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<div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.2</span> <span>The revolt in Crete, 1866–1869</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_revolt_in_Crete,_1866–1869-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Changing_balance_of_power_in_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Changing_balance_of_power_in_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Changing balance of power in Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Changing_balance_of_power_in_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_New_European_Concert" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_New_European_Concert"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.1</span> <span>The New European Concert</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_New_European_Concert-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russia_after_the_Crimean_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russia_after_the_Crimean_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.2</span> <span>Russia after the Crimean War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russia_after_the_Crimean_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Balkan_crisis_of_1875–1876" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Balkan_crisis_of_1875–1876"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Balkan crisis of 1875–1876</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Balkan_crisis_of_1875–1876-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Balkan crisis of 1875–1876 subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Balkan_crisis_of_1875–1876-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Balkan_uprisings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Balkan_uprisings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Balkan uprisings</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Balkan_uprisings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Albanian_revolts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Albanian_revolts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Albanian revolts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Albanian_revolts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Herzegovina_Uprising" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Herzegovina_Uprising"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Herzegovina Uprising</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Herzegovina_Uprising-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bulgarian_Uprising" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bulgarian_Uprising"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.3</span> <span>Bulgarian Uprising</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bulgarian_Uprising-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_reaction_to_atrocities_in_Bulgaria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_reaction_to_atrocities_in_Bulgaria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>International reaction to atrocities in Bulgaria</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_reaction_to_atrocities_in_Bulgaria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Serbo-Turkish_War_and_diplomatic_maneuvering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Serbo-Turkish_War_and_diplomatic_maneuvering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Serbo-Turkish War and diplomatic maneuvering</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Serbo-Turkish_War_and_diplomatic_maneuvering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Status_of_combatants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Status_of_combatants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Status of combatants</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Status_of_combatants-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Status of combatants subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Status_of_combatants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Ottoman_Army" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Ottoman_Army"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>The Ottoman Army</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Ottoman_Army-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Russian_Army" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Russian_Army"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>The Russian Army</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Russian_Army-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Course_of_the_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Course_of_the_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Course of the war</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Course_of_the_war-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Course of the war subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Course_of_the_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Opening_manoeuvres" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Opening_manoeuvres"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Opening manoeuvres</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Opening_manoeuvres-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Balkan_theatre" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Balkan_theatre"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Balkan theatre</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Balkan_theatre-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Caucasian_theatre" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Caucasian_theatre"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Caucasian theatre</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Caucasian_theatre-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Greek_involvement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greek_involvement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Greek involvement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greek_involvement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kurdish_uprising" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kurdish_uprising"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Kurdish uprising</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kurdish_uprising-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Civilian_government_in_Bulgaria_during_the_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civilian_government_in_Bulgaria_during_the_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Civilian government in Bulgaria during the war</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civilian_government_in_Bulgaria_during_the_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Aftermath</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Aftermath subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Intervention_by_the_Great_Powers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intervention_by_the_Great_Powers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Intervention by the Great Powers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intervention_by_the_Great_Powers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_on_Bulgaria's_Jewish_population" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_on_Bulgaria's_Jewish_population"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Effects on Bulgaria's Jewish population</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_on_Bulgaria's_Jewish_population-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Internationalization_of_the_Armenian_Question" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internationalization_of_the_Armenian_Question"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Internationalization of the Armenian Question</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internationalization_of_the_Armenian_Question-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Civilian_casualties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civilian_casualties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Civilian casualties</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Civilian_casualties-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Civilian casualties subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Civilian_casualties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Atrocities_and_ethnic_cleansing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Atrocities_and_ethnic_cleansing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Atrocities and ethnic cleansing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Atrocities_and_ethnic_cleansing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Against_Turks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Against_Turks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.1</span> <span>Against Turks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Against_Turks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Muslim_war_refugees_according_to_census_data_and_Ottoman_official_documents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Muslim_war_refugees_according_to_census_data_and_Ottoman_official_documents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.1.1</span> <span>Muslim war refugees according to census data and Ottoman official documents</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Muslim_war_refugees_according_to_census_data_and_Ottoman_official_documents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historians'_estimates_about_Muslim_population_losses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historians'_estimates_about_Muslim_population_losses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.1.2</span> <span>Historians' estimates about Muslim population losses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historians'_estimates_about_Muslim_population_losses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Against_Albanians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Against_Albanians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.2</span> <span>Against Albanians</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Against_Albanians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Against_Bulgarians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Against_Bulgarians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.3</span> <span>Against Bulgarians</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Against_Bulgarians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Against_Circassians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Against_Circassians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.4</span> <span>Against Circassians</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Against_Circassians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lasting_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lasting_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Lasting effects</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Lasting_effects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Lasting effects subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Lasting_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-International_Red_Cross_and_Red_Crescent_Movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_Red_Cross_and_Red_Crescent_Movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_Red_Cross_and_Red_Crescent_Movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_popular_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_popular_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>In popular culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_popular_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-External_links-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle External links subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Video_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Video_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.1</span> <span>Video links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Video_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 67 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-67" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">67 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%AB%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9_(1877%E2%80%931878)" title="الحرب الروسية العثمانية (1877–1878) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الحرب الروسية العثمانية (1877–1878)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusiya%E2%80%93Osmanl%C4%B1_m%C3%BCharib%C9%99si_(1877%E2%80%931878)" title="Rusiya–Osmanlı müharibəsi (1877–1878) – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Rusiya–Osmanlı müharibəsi (1877–1878)" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%B9%DB%B3_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B4%DB%8C" title="۹۳ ساواشی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="۹۳ ساواشی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B6%E2%80%93%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BF_%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7_(%E0%A7%A7%E0%A7%AE%E0%A7%AD%E0%A7%AD%E2%80%93%E0%A7%A7%E0%A7%AE%E0%A7%AD%E0%A7%AE)" title="রুশ–তুর্কি যুদ্ধ (১৮৭৭–১৮৭৮) – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="রুশ–তুর্কি যুদ্ধ (১৮৭৭–১৮৭৮)" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C5%8D%CD%98-Th%C3%B3%CD%98_Chi%C3%A0n-cheng_(1877_n%C3%AE)" title="Lō͘-Thó͘ Chiàn-cheng (1877 nî) – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Lō͘-Thó͘ Chiàn-cheng (1877 nî)" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81-%D1%82%D3%A9%D1%80%D3%A9%D0%BA_%D2%BB%D1%83%D2%93%D1%8B%D1%88%D1%8B_(1877%E2%80%941878)" title="Рус-төрөк һуғышы (1877—1878) – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Рус-төрөк һуғышы (1877—1878)" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0-%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D1%8D%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0_(1877%E2%80%941878)" title="Руска-турэцкая вайна (1877—1878) – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Руска-турэцкая вайна (1877—1878)" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0-%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D1%8D%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0_(1877%E2%80%941878)" title="Расейска-турэцкая вайна (1877—1878) – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Расейска-турэцкая вайна (1877—1878)" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0_(1877_%E2%80%93_1878)" title="Руско-турска война (1877 – 1878) – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Руско-турска война (1877 – 1878)" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brezel_etre_Rusia_ha_Turkia_(1877-1878)" title="Brezel etre Rusia ha Turkia (1877-1878) – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Brezel etre Rusia ha Turkia (1877-1878)" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_russo-turca_(1877-1878)" title="Guerra russo-turca (1877-1878) – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Guerra russo-turca (1877-1878)" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusko-tureck%C3%A1_v%C3%A1lka_(1877%E2%80%931878)" title="Rusko-turecká válka (1877–1878) – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Rusko-turecká válka (1877–1878)" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhyfel_Rwsia_a_Thwrci_(1877%E2%80%9378)" title="Rhyfel Rwsia a Thwrci (1877–78) – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Rhyfel Rwsia a Thwrci (1877–78)" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_russisk-tyrkiske_krig_(1877-1878)" title="Den russisk-tyrkiske krig (1877-1878) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Den russisk-tyrkiske krig (1877-1878)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russisch-Osmanischer_Krieg_(1877%E2%80%931878)" title="Russisch-Osmanischer Krieg (1877–1878) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Russisch-Osmanischer Krieg (1877–1878)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vene-T%C3%BCrgi_s%C3%B5da_(1877%E2%80%931878)" title="Vene-Türgi sõda (1877–1878) – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Vene-Türgi sõda (1877–1878)" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A1%CF%89%CF%83%CE%BF%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%81%CE%BA%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%A0%CF%8C%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%82_(1877-1878)" title="Ρωσοτουρκικός Πόλεμος (1877-1878) – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ρωσοτουρκικός Πόλεμος (1877-1878)" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_ruso-turca_(1877-1878)" title="Guerra ruso-turca (1877-1878) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Guerra ruso-turca (1877-1878)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusa-turka_milito_(1877%E2%80%931878)" title="Rusa-turka milito (1877–1878) – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Rusa-turka milito (1877–1878)" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Errusia-Turkia_Gerra_(1877%E2%80%931878)" title="Errusia-Turkia Gerra (1877–1878) – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Errusia-Turkia Gerra (1877–1878)" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%87_%D9%88_%D8%B9%D8%AB%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_(%DB%B1%DB%B8%DB%B7%DB%B7%E2%80%93%DB%B1%DB%B8%DB%B7%DB%B8)" title="جنگ روسیه و عثمانی (۱۸۷۷–۱۸۷۸) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جنگ روسیه و عثمانی (۱۸۷۷–۱۸۷۸)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerre_russo-turque_de_1877-1878" title="Guerre russo-turque de 1877-1878 – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Guerre russo-turque de 1877-1878" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%9F%AC%EC%8B%9C%EC%95%84-%ED%8A%80%EB%A5%B4%ED%81%AC_%EC%A0%84%EC%9F%81_(1877%EB%85%84-1878%EB%85%84)" title="러시아-튀르크 전쟁 (1877년-1878년) – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="러시아-튀르크 전쟁 (1877년-1878년)" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8C%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%BD-%D5%A9%D5%B8%D6%82%D6%80%D6%84%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A6%D5%B4_(1877-1878)" title="Ռուս-թուրքական պատերազմ (1877-1878) – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ռուս-թուրքական պատերազմ (1877-1878)" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B8-%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%AE%E0%A5%AD%E0%A5%AD-%E0%A5%AD%E0%A5%AE" title="रूस-तुर्की युद्ध १८७७-७८ – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="रूस-तुर्की युद्ध १८७७-७८" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusko-turski_rat_(1877._%E2%80%93_1878.)" title="Rusko-turski rat (1877. – 1878.) – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Rusko-turski rat (1877. – 1878.)" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milito_Rusa-Turka_de_1877_til_1878" title="Milito Rusa-Turka de 1877 til 1878 – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Milito Rusa-Turka de 1877 til 1878" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perang_Rusia%E2%80%93Turki_(1877%E2%80%931878)" title="Perang Rusia–Turki (1877–1878) – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Perang Rusia–Turki (1877–1878)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%8B_%D1%85%C3%A6%D1%81%D1%82" title="Донайы хæст – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Донайы хæст" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ирон</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_russo-turca_(1877-1878)" title="Guerra russo-turca (1877-1878) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Guerra russo-turca (1877-1878)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%9C%D7%97%D7%9E%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%AA%27%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA-%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%AA_(1877%E2%80%931878)" title="המלחמה העות'מאנית-רוסית (1877–1878) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="המלחמה העות'מאנית-רוסית (1877–1878)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94%E1%83%97-%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98_(1877-1878)" title="რუსეთ-ოსმალეთის ომი (1877-1878) – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="რუსეთ-ოსმალეთის ომი (1877-1878)" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bellum_Russicum_Ottomanicum_(1877_-_1878)" title="Bellum Russicum Ottomanicum (1877 - 1878) – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Bellum Russicum Ottomanicum (1877 - 1878)" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krievu%E2%80%94turku_kar%C5%A1_(1877%E2%80%941878)" title="Krievu—turku karš (1877—1878) – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Krievu—turku karš (1877—1878)" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B8-%D0%A2%D1%83%D1%80%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%B4%D1%8F%D0%B2%D0%B5_(1877%E2%80%941878)" title="Урусатдинни-Турциядин дяве (1877—1878) – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Урусатдинни-Турциядин дяве (1877—1878)" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Лезги</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusijos%E2%80%93Turkijos_karas" title="Rusijos–Turkijos karas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Rusijos–Turkijos karas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orosz%E2%80%93t%C3%B6r%C3%B6k_h%C3%A1bor%C3%BA_(1877%E2%80%9378)" title="Orosz–török háború (1877–78) – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Orosz–török háború (1877–78)" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%98%D0%BD%D0%B0_(1877-1878)" title="Руско-турска војна (1877-1878) – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Руско-турска војна (1877-1878)" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94%E1%83%97-%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8_%E1%83%9A%E1%83%B7%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90_(1877-1878)" title="რუსეთ-ოსმალეთიშ ლჷმა (1877-1878) – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="რუსეთ-ოსმალეთიშ ლჷმა (1877-1878)" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perang_Rusia-Turki_(1877%E2%80%931878)" title="Perang Rusia-Turki (1877–1878) – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Perang Rusia-Turki (1877–1878)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81-%D0%A2%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD_(1877-1878)" title="Орос-Туркийн дайн (1877-1878) – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Орос-Туркийн дайн (1877-1878)" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russisch-Turkse_Oorlog_(1877-1878)" title="Russisch-Turkse Oorlog (1877-1878) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Russisch-Turkse Oorlog (1877-1878)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9C%B2%E5%9C%9F%E6%88%A6%E4%BA%89_(1877%E5%B9%B4-1878%E5%B9%B4)" title="露土戦争 (1877年-1878年) – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="露土戦争 (1877年-1878年)" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_russisk-tyrkiske_krig_(1877%E2%80%931878)" title="Den russisk-tyrkiske krig (1877–1878) – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Den russisk-tyrkiske krig (1877–1878)" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_russisk-tyrkiske_krigen_1877-1878" title="Den russisk-tyrkiske krigen 1877-1878 – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Den russisk-tyrkiske krigen 1877-1878" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3_%D8%AA%D8%B1%DA%A9%DB%8C_%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF_(1877-1878)" title="روس ترکی جنگ (1877-1878) – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="روس ترکی جنگ (1877-1878)" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%DB%8C%DB%90_%D8%A7%D9%88_%D8%AA%D8%B1%DA%A9%DB%8C%DB%90_%D8%AC%DA%AB%DA%93%D9%87_(%DB%B1%DB%B8%DB%B7%DB%B7-_%DB%B1%DB%B8%DB%B7%DB%B8_%D8%B2%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%84)" title="د روسیې او ترکیې جګړه (۱۸۷۷- ۱۸۷۸ زکال) – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د روسیې او ترکیې جګړه (۱۸۷۷- ۱۸۷۸ زکال)" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wojna_rosyjsko-turecka_(1877%E2%80%931878)" title="Wojna rosyjsko-turecka (1877–1878) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wojna rosyjsko-turecka (1877–1878)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_Russo-Turca_(1877%E2%80%931878)" title="Guerra Russo-Turca (1877–1878) – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Guerra Russo-Turca (1877–1878)" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C4%83zboiul_Ruso-Turc_(1877%E2%80%931878)" title="Războiul Ruso-Turc (1877–1878) – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Războiul Ruso-Turc (1877–1878)" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0_(1877%E2%80%941878)" title="Русско-турецкая война (1877—1878) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Русско-турецкая война (1877—1878)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lufta_Ruso-Turke_(1877-1878)" title="Lufta Ruso-Turke (1877-1878) – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Lufta Ruso-Turke (1877-1878)" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusko-tureck%C3%A1_vojna_(1877_%E2%80%93_1878)" title="Rusko-turecká vojna (1877 – 1878) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Rusko-turecká vojna (1877 – 1878)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusko-tur%C5%A1ka_vojna_(1877%E2%80%931878)" title="Rusko-turška vojna (1877–1878) – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Rusko-turška vojna (1877–1878)" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82_(1877%E2%80%941878)" title="Руско-турски рат (1877—1878) – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Руско-турски рат (1877—1878)" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusko-turski_rat_(1877%E2%80%931878)" title="Rusko-turski rat (1877–1878) – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Rusko-turski rat (1877–1878)" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkin_sota" title="Turkin sota – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Turkin sota" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rysk-turkiska_kriget_(1877%E2%80%931878)" title="Rysk-turkiska kriget (1877–1878) – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Rysk-turkiska kriget (1877–1878)" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2-%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B5_(%E0%B8%84.%E0%B8%A8._1877%E2%80%931878)" title="สงครามรัสเซีย-ตุรกี (ค.ศ. 1877–1878) – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สงครามรัสเซีย-ตุรกี (ค.ศ. 1877–1878)" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/93_Harbi" title="93 Harbi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="93 Harbi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%96%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%86%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0_(1877%E2%80%941878)" title="Російсько-турецька війна (1877—1878) – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Російсько-турецька війна (1877—1878)" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3_%D8%AA%D8%B1%DA%A9_%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF_(1877-1878)" title="روس ترک جنگ (1877-1878) – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="روس ترک جنگ (1877-1878)" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chi%E1%BA%BFn_tranh_Nga%E2%80%93Th%E1%BB%95_Nh%C4%A9_K%E1%BB%B3_(1877%E2%80%931878)" title="Chiến tranh Nga–Thổ Nhĩ Kỳ (1877–1878) – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Chiến tranh Nga–Thổ Nhĩ Kỳ (1877–1878)" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BF%84%E5%9C%9F%E6%88%98%E4%BA%89%EF%BC%881877%E2%80%941878%E5%B9%B4%EF%BC%89" title="俄土战争（1877—1878年） – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="俄土战争（1877—1878年）" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BF%84%E5%9C%9F%E6%88%B0%E7%88%AD_(1877%E2%80%931878)" title="俄土戰爭 (1877–1878) – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="俄土戰爭 (1877–1878)" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BF%84%E5%9C%9F%E6%88%B0%E7%88%AD_(1877%E5%B9%B4%E2%80%941878%E5%B9%B4)" title="俄土戰爭 (1877年—1878年) – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="俄土戰爭 (1877年—1878年)" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q174205#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a 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(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1034237262">.mw-parser-output .stack{box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .stack>div{margin:1px;overflow:hidden}@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-left{float:left;clear:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-right{float:right;clear:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-left{float:left;clear:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-right{float:right;clear:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-left{float:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-right{float:right;margin-left:1em}}</style><div class="stack mw-stack stack-clear-right"><div><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Russo-Turkish War</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Eastern_Crisis" title="Great Eastern Crisis">Great Eastern Crisis</a> and the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Russo-Turkish_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Russo-Turkish wars">Russo-Turkish wars</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:MixCollage-15-Jan-2024-08-56-PM-4371.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/MixCollage-15-Jan-2024-08-56-PM-4371.jpg/300px-MixCollage-15-Jan-2024-08-56-PM-4371.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/MixCollage-15-Jan-2024-08-56-PM-4371.jpg/450px-MixCollage-15-Jan-2024-08-56-PM-4371.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/MixCollage-15-Jan-2024-08-56-PM-4371.jpg/600px-MixCollage-15-Jan-2024-08-56-PM-4371.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="3000" /></a></span><br />Clockwise, from top left: the <a href="/wiki/Action_off_M%C4%83cin" title="Action off Măcin">Action off Măcin</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shipka_Pass" title="Battle of Shipka Pass">Battle of Shipka Pass</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Plevna" title="Siege of Plevna">Siege of Plevna</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tashkessen" title="Battle of Tashkessen">Battle of Tashkessen</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>24 April 1877 – 3 March 1878<br />(10 months and 1 week)</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location"><a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a></div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status"> Russian coalition victory, see <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Aftermath">aftermath</a></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Territorial<br />changes</th><td> <ul><li>Establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Bulgaria" title="Principality of Bulgaria">Principality of Bulgaria</a></li> <li>Independence of <a href="/wiki/United_Principalities" class="mw-redirect" title="United Principalities">Romania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Serbia" title="Principality of Serbia">Serbia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Montenegro" title="Principality of Montenegro">Montenegro</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kars_Oblast" class="mw-redirect" title="Kars Oblast">Kars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Batum_Oblast" class="mw-redirect" title="Batum Oblast">Batum Oblasts</a> become part of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">Britain</a> occupies <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Cyprus" title="Ottoman Cyprus">Cyprus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a> occupies <a href="/wiki/Bosnia_vilayet" title="Bosnia vilayet">Bosnia</a></li> <li>Russian annexation of <a href="/wiki/Southern_Bessarabia" title="Southern Bessarabia">Southern Bessarabia</a> from Romania, Romanian annexation of <a href="/wiki/Northern_Dobruja" title="Northern Dobruja">Northern Dobruja</a></li> <li>Greek annexation of <a href="/wiki/Thessaly" title="Thessaly">Thessaly</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arta_prefecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Arta prefecture">Arta</a></li></ul></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire"><img alt="Russian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></b></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_Guards%27_Rifle_Battalion#Russo-Turkish_War_of_1877–78" title="Finnish Guards' Rifle Battalion">Guard of Finland</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Volunteer_Corps" title="Bulgarian Volunteer Corps">Bulgarian Legion</a></li></ul> <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/23px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/35px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/45px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/United_Principalities_of_Moldavia_and_Wallachia" title="United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia">Romania</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Flag_of_Serbia_%281835%E2%80%931882%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Serbia_%281835%E2%80%931882%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Flag_of_Serbia_%281835%E2%80%931882%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Serbia_%281835%E2%80%931882%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Flag_of_Serbia_%281835%E2%80%931882%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Serbia_%281835%E2%80%931882%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="844" data-file-height="563" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Serbia" title="Principality of Serbia">Serbia</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Flag_of_Montenegro_%281860%E2%80%931905%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Montenegro_%281860%E2%80%931905%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Flag_of_Montenegro_%281860%E2%80%931905%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Montenegro_%281860%E2%80%931905%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Flag_of_Montenegro_%281860%E2%80%931905%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Montenegro_%281860%E2%80%931905%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="360" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Montenegro" title="Principality of Montenegro">Montenegro</a><br /><hr /><a href="/wiki/Herzegovina_uprising_(1875%E2%80%9377)" class="mw-redirect" title="Herzegovina uprising (1875–77)">Serbian rebels</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War#Greek_revolts_and_invasion_of_Thessaly" class="mw-redirect" title="Russo-Turkish War">Greek rebels</a></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><b><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></b></li></ul></div> <ul><li><span data-sort-value="Egypt"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Flag_of_Muhammad_Ali.svg/23px-Flag_of_Muhammad_Ali.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Flag_of_Muhammad_Ali.svg/35px-Flag_of_Muhammad_Ali.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Flag_of_Muhammad_Ali.svg/45px-Flag_of_Muhammad_Ali.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Khedivate_of_Egypt" title="Khedivate of Egypt">Egypt</a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamidiye_(cavalry)" title="Hamidiye (cavalry)">Kurdish volunteers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashi_Bazouk" class="mw-redirect" title="Bashi Bazouk">Albanian volunteers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashi_Bazouk" class="mw-redirect" title="Bashi Bazouk">Circassian volunteers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Legion_in_Turkey" title="Polish Legion in Turkey">Polish Legion</a></li></ul> <hr /><a href="/wiki/Caucasian_Imamate" title="Caucasian Imamate">Imamate rebels</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Abkhazia#Between_the_Ottoman_and_Russian_empires" title="Principality of Abkhazia">Abkhazian rebels</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire"><img alt="Russian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Alexander_II_of_Russia" title="Alexander II of Russia">Alexander II</a></b></li><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire"><img alt="Russian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duke_Nicholas_Nikolaevich_of_Russia_(1831%E2%80%931891)" title="Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolaevich of Russia (1831–1891)">GD. Nicholas</a></span></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire"><img alt="Russian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duke_Michael_Nikolaevich_of_Russia" title="Grand Duke Michael Nikolaevich of Russia">GD. Michael</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire"><img alt="Russian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Dmitry_Milyutin" title="Dmitry Milyutin">Dmitry Milyutin</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire"><img alt="Russian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Iosif_Gurko" title="Iosif Gurko">Iosif Gurko</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire"><img alt="Russian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Loris-Melikov" title="Mikhail Loris-Melikov">Mikhail Loris-Melikov</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire"><img alt="Russian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Grigol_Dadiani_(Kolkhideli)" title="Grigol Dadiani (Kolkhideli)">Grigol Dadiani</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire"><img alt="Russian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Arshak_Ter-Gukasov" title="Arshak Ter-Gukasov">Arshak Ter-Gukasov</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire"><img alt="Russian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Alexander_III_of_Russia" title="Alexander III of Russia">Prince Alexander</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire"><img alt="Russian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Vannovsky" title="Pyotr Vannovsky">Pyotr Vannovsky</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire"><img alt="Russian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Dragomirov" title="Mikhail Dragomirov">Mikhail Dragomirov</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire"><img alt="Russian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Skobelev" title="Mikhail Skobelev">Mikhail Skobelev</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire"><img alt="Russian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Davidovich_Lazarev" title="Ivan Davidovich Lazarev">Ivan Lazarev</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire"><img alt="Russian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Eduard_Totleben" title="Eduard Totleben">Eduard Totleben</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire"><img alt="Russian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Stoletov" title="Nikolai Stoletov">Nikolai Stoletov</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Romania" title="Kingdom of Romania"><img alt="Kingdom of Romania" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/23px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/35px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/45px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Carol_I_of_Romania" title="Carol I of Romania">Carol I</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Serbia" title="Serbia"><img alt="Serbia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Flag_of_Serbia_%281835%E2%80%931882%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Serbia_%281835%E2%80%931882%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Flag_of_Serbia_%281835%E2%80%931882%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Serbia_%281835%E2%80%931882%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Flag_of_Serbia_%281835%E2%80%931882%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Serbia_%281835%E2%80%931882%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="844" data-file-height="563" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Milan_I_of_Serbia" title="Milan I of Serbia">Milan I</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Serbia" title="Serbia"><img alt="Serbia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Flag_of_Serbia_%281835%E2%80%931882%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Serbia_%281835%E2%80%931882%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Flag_of_Serbia_%281835%E2%80%931882%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Serbia_%281835%E2%80%931882%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Flag_of_Serbia_%281835%E2%80%931882%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Serbia_%281835%E2%80%931882%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="844" data-file-height="563" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Kosta_Proti%C4%87" title="Kosta Protić">Kosta Protić</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Flag_of_Montenegro_%281860%E2%80%931905%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Montenegro_%281860%E2%80%931905%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Flag_of_Montenegro_%281860%E2%80%931905%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Montenegro_%281860%E2%80%931905%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Flag_of_Montenegro_%281860%E2%80%931905%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Montenegro_%281860%E2%80%931905%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="360" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_I_of_Montenegro" title="Nicholas I of Montenegro">Nikola I</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Bulgaria" title="Principality of Bulgaria"><img alt="Principality of Bulgaria" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg/23px-Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg/35px-Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg/46px-Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Alexander_of_Battenberg" title="Alexander of Battenberg">Alexander of Battenberg</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/West_Macedonian_flag_1878.JPG/23px-West_Macedonian_flag_1878.JPG" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/West_Macedonian_flag_1878.JPG/35px-West_Macedonian_flag_1878.