms of West Germanic include: </p> <ul><li>The preservation of an <a href="/wiki/Instrumental_case" title="Instrumental case">instrumental case</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>the preservation of the <a href="/wiki/Athematic" class="mw-redirect" title="Athematic">athematic</a> verbs<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon language">Anglo-Saxon</a> <i>dō(m)</i>, <a href="/wiki/Old_Saxon_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Saxon language">Old Saxon</a> <i>dōm</i>, <a href="/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German">OHG.</a> <i>tōm</i> "I do"<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>),</li> <li>the preservation of some traces<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too vague attribution or weasel words. (July 2013)">which?</span></a></i>]</sup> of the <a href="/wiki/Aorist" title="Aorist">aorist</a> (in Old English and Old High German, but neither in Gothic nor in <a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North Germanic</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Furthermore, the West Germanic languages share many <a href="/wiki/Lexeme" title="Lexeme">lexemes</a> not existing in North Germanic and/or East Germanic – archaisms<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as common neologisms.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some lexemes have specific meanings in West Germanic<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and there are specific innovations in word formation and derivational morphology,<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for example neologisms ending with modern English <i>-ship</i> (< wgerm. <i>-*skapi</i>, cf. German <i>-schaft</i>) like <i>friendship</i> (< wg. <i>*friund(a)skapi</i>, cf. German <i>Freundschaft</i>) are specific to the West Germanic languages and are thus seen as a Proto West Germanic innovation.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Validity_of_West_Germanic_as_a_subgroup">Validity of West Germanic as a subgroup</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=West_Germanic_languages&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Validity of West Germanic as a subgroup"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since at least the early 20th century, a number of morphological, phonological, and lexical archaisms and innovations have been identified as specifically West Germanic. Since then, individual Proto-West Germanic lexemes have also been reconstructed. Yet, there was a long dispute if these West Germanic characteristics had to be explained with the existence of a West Germanic proto-language or rather with <a href="/wiki/Sprachbund" title="Sprachbund">Sprachbund</a> effects. <a href="/wiki/Hans_Frede_Nielsen" title="Hans Frede Nielsen">Hans Frede Nielsen</a>'s 1981 study <i>Old English and the Continental Germanic Languages</i><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> made the conviction grow that a West Germanic proto-language did exist. But up until the 1990s, some scholars doubted that there was once a Proto-West Germanic <a href="/wiki/Proto-language" title="Proto-language">proto-language</a> which was ancestral only to later West Germanic languages.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2002, Gert Klingenschmitt presented a series of pioneering reconstructions of Proto-West Germanic morphological paradigmas and new views on some early West Germanic phonological changes,<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in 2013 the first monographic analysis and description of Proto-West Germanic was published (second edition 2022).<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Today, there is a scientific consensus<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> on what Don Ringe stated in 2012, that "these [phonological and morphological] changes amount to a massive evidence for a valid West Germanic clade".<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After East Germanic broke off (an event usually dated to the 2nd or 1st century BC), the remaining Germanic languages, the <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Germanic" title="Northwest Germanic">Northwest Germanic</a> languages, divided into four main dialects:<sup id="cite_ref-Kuhn_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kuhn-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:AGE_MATTERS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:AGE MATTERS"><span title="very old; does modern scholarship still follow this subdivision? (July 2020)">obsolete source</span></a></i>]</sup> North Germanic, and the three groups conventionally called "West Germanic", namely: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1116488514">.mw-parser-output .treeview ul{padding:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .treeview li{padding:0;margin:0;list-style-type:none;list-style-image:none}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li{background:url("https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Treeview-grey-line.png")no-repeat 0 -2981px;padding-left:21px;text-indent:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li:last-child{background-position:0 -5971px}.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>.mw-empty-elt:first-child+.emptyline,.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>li:first-child{background-position:0 9px}</style><div class="treeview"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Germanic" title="Northwest Germanic">Northwest Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Germanic" title="North Sea Germanic">North Sea Germanic</a>, ancestral to <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Frisian_languages" title="Anglo-Frisian languages">Anglo-Frisian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Old_Saxon_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Saxon language">Old Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weser%E2%80%93Rhine_Germanic" title="Weser–Rhine Germanic">Weser–Rhine Germanic</a>, ancestral to <a href="/wiki/Old_Dutch" title="Old Dutch">Old Dutch</a> and present as a <a href="/wiki/Stratum_(linguistics)" title="Stratum (linguistics)">substrate or superstrate</a> in some of the <a href="/wiki/Central_Franconian" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Franconian">Central Franconian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rhine_Franconian" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhine Franconian">Rhine Franconian</a> dialects of <a href="/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German">Old High German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elbe_Germanic" title="Elbe Germanic">Elbe Germanic</a>, ancestral to the <a href="/wiki/Upper_German" title="Upper German">Upper German</a> and most <a href="/wiki/Central_German" title="Central German">Central German</a> dialects of <a href="/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German">Old High German</a>, and the extinct <a href="/wiki/Langobardic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Langobardic language">Langobardic language</a>.</li></ul></li></ul> </div> <p>Although there is quite a bit of knowledge about North Sea Germanic or Anglo-Frisian (because of the characteristic features of its daughter languages, Anglo-Saxon/<a href="/wiki/Old_English_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old English language">Old English</a> and <a href="/wiki/Old_Frisian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Frisian language">Old Frisian</a>), linguists know almost nothing about "Weser–Rhine Germanic" and "Elbe Germanic". In fact, both terms were coined in the 1940s to refer to groups of archaeological findings, rather than linguistic features. Only later were the terms applied to hypothetical dialectal differences within both regions. Even today, the very small number of <a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a> <a href="/wiki/Runic_inscriptions" title="Runic inscriptions">runic inscriptions</a> from the area, many of them illegible, unclear or consisting only of one word, often a name, is insufficient to identify linguistic features specific to the two supposed dialect groups. </p><p>Evidence that East Germanic split off before the split between North and West Germanic comes from a number of linguistic innovations common to North and West Germanic,<sup id="cite_ref-Robinson_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robinson-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including: </p> <ul><li>The lowering of Proto-Germanic <i>ē</i> (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɛː/</span>, also written <i>ǣ</i>) to <i>ā</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The development of <a href="/wiki/Germanic_umlaut" title="Germanic umlaut">umlaut</a>.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Rhotacism_(sound_change)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhotacism (sound change)">rhotacism</a> of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/z/</span> to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span>.</li> <li>The development of the <a href="/wiki/Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">demonstrative</a> pronoun ancestral to English <i>this</i>.</li></ul> <p>Under that view, the properties that the West Germanic languages have in common, separate from the North Germanic languages, are not necessarily inherited from a "Proto-West Germanic" language, but may have spread by <a href="/wiki/Language_contact" title="Language contact">language contact</a> among the Germanic languages spoken in Central Europe, not reaching those spoken in Scandinavia or reaching them much later. Rhotacism, for example, was largely complete in West Germanic while North Germanic runic inscriptions still clearly distinguished the two phonemes. There is also evidence that the lowering of <i>ē</i> to <i>ā</i> occurred first in West Germanic and spread to North Germanic later since word-final <i>ē</i> was lowered before it was shortened in West Germanic, but in North Germanic the shortening occurred first, resulting in <i>e</i> that later merged with <i>i</i>. However, there are also a number of common archaisms in West Germanic shared by neither Old Norse nor Gothic. Some authors who support the concept of a West Germanic proto-language claim that, not only shared innovations can require the existence of a linguistic <a href="/wiki/Clade" title="Clade">clade</a>, but also that there are archaisms that cannot be explained simply as retentions later lost in the North or East, because this assumption can produce contradictions with attested features of the other branches.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="What contradictions result from assuming archaisms were lost in North and East Germanic after the divergence of West Germanic languages? (August 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The debate on the existence of a Proto-West Germanic clade was summarized (2006): </p> <blockquote><p>That North Germanic is ... a unitary subgroup [of Proto-Germanic] is completely obvious, as all of its dialects shared a long series of innovations, some of them very striking. That the same is true of West Germanic has been denied, but I will argue in vol. ii that all the West Germanic languages share several highly unusual innovations that virtually force us to posit a West Germanic clade. On the other hand, the internal subgrouping of both North Germanic and West Germanic is very messy, and it seems clear that each of those subfamilies diversified into a network of dialects that remained in contact for a considerable period of time (in some cases right up to the present).<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_reconstruction_of_Proto-West_Germanic">The reconstruction of Proto-West Germanic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=West_Germanic_languages&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: The reconstruction of Proto-West Germanic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several scholars have published reconstructions of Proto-West Germanic morphological paradigms<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and many authors have reconstructed individual Proto-West Germanic morphological forms or lexemes. The first comprehensive reconstruction of the Proto-West Germanic language was published in 2013 by <a href="/wiki/Wolfram_Euler" title="Wolfram Euler">Wolfram Euler</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> followed in 2014 by the study of <a href="/wiki/Donald_Ringe" title="Donald Ringe">Donald Ringe</a> and Ann Taylor.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dating_Early_West_Germanic">Dating Early West Germanic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=West_Germanic_languages&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Dating Early West Germanic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:2022_04_16_-_MAP_West_Germanic_%E2%80%93_cc._580_CE_-_END.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A map" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/2022_04_16_-_MAP_West_Germanic_%E2%80%93_cc._580_CE_-_END.png/200px-2022_04_16_-_MAP_West_Germanic_%E2%80%93_cc._580_CE_-_END.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/2022_04_16_-_MAP_West_Germanic_%E2%80%93_cc._580_CE_-_END.png/300px-2022_04_16_-_MAP_West_Germanic_%E2%80%93_cc._580_CE_-_END.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/2022_04_16_-_MAP_West_Germanic_%E2%80%93_cc._580_CE_-_END.png/400px-2022_04_16_-_MAP_West_Germanic_%E2%80%93_cc._580_CE_-_END.png 2x" data-file-width="2752" data-file-height="2551" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">West Germanic languages <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 580 (Euler 2022)</div></div></div></div></div> <p>If indeed Proto-West Germanic existed, it must have been between the 2nd and 7th centuries. Until the late 2nd century AD, the language of runic inscriptions found in Scandinavia and in Northern Germany were so similar that Proto-North Germanic and the Western dialects in the south were still part of one language ("Proto-Northwest Germanic"). </p><p>Sometime after that, the split into West and North Germanic occurred. By the 4th and 5th centuries the <a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">great migration</a> set in. By the end of the 6th century, the area in which West Germanic languages were spoken, at least by the upper classes, had tripled compared to the year 400. This caused an increasing disintegration of the West Germanic language and finally the formation of the daughter languages.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It has been argued that, judging by their nearly identical syntax, the West Germanic dialects were closely enough related to have been mutually intelligible up to the 7th century.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over the course of this period, the dialects diverged successively. The <a href="/wiki/High_German_consonant_shift" title="High German consonant shift">High German consonant shift</a> that occurred mostly during the 7th century AD in what is now southern Germany, Austria, and Switzerland can be considered the end of the linguistic unity among the West Germanic dialects, although its effects on their own should not be overestimated. Bordering dialects very probably continued to be mutually intelligible even beyond the boundaries of the consonant shift. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=West_Germanic_languages&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Middle Ages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Historical_West_Germanic_language_area.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Historical_West_Germanic_language_area.png/350px-Historical_West_Germanic_language_area.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="346" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Historical_West_Germanic_language_area.png/525px-Historical_West_Germanic_language_area.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Historical_West_Germanic_language_area.png/700px-Historical_West_Germanic_language_area.png 2x" data-file-width="1266" data-file-height="1250" /></a><figcaption>The approximate extent of the continental West Germanic languages in the early 10th century:<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#f5e82b; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Old_Dutch" title="Old Dutch">Old Dutch</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#97d17b; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German">Old High German</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffd29f; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Old_Frisian" title="Old Frisian">Old Frisian</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#dc99bd; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Old_Saxon" title="Old Saxon">Old Saxon</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-line mw-no-invert" style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: middle; width: 1.67em; height: 0; border-style: none; border-top: 2px dotted black;border-top:#e51b19 dashed 2px;"> </span> Line marking the boundaries of the continental West Germanic dialect continuum.</div></figcaption></figure> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a>, the West Germanic languages were separated by the insular development of <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old</a> and <a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a> on one hand, and by the <a href="/wiki/High_German_consonant_shift" title="High German consonant shift">High German consonant shift</a> on the continent on the other. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/High_German_consonant_shift" title="High German consonant shift">High German consonant shift</a> distinguished the <a href="/wiki/High_German_languages" title="High German languages">High German languages</a> from the other West Germanic languages. By early modern times, the span had extended into considerable differences, ranging from <a href="/wiki/Highest_Alemannic_German" title="Highest Alemannic German">Highest Alemannic</a> in the South (the <a href="/wiki/Walliser_German" class="mw-redirect" title="Walliser German">Walliser</a> dialect being the southernmost surviving German dialect) to <a href="/wiki/Northern_Low_Saxon" title="Northern Low Saxon">Northern Low Saxon</a> in the North. Although both extremes are considered <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>, they are not mutually intelligible. The southernmost varieties have completed the second sound shift, whereas the northern dialects remained unaffected by the consonant shift. </p><p>Of modern German varieties, <a href="/wiki/Low_German" title="Low German">Low German</a> is the one that most resembles modern English. The district of <a href="/wiki/Angeln" title="Angeln">Angeln</a> (or Anglia), from which the name <i>English</i> derives, is in the extreme northern part of Germany between the Danish border and the Baltic coast. The area of the Saxons (parts of today's <a href="/wiki/Schleswig-Holstein" title="Schleswig-Holstein">Schleswig-Holstein</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lower_Saxony" title="Lower Saxony">Lower Saxony</a>) lay south of Anglia. The <a href="/wiki/Angles_(tribe)" title="Angles (tribe)">Angles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saxons" title="Saxons">Saxons</a>, two <a href="/wiki/Germanic_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic tribes">Germanic tribes</a>, in combination with a number of other peoples from northern <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Jutland" title="Jutland">Jutland</a> Peninsula, particularly the <a href="/wiki/Jutes" title="Jutes">Jutes</a>, settled in Britain following the end of Roman rule in the island. Once in Britain, these Germanic peoples eventually developed a shared cultural and linguistic identity as <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxons" title="Anglo-Saxons">Anglo-Saxons</a>; the extent of the linguistic influence of the native <a href="/wiki/Romano-British" class="mw-redirect" title="Romano-British">Romano-British</a> population on the incomers is debatable. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:West_Germanic_dialect_continuum_(according_to_Wiesinger,_Heeringa_%26_K%C3%B6nig).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/West_Germanic_dialect_continuum_%28according_to_Wiesinger%2C_Heeringa_%26_K%C3%B6nig%29.png/350px-West_Germanic_dialect_continuum_%28according_to_Wiesinger%2C_Heeringa_%26_K%C3%B6nig%29.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="339" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/West_Germanic_dialect_continuum_%28according_to_Wiesinger%2C_Heeringa_%26_K%C3%B6nig%29.png/525px-West_Germanic_dialect_continuum_%28according_to_Wiesinger%2C_Heeringa_%26_K%C3%B6nig%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/West_Germanic_dialect_continuum_%28according_to_Wiesinger%2C_Heeringa_%26_K%C3%B6nig%29.png/700px-West_Germanic_dialect_continuum_%28according_to_Wiesinger%2C_Heeringa_%26_K%C3%B6nig%29.png 2x" data-file-width="2836" data-file-height="2749" /></a><figcaption>The varieties of the continental West Germanic dialect continuum since 1945:<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#8c506e; color:white;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Low_Franconian" title="Low Franconian">Low Franconian</a> or <a href="/wiki/Netherlandic" class="mw-redirect" title="Netherlandic">Netherlandic</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#df772a; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Frisian_languages" title="Frisian languages">Frisian</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#3e9abc; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Low_Saxon" title="Low Saxon">Low Saxon</a> or <a href="/wiki/Low_German" title="Low German">Low German</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#f5ef47; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Central_German" title="Central German">Central German</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ecca09; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Upper_German" title="Upper German">Upper German</a></div></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Family_tree">Family tree</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=West_Germanic_languages&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Family tree"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Relevant discussion may be found on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:West_Germanic_languages#Sources_needed_in_Family_tree" title="Talk:West Germanic languages">talk page</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/West_Germanic_languages" title="Special:EditPage/West Germanic languages">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Einteilung_der_Germanen_nach_Maurer.en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Einteilung_der_Germanen_nach_Maurer.en.svg/610px-Einteilung_der_Germanen_nach_Maurer.en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="610" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Einteilung_der_Germanen_nach_Maurer.en.svg/915px-Einteilung_der_Germanen_nach_Maurer.en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Einteilung_der_Germanen_nach_Maurer.en.svg/1220px-Einteilung_der_Germanen_nach_Maurer.en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="710" data-file-height="276" /></a><figcaption>Grouping of the main Germanic tribes (which can be equated with their languages/dialects) according to <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Maurer_(linguist)" title="Friedrich Maurer (linguist)">Friedrich Maurer</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Divisions between subfamilies of continental Germanic languages are rarely precisely defined; most form <a href="/wiki/Dialect_continuum" title="Dialect continuum">dialect continua</a>, with adjacent <a href="/wiki/Dialect" title="Dialect">dialects</a> being mutually intelligible and more separated ones not. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1116488514"><div class="treeview"> <ul><li><b>West Germanic languages</b> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Germanic" title="North Sea Germanic">North Sea Germanic</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ingvaeonic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Ingvaeonic languages">Ingvaeonic languages</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Frisian_languages" title="Anglo-Frisian languages">Anglo-Frisian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglic languages">Anglic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a></li> <li>Irish Middle English / <a href="/wiki/Normans_in_Ireland" title="Normans in Ireland">Hiberno-Norman</a> / Irish Anglo-Norman<sup id="cite_ref-Hickey2005_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hickey2005-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hickey2002_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hickey2002-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fingalian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Fingalian language">Fingalian</a> (extinct)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yola_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Yola language">Yola</a> (extinct)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots_language" title="Scots language">Scots</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frisian_languages" title="Frisian languages">Frisian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Frisian_languages" title="West Frisian languages">West Frisian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindeloopen_Frisian" title="Hindeloopen Frisian">Hindeloopen Frisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schiermonnikoog_Frisian" title="Schiermonnikoog Frisian">Schiermonnikoog Frisian</a></li> <li>Westlauwers–Terschellings <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terschelling_Frisian" title="Terschelling Frisian">Terschelling Frisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Frisian_language" title="West Frisian language">Mainland West Frisian</a> <ul><li>Clay Frisian</li> <li>Wood Frisian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Westereendersk" title="Westereendersk">Westereendersk</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Frisian_language" title="East Frisian language">East Frisian</a> <ul><li>Ems <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saterland_Frisian_language" title="Saterland Frisian language">Saterland Frisian</a></li></ul></li> <li>Weser <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wangerooge_Frisian" title="Wangerooge Frisian">Wangerooge Frisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wursten_Frisian" title="Wursten Frisian">Wursten Frisian</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Frisian_language" title="North Frisian language">North Frisian</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_German" title="Low German">Low German</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Low_Saxon" title="Northern Low Saxon">Northern Low Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westphalian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Westphalian language">Westphalian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastphalian_language" title="Eastphalian language">Eastphalian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marchian" title="Marchian">Marchian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch" class="mw-redirect" title="Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch">Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Pomeranian_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Pomeranian dialect">Central Pomeranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Pomeranian_dialect" title="East Pomeranian dialect">East Pomeranian</a> (moribund)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_Prussian_dialect" title="Low Prussian dialect">Low Prussian</a> (moribund)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Low_Saxon" title="Dutch Low Saxon">Dutch Low Saxon</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Weser%E2%80%93Rhine_Germanic" title="Weser–Rhine Germanic">Weser–Rhine Germanic</a> / <a href="/wiki/Istvaeones" title="Istvaeones">Istvaeonic languages</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Low_Franconian" title="Low Franconian">Low Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Flemish" title="West Flemish">West Flemish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Flemish" title="East Flemish">East Flemish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeelandic" title="Zeelandic">Zeelandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Dutch_dialects" title="Central Dutch dialects">Central Dutch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hollandic_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Hollandic dialect">Hollandic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaans" title="Afrikaans">Afrikaans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_Afrikaans" title="Arabic Afrikaans">Arabic Afrikaans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaaps" title="Kaaps">Kaaps</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleverlandish" title="Kleverlandish">Kleverlandish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brabantian_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Brabantian dialect">Brabantian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limburgish" title="Limburgish">Limburgish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_German" title="Central German">Central German</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Franconian_languages" title="Central Franconian languages">Central Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ripuarian_language" title="Ripuarian language">Ripuarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourgish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Luxembourgish language">Luxembourgish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhine_Franconian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhine Franconian languages">Rhine Franconian</a>, including the dialects of <a href="/wiki/Hessen" class="mw-redirect" title="Hessen">Hessen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Dutch_language" title="Pennsylvania Dutch language">Pennsylvania German</a>, and most of those from <a href="/wiki/Lorraine_Franconian" title="Lorraine Franconian">Lorraine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Dutch_language" title="Pennsylvania Dutch language">Pennsylvania Dutch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thuringian_dialect" title="Thuringian dialect">Thuringian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Saxon_German" title="Upper Saxon German">Upper Saxon German</a></li> <li>Schlesisch–Wilmesau <ul><li>Bielsko-Biała<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alzenau_dialect" title="Alzenau dialect">Halcnovian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wymysorys_language" title="Wymysorys language">Wymysorys</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_German" title="Silesian German">Silesian</a> (moribund)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Prussian" class="mw-redirect" title="High Prussian">High Prussian</a> (moribund)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Elbe_Germanic" title="Elbe Germanic">Elbe Germanic</a> / <a href="/wiki/Irminones" title="Irminones">Irminonic languages</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Upper_German" title="Upper German">Upper German</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alemannic_German" title="Alemannic German">Alemannic</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Swiss_German_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Swiss German language">Swiss German</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alsatian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Alsatian language">Alsatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swabian_German" title="Swabian German">Swabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bavarian_language" title="Bavarian language">Bavarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Franconian" class="mw-redirect" title="East Franconian">East Franconian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Franconian" class="mw-redirect" title="South Franconian">South Franconian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lombardic_language" title="Lombardic language">Lombardic</a> (extinct)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Yiddish language">Yiddish</a> (a language based on Eastern-Central dialects of late <a href="/wiki/Middle_High_German" title="Middle High German">Middle High German</a>/<a href="/wiki/Early_New_High_German" title="Early New High German">Early New High German</a>)</li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Comparison_of_phonological_and_morphological_features">Comparison of phonological and morphological features</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=West_Germanic_languages&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Comparison of phonological and morphological features"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/West_Germanic_languages" title="Special:EditPage/West Germanic languages">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2019</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The following table shows a list of various linguistic features and their extent among the West Germanic languages, organized roughly from northwest to southeast. Some may only appear in the older languages but are no longer apparent in the modern languages. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th scope="col">Old English </th> <th scope="col">Old Frisian </th> <th scope="col">Old Saxon </th> <th scope="col">Old Dutch </th> <th scope="col">Old Central<br />German </th> <th scope="col">Old Upper<br />German </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left">Palatalisation of velars </th> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Yes </td> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Yes </td> <td style="background:#FFB; color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-partial">Partial </td> <td style="background: #FFE3E3; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-no2">No </td> <td style="background: #FFE3E3; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-no2">No </td> <td style="background: #FFE3E3; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-no2">No </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left">Unrounding of front rounded vowels </th> <td style="background:#FFB; color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-partial">ø but not y </td> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Yes </td> <td style="background: #FFE3E3; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-no2">No </td> <td style="background:#FFB; color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-partial">Southwestern </td> <td style="background: #FFE3E3; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-no2">No </td> <td style="background: #FFE3E3; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-no2">No </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left">Loss of intervocalic *<i>-h-</i> </th> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Yes </td> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Yes </td> <td style="background:#FFB; color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-partial">Developing </td> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Yes </td> <td style="background:#FFB; color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-partial">Developing </td> <td style="background: #FFE3E3; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-no2">No </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left">Class II weak verb ending <i>*-(ō)ja-</i> </th> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Yes </td> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Yes </td> <td style="background:#FFB; color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-partial">Sometimes </td> <td style="background: #FFE3E3; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-no2">No </td> <td style="background: #FFE3E3; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-no2">No </td> <td style="background: #FFE3E3; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-no2">No </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left">Merging of plural forms of verbs </th> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Yes </td> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Yes </td> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Yes </td> <td style="background: #FFE3E3; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-no2">No </td> <td style="background: #FFE3E3; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-no2">No </td> <td style="background: #FFE3E3; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-no2">No </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Ingvaeonic_nasal_spirant_law" title="Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law">Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law</a> </th> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Yes </td> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Yes </td> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Yes </td> <td style="background:#FFB; color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-partial">Rare </td> <td style="background: #FFE3E3; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-no2">No </td> <td style="background: #FFE3E3; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-no2">No </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left">Loss of the <a href="/wiki/Reflexive_pronoun" title="Reflexive pronoun">reflexive pronoun</a> </th> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Yes </td> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Yes </td> <td style="background:#FFB; color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-partial">Most dialects </td> <td style="background:#FFB; color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-partial">Most dialects </td> <td style="background: #FFE3E3; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-no2">No </td> <td style="background: #FFE3E3; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-no2">No </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left">Loss of final <i>*-z</i> in single-syllable words </th> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Yes </td> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Yes </td> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Yes </td> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Yes </td> <td style="background: #FFE3E3; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-no2">No </td> <td style="background: #FFE3E3; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-no2">No </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left">Reduction of weak class III to four relics </th> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Yes </td> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Yes </td> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Yes </td> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Yes </td> <td style="background: #FFE3E3; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-no2">No </td> <td style="background: #FFE3E3; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-no2">No </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left">Monophthongization of *<i>ai</i>, *<i>au</i> </th> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Yes </td> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Yes </td> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Yes </td> <td style="background:#FFB; color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-partial">Usually </td> <td style="background:#FFB; color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-partial">Partial </td> <td style="background:#FFB; color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-partial">Partial </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left">Diphthongization of *<i>ē</i>, *<i>ō</i> </th> <td style="background: #FFE3E3; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-no2">No </td> <td style="background: #FFE3E3; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-no2">No </td> <td style="background:#FFB; color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-partial">Rare </td> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Yes </td> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Yes </td> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Yes </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Final-obstruent_devoicing" title="Final-obstruent devoicing">Final-obstruent devoicing</a> </th> <td style="background: #FFE3E3; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-no2">No </td> <td style="background: #FFE3E3; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-no2">No </td> <td style="background: #FFE3E3; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-no2">No </td> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Yes </td> <td style="background:#FFB; color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-partial">Developing </td> <td style="background: #FFE3E3; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-no2">No </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left">Loss of initial <i>*h-</i> before consonant </th> <td style="background: #FFE3E3; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-no2">No </td> <td style="background: #FFE3E3; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-no2">No </td> <td style="background: #FFE3E3; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-no2">No </td> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Yes </td> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Yes </td> <td style="background:#FFB; color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-partial">Developing </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left">Loss of initial <i>*w-</i> before consonant </th> <td style="background: #FFE3E3; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-no2">No </td> <td style="background: #FFE3E3; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-no2">No </td> <td style="background: #FFE3E3; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-no2">No </td> <td style="background: #FFE3E3; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-no2">No </td> <td style="background:#FFB; color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-partial">Most dialects </td> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Yes </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/High_German_consonant_shift" title="High German consonant shift">High German consonant shift</a> </th> <td style="background: #FFE3E3; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-no2">No </td> <td style="background: #FFE3E3; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-no2">No </td> <td style="background: #FFE3E3; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-no2">No </td> <td style="background: #FFE3E3; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-no2">No </td> <td style="background:#FFB; color:black;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-partial">Partial </td> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Yes </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The following table shows some comparisons of consonant development in the respective dialect/language (online examples though) continuum, showing the gradually growing partake in the <a href="/wiki/High_German_consonant_shift#Geographical_distribution" title="High German consonant shift">High German consonant shift</a> and the anglofrisian palatalization. The table uses <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internationales_Phonetisches_Alphabet" class="extiw" title="de:Internationales Phonetisches Alphabet">IPA</a>, to avoid confusion via orthographical differences. The realisation of [r] will be ignored. </p><p>C = any consonant, A = back vowel, E = front vowel </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Proto West Germanic </th> <th>*θ- </th> <th>*-ð- </th> <th>*-β- </th> <th>*-β </th> <th>*g- </th> <th>*-Aɣ- </th> <th>*-Eɣ- </th> <th>*-Ak- </th> <th>*-Ak </th> <th>*-Ek- </th> <th>*-Ek </th> <th>*d- </th> <th>*-d- </th> <th>*b- </th> <th>*sA- </th> <th>*sE- </th> <th>*sk </th> <th>*-t- </th> <th>*-p- </th> <th>*-tt- </th> <th>*t- </th> <th>*-pp- </th> <th>*p- </th> <th>*-kk- </th> <th>*kA- </th> <th>*kE- </th></tr> <tr> <td>PR-English </td> <td>θ </td> <td>ð </td> <td rowspan="9">v </td> <td rowspan="8">f </td> <td colspan="2" rowspan="2">ɣ </td> <td colspan="1" rowspan="2">j </td> <td colspan="2" rowspan="7">k </td> <td colspan="2">t̠ʃ </td> <td colspan="2" rowspan="7">d </td> <td rowspan="11">b </td> <td rowspan="2">s </td> <td rowspan="2">ʃ </td> <td>ʃ </td> <td rowspan="8">t </td> <td rowspan="8">p </td> <td colspan="2" rowspan="7">t </td> <td rowspan="8">p </td> <td rowspan="10">p </td> <td rowspan="8">k </td> <td rowspan="2">k </td> <td rowspan="2">t̠ʃ </td></tr> <tr> <td>Frisian </td> <td>t </td> <td>ɾ~d </td> <td colspan="2" rowspan="6">k </td> <td>sk </td></tr> <tr> <td>South Low Franconian </td> <td rowspan="10">d </td> <td rowspan="6">d </td> <td colspan="3">ɣ </td> <td colspan="2" rowspan="9">z </td> <td rowspan="2">sx </td> <td colspan="2" rowspan="9">k </td></tr> <tr> <td>North Low Franconian (Dutch) </td> <td rowspan="2">x </td> <td rowspan="3">x </td> <td rowspan="3">ç </td></tr> <tr> <td>West Low German </td> <td rowspan="8">ʃ </td></tr> <tr> <td>North/Central Low German </td> <td rowspan="6">g </td></tr> <tr> <td>East Low German </td> <td>ʝ </td> <td>ʃ </td></tr> <tr> <td>West Central German </td> <td>x </td> <td>ç </td> <td colspan="2">x </td> <td colspan="2">ʃ </td> <td colspan="2">t </td> <td colspan="2" rowspan="5">t͡s </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mid Central German </td> <td>ɾ </td> <td rowspan="4">b </td> <td>ɣ </td> <td>ʝ </td> <td>ɣ </td> <td>x </td> <td>ʒ </td> <td>ʃ </td> <td colspan="2">d </td> <td>z </td> <td>v </td> <td>b </td> <td>g </td></tr> <tr> <td>East Central German </td> <td rowspan="3">d </td> <td rowspan="3">b </td> <td colspan="2" rowspan="3">g </td> <td colspan="2" rowspan="3">x </td> <td colspan="2">ʃ </td> <td colspan="2" rowspan="3">t </td> <td rowspan="3">s </td> <td rowspan="3">f </td> <td>p </td> <td rowspan="2">k </td></tr> <tr> <td>Upper German (only partly HG) </td> <td colspan="2">ç </td> <td colspan="2" rowspan="2">p͡f </td></tr> <tr> <td>-> some southernmost dialects </td> <td>k </td> <td colspan="2">x </td> <td>p </td> <td>s </td> <td> </td> <td colspan="3">k͡x </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=West_Germanic_languages&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The existence of a unified Proto-West Germanic language is debated. Features which are common to West Germanic languages may be attributed either to common inheritance or to areal effects. </p><p>The phonological system of the West Germanic branching as reconstructed is mostly similar to that of Proto-Germanic, with some changes in the categorization and phonetic realization of some phonemes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=West_Germanic_languages&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Consonants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In addition to the particular changes described above, some notable differences in the consonant system of West Germanic from Proto-Germanic are: </p> <ul><li>Fortition of /ð/ to /d/ in all positions</li> <li>The transition of /z/ into a <a href="/wiki/Rhotic_consonant" title="Rhotic consonant">rhotic consonant</a> (often transcribed as <b>ʀ</b>), which eventually merged with /r/</li> <li>A process referred to as <a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_gemination" title="West Germanic gemination">West Germanic gemination</a>, which is visible in the history of all West Germanic languages</li></ul> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Consonant phonemes of West Germanic </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th colspan="2">Labial </th> <th colspan="2">Dental </th> <th colspan="2">Alveolar </th> <th>Palatal </th> <th colspan="2">Velar </th> <th colspan="2">Labio-Velar </th></tr> <tr> <th>Nasal </th> <td colspan="2">m </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2">n </td> <td> </td> <td colspan="2">(ŋ) </td> <td colspan="2">(ŋʷ) </td></tr> <tr> <th>Stop </th> <td>p </td> <td rowspan="2">b~v </td> <td>t </td> <td>d </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td> </td> <td>k </td> <td rowspan="2">g~ɣ </td> <td>kʷ </td> <td rowspan="2">gʷ~ɣʷ </td></tr> <tr> <th>Fricative </th> <td>f </td> <td colspan="2">θ </td> <td>s </td> <td rowspan="2">z </td> <td> </td> <td>x </td> <td>xʷ </td></tr> <tr> <th>Rhotic </th> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td>r </td> <td> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Approximant </th> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2">l </td> <td>j </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2">w </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=West_Germanic_languages&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Vowels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some notable differences in the vowel system of West Germanic from Proto-Germanic are: </p> <ul><li>Reduction of overlong vowels to simple long vowels</li> <li>Lowering of /ɛː/ to /æː/</li> <li>The creation of a new short /o/ phoneme, from the lowering of /u/ in initial syllables before /a/, and the reduction of word-final /ɔː/</li></ul> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <caption>Monophthong phonemes of West Germanic </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr class="small"> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Roundedness" title="Roundedness">unrounded</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Roundedness" title="Roundedness">unrounded</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Roundedness" title="Roundedness">rounded</a> </th></tr> <tr class="small"> <th> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Short_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Short vowel">short</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Long_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Long vowel">long</a> </th> <th>short </th> <th>long </th> <th>short </th> <th>long </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">i</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">iː</span> </td> <th colspan="2"> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">u</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">uː</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_vowel" title="Close-mid vowel">Mid</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">eː</span> </td> <th colspan="2"> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">o</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">oː</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <th colspan="1"> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">æː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">a</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">aː</span> </td> <th colspan="2"> </th></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Morphology">Morphology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=West_Germanic_languages&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Morphology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nouns">Nouns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=West_Germanic_languages&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Nouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The noun paradigms of Proto-West Germanic have been reconstructed as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Case </th> <th colspan="2">Nouns in <i>-a-</i> (m.)<br />*dagă (day)</th> <th colspan="2">Nouns in <i>-ja-</i><br />*herjă (army)</th> <th colspan="2">Nouns in <i>-ija-</i><br />*hirdijă (herder)</th> <th colspan="2">Nouns in <i>-a-</i> (n.)<br />*joką (yoke)</th> <th colspan="2">Nouns in <i>-ō-</i><br />*gebu (gift)</th> <th colspan="2">Nouns in <i>-i-</i><br />*gastĭ<sup id="cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._85_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Euler_2022,_p._85-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>/*gasti<sup id="cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._115_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ringe_2014,_p._115-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (guest)</th> <th colspan="2">Nouns in <i>-u-</i><br />*sunu (son)</th> <th colspan="2">Nouns in <i>-u-</i> (n.)