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/West_Macedonian_flag_1878.JPG/46px-West_Macedonian_flag_1878.JPG 2x" data-file-width="583" data-file-height="331" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Kosmas_Doumpiotis" title="Kosmas Doumpiotis">Kosmas Doumpiotis</a></li></ul></div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire"><img alt="Ottoman Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Hamid_II" title="Abdul Hamid II">Abdul Hamid II</a></b></li><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire"><img alt="Ottoman Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_Edhem_Pasha" title="Ibrahim Edhem Pasha">Ibrahim Edhem Pasha</a></span></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire"><img alt="Ottoman Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Hamdi_Pasha" title="Ahmed Hamdi Pasha">Ahmed Hamdi Pasha</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire"><img alt="Ottoman Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Kurt_%C4%B0smail_Hakk%C4%B1_Pasha" title="Kurt İsmail Hakkı Pasha">Kurt İsmail Hakkı Pasha</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire"><img alt="Ottoman Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Muhtar_Pasha" title="Ahmed Muhtar Pasha">Ahmed Muhtar Pasha</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire"><img alt="Ottoman Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Osman_Nuri_Pasha" title="Osman Nuri Pasha">Osman Nuri Pasha</a> (<a href="/wiki/Wounded_in_action" title="Wounded in action"><abbr title="Wounded in action">WIA</abbr></a>)</li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire"><img alt="Ottoman Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_%C5%9Eakir_Pasha" title="Mehmed Şakir Pasha">Mehmed Şakir Pasha</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire"><img alt="Ottoman Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/S%C3%BCleyman_H%C3%BCsn%C3%BC_Pasha" title="Süleyman Hüsnü Pasha">Süleyman Hüsnü Pasha</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire"><img alt="Ottoman Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Bozcaadal%C4%B1_Hasan_H%C3%BCsn%C3%BC_Pasha" title="Bozcaadalı Hasan Hüsnü Pasha">Bozcaadalı Hasan Hüsnü Pasha</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire"><img alt="Ottoman Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/H%C3%BCseyin_H%C3%BCsn%C3%BC_Pasha" title="Hüseyin Hüsnü Pasha">Hüseyin Hüsnü Pasha</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire"><img alt="Ottoman Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Augustus_Charles_Hobart-Hampden" title="Augustus Charles Hobart-Hampden">Augustus Charles Hobart-Hampden</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire"><img alt="Ottoman Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_Ali_Pasha_(marshal)" title="Mehmed Ali Pasha (marshal)">Mehmed Ali Pasha</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire"><img alt="Ottoman Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Abd%C3%BClkerim_Nadir_Pasha" title="Abdülkerim Nadir Pasha">Abdülkerim Nadir Pasha</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire"><img alt="Ottoman Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Ey%C3%BCb_Pasha" title="Ahmed Eyüb Pasha">Ahmed Eyüb Pasha</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire"><img alt="Ottoman Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Deli_Fuad_Pasha" title="Deli Fuad Pasha">Deli Fuad Pasha</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire"><img alt="Ottoman Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_Riza_Pasha" title="Mehmed Riza Pasha">Mehmed Riza Pasha</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire"><img alt="Ottoman Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Said_Pasha_Kurd" title="Said Pasha Kurd">Said Pasha Kurd</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire"><img alt="Ottoman Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Qerandiqo_Berzeg" class="mw-redirect" title="Qerandiqo Berzeg">Qerandiqo Berzeg</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire"><img alt="Ottoman Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Sheikh_Ubeydullah" title="Sheikh Ubeydullah">Sheikh Ubeydullah</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Khedivate_of_Egypt" title="Khedivate of Egypt"><img alt="Khedivate of Egypt" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Flag_of_Muhammad_Ali.svg/23px-Flag_of_Muhammad_Ali.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Flag_of_Muhammad_Ali.svg/35px-Flag_of_Muhammad_Ali.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Flag_of_Muhammad_Ali.svg/45px-Flag_of_Muhammad_Ali.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Hassan_Ismail_Pasha" title="Hassan Ismail Pasha">Hassan Ismail Pasha</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Strength</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><b><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire"><img alt="Russian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russia</a></b>:<br />Initial: 185,000 in the Army of the Danube, 75,000 in the Caucasian Army<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />Total: 260,000 in four corps<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> </div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <b><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></b>:<br />Initial: 70,000 in the Caucasus<br />Total: 281,000<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />Spring of 1877<br />Olender: 490,000–530,000<br /> Barry: 378,000</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Casualties and losses</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><b>Total</b>: <b>96,733–111,166 dead</b><sup id="cite_ref-Urlanis_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Urlanis-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Larousse_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Larousse-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><hr /> <ul><li><b><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire"><img alt="Russian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russia</a></b> <ul><li>15,567–30,000 killed<sup id="cite_ref-Urlanis_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Urlanis-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Larousse_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Larousse-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>81,166 died of disease</li> <li>56,652 wounded</li> <li>1,713 died from wounds<sup id="cite_ref-Urlanis_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Urlanis-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/23px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/35px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/45px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/United_Principalities_of_Moldavia_and_Wallachia" title="United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia">Romania</a> <ul><li>4,302 killed and missing</li> <li>3,316 wounded</li> <li>19,904 sick<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Flag_of_Stiliana_Paraskevova.svg/16px-Flag_of_Stiliana_Paraskevova.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Flag_of_Stiliana_Paraskevova.svg/24px-Flag_of_Stiliana_Paraskevova.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Flag_of_Stiliana_Paraskevova.svg/32px-Flag_of_Stiliana_Paraskevova.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="760" data-file-height="720" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Opalchentsi" class="mw-redirect" title="Opalchentsi">Bulgarian Legion</a> <ul><li>2,456 killed and wounded<sup id="cite_ref-scepsis.net_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scepsis.net-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Several thousand total military deaths (mostly disease)</li></ul></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Flag_of_Serbia_%281835%E2%80%931882%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Serbia_%281835%E2%80%931882%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Flag_of_Serbia_%281835%E2%80%931882%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Serbia_%281835%E2%80%931882%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Flag_of_Serbia_%281835%E2%80%931882%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Serbia_%281835%E2%80%931882%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="844" data-file-height="563" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Serbia" title="Principality of Serbia">Serbia</a> and <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Flag_of_Montenegro_%281860%E2%80%931905%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Montenegro_%281860%E2%80%931905%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Flag_of_Montenegro_%281860%E2%80%931905%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Montenegro_%281860%E2%80%931905%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Flag_of_Montenegro_%281860%E2%80%931905%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Montenegro_%281860%E2%80%931905%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="360" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Montenegro" title="Principality of Montenegro">Montenegro</a> <ul><li>2,400 dead and wounded<sup id="cite_ref-scepsis.net_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scepsis.net-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><b>Total</b>: <b>90,000–120,000 dead</b><sup id="cite_ref-Мерников_Спектор_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Мерников_Спектор-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><hr /> <ul><li><b><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></b></li> <li>30,000 killed<sup id="cite_ref-Мерников_Спектор_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Мерников_Спектор-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>60,000–90,000<sup id="cite_ref-Мерников_Спектор_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Мерников_Спектор-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> died from wounds and diseases</li> <li>110,000 captured<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-top:1px dotted #aaa;"> 500,000–1.5 million Turkish, Albanian and Jewish civilians displaced<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Herzegovina_uprising_(1875%E2%80%931877)" title="Herzegovina uprising (1875–1877)">Herzegovina uprising (1875–1877)</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/April_Uprising_of_1876" title="April Uprising of 1876">April Uprising of 1876</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Razlovtsi_insurrection" class="mw-redirect" title="Razlovtsi insurrection">Razlovtsi insurrection</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Reichstadt_Agreement" title="Reichstadt Agreement">Reichstadt Agreement</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Serbian%E2%80%93Ottoman_Wars_(1876%E2%80%931878)" title="Serbian–Ottoman Wars (1876–1878)">Serbian–Ottoman Wars (1876–1878)</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Montenegrin%E2%80%93Ottoman_War_(1876%E2%80%931878)" title="Montenegrin–Ottoman War (1876–1878)">Montenegrin–Ottoman War (1876–1878)</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/First_Constitutional_Era" title="First Constitutional Era">First Constitutional Era</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Constantinople_Conference" title="Constantinople Conference">Constantinople Conference</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Budapest_Convention_of_1877" title="Budapest Convention of 1877">Budapest Convention of 1877</a></span></li> <li><b><span class="wraplinks"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)</a></span></b></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Romanian_War_of_Independence" title="Romanian War of Independence">Romanian War of Independence</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Provisional_Russian_Administration_in_Bulgaria" title="Provisional Russian Administration in Bulgaria">Provisional Russian Administration in Bulgaria</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_San_Stefano" title="Treaty of San Stefano">Treaty of San Stefano</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Cyprus_Convention" title="Cyprus Convention">Cyprus Convention</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_the_Albanians,_1877%E2%80%931878" class="mw-redirect" title="Expulsion of the Albanians, 1877–1878">Expulsion of the Albanians, 1877–1878</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Berlin" title="Congress of Berlin">Congress of Berlin</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Kumanovo_uprising" title="Kumanovo uprising">Kumanovo uprising</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/1878_Macedonian_rebellion" title="1878 Macedonian rebellion">1878 Macedonian rebellion</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Epirus_Revolt_of_1878" title="Epirus Revolt of 1878">Epirus Revolt of 1878</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Cretan_revolt_(1878)" title="Cretan revolt (1878)">Cretan revolt (1878)</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Berlin_(1878)" title="Treaty of Berlin (1878)">Treaty of Berlin (1878)</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_campaign_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina_in_1878" title="Austro-Hungarian campaign in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1878">Austro-Hungarian campaign in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1878</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Kresna%E2%80%93Razlog_uprising" title="Kresna–Razlog uprising">Kresna–Razlog uprising</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Russo-Turkish_Wars" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Russo-Turkish_Wars" title="Template:Campaignbox Russo-Turkish Wars"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Russo-Turkish_Wars" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Russo-Turkish Wars"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Russo-Turkish_Wars" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Russo-Turkish Wars"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Russo-Turkish_Wars" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Russo-Turkish_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Russo-Turkish wars"><span class="wrap">Russo-Turkish Wars</span></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1568%E2%80%931570)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1568–1570)">1568–70</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1676%E2%80%931681)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1676–1681)">1676–81</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1686%E2%80%931700)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1686–1700)">1686–1700</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pruth_River_Campaign" title="Pruth River Campaign">1710–11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1735%E2%80%931739)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1735–1739)">1735–39</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1768%E2%80%931774)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)">1768–74</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1787%E2%80%931792)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792)">1787–92</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1806%E2%80%931812)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1806–1812)">1806–12</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1828%E2%80%931829)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1828–1829)">1828–29</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">1853–56</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">1877–78</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasus_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Caucasus Campaign">1914–1918</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Eastern Front (World War I)">1916–1917</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Conflicts_in_Eastern_Europe_during_Turco-Mongol_rule" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Campaignbox Conflicts in Eastern Europe during Turco-Mongol rule">Turco-Mongol raids</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></div> <p>The <b>Russo-Turkish War</b> (<a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a>: <i lang="tr">93 Harbi</i>, <small><a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> </small>'War of '93', named for the year 1293 in the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_calendar" title="Islamic calendar">Islamic calendar</a>; <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: <span lang="ru">Русско-турецкая война</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Russian" title="Romanization of Russian">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Russian-language romanization"><i lang="ru-Latn">Russko-turetskaya voyna</i></span>, "Russian–Turkish war") was a conflict between the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> and a coalition led by the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> which included <a href="/wiki/United_Principalities_of_Moldavia_and_Wallachia" title="United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia">Romania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Serbia" title="Principality of Serbia">Serbia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Montenegro" title="Principality of Montenegro">Montenegro</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additional factors included the Russian goals of recovering territorial losses endured during the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a> of 1853–1856, re-establishing itself in the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a> and supporting the political movement attempting to free Balkan nations from the Ottoman Empire. </p><p>The Russian-led coalition won the war, pushing the Ottomans back all the way to the gates of <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>, leading to the intervention of the Western European great powers. As a result, Russia succeeded in claiming provinces in the Caucasus, namely <a href="/wiki/Kars_Oblast" class="mw-redirect" title="Kars Oblast">Kars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Batum_Oblast" class="mw-redirect" title="Batum Oblast">Batum</a>, and also annexed the <a href="/wiki/Budjak" title="Budjak">Budjak</a> region. The principalities of Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro, each of which had had <i>de facto</i> sovereignty for some years, formally proclaimed independence from the Ottoman Empire. After almost five centuries of Ottoman domination (1396–1878), Bulgaria emerged as an autonomous state with support and military intervention from Russia. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conflict_pre-history">Conflict pre-history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Conflict pre-history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Treatment_of_Christians_in_the_Ottoman_Empire">Treatment of Christians in the Ottoman Empire</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Treatment of Christians in the Ottoman Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Article 9 of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1856)" title="Treaty of Paris (1856)">1856 Paris Peace Treaty</a>, concluded at the end of the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a>, obliged the Ottoman Empire to grant Christians equal rights with Muslims. Before the treaty was signed, the Ottoman government issued an edict, the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_G%C3%BClhane" title="Edict of Gülhane">Edict of Gülhane</a>, which proclaimed the principle of the equality of Muslims and non-Muslims,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and produced some specific reforms to this end. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">jizya</a> tax was abolished and non-Muslims were allowed to join the army.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Crisis_in_Lebanon,_1860"><span id="Crisis_in_Lebanon.2C_1860"></span>Crisis in Lebanon, 1860</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Crisis in Lebanon, 1860"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/1860_Mount_Lebanon_civil_war" class="mw-redirect" title="1860 Mount Lebanon civil war">1860 Mount Lebanon civil war</a></div> <p>In 1858, stirred by their clergy, the <a href="/wiki/Maronite" class="mw-redirect" title="Maronite">Maronite</a> peasants of northern Lebanon revolted against their predominantly <a href="/wiki/Druze" title="Druze">Druze</a> feudal overlords and established a peasant republic. In southern <a href="/wiki/Beirut_vilayet" title="Beirut vilayet">Beirut vilayet</a>, where both Maronite and Druze peasants worked under Druze overlords, Druze peasants sided with their co-religious and against the Maronites, transforming the conflict into a <a href="/wiki/1860_Druze-Christian_conflict_in_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="1860 Druze-Christian conflict in Lebanon">civil war</a>. Although both sides suffered, about 10,000 Maronites were massacred at the hands of the Druze.<sup id="cite_ref-countrystudies.us_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-countrystudies.us-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fearing European intervention, the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs_(Ottoman_Empire)" title="Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Ottoman Empire)">Ottoman foreign minister</a> <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_Fuad_Pasha" title="Mehmed Fuad Pasha">Mehmed Fuad Pasha</a> was dispatched to Syria and immediately set about trying to resolve the conflict as swiftly as possible. Mehmed sought out and executed the agitators on all sides, including the governor and other officials. Order was soon restored, and preparations made to give Lebanon new autonomy. These efforts were ultimately not enough to prevent European intervention, however, with France deploying a fleet in September 1860. Fearing that a unilateral intervention would increase French influence in the region at their expense, the <a href="/wiki/R%C3%A8glement_Organique_(Mount_Lebanon)" title="Règlement Organique (Mount Lebanon)">British joined the French expedition</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShawShaw1977142–143_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShawShaw1977142–143-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Faced with further European pressure, the Sultan agreed to appoint a Christian governor in Lebanon, whose candidacy was to be submitted by the Sultan and approved by the European powers.<sup id="cite_ref-countrystudies.us_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-countrystudies.us-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_revolt_in_Crete,_1866–1869"><span id="The_revolt_in_Crete.2C_1866.E2.80.931869"></span>The revolt in Crete, 1866–1869</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: The revolt in Crete, 1866–1869"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MoniArkadiou2.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/MoniArkadiou2.JPG/220px-MoniArkadiou2.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/MoniArkadiou2.JPG/330px-MoniArkadiou2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/MoniArkadiou2.JPG/440px-MoniArkadiou2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1808" data-file-height="1532" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Moni_Arkadiou" class="mw-redirect" title="Moni Arkadiou">Moni Arkadiou</a> monastery</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Cretan_revolt_(1866%E2%80%931869)" title="Cretan revolt (1866–1869)">Cretan Revolt</a>, which began in 1866, resulted from the failure of the Ottoman Empire to apply reforms for improving the life of the population and the Cretans' desire for <a href="/wiki/Enosis" title="Enosis">enosis</a> – union with <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Greece" title="Kingdom of Greece">Greece</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The insurgents gained control over the whole island, except for five fortified cities where the Muslims took refuge. The Greek press claimed<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> that Muslims had massacred Greeks and the word was spread throughout Europe. Thousands of Greek volunteers were mobilized and sent to the island. </p><p>The siege of <a href="/wiki/Arkadi_Monastery" title="Arkadi Monastery">Arkadi Monastery</a> became particularly well known. In November 1866, about 250 Cretan Greek combatants and around 600 women and children were besieged by about 23,000 mainly Cretan Muslims aided by Ottoman troops, and this became widely known in Europe. After a bloody battle with a large number of casualties on both sides, the Cretan Greeks finally surrendered when their ammunition ran out but were killed upon surrender.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By early 1869, the insurrection was suppressed, but the Porte offered some concessions, introducing island self-rule and increasing Christian rights on the island. Although the Cretan crisis ended better for the Ottomans than almost any other diplomatic confrontation of the century, the insurrection, and especially the brutality with which it was suppressed, led to greater public attention in Europe to the oppression of Christians in the Ottoman Empire. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Small as the amount of attention is which can be given by the people of England to the affairs of Turkey ... enough was transpiring from time to time to produce a vague but a settled and general impression that the Sultans were not fulfilling the "solemn promises" they had made to Europe; that the vices of the Turkish government were ineradicable; and that whenever another crisis might arise affecting the "independence" of the Ottoman Empire, it would be wholly impossible to afford to it again the support we had afforded in the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean war">Crimean war</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArgyll1879122_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArgyll1879122-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Changing_balance_of_power_in_Europe">Changing balance of power in Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Changing balance of power in Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Territorial_changes_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_1862.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Territorial_changes_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_1862.jpg/220px-Territorial_changes_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_1862.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Territorial_changes_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_1862.jpg/330px-Territorial_changes_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_1862.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Territorial_changes_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_1862.jpg/440px-Territorial_changes_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_1862.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1104" data-file-height="834" /></a><figcaption>Ottoman Empire in 1862</figcaption></figure> <p>Although on the winning side in the Crimean War, the Ottoman Empire <a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Decline of the Ottoman Empire">continued to decline</a> in power and prestige. The financial strain on the treasury forced the Ottoman government to take a series of foreign loans at such steep interest rates that, despite all the fiscal reforms that followed, pushed it into unpayable debts and economic difficulties. This was further aggravated by the need to accommodate more than 600,000 Muslim <a href="/wiki/Circassians" title="Circassians">Circassians</a>, expelled by the Russians from the Caucasus, to the Black Sea ports of north <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> and the Balkan ports of <a href="/wiki/Constan%C8%9Ba" title="Constanța">Constanța</a> and <a href="/wiki/Varna,_Bulgaria" title="Varna, Bulgaria">Varna</a>, which cost a great deal in money and in civil disorder to the Ottoman authorities.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_New_European_Concert">The New European Concert</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: The New European Concert"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Concert_of_Europe" title="Concert of Europe">Concert of Europe</a> established in 1814 was shaken in 1859 when <a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">France</a> and <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austria</a> <a href="/wiki/Second_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="Second Italian War of Independence">fought over Italy</a>. It came apart completely as a result of the wars of <a href="/wiki/German_Unification" class="mw-redirect" title="German Unification">German Unification</a>, when the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Kingdom of Prussia</a>, led by Chancellor <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Otto von Bismarck</a>, defeated Austria in 1866 and France in 1870, replacing Austria as the dominant power in Central Europe. Britain, diverted by the <a href="/wiki/Irish_question" title="Irish question">Irish question</a> and averse to warfare, chose not to intervene again to restore the European balance. Bismarck did not wish the breakup of the Ottoman Empire to create rivalries that might lead to war, so he took up Tsar <a href="/wiki/Alexander_II_of_Russia" title="Alexander II of Russia">Alexander II of Russia</a>'s earlier suggestion that arrangements be made in case the Ottoman Empire fell apart, creating the <a href="/wiki/Three_Emperors%27_League" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Emperors' League">Three Emperors' League</a> with <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a> and Russia to keep France isolated on the continent. </p><p>France responded by supporting self-determination movements, particularly if they concerned the three emperors and the Sultan. Thus revolts in <a href="/wiki/Congress_Poland" title="Congress Poland">Poland</a> against Russia and national aspirations in the Balkans were encouraged by France. Russia worked to regain its right to maintain a fleet on the Black Sea and vied with the French in gaining influence in the Balkans by using the new <a href="/wiki/Pan-Slavic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pan-Slavic">Pan-Slavic</a> idea that all Slavs should be united under Russian leadership. This could be done only by destroying the two empires where most non-Russian Slavs lived, the Habsburg and the Ottoman Empires. The ambitions and the rivalries of the Russians and French in the Balkans surfaced in <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Serbia" title="Principality of Serbia">Serbia</a>, which was experiencing its own national revival and had ambitions that partly conflicted with those of the great powers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShawShaw1977146_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShawShaw1977146-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Russia_after_the_Crimean_War">Russia after the Crimean War</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Russia after the Crimean War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Russia ended the Crimean War with minimal territorial losses, but was forced to destroy its <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea_Fleet" title="Black Sea Fleet">Black Sea Fleet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sevastopol" title="Sevastopol">Sevastopol</a> fortifications. Russian international prestige was damaged, and for many years revenge for the Crimean War became the main goal of Russian foreign policy. This was not easy though: the Paris peace treaty included guarantees of Ottoman territorial integrity by Great Britain, France and Austria, and only Prussia remained friendly to Russia. </p><p>The newly appointed Russian chancellor, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Mikhailovich_Gorchakov" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Mikhailovich Gorchakov">Alexander Gorchakov</a>, depended upon alliance with Prussia and its chancellor Bismarck. Russia consistently supported Prussia in her wars with <a href="/wiki/Second_Schleswig_War" title="Second Schleswig War">Denmark (1864)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Austro-Prussian_War" title="Austro-Prussian War">Austria (1866)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War">France (1870)</a>. In March 1871, using the crushing French defeat and the support of a grateful <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">Germany</a>, Russia achieved <a href="/wiki/Commissions_of_the_Danube_River#London_Conference_of_1871" title="Commissions of the Danube River">international recognition</a> of its earlier denouncement of Article 11 of the Paris Peace Treaty, thus enabling it to revive the Black Sea Fleet. </p><p>Other clauses of the Paris Peace Treaty, however, remained in force, specifically Article 8 with guarantees of Ottoman territorial integrity by Great Britain, France and Austria. Therefore, Russia was extremely cautious in its relations with the Ottoman Empire, coordinating all its actions with other European powers. A Russian war with Turkey would require at least the tacit support of all other Great Powers, and Russian diplomacy was waiting for a convenient moment. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Balkan_crisis_of_1875–1876"><span id="Balkan_crisis_of_1875.E2.80.931876"></span>Balkan crisis of 1875–1876</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Balkan crisis of 1875–1876"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Europe_1871_map_en.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Europe_1871_map_en.png/220px-Europe_1871_map_en.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Europe_1871_map_en.png/330px-Europe_1871_map_en.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Europe_1871_map_en.png/440px-Europe_1871_map_en.png 2x" data-file-width="2284" data-file-height="1503" /></a><figcaption>Europe before the Balkan crisis</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1875, a series of Balkan events brought Europe to the brink of war. The state of Ottoman administration in the Balkans continued to deteriorate throughout the 19th century, with the central government occasionally losing control over whole provinces. Reforms imposed by European powers did little to improve the conditions of the Christian population, while managing to dissatisfy a sizable portion of the Muslim population. <a href="/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a> suffered at least two waves of rebellion by the local Muslim population, the <a href="/wiki/Herzegovina_uprising_(1852%E2%80%931862)" title="Herzegovina uprising (1852–1862)">most recent ending in 1862</a>. </p><p>Austria-Hungary consolidated after the turmoil of the first half of the century and sought to reinvigorate its centuries long policy of expansion at the expense of the Ottoman Empire. Meanwhile, the nominally autonomous, de facto independent principalities of Serbia and Montenegro also sought to expand into regions inhabited by their compatriots. Nationalist and <a href="/wiki/Irredentism" title="Irredentism">irredentist</a> sentiments were strong and were encouraged by Russia and her agents. At the same time, a severe drought in Anatolia in 1873 and flooding in 1874 caused famine and widespread discontent in the heart of the Empire. The agricultural shortages precluded the collection of necessary taxes, which forced the Ottoman government to declare bankruptcy in October 1875 and increase taxes on outlying provinces including the Balkans. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Balkan_uprisings">Balkan uprisings</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Balkan uprisings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Albanian_revolts">Albanian revolts</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Albanian revolts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Istv%C3%A1n_De%C3%A1k" title="István Deák">István Deák</a> states that the <a href="/wiki/Albanians" title="Albanians">Albanian</a> highlanders resented new taxes and conscription, and fought against the Ottomans in the war.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Herzegovina_Uprising">Herzegovina Uprising</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Herzegovina Uprising"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hercegovci_u_zasedi,_Srbadija.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Hercegovci_u_zasedi%2C_Srbadija.jpg/220px-Hercegovci_u_zasedi%2C_Srbadija.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Hercegovci_u_zasedi%2C_Srbadija.jpg/330px-Hercegovci_u_zasedi%2C_Srbadija.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Hercegovci_u_zasedi%2C_Srbadija.jpg/440px-Hercegovci_u_zasedi%2C_Srbadija.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1938" data-file-height="1482" /></a><figcaption>Herzegovinian insurgents in 1875</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Herzegovina_Uprising_(1875%E2%80%9378)" class="mw-redirect" title="Herzegovina Uprising (1875–78)">Herzegovina Uprising (1875–78)</a></div> <p>An uprising against Ottoman rule began in <a href="/wiki/Herzegovina" title="Herzegovina">Herzegovina</a> in July 1875. By August almost all of Herzegovina had been seized and the revolt had spread into <a href="/wiki/Bosnia" class="mw-redirect" title="Bosnia">Bosnia</a>. Supported by nationalist volunteers from Serbia and Montenegro, the uprising continued as the Ottomans committed more and more troops to suppress it. With its origin in the vicinity of the town of <a href="/wiki/Nevesinje" title="Nevesinje">Nevesinje</a> the uprising was also known as "Nevesinjska puška" - the rifle of Nevesinje. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bulgarian_Uprising">Bulgarian Uprising</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Bulgarian Uprising"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/April_Uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="April Uprising">April Uprising</a></div> <p>The revolt of Bosnia and Herzegovina spurred <a href="/wiki/Bucharest" title="Bucharest">Bucharest</a>-based Bulgarian revolutionaries into action. In 1875, a Bulgarian uprising was hastily prepared to take advantage of Ottoman preoccupation, but it fizzled before it started. In the spring of 1876, another uprising erupted in the south-central Bulgarian lands despite the fact that there were numerous regular Turkish troops in those areas. </p><p>A special Turkish military committee was established to quell the uprising. Regular troops (<i>Nizam</i>) and irregulars (<i>Redif</i> or <a href="/wiki/Bashi-bazouk" title="Bashi-bazouk">Bashi-bazouk</a>) were directed to fight the Bulgarians (11 May – 9 June 1876). The irregulars were mostly drawn from the Muslim inhabitants of the Bulgarian region. Many were Circassians from the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a> or <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Tatars" title="Crimean Tatars">Crimean Tatars</a> who were expelled during the Crimean War; some were Islamized Bulgarians. The <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Army_(1861%E2%80%931922)" title="Ottoman Army (1861–1922)">Ottoman army</a> suppressed the revolt, massacring up to 30,000<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHupchick2002264_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHupchick2002264-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonassohn1999209–210_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonassohn1999209–210-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> people in the process.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonassohn1999210_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonassohn1999210-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Five thousand out of the seven thousand villagers of <a href="/wiki/Batak,_Bulgaria" title="Batak, Bulgaria">Batak</a> were put to death.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both <a href="/wiki/Batak_massacre" title="Batak massacre">Batak</a> and <a href="/wiki/Perushtitsa" title="Perushtitsa">Perushtitsa</a>, where the majority of the population was also massacred, participated in the rebellion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonassohn1999209–210_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonassohn1999209–210-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of the perpetrators of those massacres were later decorated by the Ottoman high command.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonassohn1999209–210_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonassohn1999209–210-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Konstantin_Makovsky_-_The_Bulgarian_martyresses.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Konstantin Makovsky, The Bulgarian Martyresses, a painting depicting the atrocities of bashibazouks in Bulgaria."><img alt="Konstantin Makovsky, The Bulgarian Martyresses, a painting depicting the atrocities of bashibazouks in Bulgaria." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Konstantin_Makovsky_-_The_Bulgarian_martyresses.jpg/80px-Konstantin_Makovsky_-_The_Bulgarian_martyresses.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Konstantin_Makovsky_-_The_Bulgarian_martyresses.jpg/120px-Konstantin_Makovsky_-_The_Bulgarian_martyresses.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Konstantin_Makovsky_-_The_Bulgarian_martyresses.jpg/160px-Konstantin_Makovsky_-_The_Bulgarian_martyresses.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1350" data-file-height="2026" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Makovsky" title="Konstantin Makovsky">Konstantin Makovsky</a>, <i>The Bulgarian Martyresses</i>, a painting depicting the atrocities of <a href="/wiki/Bashibazouk" class="mw-redirect" title="Bashibazouk">bashibazouks</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%94%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B0_(%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%B7%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B8).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Two Hawks by Vasily Vereshchagin, showing two Bashibazouks held captive by the Bulgarian and Russian army."><img alt="Two Hawks by Vasily Vereshchagin, showing two Bashibazouks held captive by the Bulgarian and Russian army." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/%D0%94%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B0_%28%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%B7%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B8%29.jpg/120px-%D0%94%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B0_%28%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%B7%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B8%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="89" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/%D0%94%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B0_%28%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%B7%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B8%29.jpg/180px-%D0%94%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B0_%28%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%B7%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B8%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/%D0%94%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B0_%28%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%B7%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B8%29.jpg/240px-%D0%94%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B0_%28%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%B7%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B8%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="740" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <i>Two Hawks</i> by <a href="/wiki/Vasily_Vereshchagin" title="Vasily Vereshchagin">Vasily Vereshchagin</a>, showing two <a href="/wiki/Bashibazouk" class="mw-redirect" title="Bashibazouk">Bashibazouks</a> held captive by the Bulgarian and Russian army.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vsemirnaya_Illyustratsia_Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)_05.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Bashi-bazouks, returning with the spoils from the Romanian shore of the Danube. 1877 engraving."><img alt="Bashi-bazouks, returning with the spoils from the Romanian shore of the Danube. 1877 engraving." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Vsemirnaya_Illyustratsia_Russo-Turkish_War_%281877%E2%80%931878%29_05.jpg/120px-Vsemirnaya_Illyustratsia_Russo-Turkish_War_%281877%E2%80%931878%29_05.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Vsemirnaya_Illyustratsia_Russo-Turkish_War_%281877%E2%80%931878%29_05.jpg/180px-Vsemirnaya_Illyustratsia_Russo-Turkish_War_%281877%E2%80%931878%29_05.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Vsemirnaya_Illyustratsia_Russo-Turkish_War_%281877%E2%80%931878%29_05.jpg/240px-Vsemirnaya_Illyustratsia_Russo-Turkish_War_%281877%E2%80%931878%29_05.jpg 2x" data-file-width="891" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Bashi-bazouks, returning with the spoils from the Romanian shore of the <a href="/wiki/Danube" title="Danube">Danube</a>. 1877 engraving.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Basibozuk-1877.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Bashi-bazouks' atrocities in Bulgaria."