<br />*fehu (cattle) </th></tr> <tr> <th style="width:80px;">Singular</th> <th style="width:80px;">Plural</th> <th style="width:80px;">Singular</th> <th style="width:80px;">Plural</th> <th style="width:80px;">Singular</th> <th style="width:80px;">Plural</th> <th style="width:80px;">Singular</th> <th style="width:80px;">Plural</th> <th style="width:80px;">Singular</th> <th style="width:80px;">Plural</th> <th style="width:80px;">Singular</th> <th style="width:80px;">Plural</th> <th style="width:80px;">Singular</th> <th style="width:80px;">Plural</th> <th style="width:80px;">Singular</th> <th style="width:80px;">Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>Nominative </th> <td>*dag<sup id="cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._114_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ringe_2014,_p._114-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>/dagă<sup id="cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._81_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Euler_2022,_p._81-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td rowspan="2">*dagō?<sup id="cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._114_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ringe_2014,_p._114-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>/dagā<sup id="cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._78_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Euler_2022,_p._78-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>*herjă<sup id="cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._81_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Euler_2022,_p._81-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>/*hari<sup id="cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._114_68-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ringe_2014,_p._114-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td rowspan="2">*herjā<sup id="cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._81_69-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Euler_2022,_p._81-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>/*harjō?<sup id="cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._114_68-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ringe_2014,_p._114-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>*hirdijă</td> <td rowspan="2">*hirdijō</td> <td rowspan="3">*joką</td> <td rowspan="3">*joku</td> <td rowspan="2">*gebu</td> <td rowspan="2">*gebā<sup id="cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._83_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Euler_2022,_p._83-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>/*gebō<sup id="cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._114_68-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ringe_2014,_p._114-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td rowspan="2">*gastĭ/*gasti</td> <td rowspan="2">*gastī</td> <td rowspan="2">*sunu</td> <td rowspan="2">*sunī<*suniwi<sup id="cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._88_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Euler_2022,_p._88-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>/*suniwi, -ō<sup id="cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._115_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ringe_2014,_p._115-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td rowspan="3">*fehu</td> <td rowspan="6">(?) </td></tr> <tr> <th>Vocative </th> <td>*dag(ă)</td> <td>*herjă<sup id="cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._81_69-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Euler_2022,_p._81-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>/*hari<sup id="cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._114_68-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ringe_2014,_p._114-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>*hirdī </td></tr> <tr> <th>Accusative </th> <td>*dag<sup id="cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._114_68-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ringe_2014,_p._114-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>/dagă<sup id="cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._78_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Euler_2022,_p._78-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>*dagą̄?<sup id="cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._114_68-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ringe_2014,_p._114-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>/dagą<sup id="cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._78_70-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Euler_2022,_p._78-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>*herjă<sup id="cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._81_69-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Euler_2022,_p._81-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>/*hari<sup id="cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._114_68-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ringe_2014,_p._114-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>*herją<sup id="cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._81_69-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Euler_2022,_p._81-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>/*harją̄?<sup id="cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._114_68-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ringe_2014,_p._114-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>*hirdiją</td> <td>*hirdiją̄</td> <td>*geba<sup id="cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._83_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Euler_2022,_p._83-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>/*gebā<sup id="cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._114_68-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ringe_2014,_p._114-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>*gebā</td> <td>*gastĭ/*gasti</td> <td>*gasti<sup id="cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._85_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Euler_2022,_p._85-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>/*gastį̄<sup id="cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._115_67-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ringe_2014,_p._115-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>*sunu</td> <td>*sunu < *sunų<sup id="cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._88_72-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Euler_2022,_p._88-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> / *sunų̄?<sup id="cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._115_67-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ringe_2014,_p._115-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Genitive </th> <td>*dagas</td> <td>*dagō</td> <td>*herjes<sup id="cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._81_69-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Euler_2022,_p._81-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>/*harjas<sup id="cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._114_68-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ringe_2014,_p._114-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>*herjō<sup id="cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._81_69-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Euler_2022,_p._81-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>/*harjō<sup id="cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._114_68-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ringe_2014,_p._114-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>*hirdijas</td> <td>*hirdijō</td> <td>*jokas</td> <td>*jokō</td> <td>*gebā</td> <td>*gebō(nō)<sup id="cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._83_71-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Euler_2022,_p._83-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>/*gebō<sup id="cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._114_68-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ringe_2014,_p._114-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>*gastes<sup id="cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._85_66-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Euler_2022,_p._85-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>/*gastī<sup id="cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._115_67-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ringe_2014,_p._115-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>*gastijō</td> <td>*sunō</td> <td>*suniwō</td> <td>*fehō </td></tr> <tr> <th>Dative </th> <td>*dagē</td> <td rowspan="2">*dagum</td> <td>*herjē<sup id="cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._81_69-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Euler_2022,_p._81-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>/*harjē<sup id="cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._114_68-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ringe_2014,_p._114-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td rowspan="2">*herjum<sup id="cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._81_69-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Euler_2022,_p._81-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>/*harjum<sup id="cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._114_68-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ringe_2014,_p._114-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>*hirdijē</td> <td rowspan="2">*hirdijum</td> <td>*jokē</td> <td rowspan="2">*jokum</td> <td>*gebu<sup id="cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._83_71-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Euler_2022,_p._83-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>/*gebē<sup id="cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._114_68-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ringe_2014,_p._114-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td rowspan="2">*gebōm</td> <td rowspan="2">*gastē<sup id="cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._85_66-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Euler_2022,_p._85-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>/*gastī<sup id="cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._115_67-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ringe_2014,_p._115-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td rowspan="2">*gastim</td> <td>*suniu < *suniwi<sup id="cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._88_72-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Euler_2022,_p._88-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> / *suniwi, -ō<sup id="cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._115_67-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ringe_2014,_p._115-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td rowspan="2">*sunum</td> <td>*fehiwi, -ō </td></tr> <tr> <th>Instrumental </th> <td>*dagu</td> <td>*herju<sup id="cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._81_69-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Euler_2022,_p._81-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>/*harju<sup id="cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._114_68-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ringe_2014,_p._114-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>*hirdiju</td> <td>*joku</td> <td>*gebu</td> <td>*sunu < *sunū<sup id="cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._88_72-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Euler_2022,_p._88-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> / *sunu<sup id="cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._115_67-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ringe_2014,_p._115-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>*fehu </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="West_Germanic_vocabulary">West Germanic vocabulary</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=West_Germanic_languages&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: West Germanic vocabulary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following table compares a number of Frisian, English, Scots, Yola, Dutch, Limburgish, German and Afrikaans words with common West Germanic (or older) origin. The <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">grammatical gender</a> of each term is noted as masculine (<i>m.</i>), feminine (<i>f.</i>), or neuter (<i>n.</i>) where relevant. </p> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th>West Frisian</th> <th>English</th> <th>Scots</th> <th>Yola </th> <th>Afrikaans</th> <th>Dutch </th> <th>Limburgish</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Standard_German" title="Standard German">Standard High German</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German">Old High German</a></th> <th>Proto-West Germanic<sup id="cite_ref-vocabulary_comparison_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vocabulary_comparison-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Germanic">Proto-Germanic</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td><span title="West Frisian-language text"><i lang="fy">kaam</i></span></td> <td>comb</td> <td><span title="Scots-language text"><i lang="sco">kaim</i></span></td> <td>khime / rack </td> <td>kam</td> <td>kam <i>m.</i> </td> <td>kâmp</td> <td>Kamm <i>m.</i> </td> <td>camb <i>m.</i></td> <td>camb <i>m.</i></td> <td>kąbă [see inscription of Erfurt-Frienstedt], *kambă <i>m.</i></td> <td>*kambaz <i>m.</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="West Frisian-language text"><i lang="fy">dei</i></span></td> <td>day</td> <td><span title="Scots-language text"><i lang="sco">day</i></span></td> <td>dei </td> <td>dag</td> <td>dag <i>m.</i> </td> <td>daag</td> <td>Tag <i>m.</i> </td> <td>dæġ <i>m.</i></td> <td>tag <i>m.</i></td> <td>*dagă <i>m.</i></td> <td>*dagaz <i>m.</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="West Frisian-language text"><i lang="fy">rein</i></span></td> <td>rain</td> <td><span title="Scots-language text"><i lang="sco">rain</i></span></td> <td>rhyne </td> <td>reën</td> <td>regen <i>m.</i> </td> <td>rengel, raege</td> <td>Regen <i>m.</i> </td> <td>reġn <i>m.</i></td> <td>regan <i>m.</i></td> <td>*regnă <i>m.</i></td> <td>*regnaz <i>m.</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="West Frisian-language text"><i lang="fy">wei</i></span></td> <td>way</td> <td><span title="Scots-language text"><i lang="sco">wey</i></span></td> <td>wei / wye </td> <td>weg</td> <td>weg <i>m.</i> </td> <td>weeg</td> <td>Weg <i>m.</i> </td> <td>weġ <i>m.</i></td> <td>weg <i>m.</i></td> <td>*wegă <i>m.</i></td> <td>*wegaz <i>m.</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="West Frisian-language text"><i lang="fy">neil</i></span></td> <td>nail</td> <td><span title="Scots-language text"><i lang="sco">nail</i></span></td> <td>niel </td> <td>nael</td> <td>nagel <i>m.</i> </td> <td>nieëgel</td> <td>Nagel <i>m.</i> </td> <td>næġel <i>m.</i></td> <td>nagal <i>m.</i></td> <td>*naglă <i>m.</i></td> <td>*naglaz <i>m.</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="West Frisian-language text"><i lang="fy">tsiis</i></span></td> <td>cheese</td> <td><span title="Scots-language text"><i lang="sco">cheese</i></span></td> <td>cheese </td> <td>kaas</td> <td>kaas <i>m.</i> </td> <td>kieës</td> <td>Käse <i>m.</i> </td> <td>ċēse, ċīese <i>m.</i></td> <td>chāsi, kāsi <i>m.</i></td> <td>*kāsī <i>m.</i></td> <td>*kāsijaz <i>m.</i> (late Proto-Germanic, from Latin <i>cāseus</i>) </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="West Frisian-language text"><i lang="fy">tsjerke</i></span></td> <td>church</td> <td><span title="Scots-language text"><i lang="sco">kirk</i></span></td> <td>chourch </td> <td>kerk</td> <td>kerk <i>f.</i> </td> <td>kêrk</td> <td>Kirche <i>f.</i> </td> <td>ċiriċe <i>f.</i></td> <td>chirihha, *kirihha <i>f.</i></td> <td>*kirikā <i>f.</i></td> <td>*kirikǭ <i>f.</i> (from Ancient Greek <i>kuriakón</i> "belonging to the lord") </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="West Frisian-language text"><i lang="fy">sibbe</i></span></td> <td>sib; sibling<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td><span title="Scots-language text"><i lang="sco">sib</i></span></td> <td>sibbe (dated) / meany </td> <td>–</td> <td>sibbe <i>f.</i> </td> <td>–</td> <td>Sippe <i>f.</i> </td> <td>sibb <i>f.</i> "kinship, peace"</td> <td>sippa <i>f.</i> [cp. <a href="/wiki/Old_Saxon" title="Old Saxon">Old Saxon</a>: sibbia]</td> <td>sibbju, sibbjā <i>f.</i></td> <td>*sibjō <i>f.</i> "relationship, kinship, friendship" </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="West Frisian-language text"><i lang="fy">kaai</i></span> <i>f.</i></td> <td>key</td> <td><span title="Scots-language text"><i lang="sco">key</i></span></td> <td>kei / kie </td> <td>sleutel</td> <td>sleutel <i>m.</i> </td> <td>slueëtel</td> <td>Schlüssel <i>m.</i> </td> <td>cǣġ(e), cǣga <i>f.</i> "key, solution, experiment"</td> <td>sluzzil <i>m.</i></td> <td>*slutilă <i>m.</i>, *kēgă <i>f.</i></td> <td>*slutilaz <i>m.</i> "key"; *kēgaz, *kēguz <i>f.</i> "stake, post, pole" </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="West Frisian-language text"><i lang="fy">ha west</i></span></td> <td>have been</td> <td><span title="Scots-language text"><i lang="sco">hae(s)</i></span>/<span title="Scots-language text"><i lang="sco">hiv been</i></span></td> <td>ha bin </td> <td>was gewees</td> <td>ben geweest </td> <td>bin geweis(t)</td> <td>bin gewesen </td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="West Frisian-language text"><i lang="fy">twa skiep</i></span></td> <td>two sheep</td> <td><span title="Scots-language text"><i lang="sco">twa sheep</i></span></td> <td>twye zheep </td> <td>twee skape</td> <td>twee schapen <i>n.</i> </td> <td>twieë schäöp</td> <td>zwei Schafe <i>n.</i> </td> <td>twā sċēap <i>n.</i></td> <td>zwei scāfa <i>n.</i></td> <td>*twai skēpu <i>n.</i></td> <td>*twai(?) skēpō <i>n.