><img alt="Bashi-bazouks' atrocities in Bulgaria." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Basibozuk-1877.jpg/120px-Basibozuk-1877.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Basibozuk-1877.jpg/180px-Basibozuk-1877.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Basibozuk-1877.jpg/240px-Basibozuk-1877.jpg 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="213" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Bashi-bazouks' atrocities in <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a>.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International_reaction_to_atrocities_in_Bulgaria">International reaction to atrocities in Bulgaria</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: International reaction to atrocities in Bulgaria"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fred._W._Rose_The_Avenger_An_Allegorical_War_Map_for_1877_1877_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1080_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Fred._W._Rose_The_Avenger_An_Allegorical_War_Map_for_1877_1877_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1080_01.jpg/280px-Fred._W._Rose_The_Avenger_An_Allegorical_War_Map_for_1877_1877_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1080_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Fred._W._Rose_The_Avenger_An_Allegorical_War_Map_for_1877_1877_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1080_01.jpg/420px-Fred._W._Rose_The_Avenger_An_Allegorical_War_Map_for_1877_1877_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1080_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Fred._W._Rose_The_Avenger_An_Allegorical_War_Map_for_1877_1877_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1080_01.jpg/560px-Fred._W._Rose_The_Avenger_An_Allegorical_War_Map_for_1877_1877_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1080_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="9002" data-file-height="7137" /></a><figcaption>The Avenger: An Allegorical War Map for 1877 by Fred. W. Rose, 1877: This map reflects the "Great Eastern Crisis" and the subsequent Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78.</figcaption></figure> <p>Word of the bashi-bazouks' atrocities filtered to the outside world by way of the American-run <a href="/wiki/Robert_College" title="Robert College">Robert College</a> located in <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>. The majority of the students were Bulgarian, and many received news of the events from their families back home. Soon the Western diplomatic community in Constantinople was abuzz with rumours, which eventually found their way into newspapers in the West. While in Constantinople in 1879, Protestant missionary <a href="/wiki/George_Warren_Wood" title="George Warren Wood">George Warren Wood</a> reported Turkish authorities in <a href="/wiki/Amasya" title="Amasya">Amasia</a> brutally persecuting Christian Armenian refugees from <a href="/wiki/Sukhumi" title="Sukhumi">Soukoum Kaleh</a>. He was able to coordinate with British diplomat <a href="/wiki/Edward_Malet" title="Edward Malet">Edward Malet</a> to bring the matter to the attention of the <a href="/wiki/Sublime_Porte" title="Sublime Porte">Sublime Porte</a>, and then to the British <a href="/wiki/Foreign_Secretary" title="Foreign Secretary">Foreign Secretary</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Gascoyne-Cecil,_3rd_Marquess_of_Salisbury" title="Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury">Robert Gascoyne-Cecil</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Marquess_of_Salisbury" title="Marquess of Salisbury">Marquess of Salisbury</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Britain, where <a href="/wiki/Second_Disraeli_ministry" title="Second Disraeli ministry">Disraeli's government</a> was committed to supporting the Ottomans in the ongoing Balkan crisis, the Liberal opposition newspaper <i><a href="/wiki/The_Daily_News_(UK)" title="The Daily News (UK)">The Daily News</a></i> hired American journalist <a href="/wiki/Januarius_MacGahan" title="Januarius MacGahan">Januarius A. MacGahan</a> to report on the massacre stories first-hand. </p><p>MacGahan toured the stricken regions of the Bulgarian uprising, and his report, splashed across <i>The Daily News</i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span>s front pages, galvanized British public opinion against Disraeli's pro-Ottoman policy.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In September, opposition leader <a href="/wiki/William_Ewart_Gladstone" title="William Ewart Gladstone">William Ewart Gladstone</a> published his <i>Bulgarian Horrors and the Question of the East</i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGladstone1876_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGladstone1876-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> calling upon Britain to withdraw its support for Turkey and proposing that Europe demand independence for Bulgaria and Bosnia and Herzegovina.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGladstone187664_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGladstone187664-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the details became known across Europe, many dignitaries, including <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oscar_Wilde" title="Oscar Wilde">Oscar Wilde</a>, <a href="/wiki/Victor_Hugo" title="Victor Hugo">Victor Hugo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Giuseppe Garibaldi</a>, publicly condemned the Ottoman abuses in Bulgaria.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The strongest reaction came from Russia. Widespread sympathy for the Bulgarian cause led to a nationwide surge in patriotism on a scale comparable with the one during the <a href="/wiki/French_invasion_of_Russia" title="French invasion of Russia">Patriotic War of 1812</a>. From autumn 1875, the movement to support the Bulgarian uprising involved all classes of Russian society. This was accompanied by sharp public discussions about Russian goals in this conflict: <a href="/wiki/Slavophile" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavophile">Slavophiles</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Dostoevsky" title="Fyodor Dostoevsky">Fyodor Dostoevsky</a>, saw in the impending war the chance to unite all Orthodox nations under Russia's helm, thus fulfilling what they believed was the historic mission of Russia, while their opponents, <a href="/wiki/Westernizer" title="Westernizer">westernizers</a>, inspired by <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Turgenev" title="Ivan Turgenev">Ivan Turgenev</a>, denied the importance of religion and believed that Russian goals should not be defense of Orthodoxy but liberation of Bulgaria.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Serbo-Turkish_War_and_diplomatic_maneuvering">Serbo-Turkish War and diplomatic maneuvering</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Serbo-Turkish War and diplomatic maneuvering"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Serbo-Turkish_War_(1876%E2%80%9378)" class="mw-redirect" title="Serbo-Turkish War (1876–78)">Serbo-Turkish War (1876–78)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Montenegrin%E2%80%93Ottoman_War_(1876%E2%80%931878)" title="Montenegrin–Ottoman War (1876–1878)">Montenegrin–Ottoman War (1876–1878)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Constantinople_Conference" title="Constantinople Conference">Constantinople Conference</a>, <a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_the_Albanians_1877%E2%80%931878" class="mw-redirect" title="Expulsion of the Albanians 1877–1878">Expulsion of the Albanians 1877–1878</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Attacks_on_Serbs_during_the_Serbian%E2%80%93Ottoman_War_(1876%E2%80%931878)" class="mw-redirect" title="Attacks on Serbs during the Serbian–Ottoman War (1876–1878)">Attacks on Serbs during the Serbian–Ottoman War (1876–1878)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Punch_-_The_Dogs_of_War.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Punch_-_The_Dogs_of_War.png/220px-Punch_-_The_Dogs_of_War.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="301" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Punch_-_The_Dogs_of_War.png/330px-Punch_-_The_Dogs_of_War.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Punch_-_The_Dogs_of_War.png/440px-Punch_-_The_Dogs_of_War.png 2x" data-file-width="2917" data-file-height="3993" /></a><figcaption>Russia preparing to release the Balkan dogs of war, while Britain warns him to take care. <i><a href="/wiki/Punch_(magazine)" title="Punch (magazine)">Punch</a></i> cartoon from 17 June 1876</figcaption></figure> <p>On 30 June 1876, Serbia, followed by Montenegro, declared war on the Ottoman Empire. In July and August, the ill-prepared and poorly equipped <a href="/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_the_Principality_of_Serbia" title="Armed Forces of the Principality of Serbia">Serbian army</a> helped by Russian volunteers failed to achieve offensive objectives but did manage to repulse the Ottoman offensive into Serbia. Meanwhile, Alexander II of Russia and <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Gorchakov" title="Alexander Gorchakov">Prince Gorchakov</a> met Austria-Hungary's <a href="/wiki/Franz_Joseph_I_of_Austria" title="Franz Joseph I of Austria">Franz Joseph I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Julius_Andrassy" class="mw-redirect" title="Julius Andrassy">Count Andrássy</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Z%C3%A1kupy" title="Zákupy">Reichstadt</a> castle in <a href="/wiki/Bohemia" title="Bohemia">Bohemia</a>. <a href="/wiki/Reichstadt_Agreement" title="Reichstadt Agreement">No written agreement</a> was made, but during the discussions, Russia agreed to support Austrian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Austria-Hungary, in exchange, agreed to support the return of Southern <a href="/wiki/Bessarabia" title="Bessarabia">Bessarabia</a> – lost by Russia during the Crimean War – and Russian annexation of the port of <a href="/wiki/Batumi" title="Batumi">Batum</a> on the east coast of the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a>. Bulgaria was to become autonomous (independent, according to the Russian records).<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the fighting in Bosnia and Herzegovina continued, Serbia suffered a string of setbacks and asked the European powers to mediate an end to the war. A joint ultimatum by the European powers forced the Porte to give Serbia a one-month truce and start peace negotiations. Turkish peace conditions however were refused by European powers as too harsh. In early October, after the truce expired, the Turkish army resumed its offensive and the Serbian position quickly became desperate. On 31 October, Russia issued an ultimatum requiring the Ottoman Empire to stop the hostilities and sign a new truce with Serbia within 48 hours. This was supported by the partial mobilization of the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Russian_Army" title="Imperial Russian Army">Imperial Russian Army</a> (up to 20 divisions). Sultan <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Hamid_II" title="Abdul Hamid II">Abdul Hamid II</a> accepted the conditions of the ultimatum. </p><p>To resolve the crisis, on 11 December 1876, the <a href="/wiki/Constantinople_Conference" title="Constantinople Conference">Constantinople Conference</a> of the Great Powers was opened in Constantinople (to which Ottoman representatives were not invited). A compromise solution was negotiated, granting autonomy to Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina under the joint control of European powers. The Ottomans, however, refused to sacrifice their independence by allowing international representatives to oversee the institution of reforms and sought to discredit the conference by announcing on 23 December, the day the conference was closed, that a <a href="/wiki/First_Constitutional_Era_(Ottoman_Empire)" class="mw-redirect" title="First Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire)">constitution</a> was adopted that declared equal rights for religious minorities within the Empire. The Ottomans attempted to use this manoeuver to get their objections and amendments to the agreement heard. When they were rejected by the Great Powers, the Ottoman Empire announced its decision to disregard the results of the conference. </p><p>On 15 January 1877, Russia and Austria-Hungary signed a written agreement confirming the results of the earlier Reichstadt Agreement of July 1876. This assured Russia of the benevolent neutrality of Austria-Hungary in the impending war. These terms meant that in case of war Russia would do the fighting and Austria-Hungary would derive most of the advantage. Russia therefore made a final effort for a peaceful settlement. After reaching an agreement with its main Balkan rival and with anti-Ottoman sympathies running high throughout Europe due to the Bulgarian atrocities and the rejection of the Constantinople agreements, Russia finally felt free to declare war. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Status_of_combatants">Status of combatants</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Status of combatants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Ottoman_Army">The Ottoman Army</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: The Ottoman Army"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Army_(1861%E2%80%931922)" title="Ottoman Army (1861–1922)">Ottoman Army (1861–1922)</a></div> <p>The Ottoman army at this time solely conscripted Muslims with non-Muslims paying a poll tax in lieu of service, the army itself was divided into four categories: the Nizam (standing army), who served for four years (five for cavalry and engineers); the Ithiat, or first reserve, where a further two years were served (one year for the cavalry and artillery); the Redif, which took veterans of the Nizam and Ithiat categories and men who did not serve; and the Moustafiz, where all men who had completed their service in the Redif (approximately 300,000 troops) served for a further six years.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Redif itself was divided into four categories: the first category consisted of veterans of the Nizam category, who served in the first Redif subcategory for four years before entering the second Redif sub-category; men who were not conscripted served in the third sub-category of the Redif for four years before entering the fourth subcategory. The Redif itself was grouped into battalions and classes, with whole battalions taken out to serve as new units. The annual draft conscripted 37,500 men; following mobilisation of the Nizam and Ithiat, these two portions of the army totaled approximately 210,000 men. An additional 20,000 men of the Gendarme were included in the Nizam. The Redif was theoretically capable of providing 190,000–200,000 troops.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sultan <a href="/wiki/Abdulaziz" title="Abdulaziz">Abdulaziz</a> had reorganised the <a href="/wiki/Turkish_Military_Academy" title="Turkish Military Academy">military school</a> during his reign to educate officers. However, the turnout of this academy was poor and only 1,600 of the 20,000 regular officers of the army were academy trained, though the artillery saw the highest concentration of academy trained officers at 20% of the total. For the entire Ottoman army, only 132 academy-trained generals were available.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Ottoman army was organised at the battalion level with a battalion nominally holding 800 men subdivided into companies of 100 men, for formations above the battalion level these were to be assembled ad-hoc this results in difficulty at estimating Ottoman troop strength throughout the war as many units were below strength before entering the war due to the many rebellions affecting the empire. However, the Ottoman army was well prepared for war, as it had increasingly called up its reserves up to the third subcategory of the Redif when Russian forces began gathering in Bessarabia.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Olender gives the Ottoman battalion (tabor) of infantry at 774 men on paper and 650 in practice, the cavalry squadron containing 143 men on paper and 100 in practice, with the artillery being organised into six gun batteries.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Ottoman army was also well equipped; 75% of its troops were equipped with <a href="/wiki/Martini%E2%80%93Henry" title="Martini–Henry">Peabody-Martini rifles</a> (accurate to 1,800 yards), with 300,000 of these guns having been purchased prior to the war. The remainder of the regular troops used <a href="/wiki/Snider%E2%80%93Enfield" title="Snider–Enfield">Snider rifles</a>; the irregulars used <a href="/wiki/Winchester_rifle" title="Winchester rifle">Winchester repeating rifles</a>, and the Egyptians used <a href="/wiki/Remington_Arms" title="Remington Arms">Remington</a> rifles.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Ottoman support services were, however, less impressive, with the army often forced to resort to foraging. On the other hand, Ottoman forces were equipped with entrenching tools (which they used extensively at <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Plevna" title="Siege of Plevna">Plevna</a>) and had sufficient ammunition for their repeating rifles. The Ottoman artillery were armed with <a href="/wiki/Krupp_gun" title="Krupp gun">Krupp guns</a> of the <a href="/wiki/8_cm_Kanone_C/73" title="8 cm Kanone C/73">8cm</a> and <a href="/wiki/9_cm_Kanone_C/73" title="9 cm Kanone C/73">9cm</a> types for field usage, with 12 cm and <a href="/wiki/15_cm_Ring_Kanone_C/72" title="15 cm Ring Kanone C/72">15cm</a> guns also being used (but less commonly) and various older guns found primarily in fortresses.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:5_39-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the outbreak of war, the Ottoman army was divided into several groups. The largest was the 168,000-man contingent under the command of <a href="/wiki/Abd%C3%BClkerim_Nadir_Pasha" title="Abdülkerim Nadir Pasha">Abdülkerim Nadir Pasha</a>, based out of <a href="/wiki/Shumen" title="Shumen">Shumla</a>. 140,000 were assigned to the general task of fighting threats in the European provinces of the Empire, with 45,000 in various garrisons in Anatolia, Europe, and Crete. With the Caucasus army containing 70,000 men, the total of number of troops amounted to 378,000.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Olender gives a breakdown of Ottoman troops in the spring of 1877 as containing 571 infantry battalions (181 of which were Nizam), 147 cavalry squadrons and 143 artillery batteries not including the fortress and garrison companies or irregulars. On paper this would amount to 441,954 infantry (140,094 being nizam troops), 21,021 cavalry and 858 guns. However, due to other conflicts and the ongoing process of mobilisation of the Redif units at this process the Regular Ottoman army amounted to 400,000 troops with an additional 90,000 irregular troops and Egyptian troops.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_39-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Disposition of Ottoman forces at the outbreak of war<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:5_39-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Location </th> <th>Commander </th> <th>Formations </th> <th>Personnel <p>(Paper Olender) </p> </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Vidin" title="Vidin">Vidin</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Osman_Nuri_Pasha" title="Osman Nuri Pasha">Osman Pasha</a> </td> <td>50 battalions <p>10 squadrons 15 batteries </p> </td> <td>30,000 <p>(40,130 men, 90 guns) </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ruse,_Bulgaria" title="Ruse, Bulgaria">Rushchuk</a> <p><a href="/wiki/Svishtov" title="Svishtov">Sistova</a> </p> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Abd%C3%BClkerim_Nadir_Pasha" title="Abdülkerim Nadir Pasha">Kaisserli Ahmed Pasha</a> </td> <td>15 battalions <p>4 squadrons 5 batteries </p> </td> <td>15,000 <p>(12,182, 30 guns) </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Silistra" title="Silistra">Silistra</a> </td> <td>Sulami Pasha </td> <td>12 battalions <p>3 squadrons 3 batteries </p> </td> <td>9,000 <p>(9,717, 18 guns) </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Shumen" title="Shumen">Shumla</a>, <a href="/wiki/Targovishte" title="Targovishte">Targovishte</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Ey%C3%BCb_Pasha" title="Ahmed Eyüb Pasha">Ahmed Eyüb Pasha</a> </td> <td>65 battalions <p>30 squadrons (mostly irregular) 15 batteries </p> </td> <td>55,000 <p>(54,600, 90 guns) </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Varna,_Bulgaria" title="Varna, Bulgaria">Varna</a> </td> <td>Reshid Pasha </td> <td>12 battalions <p>2 squadrons 2 batteries </p> </td> <td>8,000 <p>(9,288, 12 guns) </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Sofia" title="Sofia">Sofia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Veliko_Tarnovo" title="Veliko Tarnovo">Tirnovo</a>, <p><a href="/wiki/Edirne" title="Edirne">Adrianople</a>, <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> </p> </td> <td> </td> <td>45 battalions <p>12 squadrons 8 batteries </p> </td> <td>25,000 <p>(36,546, 48 guns) </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Bosnia_vilayet" title="Bosnia vilayet">Bosnia</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/S%C3%BCleyman_H%C3%BCsn%C3%BC_Pasha" title="Süleyman Hüsnü Pasha">Suleiman Pasha</a> </td> <td> </td> <td>15,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Albania </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>20,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Sanjak_of_Novi_Pazar" title="Sanjak of Novi Pazar">Novi Pazar</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>10,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Crete and European <p>Ottoman lands </p> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>45,000 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Russian_Army">The Russian Army</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: The Russian Army"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Russian_Army" title="Imperial Russian Army">Imperial Russian Army</a></div> <p>The Russian army in the decade prior to the war underwent major modernisation spearheaded by the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_War_of_the_Russian_Empire" title="Ministry of War of the Russian Empire">Minister of War</a> <a href="/wiki/Dmitry_Milyutin" title="Dmitry Milyutin">Dmitry Milyutin</a>, this programme of reform gave Russia a large army that was capable of fighting a war against the Ottomans. All Russian men were to serve 6 years in the active army and 9 years in the reserves though through exemption the effective intake of conscription was considerably less (in 1874 of 724,648 eligible men only 150,000 were enlisted, this having risen to 218,000 by 1877) in peacetime, though this was still sufficient to meet the Russian need for manpower. The active portion of the army was subdivided into 2 portions. The first portion was the local troops, who were garrison soldiers in Europe, regular soldiers in Asia, stationary forces and gendarmes. The other portion was the Field Army. In addition to these forces there was the militia (opolcheniye), which contained all men exempted from conscription and men under 40 who had completed their terms of service.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Field Army was organised into 48 infantry divisions (3 of which were guard and 4 Grenadier). There were also 8 rifle brigades, 19 cavalry divisions, 35 horse gun batteries, 19 engineer battalions and 49 field gun brigades. The Russian divisions were organised into corps of 2 to 3 divisions, a corps excluding support and command staff would consist of 20,160 infantry, 2,048 cavalry, 96 field guns and 12 horse drawn guns (this is for a 2 division corps).<sup id="cite_ref-:4_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Russian army in 1874 contained 754,265 men and by 1 January 1878, this had risen to over 1.5 million men. The Russian army used 2 rifles, the <a href="/wiki/M1867_Russian_Krnka" title="M1867 Russian Krnka">Krnka rifle</a>, which they possessed 800,000 of at the minimum and was accurate to only 600 yards (to the Turkish Peabody's 1,800), and the <a href="/wiki/Berdan_rifle" title="Berdan rifle">Berdan rifle</a>, which equipped the Line, Grenadier, Rifle and Guard formations and was accurate to 1,500 yards. However, the Russian army, despite possessing breechloading rifles, was still holding to the maxims of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Suvorov" title="Alexander Suvorov">Suvorov</a>, which called for the usage of the bayonet as the principal weapon, Russian soldiers also lacked entrenching equipment to an adequate level. Russian artillery, despite being breechloaded, were nearing obsolescence<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Course_of_the_war">Course of the war</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Course of the war"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Romanian_War_of_Independence" title="Romanian War of Independence">Romanian War of Independence</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%83%D0%BD%D1%8B,_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%83%D1%8E%D1%89%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA_%D0%BF%D0%BE_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5_%D0%BA_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%83_%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%8F_%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D1%81%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F_3_%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%8F%D0%B1%D1%80%D1%8F_1877_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%83%D0%BD%D1%8B%2C_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%83%D1%8E%D1%89%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA_%D0%BF%D0%BE_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5_%D0%BA_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%83_%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%8F_%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D1%81%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F_3_%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%8F%D0%B1%D1%80%D1%8F_1877_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%83%D0%BD%D1%8B%2C_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%83%D1%8E%D1%89%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA_%D0%BF%D0%BE_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5_%D0%BA_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%83_%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%8F_%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D1%81%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F_3_%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%8F%D0%B1%D1%80%D1%8F_1877_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%83%D0%BD%D1%8B%2C_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%83%D1%8E%D1%89%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA_%D0%BF%D0%BE_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5_%D0%BA_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%83_%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%8F_%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D1%81%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F_3_%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%8F%D0%B1%D1%80%D1%8F_1877_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2334" data-file-height="1100" /></a><figcaption> Nizhegorodsky Dragoons pursuing the Turks near <a href="/wiki/Kars" title="Kars">Kars</a>, 1877, painting by <a href="/wiki/Aleksey_Kivshenko" title="Aleksey Kivshenko">Aleksey Kivshenko</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Opening_manoeuvres">Opening manoeuvres</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Opening manoeuvres"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On 12 April 1877, Romania gave permission to the Russian troops to pass through its territory to attack the Turks. </p><p>On 24 April 1877 Russia declared war on the Ottomans, and its troops entered Romania through the newly built <a href="/wiki/Eiffel_Bridge,_Ungheni" title="Eiffel Bridge, Ungheni">Eiffel Bridge</a> near Ungheni, on the <a href="/wiki/Prut" title="Prut">Prut</a> river, resulting in Turkish bombardments of Romanian towns on the Danube. </p><p>On 10 May 1877, the <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Romania" class="mw-redirect" title="Principality of Romania">Principality of Romania</a>, which was under nominal Turkish <a href="/wiki/Suzerainty" title="Suzerainty">suzerainty</a>, declared its independence.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pereprava_cherez_Dunaj.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Pereprava_cherez_Dunaj.jpg/220px-Pereprava_cherez_Dunaj.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Pereprava_cherez_Dunaj.jpg/330px-Pereprava_cherez_Dunaj.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Pereprava_cherez_Dunaj.jpg/440px-Pereprava_cherez_Dunaj.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2153" data-file-height="1161" /></a><figcaption>Russian crossing of the Danube, June 1877, painting by <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Dmitriev-Orenburgsky" title="Nikolai Dmitriev-Orenburgsky">Nikolai Dmitriev-Orenburgsky</a>, 1883</figcaption></figure> <p>At the beginning of the war, the outcome was far from obvious. The Russians could send a larger army into the Balkans: about 300,000 troops were within reach. The Ottomans had about 200,000 troops on the Balkan peninsula, of which about 100,000 were assigned to fortified garrisons, leaving about 100,000 for the army of operation. The Ottomans had the advantage of being fortified, complete command of the Black Sea, and patrol boats along the <a href="/wiki/Danube" title="Danube">Danube</a> river.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also possessed superior arms, including new British and American-made rifles and German-made artillery. </p><p>In the event, however, the Ottomans usually resorted to passive defense, leaving the strategic initiative to the Russians, who, after making some mistakes, found a winning strategy for the war. The Ottoman military command in Constantinople made poor assumptions about Russian intentions. They decided that Russians would be too lazy to march along the Danube and cross it away from the delta, and would prefer the short way along the Black Sea coast. This would be ignoring the fact that the coast had the strongest, best supplied and garrisoned Turkish fortresses. There was only one well manned fortress along the inner part of the River Danube, <a href="/wiki/Vidin" title="Vidin">Vidin</a>. It was garrisoned only because the troops, led by <a href="/wiki/Osman_Nuri_Pasha" title="Osman Nuri Pasha">Osman Nuri Pasha</a>, had just taken part in defeating the Serbs in their recent war against the Ottoman Empire. </p><p>The Russian campaign was better planned, but it relied heavily on Turkish passivity. A crucial Russian mistake was sending too few troops initially; an expeditionary force of about 185,000 crossed the Danube in June, slightly fewer than the combined Turkish forces in the Balkans (about 200,000). After setbacks in July (at <a href="/wiki/Pleven" title="Pleven">Pleven</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stara_Zagora" title="Stara Zagora">Stara Zagora</a>), the Russian military command realized it did not have the reserves to keep the offensive going and switched to a defensive posture. The Russians did not even have enough forces to blockade Pleven properly until late August, which effectively delayed the whole campaign for about two months. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Balkan_theatre">Balkan theatre</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Balkan theatre"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Russo-Turkish_War_%281877%E2%80%931878%29.png/220px-Russo-Turkish_War_%281877%E2%80%931878%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Russo-Turkish_War_%281877%E2%80%931878%29.png/330px-Russo-Turkish_War_%281877%E2%80%931878%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Russo-Turkish_War_%281877%E2%80%931878%29.png/440px-Russo-Turkish_War_%281877%E2%80%931878%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1482" data-file-height="1268" /></a><figcaption>Map of the Balkan Theater</figcaption></figure> <p>At the start of the war, Russia and Romania destroyed all vessels along the Danube and <a href="/wiki/Naval_mine" title="Naval mine">mined</a> the river, thus ensuring that Russian forces could cross the Danube at any point without resistance from the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Navy" title="Ottoman Navy">Ottoman Navy</a>. The Ottoman command did not appreciate the significance of the Russians' actions. In June, a small Russian unit crossed the Danube close to the delta, at <a href="/wiki/Gala%C8%9Bi" title="Galați">Galați</a>, and marched towards Ruschuk (today <a href="/wiki/Rousse" class="mw-redirect" title="Rousse">Ruse</a>). This made the Ottomans even more confident that the big Russian force would come right through the middle of the Ottoman stronghold. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Finnish_Soldiers_during_the_Battle_of_Gorni_Dubnik.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Finnish_Soldiers_during_the_Battle_of_Gorni_Dubnik.jpg/220px-Finnish_Soldiers_during_the_Battle_of_Gorni_Dubnik.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Finnish_Soldiers_during_the_Battle_of_Gorni_Dubnik.jpg/330px-Finnish_Soldiers_during_the_Battle_of_Gorni_Dubnik.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Finnish_Soldiers_during_the_Battle_of_Gorni_Dubnik.jpg/440px-Finnish_Soldiers_during_the_Battle_of_Gorni_Dubnik.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1517" data-file-height="985" /></a><figcaption>Soldiers of <a href="/wiki/Finnish_Guards%27_Rifle_Battalion" title="Finnish Guards' Rifle Battalion">Finnish Guard sharpshooter battalion</a> during Battle of Gorni Dubnik</figcaption></figure> <p>In the first month of the war, the Ottomans suffered a pair of significant naval losses on the Danube. The <a href="/wiki/Turret_ship" title="Turret ship">turret ship</a> <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_ironclad_L%C3%BCtf-%C3%BC_Celil" title="Ottoman ironclad Lütf-ü Celil"><i>Lütf-ü Celil</i></a> was destroyed by a Russian artillery battery on 11 May.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELangensiepen_&_Güleryüz6_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELangensiepen_&_Güleryüz6-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> And on the night of 25–26 May, a Romanian torpedo boat with a mixed Romanian-Russian crew <a href="/wiki/Action_off_M%C4%83cin" title="Action off Măcin">attacked and sank</a> the Ottoman monitor <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ottoman_monitor_Seyf%C3%AE&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ottoman monitor Seyfî (page does not exist)"><i>Seyfî</i></a> on the Danube. Under the direct command of Major-General <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Ivanovich_Dragomirov" class="mw-redirect" title="Mikhail Ivanovich Dragomirov">Mikhail Ivanovich Dragomirov</a>, on the night of 27/28 June 1877 (<a href="/wiki/New_Style" class="mw-redirect" title="New Style">NS</a>) the Russians constructed a pontoon bridge across the Danube at Svishtov. After a short battle in which the Russians suffered 812 killed and wounded,<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Russians secured the opposing bank and drove off the Ottoman infantry brigade defending Svishtov. At this point the Russian force was divided into three parts: the Eastern Detachment under the command of <a href="/wiki/Tsarevich" title="Tsarevich">Tsarevich</a> Alexander Alexandrovich, the future Tsar <a href="/wiki/Alexander_III_of_Russia" title="Alexander III of Russia">Alexander III of Russia</a>, assigned to capture the fortress of Ruschuk and cover the army's eastern flank; the Western Detachment, to capture the fortress of <a href="/wiki/Nikopol,_Bulgaria" title="Nikopol, Bulgaria">Nikopol, Bulgaria</a> and cover the army's western flank; and the Advance Detachment under Count <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Vladimirovich_Gourko" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Vladimirovich Gourko">Joseph Vladimirovich Gourko</a>, which was assigned to quickly move via <a href="/wiki/Veliko_Tarnovo" title="Veliko Tarnovo">Veliko Tarnovo</a> and penetrate the <a href="/wiki/Balkan_Mountains" title="Balkan Mountains">Balkan Mountains</a>, the most significant barrier between the Danube and Constantinople. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Boj_u_Ivanovo-Chiflik.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Boj_u_Ivanovo-Chiflik.jpg/220px-Boj_u_Ivanovo-Chiflik.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Boj_u_Ivanovo-Chiflik.jpg/330px-Boj_u_Ivanovo-Chiflik.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Boj_u_Ivanovo-Chiflik.jpg/440px-Boj_u_Ivanovo-Chiflik.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2051" data-file-height="1250" /></a><figcaption>Fighting near Ivanovo-Chiflik</figcaption></figure> <p>Responding to the Russian crossing of the Danube, the Ottoman high command in Constantinople ordered Osman Nuri Pasha to advance east from Vidin and occupy the fortress of Nikopol, just west of the Russian crossing. On his way to Nikopol, Osman Pasha learned that the Russians had already captured the fortress and so moved to the crossroads town of Plevna (now known as <a href="/wiki/Pleven" title="Pleven">Pleven</a>), which he occupied with a force of approximately 15,000 on 19 July (NS).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Herbert1895131_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Herbert1895131-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Russians, approximately 9,000 under the command of General Schilder-Schuldner, reached Plevna early in the morning. Thus began the Siege of Plevna, lasting for 145 days until 10 December. </p><p>Osman Pasha organized a defense and repelled two Russian attacks with colossal casualties on the Russian side. At that point, the sides were almost equal in numbers and the Russian army was very discouraged.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A counter-attack might have allowed the Ottomans to control and destroy the Russians' bridge, but Osman Pasha did not leave the fortress because he had orders to stay fortified in Plevna. </p><p>Russia had no more troops to throw against Plevna, so the Russians besieged it, and subsequently asked<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Romanians to cross the Danube and help them. On 9 August, Suleiman Pasha made an attempt to help Osman Pasha with 30,000 troops, but he was stopped by Bulgarians at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shipka_Pass" title="Battle of Shipka Pass">Battle of Shipka Pass</a>. After three days of fighting, the volunteers were relieved by a Russian force led by General <a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Radetsky" title="Fyodor Radetsky">Fyodor Radetsky</a>, and the Turkish forces withdrew. Soon afterwards, Romanian forces crossed the Danube and joined the siege. On 16 August, at Gorni-Studen, the armies around Plevna were placed under the command of the Romanian Prince <a href="/wiki/Carol_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Carol I">Carol I</a>, aided by the Russian general Pavel Dmitrievich Zotov and the Romanian general <a href="/wiki/Alexandru_Cernat" title="Alexandru Cernat">Alexandru Cernat</a>. </p><p>The Turks maintained several fortresses around Pleven which the Russian and Romanian forces gradually reduced.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Herbert1895_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Herbert1895-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Romanian 4th Division led by General <a href="/wiki/Gheorghe_Manu" title="Gheorghe Manu">Gheorghe Manu</a> took the Grivitsa redoubt after four bloody assaults and managed to keep it until the very end of the siege. The Siege of Plevna (July–December 1877) turned to victory only after Russian and Romanian forces cut off all supply routes to the fortified Ottomans. With supplies running low, Osman Pasha made an attempt to break the Russian siege in the direction of <a href="/wiki/Opanets,_Dobrich_Province" title="Opanets, Dobrich Province">Opanets</a>. On 9 December, in the middle of the night the Ottomans threw bridges over the <a href="/wiki/Vit_(river)" title="Vit (river)">Vit</a> river and crossed it, attacked on a 2-mile (3.2 km) front and broke through the first line of Russian trenches. Here they fought hand to hand and bayonet to bayonet, with little advantage to either side. Outnumbering the Ottomans almost 5 to 1, the Russians drove the Ottomans back across the Vit. Osman Pasha was wounded in the leg by a stray bullet, which killed his horse beneath him. Making a brief stand, the Ottomans eventually found themselves driven back into the city, losing 5,000 men to the Russians' 2,000. The next day, Osman surrendered the city, the garrison, and his sword to the Romanian colonel, <a href="/wiki/Mihail_Cerchez" title="Mihail Cerchez">Mihail Cerchez</a>. He was treated honorably, but his troops perished in the snow by the thousands as they straggled off into captivity. </p><p>At this point, Serbia, having finally secured monetary aid from Russia, declared war on the Ottoman Empire again. This time there were far fewer Russian officers in the Serbian army but this was more than offset by the experience gained from the 1876–77 war. Under nominal command of Prince <a href="/wiki/Milan_I_of_Serbia" title="Milan I of Serbia">Milan Obrenović</a> (effective command was in hands of general <a href="/wiki/Kosta_Proti%C4%87" title="Kosta Protić">Kosta Protić</a>, the army chief of staff), the Serbian Army went on offensive in what is now eastern south Serbia. A planned offensive into the Ottoman <a href="/wiki/Sanjak_of_Novi_Pazar" title="Sanjak of Novi Pazar">Sanjak of Novi Pazar</a> was called off due to strong diplomatic pressure from Austria-Hungary, which wanted to prevent Serbia and Montenegro from coming into contact, and which had designs to spread Austria-Hungary's influence through the area. The Ottomans, outnumbered unlike two years before, mostly confined themselves to passive defence of fortified positions. By the end of hostilities the Serbs had captured Ak-Palanka (today <a href="/wiki/Bela_Palanka" title="Bela Palanka">Bela Palanka</a>), <a href="/wiki/Pirot" title="Pirot">Pirot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ni%C5%A1" title="Niš">Niš</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vranje" title="Vranje">Vranje</a>. </p><p>Russians under <a href="/wiki/Field_Marshal" class="mw-redirect" title="Field Marshal">Field Marshal</a> Gourko succeeded in capturing the passes at the <a href="/wiki/Stara_Planina" class="mw-redirect" title="Stara Planina">Stara Planina</a> mountain, which were crucial for maneuvering. Next, both sides fought a series of battles for Shipka Pass. Gourko made several attacks on the <a href="/wiki/Shipka_Pass" title="Shipka Pass">Pass</a> and eventually secured it. Ottoman troops spent much effort to recapture this important route, to use it to reinforce Osman Pasha in Pleven, but failed. Eventually Gourko led a final offensive that crushed the Ottomans around Shipka Pass. The Ottoman offensive against Shipka Pass is considered one of the major mistakes of the war, as other passes were virtually unguarded. At this time a huge number of Ottoman troops stayed fortified along the Black Sea coast and engaged in very few operations. </p><p>A Russian army crossed the Stara Planina by a high snowy pass in winter, guided and helped by local Bulgarians, not expected by the Ottoman army, and defeated the Turks at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tashkessen" title="Battle of Tashkessen">Battle of Tashkessen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sofia" title="Battle of Sofia">took Sofia</a>. The way was now open for a quick advance through <a href="/wiki/Plovdiv" title="Plovdiv">Plovdiv</a> and Adrianople to Constantinople. </p><p>Besides the <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanian Army">Romanian Army</a> (which mobilized 130,000 men, losing 10,000 of them to this war), more than 12,000 volunteer Bulgarian troops (<i>Opalchenie</i>) from the local Bulgarian population as well as many <i><a href="/wiki/Hajduk" title="Hajduk">hajduk</a></i> detachments fought in the war on the side of the Russians. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Caucasian_theatre">Caucasian theatre</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Caucasian theatre"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Russo-Turkish_War_in_Caucasia,_1877.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/The_Russo-Turkish_War_in_Caucasia%2C_1877.gif/300px-The_Russo-Turkish_War_in_Caucasia%2C_1877.gif" decoding="async" width="300" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/The_Russo-Turkish_War_in_Caucasia%2C_1877.gif/450px-The_Russo-Turkish_War_in_Caucasia%2C_1877.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/The_Russo-Turkish_War_in_Caucasia%2C_1877.gif/600px-The_Russo-Turkish_War_in_Caucasia%2C_1877.gif 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="482" /></a><figcaption>The Russo-Turkish War in Caucasia, 1877</figcaption></figure> <p>The Russian <a href="/wiki/1st_Caucasus_Army_Corps" title="1st Caucasus Army Corps">1st Caucasus Army Corps</a> was stationed in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Georgia_(country)" title="History of Georgia (country)">Georgia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Russian_Armenia" title="Russian Armenia">Armenia</a>, composed of approximately 50,000 men and 202 guns under the overall command of <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duke_Michael_Nikolaevich_of_Russia" title="Grand Duke Michael Nikolaevich of Russia">Grand Duke Michael Nikolaevich</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caucasus_Viceroyalty_(1844%E2%80%931881)" class="mw-redirect" title="Caucasus Viceroyalty (1844–1881)">Governor General of the Caucasus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Russian force stood opposed by an Ottoman Army of 100,000 men led by General <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Muhtar_Pasha" title="Ahmed Muhtar Pasha">Ahmed Muhtar Pasha</a>. While the Russian army was better prepared for the fighting in the region, it lagged behind technologically in certain areas such as <a href="/wiki/Heavy_artillery" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy artillery">heavy artillery</a> and was outgunned, for example, by the superior long-range <a href="/wiki/Krupp" title="Krupp">Krupp</a> artillery that Germany had supplied to the Ottomans.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllenMuratoff1953113–114_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllenMuratoff1953113–114-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Caucasus Corps was led by a quartet of <a href="/wiki/Armenian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Armenian people">Armenian</a> commanders: Generals <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Loris-Melikov" title="Mikhail Loris-Melikov">Mikhail Loris-Melikov</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arshak_Ter-Gukasov" title="Arshak Ter-Gukasov">Arshak Ter-Gukasov</a> (Ter-Ghukasov/Ter-Ghukasyan), <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Davidovich_Lazarev" title="Ivan Davidovich Lazarev">Ivan Lazarev</a> and <a href="/wiki/Beybut_Shelkovnikov" class="mw-redirect" title="Beybut Shelkovnikov">Beybut Shelkovnikov</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllenMuratoff1953546_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllenMuratoff1953546-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Forces under <a href="/wiki/Lieutenant-General" class="mw-redirect" title="Lieutenant-General">Lieutenant-General</a> Ter-Gukasov, stationed near <a href="/wiki/Yerevan" title="Yerevan">Yerevan</a>, commenced the first assault into Ottoman territory by capturing the town of <a href="/wiki/Do%C4%9Fubeyaz%C4%B1t" class="mw-redirect" title="Doğubeyazıt">Bayazid</a> on 27 April 1877.<sup id="cite_ref-SovArm_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SovArm-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Capitalizing on Ter-Gukasov's victory there, Russian forces advanced, taking the region of <a href="/wiki/Ardahan" title="Ardahan">Ardahan</a> on 17 May; Russian units also besieged the city of <a href="/wiki/Kars" title="Kars">Kars</a> in the final week of May, although Ottoman reinforcements lifted the siege and drove them back. Bolstered by reinforcements, in November 1877 General Lazarev launched a new attack on Kars, suppressing the southern forts leading to the city and capturing Kars itself on 18 November.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 19 February 1878, the strategic fortress town of <a href="/wiki/Erzurum" title="Erzurum">Erzurum</a> was taken by the Russians after a lengthy siege. Although they relinquished control of Erzurum to the Ottomans at the end the war, the Russians acquired the regions of Batum, Ardahan, Kars, <a href="/wiki/Oltu" title="Oltu">Olti</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sar%C4%B1kam%C4%B1%C5%9F" title="Sarıkamış">Sarikamish</a> and reconstituted them into the <a href="/wiki/Kars_Oblast" class="mw-redirect" title="Kars Oblast">Kars Oblast</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Greek_involvement">Greek involvement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Greek involvement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Epirus_Revolt_of_1878" title="Epirus Revolt of 1878">Epirus Revolt of 1878</a>, <a href="/wiki/1878_Macedonian_rebellion" title="1878 Macedonian rebellion">1878 Macedonian rebellion</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cretan_revolt_(1878)" title="Cretan revolt (1878)">Cretan revolt (1878)</a></div> <p>During the course of the war, the majority of Greeks wanted to enter the war on Russia's side, however the Greek government decided reluctantly to not intervene, due to British neutrality.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKofos1977326-328_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKofos1977326-328-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The British guaranteed that after the end of the war they would intervene themselves and assure equal rights for the Greek subjects of the Ottoman Empire, as long as Greece didn't join the war.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKofos1977326-328_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKofos1977326-328-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, several Greek revolts broke out in <a href="/wiki/Cretan_revolt_(1878)" title="Cretan revolt (1878)">Crete</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epirus_Revolt_of_1878" title="Epirus Revolt of 1878">Epirus</a>, <a href="/wiki/1878_Macedonian_rebellion" title="1878 Macedonian rebellion">Macedonia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thessaly" title="Thessaly">Thessaly</a> demanding union with Greece. The <a href="/wiki/Greek_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek Army">Greek Army</a> invaded Thessaly in January 1878, but didn't officially declare war on the Ottomans; along with Greek irregular revolutionaries, the Greek Army won the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mouzaki" title="Battle of Mouzaki">Battle of Mouzaki</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKofos1977330-331_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKofos1977330-331-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the <a href="/wiki/European_balance_of_power" title="European balance of power">Great Powers</a> asked for the Greece to recall its army, in return, they ensured that issues regarding the Greek communities would be raised in the post-war <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Berlin" title="Congress of Berlin">Peace Conference</a>. The Greek government accepted and, as a result, the rebellions were left unsupported and were crushed by the Ottomans.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKofos1977332-333_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKofos1977332-333-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Three years later, with the <a href="/wiki/Convention_of_Constantinople_(1881)" title="Convention of Constantinople (1881)">Convention of Constantinople</a>, most of Thessaly (excluding <a href="/wiki/Elassona" title="Elassona">Elassona</a>) as well as <a href="/wiki/Arta_(regional_unit)" title="Arta (regional unit)">Arta</a> were ceded to Greece.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKofos1977365_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKofos1977365-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kurdish_uprising">Kurdish uprising</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Kurdish uprising"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plevna_monument.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Plevna_monument.jpg/300px-Plevna_monument.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Plevna_monument.jpg/450px-Plevna_monument.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Plevna_monument.jpg/600px-Plevna_monument.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3204" data-file-height="2319" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Plevna_Chapel" title="Plevna Chapel">Plevna Chapel</a> near the walls of <a href="/wiki/Kitay-gorod" title="Kitay-gorod">Kitay-gorod</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Uprising_of_Sheikh_Ubeydullah" title="Uprising of Sheikh Ubeydullah">Uprising of Sheikh Ubeydullah</a></div> <p>As the Russo-Turkish war came to a close, a Kurdish uprising began. It was led by two brothers, Husein and Osman Pasha. The rebellion held most of the region of <a href="/wiki/Bohtan" title="Bohtan">Bohtan</a> for 9 months. It was ended only through duplicity, after force of arms had failed.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Kars" title="Kars">Kars</a>, Kurdish notables like <a href="/wiki/Abd%C3%BCrrezzak_Bedir_Khan" title="Abdürrezzak Bedir Khan">Abdürrezzak Bedir Khan</a> and a son of <a href="/wiki/Sheikh_Ubeydullah" title="Sheikh Ubeydullah">Sheikh Ubeydullah</a> were supporters of the Russians.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Civilian_government_in_Bulgaria_during_the_war">Civilian government in Bulgaria during the war</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Civilian government in Bulgaria during the war"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Russian_Administration_in_Bulgaria" title="Provisional Russian Administration in Bulgaria">Provisional Russian Administration in Bulgaria</a></div> <p>After Bulgarian territories were liberated by the Russian Army during the war, they were governed initially by a <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Russian_Administration_in_Bulgaria" title="Provisional Russian Administration in Bulgaria">provisional Russian administration</a>, which was established in April 1877. The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Berlin_(1878)" title="Treaty of Berlin (1878)">Treaty of Berlin (1878)</a> provided for the termination of this provisional Russian administration in May 1879, when the <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Bulgaria" title="Principality of Bulgaria">Principality of Bulgaria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Rumelia" title="Eastern Rumelia">Eastern Rumelia</a> were established.<sup id="cite_ref-БДИ_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-БДИ-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The main objectives of the temporary Russian administration were to secure peace and order and to prepare for a revival of the Bulgarian state. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Aftermath"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intervention_by_the_Great_Powers">Intervention by the Great Powers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Intervention by the Great Powers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_San_Stefano" title="Treaty of San Stefano">Treaty of San Stefano</a> and <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Berlin" title="Congress of Berlin">Congress of Berlin</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Europe_1878_map_en.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Europe_1878_map_en.png/220px-Europe_1878_map_en.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Europe_1878_map_en.png/330px-Europe_1878_map_en.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Europe_1878_map_en.png/440px-Europe_1878_map_en.png 2x" data-file-width="2284" data-file-height="1503" /></a><figcaption>Europe after the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Berlin" title="Congress of Berlin">Congress of Berlin</a> in 1878 and the territorial and political rearrangement of the Balkan Peninsula.</figcaption></figure> <p>Under pressure from the British, Russia accepted the truce offered by the Ottoman Empire on 31 January 1878, but continued to move towards Constantinople. </p><p>The British sent a fleet of battleships to intimidate Russia from entering the city, and Russian forces stopped at <a href="/wiki/San_Stefano" class="mw-redirect" title="San Stefano">San Stefano</a>. Eventually Russia entered into a settlement under the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_San_Stefano" title="Treaty of San Stefano">Treaty of San Stefano</a> on 3 March, by which the Ottoman Empire would recognize the independence of Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro, and the autonomy of Bulgaria. </p><p>Alarmed by the extension of Russian power into the Balkans, the <a href="/wiki/Great_Powers" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Powers">Great Powers</a> later forced modifications of the treaty in the Congress of Berlin. The main change here was that Bulgaria would be split, according to earlier agreements among the Great Powers that precluded the creation of a large new Slavic state: the northern and eastern parts to become principalities as before (Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia), though with different governors; and the Macedonian region, originally part of Bulgaria under San Stefano, would return to direct Ottoman administration.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Treaty_of_Constantinople_(1879)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Treaty of Constantinople (1879) (page does not exist)">1879 Treaty of Constantinople</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80_(1879)" class="extiw" title="ru:Константинопольский мир (1879)">ru</a>]</span> was a further continuation of negotiations between Russia and the Ottoman Empire. While reaffirming provisions of the Treaty of San Stefano which had not been modified by the Berlin Treaty, it set compensation terms owed by Ottoman Empire to Russia for losses sustained during the war. It contained terms to release prisoners of war and to grant amnesty to Ottoman subjects,<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-AJIL_1908_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AJIL_1908-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as providing terms for the inhabitants nationality after the annexations. Article VII allowed subjects to opt within six months of the signing of the treaty to retain Ottoman subjecthood or become Russian subjects.<sup id="cite_ref-AJIL_1908_72-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AJIL_1908-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A surprising consequence came in <a href="/wiki/Lands_of_the_Crown_of_Saint_Stephen" title="Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen">Hungary</a> (part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire). Despite memories of the terrible defeat at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Moh%C3%A1cs" title="Battle of Mohács">Mohács</a> in 1526, elite Hungarian attitudes were becoming strongly anti-Russian. This led to active support for the Turks in the media, but only in a peaceful way, since the foreign policy of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy remained neutral.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effects_on_Bulgaria's_Jewish_population"><span id="Effects_on_Bulgaria.27s_Jewish_population"></span>Effects on Bulgaria's Jewish population</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Effects on Bulgaria's Jewish population"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i>Bulletins de l'<a href="/wiki/Alliance_Isra%C3%A9lite_Universelle" title="Alliance Israélite Universelle">Alliance Israélite Universelle</a></i> reported that thousands of <a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Bulgarian Jews">Bulgarian Jews</a> found refuge at Constantinople and reported that many Jewish communities had fled in their entirety with the retreating Turks as their protectors.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, this is directly contradicted by census figures, which, instead of a decrease, indicate a <i>substantial increase</i> in Bulgaria's Jewish population before and after the war. While there were only 4,595 <i>males</i> or 9,190 <i>male and female</i> Jews in the five vilayets to form the future Principality of Bulgaria – <a href="/wiki/Ruse,_Bulgaria" title="Ruse, Bulgaria">Rusçuk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sanjak_of_Vidin" title="Sanjak of Vidin">Vidin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sanjak_of_Sofia" title="Sanjak of Sofia">Sofia</a>, Tirnova, and Varna – according to the pre-war Ottoman <a href="/wiki/Salname" title="Salname">salname</a> of 1875 (0.4% of the population), the 1880 Bulgarian census indicated a total of 14,342 Jews, who accounted for 0.7% of the post-war Bulgarian population.<sup id="cite_ref-Koyuncu1_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koyuncu1-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-statlib.nsi.bg:8181_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-statlib.nsi.bg:8181-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-KoyuncuRUMELI2_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KoyuncuRUMELI2-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, an increase by 5,152 people, or 56%, in less than five years, cannot be explained by natural increase alone and would rather indicate substantial net immigration rather than emigration of Jews from the principality. Obviously, any such immigration or return of refugees would happen only after the postwar situation stabilized, offering necessary personal and economic security. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Internationalization_of_the_Armenian_Question">Internationalization of the Armenian Question</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Internationalization of the Armenian Question"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Emigration_of_Armenians_into_Georgia_during_the_Russo-Turkish_war_of_1878-9_(A).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Emigration_of_Armenians_into_Georgia_during_the_Russo-Turkish_war_of_1878-9_%28A%29.jpg/220px-Emigration_of_Armenians_into_Georgia_during_the_Russo-Turkish_war_of_1878-9_%28A%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Emigration_of_Armenians_into_Georgia_during_the_Russo-Turkish_war_of_1878-9_%28A%29.jpg/330px-Emigration_of_Armenians_into_Georgia_during_the_Russo-Turkish_war_of_1878-9_%28A%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Emigration_of_Armenians_into_Georgia_during_the_Russo-Turkish_war_of_1878-9_%28A%29.jpg/440px-Emigration_of_Armenians_into_Georgia_during_the_Russo-Turkish_war_of_1878-9_%28A%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="677" data-file-height="424" /></a><figcaption>Emigration of Armenians into Georgia during the Russo-Turkish war</figcaption></figure> <p>The conclusion of the Russo-Turkish war also led to the internationalization of the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_Question" class="mw-redirect" title="Armenian Question">Armenian Question</a>. Many <a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenians</a> in the eastern provinces (<a href="/wiki/Turkish_Armenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Turkish Armenia">Turkish Armenia</a>) of the Ottoman Empire greeted the advancing Russians as liberators. Violence and instability directed at Armenians during the war by Kurd and Circassian bands had left many Armenians looking toward the invading Russians as the ultimate guarantors of their security. Influential pro-Russian Armenian thinker <a href="/wiki/Grigor_Artsruni" title="Grigor Artsruni">Grigor Artsruni</a> encouraged Armenians to migrate to Russia in order to form a more concentrated block.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In January 1878, <a href="/wiki/Armenian_Patriarch_of_Constantinople" title="Armenian Patriarch of Constantinople">Armenian Patriarch of Constantinople</a> <a href="/wiki/Nerses_II_Varzhapetian" title="Nerses II Varzhapetian">Nerses II Varzhapetian</a> approached the Russian leadership with the view of receiving assurances that the Russians would introduce provisions in the prospective peace treaty for self-administration in the Armenian provinces. Though not as explicit, Article 16 of the Treaty of San Stefano read: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>As the evacuation of the Russian troops of the territory they occupy in Armenia, and which is to be restored to Turkey, might give rise to conflicts and complications detrimental to the maintenance of good relations between the two countries, the Sublime Porte engaged to carry into effect, without further delay, the improvements and reforms demanded by local requirements in the provinces inhabited by Armenians and to guarantee their security from Kurds and Circassians.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The Armenian Patriarch discouraged Armenian migration to Russia and encouraged Armenians to "remain faithful to the Sultan". The Patriarch held the belief that Armenian-inhabited areas could remain under Ottoman rule, but under Christian control, and that Muslims who were dissatisfied with how the Ottomans had been governing the provinces would tolerate life under Christian leadership. In attempting to persuade the British to drive a hard bargain with the Ottoman Empire, he asserted to British Ambassador <a href="/wiki/Austen_Henry_Layard" title="Austen Henry Layard">Austen Henry Layard</a> that the "only thing … that could induce the Armenians to refrain from listening to the advice of Russia to emigrate, and to be content to remain under the rule of the Sultan, would be the appointment of an Armenian as <a href="/wiki/Wali_(administrative_title)" title="Wali (administrative title)">Vali</a> of Armenia".<sup id="cite_ref-:2_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Great Britain, however, took objection to Russia holding on to so much Ottoman territory and forced it to enter into new negotiations by convening the Congress of Berlin in June 1878. An Armenian delegation led by prelate <a href="/wiki/Mkrtich_Khrimian" title="Mkrtich Khrimian">Mkrtich Khrimian</a> traveled to Berlin to present the case of the Armenians but, much to its chagrin, was left out of the negotiations. Article 16 was modified and watered down, and all mention of the Russian forces remaining in the provinces was removed. In the final text of the Treaty of Berlin, it was transformed into Article 61, which read: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The Sublime Porte undertakes to carry out, without further delay, the improvements and reforms demanded by local requirements in the provinces inhabited by Armenians, and to guarantee their security against the Circassians and Kurds. It will periodically make known the steps taken to this effect to the powers, who will superintend their application.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>As it turned out, the reforms were not forthcoming. Khrimian returned to Constantinople and delivered a famous speech in which he likened the peace conference to a <span style="padding-right:.15em;">"</span>'big cauldron of Liberty Stew' into which the big nations dipped their 'iron ladles' for real results, while the Armenian delegation had only a 'Paper Ladle'. 'Ah dear Armenian people,' Khrimian said, 'could I have dipped my Paper Ladle in the cauldron it would sog and remain there! Where guns talk and sabers shine, what significance do appeals and petitions have?<span style="padding-right:.15em;">'</span>"<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Given the absence of tangible improvements in the plight of the Armenian community, a number of Armenian intellectuals living in Europe and Russia in the 1880s and 1890s formed political parties and revolutionary societies to secure better conditions for their compatriots in Ottoman Armenia and other parts of the Ottoman Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Civilian_casualties">Civilian casualties</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Civilian casualties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Atrocities_and_ethnic_cleansing">Atrocities and ethnic cleansing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Atrocities and ethnic cleansing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Both sides carried out <a href="/wiki/Massacre" title="Massacre">massacres</a> and an <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">ethnic cleansing</a> policy during the war.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SU_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SU-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Against_Turks">Against Turks</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Against Turks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Turkish_Refugees_from_the_district_of_Tirnova_coming_into_Shumla.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Turkish_Refugees_from_the_district_of_Tirnova_coming_into_Shumla.png/220px-Turkish_Refugees_from_the_district_of_Tirnova_coming_into_Shumla.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Turkish_Refugees_from_the_district_of_Tirnova_coming_into_Shumla.png/330px-Turkish_Refugees_from_the_district_of_Tirnova_coming_into_Shumla.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Turkish_Refugees_from_the_district_of_Tirnova_coming_into_Shumla.png/440px-Turkish_Refugees_from_the_district_of_Tirnova_coming_into_Shumla.png 2x" data-file-width="2194" data-file-height="1570" /></a><figcaption>Turkish refugees fleeing from <a href="/wiki/Tarnovo" class="mw-redirect" title="Tarnovo">Tarnovo</a> towards <a href="/wiki/Shumen" title="Shumen">Shumen</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%B7%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%B7%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2.jpg/220px-%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%B7%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%B7%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2.jpg/330px-%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%B7%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%B7%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2.jpg/440px-%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%B7%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="669" data-file-height="501" /></a><figcaption>The execution of the <a href="/wiki/Bashi-bazouks" class="mw-redirect" title="Bashi-bazouks">Bashi-bazouks</a> in Bulgaria, 1878.</figcaption></figure> <p>In January 1878, advancing coalition forces started committing atrocities against Muslim populations in the region. British reports from that time have detailed information about atrocities and massacres. According to those reports, in the village of İssova Bâlâ, the school and 96 of the 170 houses were burned to the ground.<sup id="cite_ref-gb150_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gb150-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The inhabitants of Yukarı Sofular were slaughtered and 12 of the 130 houses in village, a mosque, and a school were burned.<sup id="cite_ref-gb197_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gb197-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gb152_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gb152-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Kozluca, 18 Turks were killed.<sup id="cite_ref-gb163_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gb163-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Massacres of Muslim inhabitants occurred in <a href="/wiki/Kazanlak" title="Kazanlak">Kazanlak</a> too.<sup id="cite_ref-gb176_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gb176-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the village of Muflis, 127 Muslim inhabitants were kidnapped by a group of Russian and Bulgarian troops. 20 managed to escape. The rest were killed.<sup id="cite_ref-gb268_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gb268-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 400 people from Muflis were killed according to Ottoman sources.<sup id="cite_ref-louisville.edu_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-louisville.edu-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 11 inhabitants were killed in Keçidere.<sup id="cite_ref-gb268_91-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gb268-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/John_Joseph_(academic)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Joseph (academic)">John Joseph</a> the Russian troops frequently killed Muslim peasants to prevent them from disrupting their supply and troop movements. During the <a href="/wiki/Harmanli_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Harmanli Massacre">Battle of Harmanli</a> accompanying this retaliation on Muslim non-combatants, it was reported that a huge group of Muslim townspeople were attacked by the Russian army. Thousands died and their goods were confiscated.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The correspondent of <i>The Daily News</i> describes as an eyewitness the burning of four or five Turkish villages by the Russian troops in response to the Turks firing at the Russians from the villages, instead of behind rocks or trees,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReid2000324_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReid2000324-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which must have appeared to the Russian soldiers as guerrilla attempts by the local Muslim populace upon the Russian contingencies operating against the Ottoman forces embedded in the area. During the conflict a number of Muslim buildings and cultural centres were also destroyed. A large library of old Turkish books was <a href="/wiki/Book_burning" title="Book burning">destroyed</a> when a mosque in Turnovo was burned in 1877.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrampton2006111_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrampton2006111-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most mosques in Sofia were destroyed, seven of them in one night in December 1878 when "a thunderstorm masked the noise of the explosions arranged by Russian military engineers."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrampton2006114_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrampton2006114-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many villages in the Kars region were pillaged by Russian army during the war.<sup id="cite_ref-louisville.edu_92-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-louisville.edu-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The war in Caucasus caused many Muslims to migrate to remaining Ottoman lands, mostly in poverty and with poor conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between 1878 and 1881, 82,000 Muslims migrated to the Ottoman Empire from lands ceded to Russia in Caucasus.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Muslim_war_refugees_according_to_census_data_and_Ottoman_official_documents">Muslim war refugees according to census data and Ottoman official documents</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Muslim war refugees according to census data and Ottoman official documents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to Ottoman official records, the total number of refugees from the lands ceded in 1878 to the Principality of Bulgaria, Eastern Rumelia, Serbia, Romania and Austria-Hungary (from Bosnia) from 1876 to 1879 stands at 571,152 people: 276,389 in 1876, 198,000 in 1877, 76,000 in 1878 and 20,763 in 1879.<sup id="cite_ref-MeadOsmani_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MeadOsmani-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, it is unclear if the numbers include refugees who emigrated after the suspension of hostilities. </p><p>According to the pre-war Ottoman salname of 1875, the total male Muslim population of the five vilayets to form the future Principality of Bulgaria – Rusçuk, Vidin, Sofia, Tirnova, and Varna – stood at 405,450 (total population of 810,900), however, inclusive of Circassian <a href="/wiki/Muhacir" title="Muhacir">Muhacir</a> and Muslim <a href="/wiki/Roma_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Roma people">Romani</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Koyuncu1_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koyuncu1-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Danube_vilayet" title="Danube vilayet">Danube vilayet</a> census of 1874, which covered all sanjaks in the vilayet except <a href="/wiki/Sanjak_of_Ni%C5%A1" title="Sanjak of Niš">Niš</a> counted a total of 963,596 Muslims.<sup id="cite_ref-Koyuncu2_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koyuncu2-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The total Muslim population of the Danube Vilayet for the same year, Niš included, stood at 1,055,650.<sup id="cite_ref-Koyuncu2_102-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koyuncu2-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This number included not only Ottoman Turks, but also Crimean Tatars, Circassians, <a href="/wiki/Pomaks" title="Pomaks">Pomaks</a>, Romani as well as a substantial number of Albanians. </p><p>At the same time, the 1876 Ottoman population records for the Sanjaks of Filibe and <a href="/wiki/Sliven" title="Sliven">İslimye</a>, which were detached from the <a href="/wiki/Adrianople_Vilayet" class="mw-redirect" title="Adrianople Vilayet">Adrianople Vilayet</a> to form Eastern Rumelia in 1878, indicated 171,777 male Turks and 16,353 male Muslim Romani, or total Muslim population of 376,260.<sup id="cite_ref-KoyuncuRUMELI_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KoyuncuRUMELI-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This figure however included the <a href="/wiki/Rhodopes" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhodopes">Rhodopian</a> kazas of <a href="/wiki/Smolyan" title="Smolyan">Ahi Çelebi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Momchilgrad" title="Momchilgrad">Sultanyeri</a> (male Muslim population of 8,197 and 13,336, respectively, or total Muslim population for both of 43,066), which remained part of in the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-KoyuncuRUMELI_103-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KoyuncuRUMELI-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Without Ahi Çelebi and Sultanyeri, the Muslim population of Eastern Rumelia was 333,194.<sup id="cite_ref-KoyuncuRUMELI_103-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KoyuncuRUMELI-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Thus, according to the Ottoman Empire's own population records, the total number of Muslims in the territories ceded by the Empire to the Principality of Bulgaria, Eastern Rumelia, Serbia and Romania, did not exceed 1,388,844 people (1,055,650 for the Danube Vilayet and 333,194 for the Filibe and İslimye Sanjaks), a figure that is lower than the approx. 1.5 million Turks who had reportedly perished or been forced to migrate according to both Karpat and İpek – whose estimates would also necessarily mean that no Muslims whatsoever remained in either the Principality of Bulgaria, Eastern Rumelia, Serbia or Romanian Dobruja. </p><p>At the same time, the 1880 population census of the Principality of Bulgaria gave 578,060 Muslims; the 1880 population census of Eastern Rumelia indicated 174,749 Turks and 19,254 Romani (total Muslim population of 194,003); the 1880 population census of Romanian <a href="/wiki/North_Dobruja" class="mw-redirect" title="North Dobruja">North Dobruja</a> showed 18,624 Turks and 29,476 Crimean Tatars (total of 48,100 Muslims), while the 1880 population census of Serbia stated only 6,567 Muslims in the Niš area.<sup id="cite_ref-statlib.nsi.bg:8181_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-statlib.nsi.bg:8181-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Balev_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Balev-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-KoyuncuRUMELI2_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KoyuncuRUMELI2-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-dane_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dane-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Popek_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Popek-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Thus, as of 1880, the total number of Muslims who lived in the territories ceded by the Ottoman Empire stood at 827,000 people, down from 1,388,844 Muslims counted by the pre-war Ottoman statistics, signifying a net loss of 561,844 Muslims (40.4%). While shockingly high, this figure falls short by more than 200,000 people of <a href="/wiki/Dennis_P._Hupchick" title="Dennis P. Hupchick">Dennis P. Hupchick</a> and <a href="/wiki/Justin_McCarthy_(American_historian)" title="Justin McCarthy (American historian)">Justin McCarthy</a>'s estimates of some 260,000 Muslims missing/dead and 500,000 forced to emigrate and is way more off compared to the figure of more than 750,000 Muslim casualties and victims of ethnic cleansing from the Bulgarian lands alone quoted by Douglas Arthur Howard. </p><p>The Principality of Bulgaria, Eastern Rumelia and Romania accounted for a negative net balance of 472,792 Muslims (or a net loss of 36.5%). </p><p>By comparison, Serbia, the only country in the region, which did indeed engage in ethnic cleansing and forced expulsion of its Muslim population, effectively reduced its Muslim population between 1877 and 1880 from 95,619 to 6,567 people (cf. <a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_the_Albanians,_1877%E2%80%931878" class="mw-redirect" title="Expulsion of the Albanians, 1877–1878">Expulsion of the Albanians, 1877–1878</a>), i.e., a net loss of 89,052 Muslims, or 93%.<sup id="cite_ref-Popek_107-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Popek-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Historians'_estimates_about_Muslim_population_losses"><span id="Historians.27_estimates_about_Muslim_population_losses"></span>Historians' estimates about Muslim population losses</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Historians' estimates about Muslim population losses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>20th century historians have made different guesses about the total Muslim losses during the Russo-Turkish war. Dennis P. Hupchick and Justin McCarthy says that 260,000 people went missing and 500,000 became refugees.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHupchick2002265_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHupchick2002265-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Turkish historian <a href="/wiki/Kemal_Karpat" title="Kemal Karpat">Kemal Karpat</a> claims that 250–300,000 people, about 17% of the former Muslim population of Bulgaria, died as a consequence of <a href="/wiki/Famine" title="Famine">famine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Infectious_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious diseases">disease</a>, and massacres,<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 1 to 1.5 million people were forced to migrate.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Turkish author Nedim İpek gives the same numbers as Karpat.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another source claims 400,000 Turks were massacred and 1,000,000 Turks had to migrate during the war.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The perpetrators of those massacres are also disputed, with Justin McCarthy claiming that they were carried out by Russian soldiers, Cossacks as well as Bulgarian volunteers and villagers, though there were few civilian casualties in battle.<sup id="cite_ref-McCarthy,_J._2001,_p._48_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McCarthy,_J._2001,_p._48-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while James J. Reid claims that Circassians were significantly responsible for the refugee flow, that there were civilian casualties from battle and even that the Ottoman army was responsible for casualties among the Muslim population.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReid200042–43_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReid200042–43-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The number of Muslim refugees is estimated by R.J. Crampton to be 130,000.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Richard C. Frucht estimates that only half (700,000) of the prewar Muslim population remained after the war, 216,000 had died and the rest emigrated.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Douglas Arthur Howard estimates that half the 1.5 million Muslims, for the most part Turks, in prewar Bulgaria had disappeared by 1879. 200,000 had died, the rest became permanently refugees in Ottoman territories.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In this connection, it is important to note that Justin McCarthy, who is the author of the estimates above and has been requoted by both Hupchik and Howard, is an <a href="/wiki/Armenian_Genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Armenian Genocide">Armenian Genocide</a> denialist who has been criticised severely by many of his colleagues for whitewashing Ottoman history.<sup id="cite_ref-Denial_2003,_p._248_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Denial_2003,_p._248-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hovannisian_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hovannisian-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, McCarthy is a member of, and has received grants from, the <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Turkish_Studies" title="Institute of Turkish Studies">Institute of Turkish Studies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Linenthal_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Linenthal-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Throughout his career, he has been accused, among other things, of being <i>"an apologist for the Turkish state"</i>, of having <i>"an indefensible bias toward the Turkish official position"</i>, of selectively using sources and of always ascribing intent to non-Ottoman troops while making excuses for Ottoman ones for similar events.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-JWS_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JWS-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Against_Albanians">Against Albanians</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Against Albanians"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_the_Albanians,_1877%E2%80%931878" class="mw-redirect" title="Expulsion of the Albanians, 1877–1878">Expulsion of the Albanians, 1877–1878</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Against_Bulgarians">Against Bulgarians</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Against Bulgarians"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Klane_na_Stara_Zagora.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Klane_na_Stara_Zagora.JPG/220px-Klane_na_Stara_Zagora.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Klane_na_Stara_Zagora.JPG/330px-Klane_na_Stara_Zagora.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Klane_na_Stara_Zagora.JPG/440px-Klane_na_Stara_Zagora.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="753" /></a><figcaption>Bones of massacred Bulgarians at <a href="/wiki/Stara_Zagora" title="Stara Zagora">Stara Zagora</a> (ethnic cleansing by the Ottoman Empire)</figcaption></figure> <p>The most notable massacre of Bulgarian civilians during the Russo-Turkish War took place during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stara_Zagora" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Stara Zagora">Battle of Stara Zagora</a> in July 1877, when Gurko's forces had to retreat back to the Shipka pass. In the aftermath of the battle, <a href="/wiki/Suleiman_Pasha_(Ottoman_general)" class="mw-redirect" title="Suleiman Pasha (Ottoman general)">Suleiman Pasha</a>'s forces burned down and plundered the city of Stara Zagora and subjected its population to <a href="/wiki/Stara_Zagora_massacre" title="Stara Zagora massacre">indiscriminate slaughter</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Jirecek_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jirecek-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the time, Stara Zagora was not only one of the biggest Bulgarian cities, but it also accommodated some 20,000 refugees from nearby villages, seeking shelter from Ottoman reprisals. The number of massacred Christian civilians in the course of the battle is estimated at between 14,000 and 14,500, which would make it the biggest war crime in modern-era Bulgaria. In addition to the massacre carried out by the Suleiman's regular forces, Circassian bashi-bazouks engaged in numerous acts of looting, plunder and killing, among other things, <a href="/wiki/The_Terror_(Karlovo_massacre)" title="The Terror (Karlovo massacre)">The Terror</a> in Karlovo, the <a href="/wiki/Kalofer_massacre" title="Kalofer massacre">Kalofer massacre</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kavarna_uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="Kavarna uprising">Kavarna uprising</a> etc. etc.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BalkanisticForum_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BalkanisticForum-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Moreover, Suleiman Pasha's forces also established an entire system of police and judicial terror across the entire valley of the <a href="/wiki/Maritsa" title="Maritsa">Maritsa</a>, where any Bulgarian who had ever in any way assisted the Russians was hanged. However, even villages that had not assisted the Russians were destroyed and their inhabitants massacred.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArgyll187949_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArgyll187949-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, as many as 100,000 civilian Bulgarians fled north to the Russian occupied territories.<sup id="cite_ref-Report_on_the_Russian_Army_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Report_on_the_Russian_Army-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later on in the campaign, the Ottoman forces <a href="/wiki/Scorched_earth" title="Scorched earth">planned to burn</a> the town of <a href="/wiki/Sofia" title="Sofia">Sofia</a> after Gurko had managed to overcome their resistance in the passes of Western part of the Balkan Mountains. </p><p>Only the refusal of the Italian Consul <a href="/wiki/Vito_Positano" title="Vito Positano">Vito Positano</a>, the French Vice Consul <a href="/wiki/Leandre_le_Gay" title="Leandre le Gay">Leandre le Gay</a> and the Austro–Hungarian Vice Consul to leave Sofia prevented that from happening. After the Ottoman retreat, Positano even organized armed detachments to protect the population from <a href="/wiki/Outlaw" title="Outlaw">marauders</a> (regular Ottoman Army <a href="/wiki/Deserter" class="mw-redirect" title="Deserter">deserters</a> and bashi-bazouks).<sup id="cite_ref-sega_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sega-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Circassians in the Ottoman forces also raped and murdered Bulgarians during the 1877 Russo-Turkish war.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReid2000148_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReid2000148-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Bulgarian historians, 30,000 Bulgarian civilians were killed during the war, with two-thirds of the killings being committed in the Stara Zagora area.<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Against_Circassians">Against Circassians</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Against Circassians"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Russians raped Circassian girls during the 1877 Russo-Turkish war from the Circassian refugees who were settled in the Ottoman Balkans.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the signing of the Treaty of San Stefano, the 10,000-strong <a href="/wiki/Circassians_in_Romania" title="Circassians in Romania">Circassian minority in Dobruja</a> was expelled.<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Lasting_effects">Lasting effects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Lasting effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International_Red_Cross_and_Red_Crescent_Movement">International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Croixrouge_logos.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Croixrouge_logos.jpg/220px-Croixrouge_logos.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Croixrouge_logos.jpg/330px-Croixrouge_logos.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Croixrouge_logos.jpg/440px-Croixrouge_logos.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Red_Cross" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Cross">Red Cross</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Red_Crescent" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Crescent">Red Crescent</a> emblems</figcaption></figure> <p>This war caused a division in the <a href="/wiki/Emblems_of_the_International_Red_Cross_and_Red_Crescent_Movement" title="Emblems of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement">emblems of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement</a> which continues to this day. Both Russia and the Ottoman Empire had signed the <a href="/wiki/First_Geneva_Convention" title="First Geneva Convention">First Geneva Convention</a> (1864), which made the <a href="/wiki/Emblems_of_the_International_Red_Cross_and_Red_Crescent_Movement#Red_Cross" title="Emblems of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement">Red Cross</a>, a colour reversal of the <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Switzerland" title="Flag of Switzerland">flag</a> of neutral <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>, the sole emblem of protection for military medical personnel and facilities. However, during this war the cross instead reminded the Ottomans of the <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a>; so they elected to replace the cross with the <a href="/wiki/Emblems_of_the_International_Red_Cross_and_Red_Crescent_Movement#Red_Crescent" title="Emblems of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement">Red Crescent</a> instead. This ultimately became the symbol of the Movement's national societies in most <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> countries, and was ratified as an emblem of protection by later <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Conventions" title="Geneva Conventions">Geneva Conventions</a> in 1929 and again in 1949 (the current version). </p><p><a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, which neighbored both the Russian Empire and Ottoman Empire, considered them to be rivals, and probably considered the Red Crescent in particular to be an Ottoman symbol; except for the Red Crescent being centred and without a star, it is a colour reversal of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_flag" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman flag">Ottoman flag</a> (and the modern <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Turkey" title="Flag of Turkey">Turkish flag</a>). This appears to have led to their national society in the Movement being initially known as the <a href="/wiki/Red_Lion_and_Sun_Society" title="Red Lion and Sun Society">Red Lion and Sun Society</a>, using a <a href="/wiki/Emblems_of_the_International_Red_Cross_and_Red_Crescent_Movement#The_Red_Lion_and_Sun" title="Emblems of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement">red version</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Lion_and_Sun" title="Lion and Sun">Lion and Sun</a>, a traditional Iranian symbol. After the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">Iranian Revolution</a> of 1979, Iran switched to the Red Crescent, but the Geneva Conventions continue to recognize the Red Lion and Sun as an emblem of protection. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_popular_culture">In popular culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: In popular culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The novella <i><a href="/wiki/Jalaleddin_(novella)" title="Jalaleddin (novella)">Jalaleddin</a></i>, published in 1878 by the novelist <a href="/wiki/Raffi_(novelist)" title="Raffi (novelist)">Raffi</a> describes the Kurdish massacres of Armenians in the eastern Ottoman Empire at the time of the Russo-Turkish war. The novella follows the journey of a young man through the mountains of Anatolia. The historical descriptions in the novella correspond with information from British sources at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The novel <i><a href="/wiki/The_Doll_(Prus_novel)" title="The Doll (Prus novel)">The Doll</a></i> (Polish title: <i>Lalka</i>), written in 1887–1889 by <a href="/wiki/Boles%C5%82aw_Prus" title="Bolesław Prus">Bolesław Prus</a>, describes consequences of the Russo-Turkish war for merchants living in Russia and <a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland" title="Partitions of Poland">partitioned Poland</a>. The main protagonist helped his Russian friend, a multi-millionaire, and made a fortune supplying the Russian Army in 1877–1878. The novel describes trading during political instability, and its ambiguous results for Russian and Polish societies.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The 1912 silent film <i><a href="/wiki/Independen%C8%9Ba_Rom%C3%A2niei" title="Independența României">Independența României</a></i> depicted the war in Romania.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Russian writer <a href="/wiki/Boris_Akunin" title="Boris Akunin">Boris Akunin</a> uses the war as the setting for the novel <i><a href="/wiki/The_Turkish_Gambit" title="The Turkish Gambit">The Turkish Gambit</a></i> (1998).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battles_of_the_Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%9378)" title="Battles of the Russo-Turkish War (1877–78)">Battles of the Russo-Turkish War (1877–78)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_fleet_organisation_during_the_Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%9378)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman fleet organisation during the Russo-Turkish War (1877–78)">Ottoman fleet organisation during the Russo-Turkish War (1877–78)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batak_massacre" title="Batak massacre">Batak massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_War_of_Independence" title="Romanian War of Independence">Romanian War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harmanli_massacre" title="Harmanli massacre">Harmanli massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Balkans" title="History of the Balkans">History of the Balkans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provisional_Russian_Administration_in_Bulgaria" title="Provisional Russian Administration in Bulgaria">Provisional Russian Administration in Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monument_to_the_Tsar_Liberator" title="Monument to the Tsar Liberator">Monument to the Tsar Liberator</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Turkish_Gambit" title="The Turkish Gambit">The Turkish Gambit</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marche_slave" title="Marche slave"><i>Serbo-Russian March</i></a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/To_War_(painting)" title="To War (painting)">To war</a></i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFTorsten_Ekman2006" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Torsten Ekman (2006). <i>Suomen kaarti 1812–1905</i> (in Finnish). Helsinki: <a href="/wiki/Schildts" title="Schildts">Schildts</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/951-50-1534-0" title="Special:BookSources/951-50-1534-0"><bdi>951-50-1534-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Suomen+kaarti+1812%E2%80%931905&rft.place=Helsinki&rft.pub=Schildts&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=951-50-1534-0&rft.au=Torsten+Ekman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Timothy C. Dowling. <i>Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond</i>. 2 Volumes. ABC-CLIO, 2014. p. 748</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Menning B. W. <i>Bayonets before Bullets: the Imperial Russian Army</i>, 1861–1914. Indiana University Press, 2000. P. 55. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-253-21380-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-253-21380-0">0-253-21380-0</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Olender P. <i>Russo-Turkish Naval War 1877–1878</i>. 2017. Stratus. p. 88. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-65281-36-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-65281-36-4">978-83-65281-36-4</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFМерников2005" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Мерников, АГ (2005), <bdi lang="ru">Спектор А. А. Всемирная история войн</bdi> (in Russian), Minsk, p. 376</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80+%D0%90.+%D0%90.+%D0%92%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD&rft.place=Minsk&rft.pages=376&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2&rft.aufirst=%D0%90%D0%93&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Urlanis-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Urlanis_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Urlanis_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Urlanis_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUrlanis1960" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%D0%A3%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%81_%D0%91._%D0%A6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Урланис Б. Ц (page does not exist)">Urlanis, Boris C.</a> (1960). "Войны в период домонополистического капитализма (Ч. 2)". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scepsis.net/library/id_2140.html#a161"><i>Войны и народонаселение Европы. Людские потери вооруженных сил европейских стран в войнах XVII–XX вв. (Историко-статистическое исследование)</i></a> [<i>Wars and the population of Europe. Human losses of the armed forces of European countries in the wars of the 17th–20th centuries (Historical and statistical research)</i>] (in Russian). М.: <a href="/w/index.php?title=%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D1%8D%D0%BA%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B7&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Соцэкгиз (page does not exist)">Соцэкгиз</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D1%8D%D0%BA%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B7" class="extiw" title="ru:Соцэкгиз">ru</a>]</span>. pp. 104–105, 129 § 4.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%8B+%D0%B2+%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B4+%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE+%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%B0+%28%D0%A7.+2%29&rft.btitle=%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%8B+%D0%B8+%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5+%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%8B.+%D0%9B%D1%8E%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5+%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8+%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85+%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BB+%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85+%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD+%D0%B2+%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%85+XVII%E2%80%93XX+%D0%B2%D0%B2.+%28%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5+%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5%29&rft.place=%D0%9C.&rft.pages=104-105%2C+129+%C2%A7+4&rft.pub=%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D1%8D%D0%BA%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B7%3Cspan+class%3D%22noprint%22+style%3D%22font-size%3A85%25%3B+font-style%3A+normal%3B+%22%3E+%26%2391%3Bru%26%2393%3B%3C%2Fspan%3E&rft.date=1960&rft.aulast=Urlanis&rft.aufirst=Boris+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscepsis.net%2Flibrary%2Fid_2140.html%23a161&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Larousse-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Larousse_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Larousse_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Büyük Larousse, cilt VII, s. 3282–3283, Milliyet Yayınları (1986)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scafes, Cornel, et al., <i>Armata Romania in Razvoiul de Independenta 1877–1878</i> (The Romanian Army in the War of Independence 1877–1878). Bucuresti, Editura Sigma, 2002, p. 149 (Romence)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-scepsis.net-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-scepsis.net_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-scepsis.net_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUrlanis" class="citation book cs1">Urlanis, Boris C. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scepsis.net/library/id_2140.html"><i>Войны и народонаселение Европы, Часть II, Глава II</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%8B+%D0%B8+%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5+%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%8B%2C+%D0%A7%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C+II%2C+%D0%93%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0+II&rft.aulast=Urlanis&rft.aufirst=Boris+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscepsis.net%2Flibrary%2Fid_2140.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Мерников_Спектор-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Мерников_Спектор_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Мерников_Спектор_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Мерников_Спектор_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFМерников_А._Г.Спектор_А._А.2005" class="citation book cs1">Мерников А. Г.; Спектор А. А. (2005). <i>Всемирная история войн</i>. Мн.: Харвест. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/985-13-2607-0" title="Special:BookSources/985-13-2607-0"><bdi>985-13-2607-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D0%92%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD&rft.place=%D0%9C%D0%BD.&rft.pub=%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=985-13-2607-0&rft.au=%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2+%D0%90.+%D0%93.&rft.au=%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80+%D0%90.+%D0%90.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210414092052/https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/turetskie-voennoplennye-1877-1878-gg-razmeschenie-soderzhanie-vzaimootnosheniya-s-naseleniem-rossiyskih-guberniy/viewer">"Turkish prisoners of war 1877–1878: accommodation, keeping, relationships with the population of the Russian provinces"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/turetskie-voennoplennye-1877-1878-gg-razmeschenie-soderzhanie-vzaimootnosheniya-s-naseleniem-rossiyskih-guberniy/viewer">the original</a> on 14 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 December</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Turkish+prisoners+of+war+1877%E2%80%931878%3A+accommodation%2C+keeping%2C+relationships+with+the+population+of+the+Russian+provinces&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcyberleninka.ru%2Farticle%2Fn%2Fturetskie-voennoplennye-1877-1878-gg-razmeschenie-soderzhanie-vzaimootnosheniya-s-naseleniem-rossiyskih-guberniy%2Fviewer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_KttAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Turks+were+massacred%22"><i>The Middle East, Abstracts and Index</i></a>. Northumberland Press. 1999. p. 493.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Middle+East%2C+Abstracts+and+Index&rft.pages=493&rft.pub=Northumberland+Press&rft.date=1999&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_KttAAAAMAAJ%26q%3D%2522Turks%2Bwere%2Bmassacred%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarpat" class="citation book cs1">Karpat, Kemal. <i>Ottoman Population</i>. pp. 72–75.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ottoman+Population&rft.pages=72-75&rft.aulast=Karpat&rft.aufirst=Kemal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrowe1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Crowe, John Henry Verinder (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Russo-Turkish Wars"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Russo-Turkish_Wars">"Russo-Turkish Wars" </a></span>. In <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 23 (11th ed.). 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title="Russia">RU</a>: Lib FL, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.libfl.ru/win/nbc/books/bolgaria.html">the original</a> on 28 October 2007</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D0%B8+%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%3A+%22%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81+%D0%A1%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9+%E2%80%93+%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9+%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%22&rft.place=RU&rft.pub=Lib+FL&rft.aulast=%D0%A5%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0&rft.aufirst=%D0%92%D0%9C&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.libfl.ru%2Fwin%2Fnbc%2Fbooks%2Fbolgaria.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPotemkin" class="citation cs2">Potemkin, VP, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.diphis.ru/index.php?option=content&task=view&id=100#3"><i>History of world diplomacy 15th century BC – 1940 AD</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">RU</a>: Diphis</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+world+diplomacy+15th+century+BC+%E2%80%93+1940+AD&rft.place=RU&rft.pub=Diphis&rft.aulast=Potemkin&rft.aufirst=VP&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.diphis.ru%2Findex.php%3Foption%3Dcontent%26task%3Dview%26id%3D100%233&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarry2012" class="citation book cs1">Barry, Quintin (2012). <i>War in the East: a military history of the Russo-Turkish War, 1877–78</i>. Solihull, West Midlands: Helion. p. 164. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-907677-11-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-907677-11-3"><bdi>978-1-907677-11-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/751804914">751804914</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=War+in+the+East%3A+a+military+history+of+the+Russo-Turkish+War%2C+1877%E2%80%9378&rft.place=Solihull%2C+West+Midlands&rft.pages=164&rft.pub=Helion&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F751804914&rft.isbn=978-1-907677-11-3&rft.aulast=Barry&rft.aufirst=Quintin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_39-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_39-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_39-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlender2017" class="citation book cs1">Olender, Piotr (2017). <i>Russo-Turkish Naval War 1877–1878</i>. pp. 38–42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-65281-66-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-65281-66-1"><bdi>978-83-65281-66-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/992804901">992804901</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russo-Turkish+Naval+War+1877%E2%80%931878.&rft.pages=38-42&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F992804901&rft.isbn=978-83-65281-66-1&rft.aulast=Olender&rft.aufirst=Piotr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarry2012" class="citation book cs1">Barry, Quintin (2012). <i>War in the East: a military history of the Russo-Turkish War, 1877–78</i>. Solihull, West Midlands: Helion. p. 167. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-907677-11-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-907677-11-3"><bdi>978-1-907677-11-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/751804914">751804914</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=War+in+the+East%3A+a+military+history+of+the+Russo-Turkish+War%2C+1877%E2%80%9378&rft.place=Solihull%2C+West+Midlands&rft.pages=167&rft.pub=Helion&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F751804914&rft.isbn=978-1-907677-11-3&rft.aulast=Barry&rft.aufirst=Quintin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaurice1905" class="citation book cs1">Maurice, Frederick (1905). <i>The Russo-Turkish war 1877 A strategical sketch</i>. Swan Sonnenshcein and Co. pp. 16–17.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Russo-Turkish+war+1877+A+strategical+sketch&rft.pages=16-17&rft.pub=Swan+Sonnenshcein+and+Co.&rft.date=1905&rft.aulast=Maurice&rft.aufirst=Frederick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarry2012" class="citation book cs1">Barry, Quintin (2012). <i>War in the East: a military history of the Russo-Turkish War, 1877–78</i>. Solihull, West Midlands: Helion. pp. 167–170. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-907677-11-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-907677-11-3"><bdi>978-1-907677-11-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/751804914">751804914</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=War+in+the+East%3A+a+military+history+of+the+Russo-Turkish+War%2C+1877%E2%80%9378&rft.place=Solihull%2C+West+Midlands&rft.pages=167-170&rft.pub=Helion&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F751804914&rft.isbn=978-1-907677-11-3&rft.aulast=Barry&rft.aufirst=Quintin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarry2012" class="citation book cs1">Barry, Quintin (2012). <i>War in the East: a military history of the Russo-Turkish War, 1877–78</i>. Solihull, West Midlands: Helion. p. 178. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-907677-11-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-907677-11-3"><bdi>978-1-907677-11-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/751804914">751804914</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=War+in+the+East%3A+a+military+history+of+the+Russo-Turkish+War%2C+1877%E2%80%9378&rft.place=Solihull%2C+West+Midlands&rft.pages=178&rft.pub=Helion&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F751804914&rft.isbn=978-1-907677-11-3&rft.aulast=Barry&rft.aufirst=Quintin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrury1994" class="citation book cs1">Drury, Ian (1994). <i>The Russo-turkish war 1877</i>. Osprey military Men-at-arms series. London: Osprey. pp. 5–6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85532-371-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85532-371-1"><bdi>978-1-85532-371-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Russo-turkish+war+1877&rft.place=London&rft.series=Osprey+military+Men-at-arms+series&rft.pages=5-6&rft.pub=Osprey&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-1-85532-371-1&rft.aulast=Drury&rft.aufirst=Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarry2012" class="citation book cs1">Barry, Quintin (2012). <i>War in the East: a military history of the Russo-Turkish War, 1877–78</i>. Solihull, West Midlands: Helion. p. 144. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-907677-11-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-907677-11-3"><bdi>978-1-907677-11-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/751804914">751804914</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=War+in+the+East%3A+a+military+history+of+the+Russo-Turkish+War%2C+1877%E2%80%9378&rft.place=Solihull%2C+West+Midlands&rft.pages=144&rft.pub=Helion&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F751804914&rft.isbn=978-1-907677-11-3&rft.aulast=Barry&rft.aufirst=Quintin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlender2017" class="citation book cs1">Olender, Piotr (2017). <i>Russo-Turkish Naval War 1877–1878</i>. pp. 28–35. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-65281-66-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-65281-66-1"><bdi>978-83-65281-66-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/992804901">992804901</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russo-Turkish+Naval+War+1877%E2%80%931878.&rft.pages=28-35&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F992804901&rft.isbn=978-83-65281-66-1&rft.aulast=Olender&rft.aufirst=Piotr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarry2012" class="citation book cs1">Barry, Quintin (2012). <i>War in the East: a military history of the Russo-Turkish War, 1877–78</i>. Solihull, West Midlands: Helion. pp. 144–146. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-907677-11-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-907677-11-3"><bdi>978-1-907677-11-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/751804914">751804914</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=War+in+the+East%3A+a+military+history+of+the+Russo-Turkish+War%2C+1877%E2%80%9378&rft.place=Solihull%2C+West+Midlands&rft.pages=144-146&rft.pub=Helion&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F751804914&rft.isbn=978-1-907677-11-3&rft.aulast=Barry&rft.aufirst=Quintin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071230042922/http://www.cs.kent.edu/~amarcus/Mihai/english/cronologieen.html"><i>Chronology of events from 1856 to 1997 period relating to the Romanian monarchy</i></a>, Ohio: Kent State University, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cs.kent.edu/~amarcus/Mihai/english/cronologieen.html">the original</a> on 30 December 2007</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chronology+of+events+from+1856+to+1997+period+relating+to+the+Romanian+monarchy&rft.place=Ohio&rft.pub=Kent+State+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cs.kent.edu%2F~amarcus%2FMihai%2Fenglish%2Fcronologieen.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchem1878" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Jacob_Schem" title="Alexander Jacob Schem">Schem, Alexander Jacob</a> (1878), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/warineastillustr00scheiala"><i>The War in the East: An illustrated history of the Conflict between Russia and Turkey with a Review of the Eastern Question</i></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+War+in+the+East%3A+An+illustrated+history+of+the+Conflict+between+Russia+and+Turkey+with+a+Review+of+the+Eastern+Question&rft.date=1878&rft.aulast=Schem&rft.aufirst=Alexander+Jacob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwarineastillustr00scheiala&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELangensiepen_&_Güleryüz6-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELangensiepen_&_Güleryüz6_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLangensiepen_&_Güleryüz">Langensiepen & Güleryüz</a>, p. 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMenning2000" class="citation cs2">Menning, Bruce (2000), <i>Bayonets before Bullets: The Imperial Russian Army, 1861–1914</i>, Indiana University Press, p. 57</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bayonets+before+Bullets%3A+The+Imperial+Russian+Army%2C+1861%E2%80%931914&rft.pages=57&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Menning&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Herbert1895131-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Herbert1895131_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvon_Herbert1895">von Herbert 1895</a>, p. 131.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span 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Syracuse University Press. p. 117. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8156-3093-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8156-3093-7"><bdi>978-0-8156-3093-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Kurdish+National+Movement%3A+Its+Origins+and+Development&rft.pages=117&rft.pub=Syracuse+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8156-3093-7&rft.aulast=Jwaideh&rft.aufirst=Wadie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFCbspX-dGPYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:1_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenning2018" class="citation book cs1">Henning, Barbara (2018). <i>Narratives of the History of the Ottoman-Kurdish Bedirhani Family in Imperial and Post-Imperial Contexts: Continuities and Changes</i>. 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October 1908. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2212671">10.2307/2212671</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-9300">0002-9300</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2212671">2212671</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/5545378434">5545378434</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:246006401">246006401</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+International+Law&rft.atitle=The+Definitive+Treaty+of+Peace+between+Russia+and+the+Porte%3A+Signed+at+Constantinople+on+8th+February%2C+1879&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=4+Supplemental&rft.pages=424-426&rft.date=1908-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2212671%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2212671&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F5545378434&rft.issn=0002-9300&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A246006401%23id-name%3DS2CID&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLohr2012" class="citation book cs1">Lohr, Eric (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://1lib.mx/book/2612171/b81e9d"><i>Russian Citizenship: From Empire to Soviet Union</i></a>. 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title=" Dead link tagged February 2023">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Iván Bertényi, "Enthusiasm for a Hereditary Enemy: Some Aspects of The Roots of Hungarian Turkophile Sentiments." <i>Hungarian Studies</i> 27.2 (2013): 209–218 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://real.mtak.hu/38979/1/hstud.27.2013.2.1.pdf">online</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tamir, V., <i>Bulgaria and Her Jews: A dubious symbiosis</i>, 1979, pp. 94–95, Yeshiva University Press</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Koyuncu1-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Koyuncu1_76-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Koyuncu1_76-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoyuncu2014" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Koyuncu, Aşkın (January 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272874328">"Population and Demography of the Danube Vilayet (1864–1877)"</a> [Tuna Vilâyeti'nde Nüfus Ve Demografi (1864–1877)]. <i>Turkish Studies - International Periodical for the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic</i> (in Turkish). <b>9</b> (4): 718. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7827%2FTurkishStudies.7023">10.7827/TurkishStudies.7023</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Turkish+Studies+-+International+Periodical+for+the+Languages%2C+Literature+and+History+of+Turkish+or+Turkic&rft.atitle=Population+and+Demography+of+the+Danube+Vilayet+%281864%E2%80%931877%29&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=718&rft.date=2014-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7827%2FTurkishStudies.7023&rft.aulast=Koyuncu&rft.aufirst=A%C5%9Fk%C4%B1n&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F272874328&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-statlib.nsi.bg:8181-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-statlib.nsi.bg:8181_77-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-statlib.nsi.bg:8181_77-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170303201333/http://statlib.nsi.bg:8181/bg/lister.php?iid=DO-010000070"><i>statlib.nsi.bg:8181</i></a>, 3 March 2017, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://statlib.nsi.bg:8181/bg/lister.php?iid=DO-010000070">the original</a> on 3 March 2017</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=statlib.nsi.bg%3A8181&rft.date=2017-03-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fstatlib.nsi.bg%3A8181%2Fbg%2Flister.php%3Fiid%3DDO-010000070&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-KoyuncuRUMELI2-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-KoyuncuRUMELI2_78-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-KoyuncuRUMELI2_78-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoyuncu2013" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Koyuncu, Aşkın (1 December 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/422104#:~:text=B%C3%B6lgedeki%20K%C4%B1ptilerin%20%C3%A7o%C4%9Funlu%C4%9Fu%20M%C3%BCsl%C3%BCmand%C4%B1.,(%59%2C48)%20idi.">"1877–1878 Osmanlı-Rus Harbi Öncesinde Şarkî Rumeli Nüfusu"</a> [The Population of Eastern Rumelia Before the 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War] (in Turkish). p. 202.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=1877%E2%80%931878+Osmanl%C4%B1-Rus+Harbi+%C3%96ncesinde+%C5%9Eark%C3%AE+Rumeli+N%C3%BCfusu&rft.pages=202&rft.date=2013-12-01&rft.aulast=Koyuncu&rft.aufirst=A%C5%9Fk%C4%B1n&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdergipark.org.tr%2Ftr%2Fdownload%2Farticle-file%2F422104%23%3A~%3Atext%3DB%25C3%25B6lgedeki%2520K%25C4%25B1ptilerin%2520%25C3%25A7o%25C4%259Funlu%25C4%259Fu%2520M%25C3%25BCsl%25C3%25BCmand%25C4%25B1.%2C%28%2559%252C48%29%2520idi.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_79-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_79-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDennis2019" class="citation journal 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Muslim+Minority+Affairs&rft.atitle=Armenians+and+the+Cleansing+of+Muslims+1878%E2%80%931915%3A+Influences+from+the+Balkans&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=411-431&rft.date=2019-07-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A202282745%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1360-2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F13602004.2019.1654186&rft.aulast=Dennis&rft.aufirst=Brad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.1080%2F13602004.2019.1654186&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHertslet1891" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Hertslet" 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New York: HarperCollins, 2003, p. 44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHovannisian1997" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-long-vol">Hovannisian, Richard G (1997), "The Armenian Question in the Ottoman Empire, 1876–1914", in Hovannisian, Richard G (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/armenianpeoplefr00rich_0/page/206"><i>The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times</i></a>, vol. II: Foreign Dominion to Statehood: The Fifteenth Century to the Twentieth Century, New York: St Martin's Press, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/armenianpeoplefr00rich_0/page/206">206–212</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-10168-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-312-10168-6"><bdi>0-312-10168-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Armenian+Question+in+the+Ottoman+Empire%2C+1876%E2%80%931914&rft.btitle=The+Armenian+People+From+Ancient+to+Modern+Times&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=206-212&rft.pub=St+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-312-10168-6&rft.aulast=Hovannisian&rft.aufirst=Richard+G&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Farmenianpeoplefr00rich_0%2Fpage%2F206&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.calameo.com/read/0023338636f431bd98ce6">"93 Harbi Sonrası Muhacir Iskanı-D.D.Pasaoglu-2013"</a>. <i>calameo.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=calameo.com&rft.atitle=93+Harbi+Sonras%C4%B1+Muhacir+Iskan%C4%B1-D.D.Pasaoglu-2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.calameo.com%2Fread%2F0023338636f431bd98ce6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SU-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SU_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.serbianunity.net/culture/history/berlin78/index.html#Constantinople%20Conference">Balkan tarihi</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100106122235/http://www.serbianunity.net/culture/history/berlin78/index.html#Constantinople%20Conference">Archived</a> 6 January 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <b>(İngilizce)</b></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gb150-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-gb150_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Gillard, Kenneth Bourne, Donald Cameron Watt, Great Britain. 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Central and Southeastern Europe in the 19th and 20th Century</i>: 80.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Crossroads+of+the+Old+Continent.+Central+and+Southeastern+Europe+in+the+19th+and+20th+Century&rft.atitle=%22To+get+rid+of+Turks%22.+The+South-Slavic+states+and+Muslim+Remigration+in+the+Turn+of+the+1870s+and+1880s&rft.pages=80&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Popek&rft.aufirst=Krzysztof&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fruj.uj.edu.pl%2Fxmlui%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2Fitem%2F277166%2Fpopek_to_get_rid_of_turks_2021.pdf%3Fsequence%3D1%26isAllowed%3Dy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHupchick2002265-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHupchick2002265_108-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHupchick2002">Hupchick 2002</a>, p. 265.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcCarthy1995">McCarthy 1995</a>, pp. 90–91</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarpat" class="citation book cs1">Karpat, Kemal. <i>Ouoman Population</i>. pp. 72–75.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ouoman+Population&rft.pages=72-75&rft.aulast=Karpat&rft.aufirst=Kemal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Karpat, Kemal H., <i>Studies on Ottoman social and political history: selected articles and essays</i>, Brill, 2004, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-12101-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-12101-0">978-90-04-12101-0</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bookre.org/reader?file=1098619&pg=776">p. 764.