</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="West Frisian-language text"><i lang="fy">hawwe</i></span></td> <td>have</td> <td><span title="Scots-language text"><i lang="sco">hae</i></span></td> <td>ha </td> <td>het</td> <td>hebben </td> <td>hebbe, höbbe</td> <td>haben </td> <td>habban, hafian</td> <td>habēn</td> <td>*habbjană</td> <td>*habjaną </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="West Frisian-language text"><i lang="fy">ús</i></span></td> <td>us</td> <td><span title="Scots-language text"><i lang="sco">us</i></span></td> <td>ouse </td> <td>ons</td> <td>ons </td> <td>os</td> <td>uns </td> <td>ūs</td> <td>uns</td> <td>*uns</td> <td>*uns </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="West Frisian-language text"><i lang="fy">brea</i></span></td> <td>bread</td> <td><span title="Scots-language text"><i lang="sco">breid</i></span></td> <td>breed </td> <td>brood</td> <td>brood <i>n.</i> </td> <td>mik, broeëd</td> <td>Brot <i>n.</i> </td> <td>brēad <i>n.</i> "fragment, bit, morsel, crumb" also "bread"</td> <td>brōt <i>n.</i></td> <td>*braudă <i>m.</i></td> <td>*braudą <i>n.</i> "cooked food, leavened bread" </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="West Frisian-language text"><i lang="fy">hier</i></span></td> <td>hair</td> <td><span title="Scots-language text"><i lang="sco">hair</i></span></td> <td>haar </td> <td>haar</td> <td>haar <i>n.</i> </td> <td>haor</td> <td>Haar <i>n.</i> </td> <td>hēr, hǣr <i>n.</i></td> <td>hār <i>n.</i></td> <td>*hǣră <i>n.</i></td> <td>*hērą <i>n.</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="West Frisian-language text"><i lang="fy">ear</i></span></td> <td>ear</td> <td><span title="Scots-language text"><i lang="sco">lug</i></span></td> <td>lug </td> <td>oor</td> <td>oor <i>n.</i> </td> <td>oeër</td> <td>Ohr <i>n.</i> </td> <td>ēare <i>n.</i> < pre-English *ǣora</td> <td>ōra <i>n.</i></td> <td>*aura < *auza <i>n.</i></td> <td>*auzǭ, *ausōn <i>n.</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="West Frisian-language text"><i lang="fy">doar</i></span></td> <td>door</td> <td><span title="Scots-language text"><i lang="sco">door</i></span></td> <td>dher </td> <td>deur</td> <td>deur <i>f.</i> </td> <td>dueër</td> <td>Tür <i>f.</i> </td> <td>duru <i>f.</i></td> <td>turi <i>f.</i></td> <td>*duru <i>f.</i></td> <td>*durz <i>f.</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="West Frisian-language text"><i lang="fy">grien</i></span></td> <td>green</td> <td><span title="Scots-language text"><i lang="sco">green</i></span></td> <td>green </td> <td>groen</td> <td>groen </td> <td>greun</td> <td>grün </td> <td>grēne</td> <td>gruoni</td> <td>*grōnĭ</td> <td>*grōniz </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="West Frisian-language text"><i lang="fy">swiet</i></span></td> <td>sweet</td> <td><span title="Scots-language text"><i lang="sco">sweet</i></span></td> <td>sweet </td> <td>soet</td> <td>zoet </td> <td>zeut</td> <td>süß </td> <td>swēte</td> <td>s(w)uozi (< *swōti)</td> <td>*swōtŭ</td> <td>*swōtuz </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="West Frisian-language text"><i lang="fy">troch</i></span></td> <td>through</td> <td><span title="Scots-language text"><i lang="sco">throu</i></span></td> <td>draugh </td> <td>deur</td> <td>door </td> <td>doeër</td> <td>durch </td> <td>þurh</td> <td>duruh</td> <td></td> <td>*þurhw </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="West Frisian-language text"><i lang="fy">wiet</i></span></td> <td>wet</td> <td><span title="Scots-language text"><i lang="sco">weet</i></span></td> <td>weate </td> <td>nat</td> <td>nat </td> <td>naat</td> <td>nass (traditional spelling: naß) </td> <td>wǣt</td> <td>naz (< *nat)</td> <td>*wǣtă / *nată</td> <td>*wētaz / *nataz </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="West Frisian-language text"><i lang="fy">each</i></span></td> <td>eye</td> <td><span title="Scots-language text"><i lang="sco">ee</i></span></td> <td>ei / iee </td> <td>oog</td> <td>oog <i>n.</i> </td> <td>oug</td> <td>Auge <i>n.</i> </td> <td>ēage <i>n.</i> < pre-English *ǣoga</td> <td>ouga <i>n.</i></td> <td>*auga <i>n.</i></td> <td>*augō <i>n.</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="West Frisian-language text"><i lang="fy">dream</i></span></td> <td>dream</td> <td><span title="Scots-language text"><i lang="sco">dream</i></span></td> <td>dreem </td> <td>droom</td> <td>droom <i>m.</i> </td> <td>draum</td> <td>Traum <i>m.</i> </td> <td>drēam <i>m.</i> "joy, pleasure, ecstasy, music, song"</td> <td>troum <i>m.</i></td> <td>*draumă <i>m.</i></td> <td>*draumaz (< *draugmaz) <i>m.</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="West Frisian-language text"><i lang="fy">stien</i></span></td> <td>stone</td> <td><span title="Scots-language text"><i lang="sco">stane</i></span></td> <td>sthoan </td> <td>steen</td> <td>steen <i>m.</i> </td> <td>stein</td> <td>Stein <i>m.</i> </td> <td>stān <i>m.</i></td> <td>stein <i>m.</i></td> <td>*staină <i>m.</i></td> <td>*stainaz <i>m.</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="West Frisian-language text"><i lang="fy">bed</i></span></td> <td>bed</td> <td><span title="Scots-language text"><i lang="sco">bed</i></span></td> <td>bed </td> <td>bed</td> <td>bed <i>n.</i> </td> <td>bed</td> <td>Bett <i>n.</i> </td> <td>bedd <i>n.</i></td> <td>betti <i>n.</i></td> <td>*baddjă <i>n.</i></td> <td>*badją <i>n.</i> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Other words, with a variety of origins: </p> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th>West Frisian</th> <th>English</th> <th>Scots </th> <th>Afrikaans</th> <th>Dutch </th> <th>Limburgish</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Standard_German" title="Standard German">Standard High German</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German">Old High German</a></th> <th>Proto-West Germanic<sup id="cite_ref-vocabulary_comparison_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vocabulary_comparison-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Germanic">Proto-Germanic</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>tegearre</td> <td>together</td> <td>thegither </td> <td>saam <br /> tesame</td> <td>samen <br /> tezamen </td> <td>same</td> <td>zusammen </td> <td>tōgædere <br /> samen <br /> tōsamne</td> <td>saman <br /> zisamane</td> <td>*tōgadura, *tegadura / *tesamane</td> <td>*tōgadur <br /> *samana </td></tr> <tr> <td>hynder</td> <td>horse</td> <td>pony </td> <td>perd</td> <td>paard <i>n.</i> <br /> ros <i>n.</i> (dated) </td> <td>perd <br /> ros</td> <td>Pferd <i>n.</i> / Ross <i>n.</i> (traditional spelling: Roß) </td> <td>hors <i>n.</i> eoh <i>m.</i></td> <td>(h)ros <i>n.</i> / pfarifrit <i>n.</i> / ehu- (in compositions)</td> <td>*hrussă <i>n.</i> / *ehu <i>m.</i></td> <td>*hrussą <i>n.</i>, *ehwaz <i>m.</i> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Note that some of the shown similarities of Frisian and English vis-à-vis Dutch and German are secondary and not due to a closer relationship between them. For example, the plural of the word for "sheep" was originally unchanged in all four languages and still is in some Dutch dialects and a great deal of German dialects. Many other similarities, however, are indeed old inheritances. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=West_Germanic_languages&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Original meaning "relative" has become "brother or sister" in English.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=West_Germanic_languages&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Hawkins-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hawkins_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHawkins1987" class="citation book cs1">Hawkins, John A. (1987). "Germanic languages". In <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Comrie" title="Bernard Comrie">Bernard Comrie</a> (ed.). <i>The World's Major Languages</i>. Oxford University Press. pp. 68–76. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-520521-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-520521-9"><bdi>0-19-520521-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Germanic+languages&rft.btitle=The+World%27s+Major+Languages&rft.pages=68-76&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-19-520521-9&rft.aulast=Hawkins&rft.aufirst=John+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWest+Germanic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Euler (2022): p.25f, Seebold (1998): p.13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Euler (2022): p. 238, 243</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Euler (2022): p. 243</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Robinson-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Robinson_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robinson_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobinson1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Orrin_W._Robinson_(philologist)" title="Orrin W. Robinson (philologist)">Robinson, Orrin W.</a> (1992). <i>Old English and Its Closest Relatives</i>. Stanford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8047-2221-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8047-2221-8"><bdi>0-8047-2221-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Old+English+and+Its+Closest+Relatives&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-8047-2221-8&rft.aulast=Robinson&rft.aufirst=Orrin+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWest+Germanic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Euler (2013): p. 53, Ringe / Tayler (2014): p. 104, Euler (2022): p. 61</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stiles (1985): p. 91-94, with references.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ringe/Taylor (2014): p. 73, 104</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-P._Stiles_2013:_p._15-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-P._Stiles_2013:_p._15_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-P._Stiles_2013:_p._15_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-P._Stiles_2013:_p._15_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">P. Stiles (2013): p. 15</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Euler (2022): p. 71f</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">v. Fierlinger (1885): p. 432-446</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Löwe, R.: Kuhns Zeitschrift [KZ] vol. 40, p. 267; quoted from Hirt (1932 / vol. 2), p. 152</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Behaghel (1922), p. 167</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hirt (1932 / vol. 2), p. 152f.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Polomé (1964), pp. 870ff.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Meid (1971), p. 13ff.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hill (2004): p. 281-286</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mottausch (2013)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Euler (2022): p. 153f</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Crist, Sean: An Analysis of *z loss in West Germanic. Linguistic Society of America, Annual Meeting, 2002</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Euler (2013): p. 53</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ringe/Taylor (2014): p. 43</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Euler (2013): p.53</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ringe/Taylor (2014): p. 50-54</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Euler (2013): p.54</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ringe/Taylor (2014): 104.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stiles (2013): p. 24ff, Euler (2013): p. 49</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Euler (2013): p.230</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Euler (2013): p. 61, 133, 171, 174</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Euler (2013): p. 67, 70, 74, 76, 97, 113 etc.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Euler (2013): p. 168-178</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Euler (2013): p. 170-173</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Meid, Wolfgang (1971). "Das germanische Präteritum", Innsbruck: Institut für Sprachwissenschaft, p. 13; Euler, Wolfram/Badenheuer, Konrad (2009), "Sprache und Herkunft der Germanen", pp. 168–171, London/Berlin: Inspiration Un Ltd.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Euler (2013): p. 138-141</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Euler (2022): p. 196-211</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Euler (2013): p. 194-200</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ringe/Taylor (2014): p. 126-128</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ringe/Taylor (2014): p. 128f</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ringe/Taylor (2014): p. 129-132</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ringe (2014): p. 132</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Euler (2022): p. 222</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nielsen (1981)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robinson (1992): p. 17-18</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Klingenschmitt (2002): p. 169-189</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Euler (2013, 2022)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hartmann 2023: 199 ("a West Germanic protolanguage is uncontroversial")</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Don Ringe (2012): Cladistic Methodology and West Germanic – Yale Linguistics, p. 6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kuhn-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kuhn_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuhn1955–56" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-year-range-abbreviated">Kuhn, Hans (1955–56). "Zur Gliederung der germanischen Sprachen". <i>Zeitschrift für deutsches Altertum und deutsche Literatur</i>. <b>86</b>: 1–47.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+deutsches+Altertum+und+deutsche+Literatur&rft.atitle=Zur+Gliederung+der+germanischen+Sprachen&rft.volume=86&rft.pages=1-47&rft.date=1955%2F1956&rft.aulast=Kuhn&rft.aufirst=Hans&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWest+Germanic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">However, see <a href="/wiki/Fausto_Cercignani" title="Fausto Cercignani">Cercignani, Fausto</a>, <i>Indo-European ē in Germanic</i>, in «Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschung», 86/1, 1972, pp. 104–110.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ringe, Don. 2006: <i>A Linguistic History of English</i>. Volume I. From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic, Oxford University Press, p. 213-214.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H. F. Nielsen (1981, 2001), G. Klingenschmitt (2002) and K.-H. Mottausch (1998, 2011)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wolfram Euler: <i>Das Westgermanische – von der Herausbildung im 3. bis zur Aufgliederung im 7. Jahrhundert — Analyse und Rekonstruktion</i> (<i>West Germanic: From its Emergence in the 3rd Century to its Split in the 7th Century: Analyses and Reconstruction</i>). 244 p., in German with English summary, London/Berlin 2013, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-9812110-7-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-9812110-7-8">978-3-9812110-7-8</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ringe, Donald R. and Taylor, Ann (2014). <i>The Development of Old English – A Linguistic History of English, vol. II</i>, 632p. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199207848" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199207848">978-0199207848</a>. Oxford.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Euler (2013): p. 20-34, 229, 231</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Graeme_Davis_(mediaevalist)" title="Graeme Davis (mediaevalist)">Graeme Davis</a> (2006:154) notes "the languages of the Germanic group in the Old period are much closer than has previously been noted. Indeed it would not be inappropriate to regard them as dialects of one language. They are undoubtedly far closer one to another than are the various dialects of modern Chinese, for example. A reasonable modern analogy might be Arabic, where considerable dialectical diversity exists but within the concept of a single Arabic language." In: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavis2006" class="citation book cs1">Davis, Graeme (2006). <i>Comparative Syntax of Old English and Old Icelandic: Linguistic, Literary and Historical Implications</i>. Bern: Peter Lang. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-03910-270-2" title="Special:BookSources/3-03910-270-2"><bdi>3-03910-270-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Comparative+Syntax+of+Old+English+and+Old+Icelandic%3A+Linguistic%2C+Literary+and+Historical+Implications&rft.place=Bern&rft.pub=Peter+Lang&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=3-03910-270-2&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=Graeme&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWest+Germanic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Map based on: Meineke, Eckhard & Schwerdt, Judith, Einführung in das Althochdeutsche, Paderborn/Zürich 2001, pp. 209.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">W. Heeringa: <i>Measuring Dialect Pronunciation Differences using Levenshtein Distance.</i> University of Groningen, 2009, pp. 232–234.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter Wiesinger: <i>Die Einteilung der deutschen Dialekte.</i> In: Werner Besch, Ulrich Knoop, Wolfgang Putschke, Herbert Ernst Wiegand (Hrsg.): <i>Dialektologie. Ein Handbuch zur deutschen und allgemeinen Dialektforschung,</i> 2. Halbband. de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 1983, ISBN 3-11-009571-8, pp. 807–900.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Werner König: <i>dtv-Atlas Deutsche Sprache.</i> 19. Auflage. dtv, München 2019, ISBN 978-3-423-03025-0, pp. 230.