</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">İpek, Nedim (1994), <i>Turkish Migration from the Balkans to Anatolia</i>, sf. 40–41</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Library Information and Research Service. <i>The Middle East, abstracts and index, Part 1</i> (1999), Northumberland Press, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_KttAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Turks+were+massacred%22">sf. 493</a>, <i>During that war nearly 400000 Rumelian Turks were massacred. About a million of them who fled before the invading Russian armies took refuge in the Thrace, Istanbul and Western Anatolia</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McCarthy,_J._2001,_p._48-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-McCarthy,_J._2001,_p._48_114-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCarthy2001" class="citation cs2">McCarthy, J. (2001), <i>The Ottoman Peoples and the end of Empire</i>, Oxford University Press, p. 48</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ottoman+Peoples+and+the+end+of+Empire&rft.pages=48&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=McCarthy&rft.aufirst=J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReid200042–43-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReid200042–43_115-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFReid2000">Reid 2000</a>, pp. 42–43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrampton1997" class="citation cs2">Crampton, RJ (1997), <i>A Concise History of Bulgaria</i>, Cambridge University Press, p. 426, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-56719-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-56719-X"><bdi>0-521-56719-X</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+History+of+Bulgaria&rft.pages=426&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-521-56719-X&rft.aulast=Crampton&rft.aufirst=RJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrucht2005" class="citation cs2">Frucht, Richard C (2005), <i>Eastern Europe</i>, p. 641</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eastern+Europe&rft.pages=641&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Frucht&rft.aufirst=Richard+C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoward2001" class="citation cs2">Howard, Douglas Arthur (2001), <i>The history of Turkey</i>, p. 67</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+history+of+Turkey&rft.pages=67&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Howard&rft.aufirst=Douglas+Arthur&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Denial_2003,_p._248-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Denial_2003,_p._248_119-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Yair_Auron" title="Yair Auron">Auron, Yair</a>. <i>The Banality of Denial: Israel and the Armenian Genocide</i>. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 2003, p. 248.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Israel_W._Charny" class="mw-redirect" title="Israel W. Charny">Charny, Israel W.</a> <i>Encyclopedia of Genocide, Vol. 2</i>. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 1999, p. 163.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Vahakn_Dadrian" title="Vahakn Dadrian">Dadrian, Vahakn N</a>. "Ottoman Archives and the Armenian Genocide" in <i>The Armenian Genocide: History, Politics, Ethics</i>. Richard G. Hovannisian (ed.) New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 1992, p. 284.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hovannisian-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hovannisian_122-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Richard_G._Hovannisian" title="Richard G. Hovannisian">Hovannisian, Richard G.</a> "Denial of the Armenian Genocide in Comparison with Holocaust Denial" in <i>Remembrance and Denial: The Case of the Armenian Genocide</i>. Richard G. Hovannisian (ed.) Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1999, p. 210.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Linenthal-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Linenthal_123-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Edward Tabor Linenthal (2001) <i>Preserving Memory: The Struggle to Create America's Holocaust Museum</i>. 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Princeton, NJ: Darwin Press, 1996"</a>. <i>Review of Middle East Studies</i>. <b>30</b> (2): 214. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0026318400034337">10.1017/S0026318400034337</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87850-094-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-87850-094-4"><bdi>0-87850-094-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0026-3184">0026-3184</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:164893463">164893463</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Review+of+Middle+East+Studies&rft.atitle=Death+and+Exile%3A+The+Ethnic+Cleansing+of+Ottoman+Muslims%2C+1821%E2%80%931922%2C+by+Justin+Mccarthy.+368+pages%2C+maps%2C+tables%2C+notes%2C+appendix%2C+bibliography%2C+index.+Princeton%2C+NJ%3A+Darwin+Press%2C+1996.&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=214&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0026318400034337&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A164893463%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0026-3184&rft.isbn=0-87850-094-4&rft.aulast=Hickok&rft.aufirst=Michael+Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Freview-of-middle-east-studies%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fdeath-and-exile-the-ethnic-cleansing-of-ottoman-muslims-18211922-by-justin-mccarthy-368-pages-maps-tables-notes-appendix-bibliography-index-princeton-nj-darwin-press-1996-3500-cloth-isbn-0878500944%2FBB02FDFF14D67DC27E26FA880205A383&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-JWS-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-JWS_125-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAl-Rustom2015" class="citation book cs1">Al-Rustom, Hakem (2015). "Rethinking the "Post-Ottoman"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". In Altorki, Soraya (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/9781118475683"><i>A Companion to the Anthropology of the Middle East</i></a>. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 387. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781118475683">10.1002/9781118475683</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-47568-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-47568-3"><bdi>978-1-118-47568-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Rethinking+the+%22Post-Ottoman%22&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Anthropology+of+the+Middle+East&rft.place=Hoboken%2C+NJ&rft.pages=387&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons%2C+Inc&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781118475683&rft.isbn=978-1-118-47568-3&rft.aulast=Al-Rustom&rft.aufirst=Hakem&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdoi.wiley.com%2F10.1002%2F9781118475683&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKieserOktemReinkowski2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hans-Lukas_Kieser" title="Hans-Lukas Kieser">Kieser, Hans-Lukas</a>; Oktem, Kerem; Reinkowski, Maurus (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bloomsburycollections.com/book/world-war-i-and-the-end-of-the-ottomans-from-the-balkan-wars-to-the-armenian-genocide/introduction-world-war-i-and-the-end-of-the-ottomans-from-the-balkan-wars-to-the-armenian-genocide?from=search">"Introduction"</a>. <i>World War I and the End of the Ottomans: From the Balkan Wars to the Armenian Genocide</i>. Bloomsbury Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85772-744-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85772-744-2"><bdi>978-0-85772-744-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=World+War+I+and+the+End+of+the+Ottomans%3A+From+the+Balkan+Wars+to+the+Armenian+Genocide&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-85772-744-2&rft.aulast=Kieser&rft.aufirst=Hans-Lukas&rft.au=Oktem%2C+Kerem&rft.au=Reinkowski%2C+Maurus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bloomsburycollections.com%2Fbook%2Fworld-war-i-and-the-end-of-the-ottomans-from-the-balkan-wars-to-the-armenian-genocide%2Fintroduction-world-war-i-and-the-end-of-the-ottomans-from-the-balkan-wars-to-the-armenian-genocide%3Ffrom%3Dsearch&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jirecek-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Jirecek_127-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJireček1899" class="citation book cs1">Jireček, Konstantin (1899). <i>Княжество България. 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Plovdiv. p. 382.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D0%9A%D0%BD%D1%8F%D0%B6%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE+%D0%91%D1%8A%D0%BB%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F.+%D0%A7%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82+I.+%D0%91%D1%8A%D0%BB%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0+%D0%B4%D1%8A%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0&rft.place=Plovdiv&rft.pages=382&rft.date=1899&rft.aulast=Jire%C4%8Dek&rft.aufirst=Konstantin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeton-Watson1971" class="citation book cs1">Seton-Watson, Robert William (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fmJk1Q71MqIC&dq=massacre+stara+zagora+suleyman&pg=PA280"><i>Disraeli, Gladstone, and the Eastern Question: A Study in Diplomacy and Party Politics</i></a>. Psychology Press. p. 283. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7146-1513-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7146-1513-4"><bdi>978-0-7146-1513-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Disraeli%2C+Gladstone%2C+and+the+Eastern+Question%3A+A+Study+in+Diplomacy+and+Party+Politics&rft.pages=283&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=978-0-7146-1513-4&rft.aulast=Seton-Watson&rft.aufirst=Robert+William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfmJk1Q71MqIC%26dq%3Dmassacre%2Bstara%2Bzagora%2Bsuleyman%26pg%3DPA280&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIvanova2015" class="citation web cs1">Ivanova, Kameliya (6 January 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vasil-levski.eu/%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%8F%D1%89%D0%B5/%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE-%D0%B2-%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE-%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD-%D0%B8-%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4/">"Страшното в Карлово"</a> [The Terror in Karlovo]. <i>Васил Левски—документи, история и настояще</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BB+%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%E2%80%94%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%2C+%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D0%B8+%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%8F%D1%89%D0%B5&rft.atitle=%D0%A1%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE+%D0%B2+%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE&rft.date=2015-01-06&rft.aulast=Ivanova&rft.aufirst=Kameliya&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.vasil-levski.eu%2F%25D0%25BD%25D0%25B0%25D1%2581%25D1%2582%25D0%25BE%25D1%258F%25D1%2589%25D0%25B5%2F%25D1%2581%25D1%2582%25D1%2580%25D0%25B0%25D1%2588%25D0%25BD%25D0%25BE%25D1%2582%25D0%25BE-%25D0%25B2-%25D0%25BA%25D0%25B0%25D1%2580%25D0%25BB%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B2%25D0%25BE-%25D0%25BF%25D1%2580%25D0%25B8%25D0%25BC%25D0%25B5%25D1%2580%25D0%25B5%25D0%25BD-%25D0%25B8-%25D0%25BD%25D0%25B5%25D1%2580%25D0%25B5%25D0%25B4%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDimitrov1900" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Dimitrov, Georgi (1900). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sever.libraryvt.com//bg/lister.php?iid=DO-8S0000648&page=1"><i>Княжество България в историческо, географическо и етнографическо отношение. 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Plovdiv.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D0%9A%D0%BD%D1%8F%D0%B6%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE+%D0%91%D1%8A%D0%BB%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D0%B2+%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%2C+%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE+%D0%B8+%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE+%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5.+%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%8A%D0%BB%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5+%D0%BE%D1%82+%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82+%D0%86%D0%86.+%D0%9F%D0%BE+%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0+%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0+%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7+1877-78+%D0%B3.&rft.place=Plovdiv&rft.date=1900&rft.aulast=Dimitrov&rft.aufirst=Georgi&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsever.libraryvt.com%2F%2Fbg%2Flister.php%3Fiid%3DDO-8S0000648%26page%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BalkanisticForum-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BalkanisticForum_131-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAghanyanBazeyan2015" class="citation journal cs1">Aghanyan, Grigor; Bazeyan, Karine (2015). Dominik Gutmeyr (ed.). "National Minorities of Armenia during the Russo-Ottoman War". <i>Balkanistic Forum</i>. <b>3</b>: 115–116. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1310-3970">1310-3970</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Balkanistic+Forum&rft.atitle=National+Minorities+of+Armenia+during+the+Russo-Ottoman+War&rft.volume=3&rft.pages=115-116&rft.date=2015&rft.issn=1310-3970&rft.aulast=Aghanyan&rft.aufirst=Grigor&rft.au=Bazeyan%2C+Karine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArgyll187949-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArgyll187949_132-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArgyll1879">Argyll 1879</a>, p. 49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Report_on_the_Russian_Army-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Report_on_the_Russian_Army_133-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreene1879" class="citation book cs1">Greene, Francis Vinton (1879). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/39020025954598-reportontheruss"><i>Report on the Russian Army and its Campaigns in Turkey in 1877–1878</i></a>. D Appleton & Co. p. 204.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Report+on+the+Russian+Army+and+its+Campaigns+in+Turkey+in+1877%E2%80%931878&rft.pages=204&rft.pub=D+Appleton+%26+Co&rft.date=1879&rft.aulast=Greene&rft.aufirst=Francis+Vinton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2F39020025954598-reportontheruss&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sega-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sega_134-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIvanov2005" class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Ivanov, Dmitri (8 November 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110719054301/http://www.segabg.com/online/article.asp?issueid=315&sectionid=4&id=00004">"Позитано. "Души в окови"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a> (in Bulgarian). Sega. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.segabg.com/online/article.asp?issueid=315&sectionid=4&id=00004">the original</a> on 19 July 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 April</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE.+%22%D0%94%D1%83%D1%88%D0%B8+%D0%B2+%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%22&rft.date=2005-11-08&rft.aulast=Ivanov&rft.aufirst=Dmitri&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.segabg.com%2Fonline%2Farticle.asp%3Fissueid%3D315%26sectionid%3D4%26id%3D00004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReid2000148-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReid2000148_135-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFReid2000">Reid 2000</a>, p. 148.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson2000" class="citation book cs1">Thompson, Ewa Majewska (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Y1VhAAAAMAAJ&q=circassian+girls++russians+raped"><i>Imperial Knowledge: Russian Literature and Colonialism</i></a> (illustrated ed.). Greenwood Press. p. 68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-31311-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-31311-3"><bdi>0-313-31311-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0738-9345">0738-9345</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Imperial+Knowledge%3A+Russian+Literature+and+Colonialism&rft.pages=68&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.issn=0738-9345&rft.isbn=0-313-31311-3&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Ewa+Majewska&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DY1VhAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dcircassian%2Bgirls%2B%2Brussians%2Braped&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStill2012" class="citation book cs1">Still, Judith (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-clvAAAAQBAJ&q=circassian+girls++russians+raped&pg=PA211"><i>Derrida and Hospitality</i></a> (reprint ed.). Edinburgh University Press. p. 211. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-8727-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-8727-5"><bdi>978-0-7486-8727-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Derrida+and+Hospitality&rft.pages=211&rft.edition=reprint&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-7486-8727-5&rft.aulast=Still&rft.aufirst=Judith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-clvAAAAQBAJ%26q%3Dcircassian%2Bgirls%2B%2Brussians%2Braped%26pg%3DPA211&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibson2016" class="citation book cs1">Gibson, Sarah (2016). Molz, Jennie Germann (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=g1kGDAAAQBAJ&q=circassian+girls++russians+raped&pg=PT227"><i>Mobilizing Hospitality: The Ethics of Social Relations in a Mobile World</i></a> (reprint ed.). Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-09495-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-09495-1"><bdi>978-1-317-09495-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mobilizing+Hospitality%3A+The+Ethics+of+Social+Relations+in+a+Mobile+World&rft.edition=reprint&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-317-09495-1&rft.aulast=Gibson&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dg1kGDAAAQBAJ%26q%3Dcircassian%2Bgirls%2B%2Brussians%2Braped%26pg%3DPT227&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCulbertson1940" class="citation book cs1">Culbertson, Ely (1940). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gg-gAAAAMAAJ&q=circassian+girls++russians+raped"><i>The Strange Lives of One Man: An Autobiography</i></a>. Winston. p. 55.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Strange+Lives+of+One+Man%3A+An+Autobiography&rft.pages=55&rft.pub=Winston&rft.date=1940&rft.aulast=Culbertson&rft.aufirst=Ely&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGg-gAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dcircassian%2Bgirls%2B%2Brussians%2Braped&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMagnússon1891" class="citation book cs1">Magnússon, Eiríkr (1891). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=v1cyAQAAMAAJ&q=circassian+girls++russians+raped&pg=PA8"><i>National Life and Thought of the Various Nations Throughout the World: A Series of Addresses</i></a>. T. F. Unwin. p. 8.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=National+Life+and+Thought+of+the+Various+Nations+Throughout+the+World%3A+A+Series+of+Addresses&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=T.+F.+Unwin&rft.date=1891&rft.aulast=Magn%C3%BAsson&rft.aufirst=Eir%C3%ADkr&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dv1cyAQAAMAAJ%26q%3Dcircassian%2Bgirls%2B%2Brussians%2Braped%26pg%3DPA8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9WwmAQAAIAAJ&q=circassian+girls++russians+raped&pg=PA309"><i>The New Review, Volume 1</i></a>. Longmans, Green and Company. 1889. p. 309.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Review%2C+Volume+1&rft.pages=309&rft.pub=Longmans%2C+Green+and+Company&rft.date=1889&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9WwmAQAAIAAJ%26q%3Dcircassian%2Bgirls%2B%2Brussians%2Braped%26pg%3DPA309&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDimitrov2002" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Dimitrov, Bozhidar (2002), <i>Russian-Turkish war 1877–1878</i> (in Bulgarian), p. 75</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russian-Turkish+war+1877%E2%80%931878&rft.pages=75&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Dimitrov&rft.aufirst=Bozhidar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichmond2013" class="citation book cs1">Richmond, Walter (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=92oqAAAAMAAJ&q=circassian+girls++russians+raped"><i>The Circassian Genocide</i></a>. Genocide, Political Violence, Human Rights. Rutgers University Press. p. 107. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-6069-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-6069-4"><bdi>978-0-8135-6069-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Circassian+Genocide&rft.series=Genocide%2C+Political+Violence%2C+Human+Rights&rft.pages=107&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-8135-6069-4&rft.aulast=Richmond&rft.aufirst=Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D92oqAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dcircassian%2Bgirls%2B%2Brussians%2Braped&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTița2018" class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Tița, Diana (16 September 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.historia.ro/sectiune/general/articol/povestea-dramatica-a-cerchezilor-din-dobrogea">"Povestea dramatică a cerchezilor din Dobrogea"</a>. <i>Historia</i> (in Romanian).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historia&rft.atitle=Povestea+dramatic%C4%83+a+cerchezilor+din+Dobrogea&rft.date=2018-09-16&rft.aulast=Ti%C8%9Ba&rft.aufirst=Diana&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.historia.ro%2Fsectiune%2Fgeneral%2Farticol%2Fpovestea-dramatica-a-cerchezilor-din-dobrogea&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200724153530/https://www.sophenearmeniaca.com/2019/01/06/jalaleddin-and-the-russo-turkish-war-of-1877-1878/">"Jalaleddin and the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sophenearmeniaca.com/2019/01/06/jalaleddin-and-the-russo-turkish-war-of-1877-1878/">the original</a> on 24 July 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 January</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jalaleddin+and+the+Russo-Turkish+War+of+1877%E2%80%931878&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sophenearmeniaca.com%2F2019%2F01%2F06%2Fjalaleddin-and-the-russo-turkish-war-of-1877-1878%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllenMuratoff1953" class="citation book cs1">Allen, William E. 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Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-85085-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-85085-1"><bdi>0-521-85085-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+History+of+Bulgaria&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-521-85085-1&rft.aulast=Crampton&rft.aufirst=R.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGladstone1876" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Ewart_Gladstone" title="William Ewart Gladstone">Gladstone, William Ewart</a> (1876). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/b/OL7083313M/Bulgarian-horrors-and-the-question-of-the-east"><i>Bulgarian Horrors and the Question of the East</i></a>. 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V.</a> (1879). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/russianarmyitsca00greeuoft#page/n3/mode/2up"><i>The Russian Army and its Campaigns in Turkey</i></a>. New York: D.Appleton and Company<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Transaction Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4128-2445-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4128-2445-3"><bdi>978-1-4128-2445-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Genocide+and+gross+human+rights+violations%3A+in+comparative+perspective&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-1-4128-2445-3&rft.aulast=Jonassohn&rft.aufirst=Kurt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjIxCUXI38zcC%26q%3Dbatak%2Bchurch%2Bbulgaria%26pg%3DPA210&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKofos1977" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Kofos, Evangelos (1977). "Από το τέλος της Κρητικής Επαναστάσεως ως την προσάρτηση της Θεσσαλίας" [From the End of the Cretan Revolution to the Annexation of Thessaly]. In Christopoulos, Georgios A. & Bastias, Ioannis K. (eds.). <i>Ιστορία του Ελληνικού Έθνους, Τόμος ΙΓ΄: Νεώτερος Ελληνισμός από το 1833 έως το 1881</i> [<i>History of the Greek Nation, Volume XIII: Modern Hellenism from 1833 to 1881</i>] (in Greek). Athens: Ekdotiki Athinon. pp. 289–365. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-960-213-109-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-960-213-109-1"><bdi>978-960-213-109-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%CE%91%CF%80%CF%8C+%CF%84%CE%BF+%CF%84%CE%AD%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%82+%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82+%CE%9A%CF%81%CE%B7%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE%CF%82+%CE%95%CF%80%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B1%CF%83%CF%84%CE%AC%CF%83%CE%B5%CF%89%CF%82+%CF%89%CF%82+%CF%84%CE%B7%CE%BD+%CF%80%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%AC%CF%81%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%83%CE%B7+%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82+%CE%98%CE%B5%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%AF%CE%B1%CF%82&rft.btitle=%CE%99%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1+%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85+%CE%95%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%B7%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%8D+%CE%88%CE%B8%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%82%2C+%CE%A4%CF%8C%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%82+%CE%99%CE%93%CE%84%3A+%CE%9D%CE%B5%CF%8E%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%82+%CE%95%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%B7%CE%BD%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82+%CE%B1%CF%80%CF%8C+%CF%84%CE%BF+1833+%CE%AD%CF%89%CF%82+%CF%84%CE%BF+1881&rft.place=Athens&rft.pages=289-365&rft.pub=Ekdotiki+Athinon&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-960-213-109-1&rft.aulast=Kofos&rft.aufirst=Evangelos&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLangensiepen_&_Güleryüz" class="citation book cs1">Langensiepen, Bernd & Güleryüz, Ahmet (1995). <i>The Ottoman Steam Navy 1828–1923</i>. London: Conway Maritime Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85177-610-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85177-610-1"><bdi>978-0-85177-610-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ottoman+Steam+Navy+1828%E2%80%931923&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Conway+Maritime+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-85177-610-1&rft.aulast=Langensiepen&rft.aufirst=Bernd&rft.au=G%C3%BClery%C3%BCz%2C+Ahmet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaurice1905" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Maurice_(British_Army_officer,_born_1871)" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederick Maurice (British Army officer, born 1871)">Maurice, Major F.</a> (1905). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/russoturkishwar100mauruoft#page/n7"><i>The Russo-Turkish War 1877; A Strategical Sketch</i></a>. London: Swan Sonneschein<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 August</span> 2018</span> – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Russo-Turkish+War+1877%3B+A+Strategical+Sketch&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Swan+Sonneschein&rft.date=1905&rft.aulast=Maurice&rft.aufirst=Major+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Frussoturkishwar100mauruoft%23page%2Fn7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCarthy1995" class="citation book cs1">McCarthy, Justin (1995). <i>Death and Exile: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ottoman Muslims, 1821–1922</i>. Darwin Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87850-094-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87850-094-9"><bdi>978-0-87850-094-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Death+and+Exile%3A+The+Ethnic+Cleansing+of+Ottoman+Muslims%2C+1821%E2%80%931922&rft.pub=Darwin+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-87850-094-9&rft.aulast=McCarthy&rft.aufirst=Justin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReid2000" class="citation book cs1">Reid, James J. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Zgg6c_Ndtu4C"><i>Crisis of the Ottoman Empire: Prelude to Collapse 1839–1878</i></a>. Quellen und Studien zur Geschichte des östlichen Europa. Vol. 57 (illustrated ed.). Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-515-07687-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-515-07687-6"><bdi>978-3-515-07687-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0170-3595">0170-3595</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crisis+of+the+Ottoman+Empire%3A+Prelude+to+Collapse+1839%E2%80%931878&rft.place=Stuttgart&rft.series=Quellen+und+Studien+zur+Geschichte+des+%C3%B6stlichen+Europa&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Franz+Steiner+Verlag&rft.date=2000&rft.issn=0170-3595&rft.isbn=978-3-515-07687-6&rft.aulast=Reid&rft.aufirst=James+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZgg6c_Ndtu4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShawShaw1977" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Stanford_J._Shaw" title="Stanford J. Shaw">Shaw, Stanford J.</a>; Shaw, Ezel Kural (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E9-YfgVZDBkC"><i>History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey</i></a>. Vol. 2, Reform, Revolution, and Republic: The Rise of Modern Turkey 1808–1975. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29163-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29163-7"><bdi>978-0-521-29163-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Ottoman+Empire+and+Modern+Turkey&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-521-29163-7&rft.aulast=Shaw&rft.aufirst=Stanford+J.&rft.au=Shaw%2C+Ezel+Kural&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DE9-YfgVZDBkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStavrianos1958" class="citation book cs1">Stavrianos, L. S. (1958). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/balkanssince145300lsst"><i>The Balkans Since 1453</i></a>. NYU Press. pp. 393–412. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-9766-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-9766-2"><bdi>978-0-8147-9766-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Balkans+Since+1453&rft.pages=393-412&rft.pub=NYU+Press&rft.date=1958&rft.isbn=978-0-8147-9766-2&rft.aulast=Stavrianos&rft.aufirst=L.+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbalkanssince145300lsst&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/warcorrespondenc00forbrich#page/n3/mode/1up"><i>The War Correspondence of the "Daily News" 1877 with a Connecting Narrative Forming a Continuous History of the War Between Russia and Turkey to the Fall of Kars Including the Letters of Mr. Archibald Forbes, Mr. J. A. MacGahan and Many Other Special Correspondents in Europe and Asia</i></a>. London: Macmillan and Co. 1878<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 July</span> 2018</span> – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+War+Correspondence+of+the+%22Daily+News%22+1877+with+a+Connecting+Narrative+Forming+a+Continuous+History+of+the+War+Between+Russia+and+Turkey+to+the+Fall+of+Kars+Including+the+Letters+of+Mr.+Archibald+Forbes%2C+Mr.+J.+A.+MacGahan+and+Many+Other+Special+Correspondents+in+Europe+and+Asia&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Macmillan+and+Co.&rft.date=1878&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fwarcorrespondenc00forbrich%23page%2Fn3%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/warcorrespondenc00londrich#page/n3"><i>The War Correspondence of the "Daily News" 1877–1878 continued from the Fall of Kars to the Signature of the Preliminaries of Peace</i></a>. London: Macmillan and Co. 1878<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 July</span> 2018</span> – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+War+Correspondence+of+the+%22Daily+News%22+1877%E2%80%931878+continued+from+the+Fall+of+Kars+to+the+Signature+of+the+Preliminaries+of+Peace&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Macmillan+and+Co.&rft.date=1878&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fwarcorrespondenc00londrich%23page%2Fn3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAcar2004" class="citation journal cs1">Acar, Keziban (March 2004). "An examination of Russian Imperialism: Russian Military and intellectual descriptions of the Caucasians during the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878". <i><a href="/wiki/Nationalities_Papers" title="Nationalities Papers">Nationalities Papers</a></i>. <b>32</b> (1): 7–21. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0090599042000186151">10.1080/0090599042000186151</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153769239">153769239</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nationalities+Papers&rft.atitle=An+examination+of+Russian+Imperialism%3A+Russian+Military+and+intellectual+descriptions+of+the+Caucasians+during+the+Russo-Turkish+War+of+1877%E2%80%931878&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=7-21&rft.date=2004-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F0090599042000186151&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A153769239%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Acar&rft.aufirst=Keziban&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Anderson, Dorothy. <i>The Balkan Volunteers</i> (Hutchinson, 1968).</li> <li>Baleva, Martina. "The Empire Strikes Back. Image Battles and Image Frontlines during the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878." <i>Ethnologia Balkanica</i> 16 (2012): 273–294. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.academia.edu/download/47882665/EB16_Baleva.pdf">online</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged May 2023">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li> <li>Dennis, Brad. "Patterns of Conflict and Violence in Eastern Anatolia Leading Up to the Russo-Turkish War and the Treaty of Berlin." <i>War and Diplomacy: The Russo-Turkish War of 1878</i> (1877): 273–301.</li> <li>Drury, Ian. <i>The Russo-Turkish War 1877</i> (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2012).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlenny2012" class="citation cs2">Glenny, Misha (2012), <i>The Balkans: Nationalism, War, and the Great Powers, 1804–2011</i>, New York: Penguin</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Balkans%3A+Nationalism%2C+War%2C+and+the+Great+Powers%2C+1804%E2%80%932011&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Glenny&rft.aufirst=Misha&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li>Isci, Onur. "Russian and Ottoman Newspapers in the War of 1877–1878." <i>Russian History</i> 41.2 (2014): 181–196. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/17583172/Wartime_Propaganda_and_the_Legacies_of_Defeat_Russian_and_Ottoman_Newspapers_in_the_War_of_1877_78">online</a></li> <li>Murray, Nicholas. <i>The Rocky Road to the Great War: The Evolution of Trench Warfare to 1914</i>. Potomac Books Inc. (an imprint of the University of Nebraska Press), 2013.</li> <li>Neuburger, Mary. "The Russo‐Turkish war and the 'Eastern Jewish question': Encounters between victims and victors in Ottoman Bulgaria, 1877–8." <i>East European Jewish Affairs</i> 26.2 (1996): 53–66.</li> <li>Stone, James. "Reports from the Theatre of War. Major Viktor von Lignitz and the Russo-Turkish War, 1877–78." <i>Militärgeschichtliche Zeitschrift</i> 71.2 (2012): 287–307. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/downloadpdf/journals/mgzs/71/2/article-p287.xml">online</a> contains primary sources</li> <li>Todorov, Nikolai. "The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 and the Liberation of Bulgaria: An Interpretative Essay." <i>East European Quarterly</i> 14.1 (1980): 9+ <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.proquest.com/openview/2be34fc625fa0f90a0c4e8a6bc57668e/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=1820860">online</a></li> <li>Yavuz, M. Hakan, and Peter Sluglett, eds. <i>War and diplomacy: the Russo-Turkish war of 1877–1878 and the treaty of Berlin</i> (U of Utah Press, 2011)</li> <li>Yildiz, Gültekin. "Russo-Ottoman War, 1877–1878." in Richard C. Hall, ed., <i>War in the Balkans</i> (2014): 256–258 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.academia.edu/download/37665751/1610690303WB.pdf#page=281">online</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged May 2023">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFГлазковКопытовЛитвинМитев2018" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script">Глазков, В. В.; Копытов, С. Ю.; Литвин, А. А.; Митев, П.; Георгиева, Т.; Колев, В. (2018). Олег Леонов; Румяна Михнева (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://xn----dtbhkbdbj7ckase1p.xn--p1ai/i48"><bdi lang="ru">Освобождение Болгарии – Лики Войны и Памяти. К 140-летию окончания Русско-турецкой войны 1877–1878 гг.</bdi></a>. Moscow: Фонд «Русские Витязи». <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-5-6040157-4-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-5-6040157-4-2"><bdi>978-5-6040157-4-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D0%9E%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5+%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8+%E2%80%93+%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8+%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%8B+%D0%B8+%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B8.+%D0%9A+140-%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8E+%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%87%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9+%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%8B+1877%E2%80%931878+%D0%B3%D0%B3.&rft.place=Moscow&rft.pub=%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B4+%C2%AB%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5+%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%8F%D0%B7%D0%B8%C2%BB&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-5-6040157-4-2&rft.aulast=%D0%93%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2&rft.aufirst=%D0%92.+%D0%92.&rft.au=%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%2C+%D0%A1.+%D0%AE.&rft.au=%D0%9B%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%2C+%D0%90.+%D0%90.&rft.au=%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B2%2C+%D0%9F.&rft.au=%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B0%2C+%D0%A2.&rft.au=%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B2%2C+%D0%92.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fxn----dtbhkbdbj7ckase1p.xn--p1ai%2Fi48&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output 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typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)">Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of a <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">1911 <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i></a> article about <span style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Russo-Turkish_Wars" class="extiw" title="wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Russo-Turkish Wars">Russo-Turkish War (1877–78)</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeegel2024" class="citation cs2">Seegel, Steven J (20 February 2024), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sparky.harvard.edu/kokkalis/GSW4/SeegelPAPER.PDF"><i>Virtual War, Virtual Journalism?: Russian Media Responses to 'Balkan' Entanglements in Historical Perspective, 1877–2001</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, Rhode Island: <a href="/wiki/Brown_University" title="Brown University">Brown University</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Virtual+War%2C+Virtual+Journalism%3F%3A+Russian+Media+Responses+to+%27Balkan%27+Entanglements+in+Historical+Perspective%2C+1877%E2%80%932001&rft.place=Rhode+Island&rft.pub=Brown+University&rft.date=2024-02-20&rft.aulast=Seegel&rft.aufirst=Steven+J&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsparky.harvard.edu%2Fkokkalis%2FGSW4%2FSeegelPAPER.PDF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.digitalbookindex.com/_search/search010hstmilitaryrussoturkishwara.asp"><i>Military History: Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)</i></a>, Digital book index</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Military+History%3A+Russo-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29&rft.pub=Digital+book+index&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.digitalbookindex.com%2F_search%2Fsearch010hstmilitaryrussoturkishwara.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSowards" class="citation cs2">Sowards, Steven W, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071015050852/http://www.lib.msu.edu/sowards/balkan/"><i>Twenty Five Lectures on Modern Balkan History</i></a>, MSU, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lib.msu.edu/sowards/balkan/">the original</a> on 15 October 2007</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Twenty+Five+Lectures+on+Modern+Balkan+History&rft.pub=MSU&rft.aulast=Sowards&rft.aufirst=Steven+W&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lib.msu.edu%2Fsowards%2Fbalkan%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">"Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 and the Exploits of Liberators", <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://grandwar.kulichki.net/turkwar/"><i>Grand war</i></a> (in Russian), Kulichki</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Russo-Turkish+War+of+1877%E2%80%931878+and+the+Exploits+of+Liberators&rft.btitle=Grand+war&rft.pub=Kulichki&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgrandwar.kulichki.net%2Fturkwar%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.balkanhistory.com/romanian_army_1878.htm"><i>The Romanian Army of the Russo-Turkish War 1877–1878</i></a>, AOL</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Romanian+Army+of+the+Russo-Turkish+War+1877%E2%80%931878&rft.pub=AOL&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.balkanhistory.com%2Fromanian_army_1878.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061013190221/http://erastimes.8m.net/gambit_b3.htm"><i>Erastimes</i></a> (image gallery) (in Bulgarian), 8M, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://erastimes.8m.net/gambit_b3.htm">the original</a> on 13 October 2006</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Erastimes&rft.pub=8M&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ferastimes.8m.net%2Fgambit_b3.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://diaryrh.ru/historical-photos/russo-turkish-war-of-1877-1878">Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878). Historical photos.