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">C. Giesbers: <i>Dialecten op de grens van twee talen.</i> Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen, 2008, pp. 233.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hickey2005-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hickey2005_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHickey2005" class="citation book cs1">Hickey, Raymond (2005). <i>Dublin English: Evolution and Change</i>. John Benjamins Publishing. pp. 196–198. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-272-4895-8" title="Special:BookSources/90-272-4895-8"><bdi>90-272-4895-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dublin+English%3A+Evolution+and+Change&rft.pages=196-198&rft.pub=John+Benjamins+Publishing&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=90-272-4895-8&rft.aulast=Hickey&rft.aufirst=Raymond&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWest+Germanic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hickey2002-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hickey2002_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHickey2002" class="citation book cs1">Hickey, Raymond (2002). <i>A Source Book for Irish English</i>. John Benjamins Publishing. pp. 28–29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9027237530" title="Special:BookSources/9027237530"><bdi>9027237530</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Source+Book+for+Irish+English&rft.pages=28-29&rft.pub=John+Benjamins+Publishing&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9027237530&rft.aulast=Hickey&rft.aufirst=Raymond&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWest+Germanic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHammarströmForkelHaspelmathBank2023" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Harald_Hammarstr%C3%B6m" title="Harald Hammarström">Hammarström, Harald</a>; Forkel, Robert; <a href="/wiki/Martin_Haspelmath" title="Martin Haspelmath">Haspelmath, Martin</a>; Bank, Sebastian (2023-07-10). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/east2834">"Glottolog 4.8 - Irish Anglo-Norman"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></i>. Leipzig, Germany: <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck_Institute_for_Evolutionary_Anthropology" title="Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology">Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5281%2Fzenodo.8131084">10.5281/zenodo.8131084</a></span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230717050346/https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/east2834">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-07-17<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-07-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Glottolog&rft.atitle=Glottolog+4.8+-+Irish+Anglo-Norman&rft.date=2023-07-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5281%2Fzenodo.8131084&rft.aulast=Hammarstr%C3%B6m&rft.aufirst=Harald&rft.au=Forkel%2C+Robert&rft.au=Haspelmath%2C+Martin&rft.au=Bank%2C+Sebastian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fglottolog.org%2Fresource%2Flanguoid%2Fid%2Feast2834&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWest+Germanic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRinge_and_Taylor" class="citation book cs1">Ringe and Taylor. <i>The Development of Old English</i>. Oxford University Press, 2nd ed. 2014. pp. 114–115.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Development+of+Old+English&rft.pages=114-115&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press%2C+2nd+ed.+2014&rft.au=Ringe+and+Taylor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWest+Germanic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Euler (2022), pp. 78–107</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Euler_2022,_p._85-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._85_66-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._85_66-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._85_66-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._85_66-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Euler (2022), p. 85</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ringe_2014,_p._115-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._115_67-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._115_67-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._115_67-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._115_67-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._115_67-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._115_67-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._115_67-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._115_67-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ringe (2014), p. 115</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ringe_2014,_p._114-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._114_68-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._114_68-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._114_68-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._114_68-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._114_68-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._114_68-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._114_68-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._114_68-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._114_68-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._114_68-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._114_68-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._114_68-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._114_68-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._114_68-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._114_68-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._114_68-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._114_68-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ringe_2014,_p._114_68-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ringe (2014), p. 114</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Euler_2022,_p._81-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._81_69-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._81_69-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._81_69-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._81_69-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._81_69-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._81_69-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._81_69-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._81_69-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._81_69-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._81_69-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._81_69-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Euler (2022), p. 81</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Euler_2022,_p._78-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._78_70-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._78_70-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._78_70-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Euler (2022), p. 78</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Euler_2022,_p._83-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._83_71-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._83_71-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._83_71-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._83_71-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Euler (2022), p. 83</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Euler_2022,_p._88-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._88_72-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._88_72-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._88_72-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Euler_2022,_p._88_72-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Euler (2022), p. 88</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-vocabulary_comparison-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-vocabulary_comparison_73-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-vocabulary_comparison_73-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">sources: Ringe, Don / Taylor, Ann (2014) and Euler, Wolfram (2013), <i>passim</i>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=West_Germanic_languages&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Adamus, Marian (1962). <i>On the mutual relations between Nordic and other Germanic dialects.</i> Germanica Wratislavensia 7. 115–158.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Bammesberger" title="Alfred Bammesberger">Bammesberger, Alfred</a> (1984). <i>Der indogermanische Aorist und das germanische Präteritum [The Indo-European aorist and the Germanic past tense]</i>, in: <i>Languages and Cultures. Studies in Honor of <a href="/wiki/Edgar_C._Polom%C3%A9" title="Edgar C. Polomé">Edgar C. Polomé</a></i>. 791 pp., Berlin: de Gruyter.</li> <li>Bammesberger, Alfred (Ed.) (1991). <i>Old English Runes and their Continental Background.</i> Heidelberg: Winter.</li> <li>Bammesberger, Alfred (1996). <i>The Preterite of Germanic Strong Verbs in Classes Fore and Five</i>, in "<a href="/w/index.php?title=NOWELE&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="NOWELE (page does not exist)">North-Western European Language Evolution</a>" 27, 33–43.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behaghel%27s_laws" title="Behaghel's laws">Behaghel</a>, Otto (1922). <i>Die 2. Pers. Sing. Ind. Prät. st. Flexion im Westgermanischen.</i> <a href="/wiki/Indogermanische_Forschungen" title="Indogermanische Forschungen">IF (Indogermanische Forschungen)</a>, vol. 40, p. 167f.</li> <li>Bremmer, Rolf H. (ed.) (1993). <i>Current trends in West Germanic etymological lexicography: proceedings of the Symposium held in Amsterdam 12–13 June 1989</i>. Leiden: Brill.</li> <li>Bremmer, Rolf H., Jr. (2009). <i>An Introduction to Old Frisian. History, Grammar, Reader, Glossary.</i> Amsterdam / Philadelphia: Benjamins Publishing Company.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfram_Euler" title="Wolfram Euler">Euler, Wolfram</a> (2002/03). <i>Vom Westgermanischen zum Althochdeutschen</i> (From West Germanic to Old High German), <i>Sprachaufgliederung im Dialektkontinuum</i>, in <i>Klagenfurter Beiträge zur Sprachwissenschaft</i>, Vol. 28/29, 69–90.</li> <li>Euler, Wolfram (2013). <i>Das Westgermanische – von der Herausbildung im 3. bis zur Aufgliederung im 7. Jahrhundert – Analyse und Rekonstruktion</i>. 244 p., in German with English summary, <a href="/wiki/Verlag_Inspiration_Un_Limited" title="Verlag Inspiration Un Limited">Verlag Inspiration Un Limited</a>, London/Berlin 2013, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-9812110-7-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-9812110-7-8">978-3-9812110-7-8</a>.</li> <li>Euler, Wolfram (2022). <i>Das Westgermanische – von der Herausbildung im 3. bis zur Aufgliederung im 7. Jahrhundert – Analyse und Rekonstruktion</i> (West Germanic: from its Emergence in the 3rd up until its Dissolution in the 7th Century CE: Analyses and Reconstruction). 267 p., in German with English summary, 2nd edition, Verlag Inspiration Unlimited, Berlin 2022, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-945127-414" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-945127-414">978-3-945127-414</a>.</li> <li>v. Fierlinger, J. (1885). <i>Zur deutschen conjugation. (1. Die II. ps. sg. perf. starker flexion im westgerm. 2. Praesentia der wurzelclasse. 3. Zur westgerm. flexion des verb. subst.)</i>, in <a href="/wiki/Historische_Sprachforschung" title="Historische Sprachforschung">Kuhns Zeitschrift (KZ)</a>, vol. 27, p. 430ff. (<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zuEqAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA430">[1]</a>)</li> <li>Härke, Heinrich (2011). <i>Anglo-Saxon Immigration and Ethnogenesis</i>, in: "Medieval Archaeology" No. 55, 2011, pp. 1–28.</li> <li>Hartmann, Frederik: <i>Germanic Phylogeny</i> (Oxford Studies in Diachronic and Historical Linguistics), Oxford University Press, 2023. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-198-87273-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-198-87273-3">978-0-198-87273-3</a>.</li> <li>Hill, Eugen (2004). <i>Das germanische Verb für 'tun' und die Ausgänge des germanischen schwachen Präteritums</i>, in: Sprachwissenschaft, ISSN 0344-8169, Vol. 29, no. 3, p. 257–304.</li> <li>Hilsberg, Susan (2009). <i>Place-Names and Settlement History. Aspects of Selected Topographical Elements on the Continent and in England</i>, Magister Theses, Universität Leipzig.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Hirt" title="Hermann Hirt">Hirt, Hermann</a> (1931, 1932, 1934). <i>Handbuch des Urgermanischen [Handbook of Proto-Germanic]</i> (3 vols.). Heidelberg: Winter.</li> <li>Klein, Thomas (2004). <i>Im Vorfeld des Althochdeutschen und Altsächsischen (Prior to Old High German and Old Saxon)</i>, in <i>Entstehung des Deutschen.</i> Heidelberg, 241–270.</li> <li>Klingenschmitt, Gert (2002). <i>Zweck und Methode der sprachlichen Rekonstruktion</i>, in: Peter Anreiter (et al.) <i>Name, Sprache, und Kulturen. Festschrift Heinz Dieter Pohl</i>. Wien, 453–474.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederik_Kortlandt" title="Frederik Kortlandt">Kortlandt, Frederik</a> (2008). <i>Anglo-Frisian</i>, in "<a href="/w/index.php?title=NOWELE&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="NOWELE (page does not exist)">North-Western European Language Evolution</a>" 54/55, 265 – 278.</li> <li>Looijenga, Jantina Helena (1997). <i>Runes around the North Sea and on the Continent AD 150–700; Text & Contents</i>. Groningen: SSG Uitgeverij.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Maurer_(linguist)" title="Friedrich Maurer (linguist)">Friedrich Maurer</a> (1942), <i>Nordgermanen und Alemannen: Studien zur germanischen und frühdeutschen Sprachgeschichte, Stammes- und Volkskunde</i>, Straßburg: Hüneburg.</li> <li>Mees, Bernard (2002). <i>The Bergakker inscription and the beginnings of Dutch</i>, in "Amsterdamer Beiträge zur älteren Germanistik" 56, 23–26.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wolfgang_Meid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wolfgang Meid (page does not exist)">Meid, Wolfgang</a> (1971). <i>Das germanische Praeteritum. Indogermanische Grundlagen und Entfaltung im Germanischen [The Germanic Praeteritum. Indo-European foundations and development in Germanic]</i> 134pp,. Innsbrucker Beiträge zur Sprachwissenschaft; 3. University, Innsbruck.</li> <li>Mottausch, Karl-Heinz (1998). <i>Die reduplizierenden Verben im Nord- und Westgermanischen: Versuch eines Raum-Zeit-Modells</i>, in "North-Western European Language Evolution" 33, 43–91.</li> <li>Mottausch, Karl-Heinz (2011). <i>Der Nominalakzent im <a href="/wiki/Germanic_parent_language" title="Germanic parent language">Frühurgermanischen</a></i> – Hamburg: Kovač.</li> <li>Mottausch, Karl-Heinz (2013). <i>Untersuchungen zur Vorgeschichte des germanischen starken Verbs. Die Rolle des Aorists</i>, 278p. – Hamburg: Kovač.</li> <li>Nielsen, Hans F. (1981). <i>Old English and the Continental Germanic languages. A Survey of Morphological and Phonological Interrelations</i>. Innsbruck: Institut für Sprachwissenschaft. (2nd edition 1985), 311p., Innsbruck: Institut für Sprachwissenschaft.</li> <li>Nielsen, Hans Frede. (2000). <i>Ingwäonisch.</i> In Heinrich Beck et al. (eds.), Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde (2. Auflage), Band 15, 432–439. Berlin: De Gruyter.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._I._Page" title="R. I. Page">Page, Raymond I.</a> (1999). <i>An Introduction to English Runes</i>, 2. edition. Woodbridge: Bogdell Press.</li> <li>Page, Raymond I. (2001). <i>Frisian Runic Inscriptions</i>, in Horst Munske et al., "Handbuch des Friesischen". Tübingen, 523–530.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_C._Polom%C3%A9" title="Edgar C. Polomé">Polomé, Edgar C.</a> (1964). <i>Diachronic development of structural patterns in the Germanic conjugation system</i>, pp. 870–880, in: Lunt, Horace G. (ed.) (1964). <i>Proceedings of the Ninth International Congress of Linguists.</i> The Hague.</li> <li>Ringe, Donald R. (2012). <i>Cladistic principles and linguistic reality: the case of West Germanic.</i> In Philomen Probert and Andreas Willi (eds.), Laws and Rules on Indo-European, 33–42. Oxford.</li> <li>Ringe, Donald R. (2012): <i>Cladistic Methodology and West Germanic.</i> Yale Linguistics.</li> <li>Ringe, Donald R. and Taylor, Ann (2014). <i>The Development of Old English – A Linguistic History of English, vol. II</i>, 632p. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199207848" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199207848">978-0199207848</a>. Oxford.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orrin_W._Robinson_(philologist)" title="Orrin W. Robinson (philologist)">Robinson, Orrin W.</a> (1992). <i>Old English and Its Closest Relatives. A Survey of the Earliest Germanic Languages.</i> Stanford University Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elmar_Seebold" title="Elmar Seebold">Seebold, Elmar</a> (1998). "Die Sprache(n) der Germanen in der Zeit der Völkerwanderung" (The Language(s) of the Germanic Peoples during the Migration Period), in E. Koller & H. Laitenberger, <i>Suevos – Schwaben. Das Königreich der Sueben auf der Iberischen Halbinsel (411–585)</i>. Tübingen, 11–20.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elmar_Seebold" title="Elmar Seebold">Seebold, Elmar</a> (2006). "Westgermanische Sprachen" (West Germanic Languages), in <i>Reallexikon der germanischen Altertumskunde</i> 33, 530–536.</li> <li>Stifter, David (2009). "The Proto-Germanic shift *ā > ō and early Germanic linguistic contacts", in <i><a href="/wiki/Historische_Sprachforschung" title="Historische Sprachforschung">Historische Sprachforschung</a></i> 122, 268–283.