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181014111355/http://diaryrh.ru/historical-photos/russo-turkish-war-of-1877-1878">Archived</a> 14 October 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Video_links">Video links</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Video links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>130 years Liberation of Pleven (Plevna)</b> </p> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZelenogorsky2007" class="citation cs2">Zelenogorsky, Najden (3 March 2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071025032014/http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=2277670243812622513"><i>Mayor of Pleven</i></a> (speech), archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=2277670243812622513">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(video)</span> on 25 October 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 April</span> 2007</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mayor+of+Pleven&rft.date=2007-03-03&rft.aulast=Zelenogorsky&rft.aufirst=Najden&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvideo.google.com%2Fvideoplay%3Fdocid%3D2277670243812622513&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStanishev2007" class="citation cs2">Stanishev, Sergej (3 March 2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071025032004/http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-2590633937611339870"><i>Bulgarian Prime Minister</i></a> (speech), archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-2590633937611339870">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(video)</span> on 25 October 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 April</span> 2007</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bulgarian+Prime+Minister&rft.date=2007-03-03&rft.aulast=Stanishev&rft.aufirst=Sergej&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvideo.google.com%2Fvideoplay%3Fdocid%3D-2590633937611339870&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPotapov2007" class="citation cs2">Potapov (3 March 2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071024111430/http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-8057139363203914069"><i>Ambassador of Russia in Bulgaria</i></a> (speech), archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-8057139363203914069">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(video)</span> on 24 October 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 April</span> 2007</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ambassador+of+Russia+in+Bulgaria&rft.date=2007-03-03&rft.au=Potapov&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvideo.google.com%2Fvideoplay%3Fdocid%3D-8057139363203914069&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARusso-Turkish+War+%281877%E2%80%931878%29" class="Z3988"></span>.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="International_relations_(1814–1919)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Great_Power_diplomacy" title="Template:Great Power diplomacy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Great_Power_diplomacy" title="Template talk:Great Power diplomacy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a 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Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1865%E2%80%931917)" title="History of the United States (1865–1917)">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Alliances</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Triple_Alliance_(1882)" title="Triple Alliance (1882)">Triple Alliance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dual_Alliance_(1879)" title="Dual Alliance (1879)">Dual Alliance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple_Entente" title="Triple Entente">Triple Entente</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Russian_Alliance" title="Franco-Russian Alliance">Franco-Russian Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entente_Cordiale" title="Entente Cordiale">Entente Cordiale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Russian_Convention" title="Anglo-Russian Convention">Anglo-Russian Convention</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Japanese_Alliance" title="Anglo-Japanese Alliance">Anglo-Japanese Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/League_of_the_Three_Emperors" title="League of the Three Emperors">League of the Three Emperors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight-Nation_Alliance" title="Eight-Nation Alliance">Eight-Nation Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balkan_League" title="Balkan League">Balkan League</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Trends</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_balance_of_power" title="European balance of power">European balance of power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_and_modernization_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman decline</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_question" title="Eastern question">Eastern question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Rise of nationalism in the Ottoman Empire">Spread of nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_public_debt" title="Ottoman public debt">Sovereign debt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French%E2%80%93German_enmity" title="French–German enmity">French–German enmity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revanchism" title="Revanchism">Revanchism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_Britannica" title="Pax Britannica">Pax Britannica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Imperialism" title="New Imperialism">New Imperialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa" title="Scramble for Africa">Scramble for Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Lever" title="Egyptian Lever">Egyptian Lever</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_imperialism_in_Asia" title="Western imperialism in Asia">In Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Game" title="Great Game">Great Game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_China" title="Scramble for China">Scramble for China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Door_Policy" title="Open Door Policy">Open Door Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiji_era" title="Meiji era">Meiji era</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Slavism" title="Pan-Slavism">Pan-Slavism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Rapprochement" title="Great Rapprochement">Great Rapprochement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_warfare" title="Industrial warfare">Industrial warfare</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Treaties and<br />agreements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles_(1871)" title="Treaty of Versailles (1871)">Treaty of Versailles (1871)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Frankfurt_(1871)" title="Treaty of Frankfurt (1871)">Treaty of Frankfurt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Berlin_(1878)" title="Treaty of Berlin (1878)">Treaty of Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinsurance_Treaty" title="Reinsurance Treaty">Reinsurance Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1898)" title="Treaty of Paris (1898)">Treaty of Paris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Bj%C3%B6rk%C3%B6" title="Treaty of Björkö">Treaty of Björkö</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taft%E2%80%93Katsura_agreement" title="Taft–Katsura agreement">Taft–Katsura agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hague_Conventions_of_1899_and_1907" title="Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907">Hague Conventions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martens_Clause" title="Martens Clause">Martens Clause</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Korea_Treaty_of_1905" title="Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905">Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Korea_Treaty_of_1910" title="Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910">Japan–Korea Annexation Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racconigi_Bargain" title="Racconigi Bargain">Racconigi agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1917_Franco-Russian_agreement" title="1917 Franco-Russian agreement">1917 Franco-Russian agreement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Moldavia_and_Wallachia" title="Unification of Moldavia and Wallachia">Formation of Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Germany" title="Unification of Germany">Unification of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Italy" title="Unification of Italy">Unification of Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Eastern_Crisis" title="Great Eastern Crisis">Great Eastern Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Berlin" title="Congress of Berlin">Congress of Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Conference" title="Berlin Conference">Berlin Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kronstadt%E2%80%93Toulon_naval_visits" title="Kronstadt–Toulon naval visits">Kronstadt–Toulon naval visits</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Weltpolitik" title="Weltpolitik">Weltpolitik</a></i></li> <li>Naval arms races <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-German_naval_arms_race" title="Anglo-German naval arms race">Anglo-German</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dreadnought" title="Dreadnought">Dreadnought</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Naval_Laws" title="German Naval Laws">German Naval Laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austro-Italian_ironclad_arms_race" title="Austro-Italian ironclad arms race">Austro-Italian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fashoda_Incident" title="Fashoda Incident">Fashoda Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territory_of_Hawaii" title="Territory of Hawaii">Annexation of Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venezuelan_crisis_of_1902%E2%80%931903" title="Venezuelan crisis of 1902–1903">Venezuela Naval Blockade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_boundary_dispute" title="Alaska boundary dispute">Alaska boundary dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Moroccan_Crisis" title="First Moroccan Crisis">First Moroccan Crisis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algeciras_Conference" title="Algeciras Conference">Algeciras Conference</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agadir_Crisis" title="Agadir Crisis">Agadir Crisis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fes" title="Treaty of Fes">Treaty of Fes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_Crisis" title="Bosnian Crisis">Bosnian Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/July_Crisis" title="July Crisis">July Crisis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Wars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Russo-Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_War" title="Anglo-Egyptian War">Anglo-Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War" title="First Sino-Japanese War">First Sino-Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banana_Wars" title="Banana Wars">Banana Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine%E2%80%93American_War" title="Philippine–American War">Philippine–American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Boer_War" title="Second Boer War">Second Boer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italo-Turkish_War" title="Italo-Turkish War">Italo-Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balkan_Wars" title="Balkan Wars">Balkan Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Balkan_War" title="First Balkan War">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Balkan_War" title="Second Balkan War">Second</a></li> <li>Albanian Revolts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_revolt_of_1910" title="Albanian revolt of 1910">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malissori_uprising" title="Malissori uprising">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_revolt_of_1912" title="Albanian revolt of 1912">Third</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Armed_conflicts_involving_Russia_(including_Tsarist,_Imperial_and_Soviet_times)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Russian_conflicts" title="Template:Russian conflicts"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Russian_conflicts" title="Template talk:Russian conflicts"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Russian_conflicts" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Russian conflicts"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Armed_conflicts_involving_Russia_(including_Tsarist,_Imperial_and_Soviet_times)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Armed conflicts involving <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsarist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Imperial</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a> times)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_warfare" title="Early modern warfare">Early modern warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Russia" title="Military history of Russia">Military history of Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Russian_Empire" title="Military history of the Russian Empire">Military history of the Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Military history of the Soviet Union">Military history of the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Russian_Federation" title="Military history of the Russian Federation">Military history of the Russian Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Soviet_conflicts" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-Soviet conflicts">Post-Soviet conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Armed_Forces" title="Russian Armed Forces">Russian Armed Forces</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists by opponent</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muscovite%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Wars" title="Muscovite–Lithuanian Wars">Muscovite–Lithuanian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Crimean_Wars" title="Russo-Crimean Wars">Russo-Crimean Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet-Finnish_wars" title="Soviet-Finnish wars">Soviet-Finnish wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Kazan_Wars" title="Russo-Kazan Wars">Russo-Kazan Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_Wars" title="Russo-Persian Wars">Russo-Persian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_armed_conflicts_involving_Poland_against_Russia" title="List of armed conflicts involving Poland against Russia">Russo-Polish Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_between_Russia_and_Sweden" title="List of wars between Russia and Sweden">Russo-Swedish wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Russo-Turkish_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Russo-Turkish wars">Russo-Turkish wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_between_Russia_and_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="List of wars between Russia and Ukraine">Russo-Ukrainian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Russian_border_conflicts" title="Sino-Russian border conflicts">Sino-Russian border conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_Russia" title="List of wars involving Russia">List of wars involving Russia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of wars involving the Soviet Union">List of wars involving the Soviet Union</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_battles_involving_the_Russian_Federation" class="mw-redirect" title="List of battles involving the Russian Federation">List of battles involving the Russian Federation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Internal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uprising_of_Bolotnikov" title="Uprising of Bolotnikov">Uprising of Bolotnikov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Razin%27s_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Razin's Rebellion">Razin's Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulavin_Rebellion" title="Bulavin Rebellion">Bulavin Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pugachev%27s_Rebellion" title="Pugachev's Rebellion">Pugachev's Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decembrist_revolt" title="Decembrist revolt">Decembrist revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_Uprising" title="August Uprising">August Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_attempt" title="1991 Soviet coup attempt">Coup attempt (1991)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1993_Russian_constitutional_crisis" title="1993 Russian constitutional crisis">1993 Russian constitutional crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Chechen_War" title="First Chechen War">First Chechen War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Dagestan" class="mw-redirect" title="War of Dagestan">War of Dagestan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Chechen_War" title="Second Chechen War">Second Chechen War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurgency_in_the_North_Caucasus" title="Insurgency in the North Caucasus">Insurgency in the North Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wagner_Group_rebellion" title="Wagner Group rebellion">Wagner Group rebellion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tsardom of<br />Russia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Crimean_Wars" title="Russo-Crimean Wars">Russo-Crimean Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Kazan_Wars" title="Russo-Kazan Wars">Russo-Kazan Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Swedish_War_(1554%E2%80%931557)" title="Russo-Swedish War (1554–1557)">Russo-Swedish War (1554–1557)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livonian_War" title="Livonian War">Livonian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_conquest_of_Siberia" title="Russian conquest of Siberia">Russian Conquest of Siberia (1580–1747)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1568%E2%80%931570)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1568–1570)">Russo-Turkish War (1568–1570)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Swedish_War_(1590%E2%80%931595)" title="Russo-Swedish War (1590–1595)">Russo-Swedish War (1590–1595)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Muscovite_War_(1605%E2%80%931618)" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish–Muscovite War (1605–1618)">Polish–Muscovite War (1605–1618)</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Time_of_Troubles" title="Time of Troubles">Time of Troubles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingrian_War" title="Ingrian War">Ingrian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smolensk_War" title="Smolensk War">Smolensk War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_(1651%E2%80%931653)" title="Russo-Persian War (1651–1653)">Russo-Persian War (1651–1653)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Russian_border_conflicts" title="Sino-Russian border conflicts">Sino-Russian border conflicts (1652–1689)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Polish_War_(1654%E2%80%931667)" title="Russo-Polish War (1654–1667)">Russo-Polish War (1654–1667)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deluge_(history)" title="Deluge (history)">Deluge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Northern_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Northern War">Second Northern War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1676%E2%80%931681)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1676–1681)">Russo-Turkish War (1676–1681)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1686%E2%80%931700)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1686–1700)">Russo-Turkish War (1686–1700)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th–19th<br />century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Northern_War" title="Great Northern War">Great Northern War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1710%E2%80%931711)" class="mw-redirect" title="Russo-Turkish War (1710–1711)">Russo-Turkish War (1710–1711)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_(1722%E2%80%931723)" title="Russo-Persian War (1722–1723)">Russo-Persian War (1722–1723)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Polish_Succession" title="War of the Polish Succession">War of the Polish Succession</a> (1733–1738)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austro-Russian%E2%80%93Turkish_War_(1735%E2%80%931739)" class="mw-redirect" title="Austro-Russian–Turkish War (1735–1739)">Austro-Russian–Turkish War (1735–1739)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Austrian_Succession" title="War of the Austrian Succession">War of the Austrian Succession</a> (1740–1748)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Swedish_War_(1741%E2%80%931743)" title="Russo-Swedish War (1741–1743)">Russo-Swedish War (1741–1743)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1768%E2%80%931774)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)">Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_Confederation" title="Bar Confederation">Bar Confederation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1787%E2%80%931792)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792)">Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Swedish_War_(1788%E2%80%931790)" title="Russo-Swedish War (1788–1790)">Russo-Swedish War (1788–1790)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Russian_War_of_1792" title="Polish–Russian War of 1792">Russo-Polish War (1792)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_colonization_of_North_America" title="Russian colonization of North America">Russian colonization of North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ko%C5%9Bciuszko_Uprising" title="Kościuszko Uprising">Kościuszko Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Expedition_of_1796" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Expedition of 1796">Russo-Persian War (1796)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Second_Coalition" title="War of the Second Coalition">War of the Second Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Third_Coalition" title="War of the Third Coalition">War of the Third Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_(1804%E2%80%931813)" title="Russo-Persian War (1804–1813)">Russo-Persian War (1804–1813)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Fourth_Coalition" title="War of the Fourth Coalition">War of the Fourth Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1806%E2%80%931812)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1806–1812)">Russo-Turkish War (1806–1812)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Russian_War_(1807%E2%80%931812)" title="Anglo-Russian War (1807–1812)">Anglo-Russian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_War" title="Finnish War">Finnish War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Fifth_Coalition" title="War of the Fifth Coalition">War of the Fifth Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_invasion_of_Russia" title="French invasion of Russia">French invasion of Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Sixth_Coalition" title="War of the Sixth Coalition">War of the Sixth Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Seventh_Coalition" class="mw-redirect" title="War of the Seventh Coalition">War of the Seventh Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_conquest_of_the_Caucasus" title="Russian conquest of the Caucasus">Russian conquest of the Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasian_War" title="Caucasian War">Caucasian War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Circassian_War" title="Russo-Circassian War">Russo-Circassian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murid_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Murid War">Murid War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_(1826%E2%80%931828)" title="Russo-Persian War (1826–1828)">Russo-Persian War (1826–1828)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1828%E2%80%931829)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1828–1829)">Russo-Turkish War (1828–1829)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/November_Uprising" title="November Uprising">November Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1848" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1848">Hungarian Revolution of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%85land_War" title="Åland War">Åland War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amur_Annexation" title="Amur Annexation">Amur Annexation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_Uprising" title="January Uprising">January Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_conquest_of_Central_Asia" title="Russian conquest of Central Asia">Russian conquest of Central Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_conquest_of_Bukhara" title="Russian conquest of Bukhara">Russian conquest of Bukhara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khivan_campaign_of_1873" title="Khivan campaign of 1873">Khivan campaign of 1873</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Russian invasion of Manchuria">Russian invasion of Manchuria</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th<br />century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_occupation_of_Tabriz" title="Russian occupation of Tabriz">Russian occupation of Tabriz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Robat_Karim" title="Battle of Robat Karim">Battle of Robat Karim</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Ukrainian–Soviet War">Ukrainian–Soviet War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1919_Soviet_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="1919 Soviet invasion of Ukraine">1919 Soviet invasion of Ukraine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alash_Autonomy" title="Alash Autonomy">Kazakhstan Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_Civil_War" title="Finnish Civil War">Finnish Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sochi_conflict" title="Sochi conflict">Sochi conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heimosodat" title="Heimosodat">Heimosodat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_westward_offensive_of_1918%E2%80%931919" title="Soviet westward offensive of 1918–1919">Soviet westward offensive of 1918–1919</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_War_of_Independence" title="Estonian War of Independence">Estonian War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_War_of_Independence" title="Latvian War of Independence">Latvian War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Lithuanian–Soviet War">Lithuanian–Soviet War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian%E2%80%93Ossetian_conflict_(1918%E2%80%931920)" title="Georgian–Ossetian conflict (1918–1920)">Georgian–Ossetian conflict (1918–1920)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Polish–Soviet War">Polish–Soviet War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Army_invasion_of_Azerbaijan" title="Red Army invasion of Azerbaijan">Red Army invasion of Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Army_invasion_of_Armenia" title="Red Army invasion of Armenia">Red Army invasion of Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Army_invasion_of_Georgia" title="Red Army invasion of Georgia">Red Army invasion of Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_intervention_in_Mongolia" title="Soviet intervention in Mongolia">Red Army intervention in Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Karelian_uprising" title="East Karelian uprising">East Karelian uprising</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basmachi_movement" title="Basmachi movement">Central Asian Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_Uprising" title="August Uprising">August Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urtatagai_conflict_(1925%E2%80%931926)" title="Urtatagai conflict (1925–1926)">Urtatagai conflict (1925–1926)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_conflict_(1929)" title="Sino-Soviet conflict (1929)">Sino-Soviet conflict (1929)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Army_intervention_in_Afghanistan_(1929)" title="Red Army intervention in Afghanistan (1929)">Red Army intervention in Afghanistan (1929)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Army_intervention_in_Afghanistan_(1930)" title="Red Army intervention in Afghanistan (1930)">Red Army intervention in Afghanistan (1930)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chechen_uprising_of_1932&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chechen uprising of 1932 (page does not exist)">Chechen uprising of 1932</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B2_%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B5_1932_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0" class="extiw" title="ru:Восстание в Чечне 1932 года">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_border_conflicts" title="Soviet–Japanese border conflicts">Soviet–Japanese border conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Xinjiang" title="Soviet invasion of Xinjiang">Soviet invasion of Xinjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_rebellion_in_Xinjiang_(1937)" title="Islamic rebellion in Xinjiang (1937)">Xinjiang War (1937)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Poland" title="Soviet invasion of Poland">Soviet invasion of Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter_War" title="Winter War">Winter War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_the_Baltic_states_(1940)" title="Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)">Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Latvia_in_1940" title="Soviet occupation of Latvia in 1940">Soviet occupation of Latvia in 1940</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Bessarabia_and_Northern_Bukovina" title="Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina">Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuation_War" title="Continuation War">Continuation War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front (World War II)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_re-occupation_of_the_Baltic_states_(1944)" title="Soviet re-occupation of the Baltic states (1944)">Soviet re-occupation of the Baltic states (1944)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_re-occupation_of_Latvia_in_1944" title="Soviet re-occupation of Latvia in 1944">Soviet re-occupation of Latvia in 1944</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Soviet_invasion_of_Iran" title="Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran">Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_War" title="Soviet–Japanese War">Soviet–Japanese War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_war_in_the_Baltic_states" title="Guerrilla war in the Baltic states">Guerrilla war in the Baltic states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Insurgent_Army#Soviet_Union" title="Ukrainian Insurgent Army">Guerrilla war in Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communist_resistance_in_Poland_(1944%E2%80%931953)" title="Anti-communist resistance in Poland (1944–1953)">Anti-communist resistance in Poland (1944–1953)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ili_Rebellion" title="Ili Rebellion">Ili Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_German_uprising_of_1953" title="East German uprising of 1953">East German uprising of 1953</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">Hungarian Revolution of 1956</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vlora_incident" title="Vlora incident">Vlora incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia">Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_border_conflict" title="Sino-Soviet border conflict">Sino-Soviet border conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Attrition" title="War of Attrition">War of Attrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrean_War_of_Independence" title="Eritrean War of Independence">Eritrean War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angolan_Civil_War" title="Angolan Civil War">Angolan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ogaden_War" title="Ogaden War">Ogaden War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Border_War" title="South African Border War">South African Border War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_OMON_assaults_on_Lithuanian_border_posts" title="Soviet OMON assaults on Lithuanian border posts">Soviet OMON assaults on Lithuanian border posts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Nagorno-Karabakh_War" title="First Nagorno-Karabakh War">First Nagorno-Karabakh War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Abkhazia_(1992%E2%80%931993)" title="War in Abkhazia (1992–1993)">War in Abkhazia (1992–1993)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Ossetia_war_(1991%E2%80%931992)" title="South Ossetia war (1991–1992)">South Ossetia war (1991–1992)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnistria_War" title="Transnistria War">Transnistria War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Civil_War" title="Georgian Civil War">Georgian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajikistani_Civil_War" title="Tajikistani Civil War">Tajikistani Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Chechen_War" title="First Chechen War">First Chechen War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Dagestan" class="mw-redirect" title="War of Dagestan">War of Dagestan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Chechen_War" title="Second Chechen War">Second Chechen War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">21st<br />century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Georgian_War" title="Russo-Georgian War">Russo-Georgian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Ukrainian_War" title="Russo-Ukrainian War">Russo-Ukrainian War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Russo-Ukrainian_War" title="Outline of the Russo-Ukrainian War">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Crimea_by_the_Russian_Federation" title="Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation">Annexation of Crimea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Donbas" title="War in Donbas">War in Donbas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">2022 invasion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war" title="Russian intervention in the Syrian civil war">Intervention in Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Libya_campaign" title="Western Libya campaign">Western Libya campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Nagorno-Karabakh_War" title="Second Nagorno-Karabakh War">Deployment in Nagorno-Karabakh (2020)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_Kazakh_unrest" title="2022 Kazakh unrest">Deployment in Kazakhstan (2022)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Winter" title="Russian Winter">Russian Winter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sphere_of_influence" title="Sphere of influence">Sphere of influence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Great_Eastern_Crisis" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Great_Eastern_Crisis" title="Template:Great Eastern Crisis"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Great_Eastern_Crisis" title="Template talk:Great Eastern Crisis"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Great_Eastern_Crisis" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Great Eastern Crisis"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Great_Eastern_Crisis" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Great_Eastern_Crisis" title="Great Eastern Crisis">Great Eastern Crisis</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Wars and conflicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Montenegrin</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Herzegovina_uprising_(1875%E2%80%931877)" title="Herzegovina uprising (1875–1877)">Herzegovina uprising (1875–1877)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montenegrin%E2%80%93Ottoman_War_(1876%E2%80%931878)" title="Montenegrin–Ottoman War (1876–1878)">Montenegrin–Ottoman War (1876–1878)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Serb</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Herzegovina_uprising_(1875%E2%80%931877)" title="Herzegovina uprising (1875–1877)">Herzegovina uprising (1875–1877)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian%E2%80%93Turkish_Wars_(1876%E2%80%931878)" class="mw-redirect" title="Serbian–Turkish Wars (1876–1878)">Serbian–Turkish Wars (1876–1878)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumanovo_uprising" title="Kumanovo uprising">Kumanovo uprising</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Bulgarian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stara_Zagora_Uprising" title="Stara Zagora Uprising">Stara Zagora Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/April_Uprising_of_1876" title="April Uprising of 1876">April Uprising of 1876</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Razlovtsi_insurrection" class="mw-redirect" title="Razlovtsi insurrection">Razlovtsi insurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kresna%E2%80%93Razlog_uprising" title="Kresna–Razlog uprising">Kresna–Razlog uprising</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Greek</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1878_Macedonian_rebellion" title="1878 Macedonian rebellion">1878 Macedonian rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epirus_Revolt_of_1878" title="Epirus Revolt of 1878">Epirus Revolt of 1878</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cretan_revolt_(1878)" title="Cretan revolt (1878)">Cretan revolt (1878)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_War_of_Independence" title="Romanian War of Independence">Romanian War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_campaign_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina_in_1878" title="Austro-Hungarian campaign in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1878">Austro-Hungarian campaign in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1878</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_the_Albanians,_1877%E2%80%931878" class="mw-redirect" title="Expulsion of the Albanians, 1877–1878">Expulsion of the Albanians, 1877–1878</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span></span></span><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Flag_of_Montenegro_%281860%E2%80%931905%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Montenegro_%281860%E2%80%931905%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Flag_of_Montenegro_%281860%E2%80%931905%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Montenegro_%281860%E2%80%931905%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Flag_of_Montenegro_%281860%E2%80%931905%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Montenegro_%281860%E2%80%931905%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="360" /></span></span></span><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Flag_of_Serbia_%281835%E2%80%931882%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Serbia_%281835%E2%80%931882%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Flag_of_Serbia_%281835%E2%80%931882%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Serbia_%281835%E2%80%931882%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Flag_of_Serbia_%281835%E2%80%931882%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Serbia_%281835%E2%80%931882%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="844" data-file-height="563" /></span></span></span><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/23px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/35px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/45px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></span><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg/23px-Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg/35px-Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg/46px-Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Flag_of_Greece_%281822-1978%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Greece_%281822-1978%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Flag_of_Greece_%281822-1978%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Greece_%281822-1978%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Flag_of_Greece_%281822-1978%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Greece_%281822-1978%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Flag_of_Austria-Hungary_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Austria-Hungary_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Flag_of_Austria-Hungary_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Austria-Hungary_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Flag_of_Austria-Hungary_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Austria-Hungary_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span></span></span><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International<br /> agreements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Memorandum" title="Berlin Memorandum">Berlin Memorandum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reichstadt_Agreement" title="Reichstadt Agreement">Reichstadt Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantinople_Conference" title="Constantinople Conference">Constantinople Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Budapest_Convention_of_1877" title="Budapest Convention of 1877">Budapest Convention of 1877</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_San_Stefano" title="Treaty of San Stefano">Treaty of San Stefano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprus_Convention" title="Cyprus Convention">Cyprus Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Berlin" title="Congress of Berlin">Congress of Berlin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Berlin_(1878)" title="Treaty of Berlin (1878)">Treaty of Berlin (1878)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Exarchate" title="Bulgarian Exarchate">Bulgarian Exarchate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deligrad_Event" title="Deligrad Event">Deligrad Event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ni%C5%A1_Committee" title="Niš Committee">Niš Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1876_Ottoman_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1876 Ottoman coup d'état">1876 Ottoman coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Constitutional_Era" title="First Constitutional Era">First Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Volunteer_Corps" title="Bulgarian Volunteer Corps">Opalchentsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Question" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Question">Eastern Question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provisional_Russian_Administration_in_Bulgaria" title="Provisional Russian Administration in Bulgaria">Provisional Russian Administration in Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Cyprus" title="British Cyprus">British Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/League_of_Prizren" title="League of Prizren">League of Prizren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battles_for_Plav_and_Gusinje" title="Battles for Plav and Gusinje">Battles for Plav and Gusinje</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pact_of_Halepa" title="Pact of Halepa">Pact of Halepa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_Alliance_(1879)" title="Dual Alliance (1879)">Dual Alliance (1879)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brsjak_revolt" title="Brsjak revolt">Brsjak revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austro%E2%80%93Serbian_Alliance_of_1881" class="mw-redirect" title="Austro–Serbian Alliance of 1881">Austro–Serbian Alliance of 1881</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_conquest_of_Tunisia" title="French conquest of Tunisia">French conquest of Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_of_Constantinople_(1881)" title="Convention of Constantinople (1881)">Convention of Constantinople (1881)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt_under_the_British" title="History of Egypt under the British">British Occupation of Egypt</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Marche_slave" title="Marche slave">Marche slave</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Anna_Karenina" title="Anna Karenina">Anna Karenina</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Reign_of_Abdul_Hamid_II" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Abdul_Hamid_II" title="Template:Abdul Hamid II"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Abdul_Hamid_II" title="Template talk:Abdul Hamid II"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Abdul_Hamid_II" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Abdul Hamid II"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Reign_of_Abdul_Hamid_II" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Reign of <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Hamid_II" title="Abdul Hamid II">Abdul Hamid II</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_constitution_of_1876" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman constitution of 1876">Ottoman constitution of 1876</a> (<a href="/wiki/Senate_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Senate of the Ottoman Empire">Senate of the Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamber_of_Deputies_(Ottoman_Empire)" title="Chamber of Deputies (Ottoman Empire)">Chamber of Deputies</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Constitutional_Era" title="First Constitutional Era">First Constitutional Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamidian_massacres" title="Hamidian massacres">Hamidian massacres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y%C4%B1ld%C4%B1z_assassination_attempt" class="mw-redirect" title="Yıldız assassination attempt">Yıldız assassination attempt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Constitutional_Era" title="Second Constitutional Era">Second Constitutional Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/31_March_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="31 March Incident">31 March Incident</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span style="position: relative; top: 3px;"><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:WORMELEY(1893)_p259_Sultan_Abdul_Hamid_II.