</li> <li>Stiles, Patrick V. (1985–1986). <i>The fate of the numeral "4" in Germanic</i>. Nowele 6 pp. 81–104, 7 pp. 3–27, 8 pp. 3–25.</li> <li>Stiles, Patrick V. (1995). <i>Remarks on the "Anglo-Frisian" thesis</i>, in "Friesische Studien I". Odense, 177–220.</li> <li>Stiles, Patrick V. (2004). <i>Place-adverbs and the development of Proto-Germanic long *ē1 in early West Germanic.</i> In Irma Hyvärinen et al. (Hg.), Etymologie, Entlehnungen und Entwicklungen. Mémoires de la Soc. Néophil. de Helsinki 63. Helsinki. 385–396.</li> <li>Stiles, Patrick V. (2013). <i>The Pan-West Germanic Isoglosses and the Subrelationships of West Germanic to Other Branches.</i> In Unity and Diversity in West Germanic, I. Special issue of <a href="/w/index.php?title=NOWELE&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="NOWELE (page does not exist)">NOWELE</a> 66:1 (2013), Nielsen, Hans Frede and Patrick V. Stiles (eds.), 5 ff.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_B._Voyles&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Joseph B. Voyles (page does not exist)">Voyles, Joseph B.</a> (1974). <i>West Germanic inflection, derivation and compounding</i>, 240p., The Hague: Mouton.</li> <li>Voyles, Joseph B. (1992). <i>Early Germanic Grammar: pre-, proto-, and post-Germanic Language.</i> San Diego: Academic Press</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=West_Germanic_languages&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 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//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:West_Germanic_languages" class="extiw" title="c:Category:West Germanic languages">Media</a> from Commons</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/39px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/51px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Classification/Class_P,_subclass_PF_%E2%80%93_West_Germanic_languages" class="extiw" title="s:Library of Congress Classification/Class P, subclass PF – West Germanic languages">Texts</a> from Wikisource</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/41px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/54px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Category:Languages_of_Europe" class="extiw" title="b:Category:Languages of Europe">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/27px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/41px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/54px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Category:West_Germanic_languages" class="extiw" title="v:Category:West Germanic languages">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/27px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/41px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/54px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q26721" class="extiw" title="d:Q26721">Data</a> from Wikidata</span></li></ul></div></div> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output 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.navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Germanic_languages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Germanic_languages" title="Template:Germanic languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Germanic_languages" title="Template talk:Germanic languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Germanic_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Germanic languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Germanic_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>According to contemporary <a href="/wiki/Germanic_philology" title="Germanic philology">philology</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="West" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">West</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Frisian_languages" title="Anglo-Frisian languages">Anglo-Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anglic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglic languages">Anglic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dialects_of_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialects of English">dialects</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Modern_English" title="Modern English">Modern English</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_English" title="Early Modern English">Early Modern English</a></i></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><i>Irish Middle English</i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Fingallian" title="Fingallian">Fingallian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kildare_Poems#Linguistic_features" title="Kildare Poems">Kildare</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yola_dialect" title="Yola dialect">Yola</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots_language" title="Scots language">Scots</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Early_Scots" title="Early Scots">Early Scots</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Scots" title="Middle Scots">Middle Scots</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Frisian_languages" title="Frisian languages">Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Frisian" title="Old Frisian">Old Frisian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Frisian" title="Middle Frisian">Middle Frisian</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Frisian_language" title="East Frisian language">East Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Ems <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saterland_Frisian_language" title="Saterland Frisian language">Saterland Frisian</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>Weser</i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Wangerooge_Frisian" title="Wangerooge Frisian">Wangerooge Frisian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wursten_Frisian" title="Wursten Frisian">Wursten Frisian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Harlingerland_Frisian" title="Harlingerland Frisian">Harlingerland Frisian</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Frisian_language" title="North Frisian language">North Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Insular <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Eiderstedt_Frisian" title="Eiderstedt Frisian">Eiderstedt</a></i></li> <li>Föhr–Amrum <ul><li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%B6hr_North_Frisian" title="Föhr North Frisian">Föhr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amrum_North_Frisian" title="Amrum North Frisian">Amrum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heligoland_Frisian" title="Heligoland Frisian">Heligolandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylt_North_Frisian" title="Sylt North Frisian">Sylt</a></li></ul></li> <li>Mainland <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%B6kingharde_North_Frisian" title="Bökingharde North Frisian">Bökingharde</a> <ul><li>Mooring</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halligen_Frisian" title="Halligen Frisian">Halligen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goesharde_Frisian" title="Goesharde Frisian">Goesharde</a> <ul><li>Northern</li> <li>Central</li> <li><i>Southern</i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karrharde_Frisian" title="Karrharde Frisian">Karrharde</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Strand_Frisian" title="Strand Frisian">Strand</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiedingharde_Frisian" title="Wiedingharde Frisian">Wiedingharde</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Frisian_languages" title="West Frisian languages">West Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindeloopen_Frisian" title="Hindeloopen Frisian">Hindeloopen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schiermonnikoog_Frisian" title="Schiermonnikoog Frisian">Schiermonnikoog</a></li> <li>Westlauwers–Terschellings <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Frisian_language" title="West Frisian language">Mainland West Frisian</a> <ul><li>Clay Frisian</li> <li>Wood Frisian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Westereendersk" title="Westereendersk">Westereendersk</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terschelling_Frisian" title="Terschelling Frisian">Terschelling</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Low_German" title="Low German">Low German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Saxon" title="Old Saxon">Old Saxon</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Low_German" title="Middle Low German">Middle Low German</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Low_German" class="mw-redirect" title="West Low German">West Low German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Low_Saxon" title="Dutch Low Saxon">Dutch Low Saxon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stellingwarfs_dialect" title="Stellingwarfs dialect">Stellingwarfs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tweants_dialect" title="Tweants dialect">Tweants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gronings_dialect" title="Gronings dialect">Gronings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dr%C3%A8ents_dialects" title="Drèents dialects">Drèents</a></li> <li>Gelders-Overijssels <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achterhooks" title="Achterhooks">Achterhooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sallaans_dialect" title="Sallaans dialect">Sallaans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urkers_dialect" title="Urkers dialect">Urkers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veluws_dialect" title="Veluws dialect">Veluws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Low_Saxon" title="Northern Low Saxon">Northern Low Saxon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Frisian_Low_Saxon" title="East Frisian Low Saxon">East Frisian Low Saxon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastphalian_language" title="Eastphalian language">Eastphalian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westphalian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Westphalian language">Westphalian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Low_German" title="East Low German">East Low German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch_dialect" title="Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch dialect">Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brandenburgisch_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Brandenburgisch dialect">Brandenburgisch</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Central_Pomeranian&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Central Pomeranian (page does not exist)">Central Pomeranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Pomeranian" class="mw-redirect" title="East Pomeranian">East Pomeranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_Prussian_dialect" title="Low Prussian dialect">Low Prussian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plautdietsch" title="Plautdietsch">Plautdietsch / Mennonite Low German</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Low_Franconian" title="Low Franconian">Low Franconian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_language" title="Frankish language">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Dutch" title="Old Dutch">Old Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Dutch" title="Middle Dutch">Middle Dutch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language">Standard variants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaans" title="Afrikaans">Afrikaans</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kaaps" title="Kaaps">Kaaps</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">West Low Franconian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Dutch_dialects" title="Central Dutch dialects">Central Dutch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hollandic_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Hollandic dialect">Hollandic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Flemish" title="West Flemish">West Flemish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Flemish" title="French Flemish">French Flemish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeelandic" title="Zeelandic">Zeelandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Flemish" title="East Flemish">East Flemish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brabantian_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Brabantian dialect">Brabantian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleverlandish" title="Kleverlandish">Kleverlandish</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Surinamese_Dutch" title="Surinamese Dutch">Surinamese Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jersey_Dutch_language" title="Jersey Dutch language">Jersey Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohawk_Dutch" title="Mohawk Dutch">Mohawk Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stadsfries_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Stadsfries dialects">Stadsfries</a>/<a href="/wiki/Bildts" title="Bildts">Bildts</a>/<a href="/wiki/Amelands" title="Amelands">Amelands</a>/<a href="/w/index.php?title=Midslands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Midslands (page does not exist)">Midslands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Low_Franconian" title="South Low Franconian">East Low Franconian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Limburgish" title="Limburgish">Limburgish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cover groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bergish_dialects" title="Bergish dialects">Bergish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meuse-Rhenish" title="Meuse-Rhenish">Meuse-Rhenish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/High_German_languages" title="High German languages">High German</a> <br /> (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German">Old High German</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_High_German" title="Middle High German">Middle High German</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_High_German" title="New High German">New High German</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Early_New_High_German" title="Early New High German">Early New High German</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Standard_German" title="Standard German">Standard German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Standard_German" title="German Standard German">German Standard German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_German" title="Austrian German">Austrian Standard German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Standard_German" title="Swiss Standard German">Swiss Standard German</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-<a href="/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language">standard variants</a><br /> and <a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">creoles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Namibian_German" class="mw-redirect" title="Namibian German">Namibian German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namibian_Black_German" title="Namibian Black German">Namibian Black German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_German" title="Berlin German">Berlinerisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unserdeutsch" title="Unserdeutsch">Unserdeutsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barossa_German" title="Barossa German">Barossa German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotwelsch" title="Rotwelsch">Rotwelsch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lotegorisch" title="Lotegorisch">Lotegorisch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yenish_language" title="Yenish language">Yenish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects#Eastern_Yiddish" title="Yiddish dialects">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects#Western_Yiddish" title="Yiddish dialects">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Scotland#"Scots-Yiddish"" title="History of the Jews in Scotland">Scots Yiddish</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Klezmer-loshn" title="Klezmer-loshn">Klezmer-loshn</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lachoudisch" title="Lachoudisch">Lachoudisch</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_German" title="Central German">Central German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Central_German" title="West Central German">West Central German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Franconian_languages" title="Central Franconian languages">Central Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ripuarian_language" title="Ripuarian language">Ripuarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colognian_dialect" title="Colognian dialect">Colognian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Limburgish_dialect" title="Southeast Limburgish dialect">Southeast Limburgish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moselle_Franconian_language" title="Moselle Franconian language">Moselle Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourgish" title="Luxembourgish">Luxembourgish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transylvanian_Saxon_dialect" title="Transylvanian Saxon dialect">Transylvanian Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunsr%C3%BCckisch_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Hunsrückisch dialect">Hunsrückisch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hunsrik" title="Hunsrik">Hunsrik</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhenish_Franconian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhenish Franconian languages">Rhine Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lorraine_Franconian" title="Lorraine Franconian">Lorraine Franconian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palatine_German_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Palatine German language">Palatine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Volga_Germans#Language" title="Volga Germans">Volga German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Dutch_language" title="Pennsylvania Dutch language">Pennsylvania Dutch</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hessian_dialects" title="Hessian dialects">Hessian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Hessian" title="Central Hessian">Central Hessian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amana_German" title="Amana German">Amana German</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Central_German" title="East Central German">East Central German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thuringian_dialect" title="Thuringian dialect">Thuringian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Saxon_German" title="Upper Saxon German">Upper Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erzgebirgisch" title="Erzgebirgisch">Erzgebirgisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusatian_dialects" title="Lusatian dialects">Lusatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_German" title="Silesian German">Silesian German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Prussian_dialect" title="High Prussian dialect">High Prussian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wymysorys_language" title="Wymysorys language">Wymysorys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alzenau_dialect" title="Alzenau dialect">Halcnovian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Upper_German" title="Upper German">Upper German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alemannic_German" title="Alemannic German">Alemannic</a> in the broad sense <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Low_Alemannic_German" title="Low Alemannic German">Low Alemannic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alsatian_dialect" title="Alsatian dialect">Alsatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonia_Tovar_dialect" title="Colonia Tovar dialect">Coloniero</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Alemannic_German" title="High Alemannic German">High Alemannic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_German" title="Swiss German">Swiss German</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highest_Alemannic_German" title="Highest Alemannic German">Highest Alemannic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Walser_German" title="Walser German">Walser German</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swabian_German" title="Swabian German">Swabian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bavarian_language" title="Bavarian language">Bavarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Bavarian" title="Northern Bavarian">Northern Bavarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bavarian" title="Central Bavarian">Central Bavarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viennese_German" title="Viennese German">Viennese German</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Bavarian" title="Southern Bavarian">Southern Bavarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Tyrolean_dialect" title="South Tyrolean dialect">South Tyrolean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cimbrian_language" title="Cimbrian language">Cimbrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%B2cheno_language" title="Mòcheno language">Mòcheno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hutterite_German" title="Hutterite German">Hutterite German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottscheerish" title="Gottscheerish">Gottscheerish</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Franconian_German" title="South Franconian German">South Franconian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Franconian_German" title="East Franconian German">East Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vogtlandian" title="Vogtlandian">Vogtlandian</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lombardic_language" title="Lombardic language">Langobardic</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="North_and_East" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North</a> and <a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Norse_language" title="Proto-Norse language">Proto-Norse</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a></i> <ul><li><i>Old West Norse</i></li> <li><i>Old East Norse</i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Gutnish" title="Old Gutnish">Old Gutnish</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">West</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bergensk" title="Bergensk">Bergensk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kebabnorsk" title="Kebabnorsk">Kebabnorsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sognam%C3%A5l_dialect" title="Sognamål dialect">Sognamål</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%C3%B8ndersk" title="Trøndersk">Trøndersk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hallingm%C3%A5l-Valdris" title="Hallingmål-Valdris">Valdris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vestlandsk" title="Vestlandsk">Vestlandsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vikv%C3%A6rsk" class="mw-redirect" title="Vikværsk">Vikværsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bokm%C3%A5l" title="Bokmål">Bokmål</a> (written)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nynorsk" title="Nynorsk">Nynorsk</a> (written)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Norwegian" title="Old Norwegian">Old Norwegian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Norwegian" title="Middle Norwegian">Middle Norwegian</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faroese_language" title="Faroese language">Faroese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_language" title="Icelandic language">Icelandic</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse#Old_Icelandic" title="Old Norse">Old Icelandic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Icelandic#Middle_Icelandic_(1350–1550)" title="History of Icelandic">Middle Icelandic</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Greenlandic_Norse" title="Greenlandic Norse">Greenlandic Norse</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Norn_language" title="Norn language">Norn</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">East</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_dialects" title="Swedish dialects">Swedish dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rinkeby_Swedish" title="Rinkeby Swedish">Rinkebysvenska</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Danish_dialects" title="Danish dialects">Danish dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_Danish" title="Insular Danish">Insular Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jutlandic_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Jutlandic dialect">Jutlandic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Jutlandic" title="South Jutlandic">South Jutlandic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Danish" title="East Danish">East Danish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bornholm_dialect" title="Bornholm dialect">Bornholmsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scanian_dialect" title="Scanian dialect">Scanian</a> (historically)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Schleswig_Danish" title="Southern Schleswig Danish">Southern Schleswig Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B8tudanskt_accent" title="Gøtudanskt accent">Gøtudanskt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perkerdansk" title="Perkerdansk">Perkerdansk</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Danish" title="History of Danish">Old Danish</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Danish" title="History of Danish">Middle Danish</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalecarlian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Dalecarlian language">Dalecarlian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elfdalian" title="Elfdalian">Elfdalian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Gutnish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gutnish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gutnish language">Mainland Gutnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A5r%C3%B6m%C3%A5l_dialect" title="Fårömål dialect">Fårö Gutnish</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Gothic_language" title="Gothic language">Gothic</a></i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Gothic" title="Crimean Gothic">Crimean Gothic</a></i>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Burgundians#Language" title="Burgundians">Burgundian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vandalic_language" title="Vandalic language">Vandalic</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Philology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_philology" title="Germanic philology">Philology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Maurer_(linguist)" title="Friedrich Maurer (linguist)">Language subgroups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">West</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elbe_Germanic" title="Elbe Germanic">Elbe (Irminonic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weser-Rhine_Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Weser-Rhine Germanic">Weser-Rhine (Istvaeonic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Germanic" title="North Sea Germanic">North Sea (Ingvaeonic)</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Germanic" title="Northwest Germanic">Northwest</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gotho-Nordic" class="mw-redirect" title="Gotho-Nordic">Gotho-Nordic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/South_Germanic" title="South Germanic">South</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reconstructed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_grammar" title="Proto-Germanic grammar">Proto-Germanic grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_parent_language" title="Germanic parent language">Germanic parent language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Belgian_language" title="Ancient Belgian language">Ancient Belgian language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diachronic features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grimm%27s_law" title="Grimm's law">Grimm's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verner%27s_law" title="Verner's law">Verner's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holtzmann%27s_law" title="Holtzmann's law">Holtzmann's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sievers%27s_law" title="Sievers's law">Sievers's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kluge%27s_law" title="Kluge's law">Kluge's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_substrate_hypothesis" title="Germanic substrate hypothesis">Germanic substrate hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_gemination" title="West Germanic gemination">West Germanic gemination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_German_consonant_shift" title="High German consonant shift">High German consonant shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_a-mutation" title="Germanic a-mutation">Germanic a-mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_umlaut" title="Germanic umlaut">Germanic umlaut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_spirant_law" title="Germanic spirant law">Germanic spirant law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingvaeonic_nasal_spirant_law" title="Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law">Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Vowel_Shift" title="Great Vowel Shift">Great Vowel Shift</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Synchronic features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic verb">Germanic verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb" title="Germanic strong verb">Germanic strong verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_weak_verb" title="Germanic weak verb">Germanic weak verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_verb#Preterite-presents" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic verb">Preterite-present verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammatischer_Wechsel" title="Grammatischer Wechsel">Grammatischer Wechsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut" title="Indo-European ablaut">Indo-European ablaut</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><i>Italics</i> indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a></li> <li>Languages between parentheses are <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">varieties</a> of the language on their left.</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_English" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_English" title="Template:History of English"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_English" title="Template talk:History of English"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_English" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of English"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_English" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_English" title="History of English">History of English</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Proto-West-Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Frisian_languages" title="Anglo-Frisian languages">Anglo-Frisian languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kentish_Old_English" title="Kentish Old English">Kentish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercian_dialect" title="Mercian dialect">Mercian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northumbrian_Old_English" title="Northumbrian Old English">Northumbrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Saxon_dialect" title="West Saxon dialect">West Saxon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_language" title="Anglo-Norman language">Anglo-Norman language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_English" title="Early Modern English">Early Modern English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_English" title="Modern English">Modern English</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Phonological_history" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English" title="Phonological history of English">Phonological history</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_vowels" title="Phonological history of English vowels">Vowels</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_%E2%9F%A8a%E2%9F%A9" title="Pronunciation of English ⟨a⟩"><i>A</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English-language_vowel_changes_before_historic_/l/" title="English-language vowel changes before historic /l/">Changes before historic <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l/</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English-language_vowel_changes_before_historic_/r/" title="English-language vowel changes before historic /r/">Changes before historic <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_close_back_vowels" title="Phonological history of English close back vowels">Close back vowels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_close_front_vowels" title="Phonological history of English close front vowels">Close front vowels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_diphthongs" title="Phonological history of English diphthongs">Diphthongs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Vowel_Shift" title="Great Vowel Shift">Great Vowel Shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_open_back_vowels" title="Phonological history of English open back vowels">Open back vowels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trisyllabic_laxing" title="Trisyllabic laxing">Trisyllabic laxing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_consonants" title="Phonological history of English consonants">Consonants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_consonant_clusters" title="Phonological history of English consonant clusters">Clusters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flapping" title="Flapping">Flapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H-dropping" title="H-dropping"><i>H</i>-dropping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L-vocalization" title="L-vocalization"><i>L</i>-vocalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_%E2%9F%A8ng%E2%9F%A9" title="Pronunciation of English ⟨ng⟩"><i>Ng</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhoticity_in_English" title="Rhoticity in English">Rhoticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T-glottalization" title="T-glottalization"><i>T</i>-glottalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_%E2%9F%A8th%E2%9F%A9" title="Pronunciation of English ⟨th⟩"><i>Th</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Th-fronting" title="Th-fronting">fronting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th-stopping" title="Th-stopping">stopping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_%E2%9F%A8wh%E2%9F%A9" title="Pronunciation of English ⟨wh⟩"><i>Wh</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority 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