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Abdul Hamid II"><img alt="Abdul Hamid II" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/WORMELEY%281893%29_p259_Sultan_Abdul_Hamid_II.jpg/80px-WORMELEY%281893%29_p259_Sultan_Abdul_Hamid_II.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="97" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/WORMELEY%281893%29_p259_Sultan_Abdul_Hamid_II.jpg/120px-WORMELEY%281893%29_p259_Sultan_Abdul_Hamid_II.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/WORMELEY%281893%29_p259_Sultan_Abdul_Hamid_II.jpg/160px-WORMELEY%281893%29_p259_Sultan_Abdul_Hamid_II.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1055" data-file-height="1281" /></a><figcaption>Abdul Hamid II</figcaption></figure></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Associated buildings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Y%C4%B1ld%C4%B1z_Palace" title="Yıldız Palace">Yıldız Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y%C4%B1ld%C4%B1z_Hamidiye_Mosque" title="Yıldız Hamidiye Mosque">Yıldız Hamidiye Mosque</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Wars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Turkish_War_(1897)" title="Greco-Turkish War (1897)">Greco-Turkish War (1897)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_dynasty" title="Ottoman dynasty">Family</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tirim%C3%BCjgan_Kad%C4%B1n" title="Tirimüjgan Kadın">Tirimüjgan Kadın</a> (mother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perestu_Kad%C4%B1n" class="mw-redirect" title="Perestu Kadın">Perestu Kadın</a> (adoptive mother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdulmejid_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdulmejid I">Abdulmejid I</a> (father)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd%C3%BClaziz" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdülaziz">Abdülaziz</a> (uncle)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Wives</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nazikeda_Kad%C4%B1n_(wife_of_Abdul_Hamid_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazikeda Kadın (wife of Abdul Hamid II)">Nazikeda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bedrifelek_Kad%C4%B1n" title="Bedrifelek Kadın">Bedrifelek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nurefsun_Kad%C4%B1n" title="Nurefsun Kadın">Nurefsun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bidar_Kad%C4%B1n" title="Bidar Kadın">Bidar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dilpesend_Kad%C4%B1n" title="Dilpesend Kadın">Dilpesend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mezidimestan_Kad%C4%B1n" class="mw-redirect" title="Mezidimestan Kadın">Mezidimestan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emsalinur_Kad%C4%B1n" title="Emsalinur Kadın">Emsalinur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%BC%C5%9Ffika_Kad%C4%B1n" title="Müşfika Kadın">Müşfika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sazkar_Han%C4%B1m" title="Sazkar Hanım">Sazkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peyveste_Han%C4%B1m" title="Peyveste Hanım">Peyveste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatma_Pesend_Han%C4%B1m" title="Fatma Pesend Hanım">Fatma Pesend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behice_Han%C4%B1m" title="Behice Hanım">Behice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saliha_Naciye_Han%C4%B1m" class="mw-redirect" title="Saliha Naciye Hanım">Saliha Naciye</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Abdul_Hamid_II" title="Category:Abdul Hamid II">Category:Abdul Hamid II</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Wars_and_battles_involving_Serbs" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Wars_and_battles_involving_Serbs" title="Template:Wars and battles involving Serbs"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Wars_and_battles_involving_Serbs" title="Template talk:Wars and battles involving Serbs"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Wars_and_battles_involving_Serbs" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Wars and battles involving Serbs"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Wars_and_battles_involving_Serbs" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Serbia" title="Military history of Serbia">Wars and battles involving Serbs</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em;vertical-align:top;;"><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian%E2%80%93Serbian_wars_(medieval)" title="Bulgarian–Serbian wars (medieval)">Serbian–Bulgarian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bulgar%E2%80%93Serb_War_(839%E2%80%93842)" title="Bulgar–Serb War (839–842)">Bulgar–Serb War (839–842)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgar%E2%80%93Serb_War_(853)" title="Bulgar–Serb War (853)">Bulgar–Serb War (853)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian%E2%80%93Serbian_wars_of_917%E2%80%93924" title="Bulgarian–Serbian wars of 917–924">Bulgarian–Serbian wars of 917–924</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaharija_of_Serbia#Rule" title="Zaharija of Serbia">Bulgarian–Serbian border revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian%E2%80%93Serbian_wars_(medieval)" title="Bulgarian–Serbian wars (medieval)">Bulgarian-Serb War (998)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bulgarian-Serbian_War_(1202)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bulgarian-Serbian War (1202) (page does not exist)">Bulgarian-Serbian War (1202)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bulgarian-Serbian_War_(1203)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bulgarian-Serbian War (1203) (page does not exist)">Bulgarian-Serbian War (1203)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bulgarian-Serbian_War_(1290)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bulgarian-Serbian War (1290) (page does not exist)">Bulgarian-Serbian War (1290)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bulgarian-Serbian_War_(1291)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bulgarian-Serbian War (1291) (page does not exist)">Bulgarian-Serbian War (1291)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian-Serbian_War_(1330)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bulgarian-Serbian War (1330)">Bulgarian-Serbian War (1330)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Velbazhd" title="Battle of Velbazhd">Battle of Velbazhd</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em;vertical-align:top;;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Serbian%E2%80%93Ottoman_conflicts" title="List of Serbian–Ottoman conflicts">Serbian–Ottoman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Early skirmishes <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gallipoli_(1312)" title="Battle of Gallipoli (1312)">Battle of Gallipoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stephaniana" title="Battle of Stephaniana">Battle of Stephaniana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Demotika" title="Battle of Demotika">Battle of Demotika</a> in 1352</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_S%C4%B1rp_S%C4%B1nd%C4%B1%C4%9F%C4%B1" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Sırp Sındığı">Battle of Sırp Sındığı</a> in 1364</li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Serbian_Empire" title="Fall of the Serbian Empire">Fall of the Serbian Empire</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Maritsa" title="Battle of Maritsa">Battle of Maritsa</a> in 1371</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dubravnica" title="Battle of Dubravnica">Battle of Dubravnica</a> in 1381</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Savra" title="Battle of Savra">Battle of Savra</a> in 1385</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Plo%C4%8Dnik" title="Battle of Pločnik">Battle of Pločnik</a> in 1386</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kosovo" title="Battle of Kosovo">Battle of Kosovo</a> in 1389</li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Despotate" title="Serbian Despotate">Serbian Despotate</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Karanovasa" title="Battle of Karanovasa">Battle of Karanovasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tripolje" title="Battle of Tripolje">Battle of Tripolje</a> in 1402</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Novo_Brdo" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Novo Brdo">Siege of Novo Brdo</a> in 1412</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Vitosha_Pass&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Vitosha Pass (page does not exist)">Battle of Vitosha Pass</a> in 1413</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Carmorlu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Carmorlu (page does not exist)">Battle of Carmorlu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Scutari_War" title="First Scutari War">First Scutari War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Scutari_War" title="Second Scutari War">Second Scutari War</a></li> <li>Ottoman invasion of Serbia in 1425</li> <li>Ottoman invasion of Serbia in 1427</li> <li>Ottoman invasion of Serbia in 1437</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Trnava_(1430)" title="Battle of Trnava (1430)">Battle of Trnava (1430)</a></li> <li>Ottoman invasion of Serbia in 1438</li> <li>Ottoman invasion of Serbia (1439–1444)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusade_of_Varna" title="Crusade of Varna">Crusade of Varna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nish_(1443)" title="Battle of Nish (1443)">Battle of Nish (1443)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zlatitsa" title="Battle of Zlatitsa">Battle of Zlatitsa</a> in 1443</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kunovica" title="Battle of Kunovica">Battle of Kunovica</a> in 1444</li> <li>Ottoman invasion of Serbia (1454–1455)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kru%C5%A1evac" title="Battle of Kruševac">Battle of Kruševac</a> in 1454</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Leskovac" title="Battle of Leskovac">Battle of Leskovac</a> in 1454</li> <li>Ottoman invasion of Serbia in 1456</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Belgrade_(1456)" title="Siege of Belgrade (1456)">Siege of Belgrade</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Smederevo_(1456)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Smederevo (1456) (page does not exist)">Siege of Smederevo</a></li> <li>Ottoman invasion and conquest of <a href="/wiki/Serbia" title="Serbia">Serbia</a> in 1459</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Breadfield" title="Battle of Breadfield">Battle of Breadfield</a> in 1479</li></ul></li> <li>Ottoman conquest of <a href="/wiki/Zeta_under_the_Crnojevi%C4%87i" title="Zeta under the Crnojevići">Zeta</a> in 1499</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em;vertical-align:top;;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_wars" title="List of Byzantine wars">Serbian–Byzantine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Serb_Uprising_of_1038%E2%80%931042&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Serb Uprising of 1038–1042 (page does not exist)">Serb Uprising of 1038–1042</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bar" title="Battle of Bar">Battle of Bar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slav_Uprising_in_Pomoravlje" class="mw-redirect" title="Slav Uprising in Pomoravlje">Slav Uprising in Pomoravlje</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zve%C4%8Dan" title="Battle of Zvečan">Battle of Zvečan</a> (1094)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Haram" title="Battle of Haram">Battle of Haram</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Ras_(1127)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Ras (1127) (page does not exist)">Siege of Ras (1127)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tara_(1150)" title="Battle of Tara (1150)">Battle of Tara (1150)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Hungarian_War_(1149%E2%80%931155)" title="Byzantine–Hungarian War (1149–1155)">Byzantine–Hungarian War (1149–1155)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Brani%C4%8Devo" title="Siege of Braničevo">Siege of Braničevo</a> (1154)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pantina" title="Battle of Pantina">Battle of Pantina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Hungarian_War_(1127%E2%80%931129)" title="Byzantine–Hungarian War (1127–1129)">Byzantine–Hungarian War (1127–1129)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_civil_war_of_1321%E2%80%931328" title="Byzantine civil war of 1321–1328">Byzantine civil war of 1321–1328</a></li> <li>Serbian invasion of Macedonia led by <a href="/wiki/Syrgiannes_Palaiologos" title="Syrgiannes Palaiologos">Syrgiannes Palaiologos</a> (1334)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_civil_war_of_1341%E2%80%931347" title="Byzantine civil war of 1341–1347">Byzantine civil war of 1341–1347</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em;vertical-align:top;;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_invasions_of_Europe" title="Hungarian invasions of Europe">Hungarian invasions of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magyar%E2%80%93Serb_conflict" class="mw-redirect" title="Magyar–Serb conflict">Magyar–Serb conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Hungarian_War_(1127%E2%80%931129)" title="Byzantine–Hungarian War (1127–1129)">Byzantine–Hungarian War (1127–1129)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sirmium" title="Battle of Sirmium">Battle of Sirmium</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Gacko&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Gacko (page does not exist)">Battle of Gacko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_conflict_with_the_Nogai_Horde" title="Serbian conflict with the Nogai Horde">Serbian conflict with the Nogai Horde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Bulgaria_and_Serbia" title="Mongol invasion of Bulgaria and Serbia">Mongol invasion of Bulgaria and Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma%C4%8Dva_War" title="Mačva War">Mačva War</a></li> <li>Hungarian–Serbian War (1321-1324)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Hum_(1326%E2%80%931329)" class="mw-redirect" title="War of Hum (1326–1329)">War of Hum (1326–1329)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_civil_war_of_1331" title="Serbian civil war of 1331">Serbian civil war of 1331</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_nobility_conflict_(1369)" title="Serbian nobility conflict (1369)">Serbian nobility conflict (1369)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rovine" title="Battle of Rovine">Battle of Rovine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nicopolis" title="Battle of Nicopolis">Battle of Nicopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ankara" title="Battle of Ankara">Battle of Ankara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kosmidion" title="Battle of Kosmidion">Battle of Kosmidion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_%C3%87amurlu" title="Battle of Çamurlu">Battle of Çamurlu</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Despotovac&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Despotovac (page does not exist)">Battle of Despotovac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Belgrade_(1440)" title="Siege of Belgrade (1440)">Siege of Belgrade (1440)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kosovo_(1448)" title="Battle of Kosovo (1448)">Battle of Kosovo (1448)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Foreign rule</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburgs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jovan_Nenad" title="Jovan Nenad">Jovan Nenad</a>'s uprising</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_campaign_of_1527%E2%80%931528" title="Hungarian campaign of 1527–1528">Hungarian campaign of 1527–1528</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sz%C5%91l%C5%91s" title="Battle of Szőlős">Battle of Szőlős</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sz%C5%91dfalva" title="Battle of Sződfalva">Battle of Sződfalva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Keresztes" title="Battle of Keresztes">Battle of Keresztes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Turkish_War" title="Great Turkish War">Great Turkish War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Belgrade_(1688)" title="Siege of Belgrade (1688)">Siege of Belgrade (1688)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bato%C4%8Dina" title="Battle of Batočina">Battle of Batočina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ni%C5%A1_(1689)" title="Battle of Niš (1689)">Battle of Niš (1689)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Belgrade_(1690)" title="Siege of Belgrade (1690)">Siege of Belgrade (1690)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lugos" title="Battle of Lugos">Battle of Lugos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A1k%C3%B3czi%27s_War_of_Independence" title="Rákóczi's War of Independence">Rákóczi's War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Saint_Gotthard_(1705)" title="Battle of Saint Gotthard (1705)">Battle of Saint Gotthard (1705)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austro-Turkish_War_(1716%E2%80%931718)" title="Austro-Turkish War (1716–1718)">Austro-Turkish War (1716–1718)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Belgrade_(1717)" title="Siege of Belgrade (1717)">Siege of Belgrade (1717)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1735%E2%80%931739)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1735–1739)">Russo-Turkish War (1735–1739)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zsib%C3%B3" title="Battle of Zsibó">Battle of Zsibó</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tren%C4%8D%C3%ADn" title="Battle of Trenčín">Battle of Trenčín</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Petrovaradin" title="Battle of Petrovaradin">Battle of Petrovaradin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Banja_Luka" title="Battle of Banja Luka">Battle of Banja Luka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austro-Turkish_War_(1788%E2%80%931791)" title="Austro-Turkish War (1788–1791)">Austro-Turkish War (1788–1791)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottomans</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Long_War_(Ottoman_wars)" class="mw-redirect" title="Long War (Ottoman wars)">Long War (Ottoman wars)</a> (1593–1606)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banat_Uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="Banat Uprising">Banat Uprising</a> (1594)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Serb_Uprising_of_1596%E2%80%931597&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Serb Uprising of 1596–1597 (page does not exist)">Serb Uprising of 1596–1597</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Moh%C3%A1cs_(1687)" title="Battle of Mohács (1687)">Battle of Mohács (1687)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uprising_in_Vu%C4%8Ditrn" title="Uprising in Vučitrn">Uprising in Vučitrn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serb_uprising_of_1737%E2%80%931739" title="Serb uprising of 1737–1739">Serb uprising of 1737–1739</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ko%C4%8Dina_Krajina_Serb_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Kočina Krajina Serb rebellion">Kočina Krajina Serb rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Martini%C4%87i_(1796)" title="Battle of Martinići (1796)">Battle of Martinići (1796)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Krusi" title="Battle of Krusi">Battle of Krusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lopate" title="Battle of Lopate">Battle of Lopate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Morean_War" title="Morean War">Morean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cretan_War_(1645%E2%80%931669)" title="Cretan War (1645–1669)">Cretan War (1645–1669)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Turkish_War" title="Great Turkish War">Great Turkish War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_on_Vrtijeljka" title="Battle on Vrtijeljka">Battle on Vrtijeljka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Slankamen" title="Battle of Slankamen">Battle of Slankamen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zenta" title="Battle of Zenta">Battle of Senta</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Hussar_Regiment" title="Serbian Hussar Regiment">Serbian Hussar Regiment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pruth_River_Campaign" title="Pruth River Campaign">Pruth River Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Polish_Succession" title="War of the Polish Succession">War of the Polish Succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Swedish_War_(1741%E2%80%931743)" title="Russo-Swedish War (1741–1743)">Russo-Swedish War (1741–1743)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em;vertical-align:top;;"><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Revolution" title="Serbian Revolution">Serbian Revolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/First_Serbian_Uprising" title="First Serbian Uprising">First Serbian Uprising</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Vra%C4%8Dar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Vračar (page does not exist)">Vračar</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Rudnik&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Rudnik (page does not exist)">Rudnik</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Svileuva&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Svileuva (page does not exist)">Svileuva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battles_of_Bato%C4%8Dina_and_Jagodina" title="Battles of Batočina and Jagodina">Batočina and Jagodina</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Kragujevac_(1804)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Kragujevac (1804) (page does not exist)">Kragujevac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Drlupa" title="Battle of Drlupa">Drlupa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_%C4%8Coke%C5%A1ina" title="Battle of Čokešina">Čokešina</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_%C5%A0abac&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Liberation of Šabac (page does not exist)">Šabac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Po%C5%BEarevac" title="Battle of Požarevac">Požarevac</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Karanovac&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Karanovac (page does not exist)">Karanovac</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Adakale&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Adakale (page does not exist)">Adakale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ivankovac" title="Battle of Ivankovac">Ivankovac</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Rudnik&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Rudnik (page does not exist)">Rudnik</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Vrbica&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Vrbica (page does not exist)">Vrbica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mi%C5%A1ar" title="Battle of Mišar">Mišar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Deligrad" title="Battle of Deligrad">Deligrad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Belgrade_(1806)" title="Siege of Belgrade (1806)">Belgrade (1806)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_Belgrade_(1807)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Liberation of Belgrade (1807) (page does not exist)">Liberation of Belgrade</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Loznica_(1807)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Loznica (1807) (page does not exist)">Loznica</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battles_of_Malajnica_and_%C5%A0tubik&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battles of Malajnica and Štubik (page does not exist)">Malajnica and Štubik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_%C4%8Cegar" title="Battle of Čegar">Čegar</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Jasika&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Jasika (page does not exist)">Jasika</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Prahovo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Prahovo (page does not exist)">Prahovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Suvodol" title="Battle of Suvodol">Suvodol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_on_the_Drina_(1810)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle on the Drina (1810) (page does not exist)">Drina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Varvarin" title="Battle of Varvarin">Varvarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Loznica" title="Battle of Loznica">Loznica</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Ma%C4%8Dva&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Mačva (page does not exist)">Mačva</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Ravnje&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Ravnje (page does not exist)">Ravnje</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Had%C5%BEi_Prodan%27s_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Hadži Prodan's Revolt">Hadži Prodan's Revolt</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Second_Serbian_Uprising" title="Second Serbian Uprising">Second Serbian Uprising</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ljubi%C4%87" title="Battle of Ljubić">Ljubić</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_%C4%8Ca%C4%8Dak&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Čačak (page does not exist)">Čačak</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Pale%C5%BE&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Palež (page does not exist)">Palež</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Po%C5%BEarevac" title="Battle of Požarevac">Požarevac</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Dublje&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Dublje (page does not exist)">Rudnik</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Dublje&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Dublje (page does not exist)">Družetić</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Dublje&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Dublje (page does not exist)">Kragujevac</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Dublje&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Dublje (page does not exist)">Jagodina</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Dublje&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Dublje (page does not exist)">Karanovac</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Dublje&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Dublje (page does not exist)">Batočina</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Dublje&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Dublje (page does not exist)">Užice</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Dublje&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Dublje (page does not exist)">Valjevo</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Dublje&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Dublje (page does not exist)">Batočina</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em;vertical-align:top;;">Ottoman</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Montenegrin%E2%80%93Ottoman_War_(1852%E2%80%931853)" title="Montenegrin–Ottoman War (1852–1853)">Montenegrin–Ottoman War (1852–1853)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Grahovac" title="Battle of Grahovac">Battle of Grahovac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kola%C5%A1in" title="Battle of Kolašin">Battle of Kolašin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montenegrin%E2%80%93Ottoman_War_(1861%E2%80%931862)" title="Montenegrin–Ottoman War (1861–1862)">Montenegrin–Ottoman War (1861–1862)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montenegrin%E2%80%93Ottoman_War_(1876%E2%80%931878)" title="Montenegrin–Ottoman War (1876–1878)">Montenegrin–Ottoman War (1876–1878)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vu%C4%8Dji_Do" title="Battle of Vučji Do">Battle of Vučji Do</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fundina" title="Battle of Fundina">Battle of Fundina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battles_for_Plav_and_Gusinje" title="Battles for Plav and Gusinje">Battles for Plav and Gusinje</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Velika_attacks_(1879)" title="Velika attacks (1879)">Velika attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nov%C5%A1i%C4%87e" title="Battle of Novšiće">Battle of Novšiće</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Murino" title="Battle of Murino">Battle of Murino</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em;vertical-align:top;;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kumanovo_uprising" title="Kumanovo uprising">Kumanovo uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adriatic_campaign_of_1807%E2%80%931814" title="Adriatic campaign of 1807–1814">Adriatic campaign of 1807–1814</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan%C4%8Di%C4%87%27s_rebellion" title="Jančić's rebellion">Jančić's rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priest_Jovica%27s_Rebellion" title="Priest Jovica's Rebellion">Priest Jovica's Rebellion</a></li> <li>Several battles of <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1848" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1848">Hungarian Revolution of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Vr%C5%A1ac_(1849)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Vršac (1849) (page does not exist)">Battle of Vršac (1849)</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Serbian-Turkish_Wars_(1876%E2%80%931878)" class="mw-redirect" title="Serbian-Turkish Wars (1876–1878)">Serbian-Turkish Wars (1876–1878)</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vranje" title="Battle of Vranje">Battle of Vranje</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Cattaro" title="Siege of Cattaro">Siege of Cattaro</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Herzegovina_uprising_(1852%E2%80%931862)" title="Herzegovina uprising (1852–1862)">Herzegovina uprising (1852–1862)</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krivo%C5%A1ije_uprising_(1869)" title="Krivošije uprising (1869)">Krivošije uprising (1869)</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_campaign_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina_in_1878" title="Austro-Hungarian campaign in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1878">AU-BiH War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jajce_(1878)" title="Battle of Jajce (1878)">Battle of Jajce (1878)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Vitez_(1878)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Vitez (1878) (page does not exist)">Battle of Vitez (1878)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sarajevo_(1878)" title="Battle of Sarajevo (1878)">Battle of Sarajevo (1878)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbo-Bulgarian_War" title="Serbo-Bulgarian War">Serbo-Bulgarian War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pirot" title="Battle of Pirot">Battle of Pirot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Slivnitsa" title="Battle of Slivnitsa">Battle of Slivnitsa</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Struggle" title="Macedonian Struggle">Macedonian Struggle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fight_on_%C5%A0uplji_Kamen" class="mw-redirect" title="Fight on Šuplji Kamen">Fight on Šuplji Kamen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fight_on_%C4%8Celopek" class="mw-redirect" title="Fight on Čelopek">Fight on Čelopek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fight_in_Tabanovce" class="mw-redirect" title="Fight in Tabanovce">Fight in Tabanovce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fight_in_Velika_Ho%C4%8Da" class="mw-redirect" title="Fight in Velika Hoča">Fight in Velika Hoča</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fight_on_%C4%8Celopek_(1906)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fight on Čelopek (1906) (page does not exist)">Fight on Čelopek (1906)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pirot_(1913)" title="Battle of Pirot (1913)">Battle of Pirot (1913)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Balkan_Wars" title="Balkan Wars">Balkan Wars</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/First_Balkan_War" title="First Balkan War">First Balkan War</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kumanovo" title="Battle of Kumanovo">Battle of Kumanovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Prilep" title="Battle of Prilep">Battle of Prilep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Monastir" title="Battle of Monastir">Battle of Monastir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Scutari_(1912-1913)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Scutari (1912-1913)">Siege of Scutari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Adrianople_(1913)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Adrianople (1913)">Siege of Adrianople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Odrin_(1912%E2%80%931913)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Odrin (1912–1913)">Siege of Odrin (1912–1913)</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Second_Balkan_War" title="Second Balkan War">Second Balkan War</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bregalnica" title="Battle of Bregalnica">Battle of Bregalnica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kalimanci" title="Battle of Kalimanci">Battle of Kalimanci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Knja%C5%BEevac" title="Battle of Knjaževac">Battle of Knjaževac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Vidin_(1913)" title="Siege of Vidin (1913)">Siege of Vidin (1913)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ohrid%E2%80%93Debar_uprising" title="Ohrid–Debar uprising">Ohrid–Debar uprising</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Montenegrin_campaign" title="Montenegrin campaign">Montenegrin campaign</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mojkovac" title="Battle of Mojkovac">Battle of Mojkovac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lov%C4%87en" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Lovćen">Battle of Lovćen</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Serbian_campaign" title="Serbian campaign">Serbian campaign</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cer" title="Battle of Cer">Battle of Cer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Crna_Bend_(1916)" title="Battle of the Crna Bend (1916)">Battle of the Crna Bend (1916)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bazargic" title="Battle of Bazargic">Battle of Bazargic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dobro_Pole" title="Battle of Dobro Pole">Battle of Dobro Pole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Drina" title="Battle of the Drina">Battle of the Drina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Florina" title="Battle of Florina">Battle of Florina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kaymakchalan" title="Battle of Kaymakchalan">Battle of Kaymakchalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kolubara" title="Battle of Kolubara">Battle of Kolubara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosovo_offensive_(1915)" title="Kosovo offensive (1915)">Kosovo offensive (1915)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_of_Serbia,_Albania_and_Montenegro_(1918)" title="Liberation of Serbia, Albania and Montenegro (1918)">Liberation of Serbia, Albania and Montenegro (1918)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Malka_Nidzhe" title="Battle of Malka Nidzhe">Battle of Malka Nidzhe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_front" title="Macedonian front">Macedonian front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monastir_offensive" title="Monastir offensive">Monastir offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morava_Offensive" title="Morava Offensive">Morava Offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ov%C4%8De_Pole_Offensive" title="Ovče Pole Offensive">Ovče Pole Offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vardar_offensive" title="Vardar offensive">Vardar offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srem_Offensive" title="Srem Offensive">Srem Offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toplica_Uprising" title="Toplica Uprising">Toplica Uprising</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austro-Slovene_conflict_in_Carinthia" title="Austro-Slovene conflict in Carinthia">Carinthia War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_for_the_National_Defence_of_Kosovo#Activity_in_Yugoslavia" title="Committee for the National Defence of Kosovo">Uprising in Drenica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christmas_Uprising" title="Christmas Uprising">Christmas Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_intervention_in_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War">Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albanian-Yugoslav_Border_War_(1921)" class="mw-redirect" title="Albanian-Yugoslav Border War (1921)">Albanian-Yugoslav Border War (1921)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azem_Galica#Resistance_against_Yugoslavia" title="Azem Galica">Drenica-Junik Uprising</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Yugoslavia" title="Invasion of Yugoslavia">Invasion of Yugoslavia</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Uprising_in_Serbia_(1941)" title="Uprising in Serbia (1941)">Uprising in Serbia (1941)</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uprising_in_Montenegro_(1941)" title="Uprising in Montenegro (1941)">Uprising in Montenegro (1941)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/June_1941_uprising_in_eastern_Herzegovina" title="June 1941 uprising in eastern Herzegovina">June 1941 uprising in eastern Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Novi_Pazar" title="Battle of Novi Pazar">Battle of Novi Pazar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pljevlja" title="Battle of Pljevlja">Battle of Pljevlja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kozara" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Kozara">Battle of Kozara</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Loznica_(1941)" title="Battle of Loznica (1941)">Battle of Loznica (1941)</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Livno" title="Battle of Livno">Battle of Livno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Neretva" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Neretva">Battle of Neretva</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Sutjeska" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of the Sutjeska">Battle of the Sutjeska</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raid_on_Drvar" class="mw-redirect" title="Raid on Drvar">Raid on Drvar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Knin" title="Battle of Knin">Battle of Knin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mostar" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Mostar">Battle of Mostar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lijev%C4%8De_Field" title="Battle of Lijevče Field">Battle of Lijevče Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1942_Montenegro_offensive" class="mw-redirect" title="1942 Montenegro offensive">1942 Montenegro offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biha%C4%87_Operation" class="mw-redirect" title="Bihać Operation">Bihać Operation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Batina" title="Battle of Batina">Battle of Batina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgrade_Offensive" class="mw-redirect" title="Belgrade Offensive">Belgrade Offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Banja_Kovilja%C4%8Da" title="Capture of Banja Koviljača">Capture of Banja Koviljača</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_Black" title="Case Black">Case Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_White" title="Case White">Case White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Draufg%C3%A4nger" title="Operation Draufgänger">Operation Draufgänger</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Kozara_Offensive" title="Kozara Offensive">Kozara Offensive</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kupres_(1942)" title="Battle of Kupres (1942)">Battle of Kupres (1942)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vi%C5%A1egrad" title="Battle of Višegrad">Battle of Višegrad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mostar_operation" title="Mostar operation">Mostar operation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagykanizsa%E2%80%93K%C3%B6rmend_Offensive" class="mw-redirect" title="Nagykanizsa–Körmend Offensive">Nagykanizsa–Körmend Offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ni%C5%A1_operation" title="Niš operation">Niš operation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Od%C5%BEak" title="Battle of Odžak">Battle of Odžak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Olovo_(1941)" title="Capture of Olovo (1941)">Capture of Olovo (1941)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Alfa" title="Operation Alfa">Operation Alfa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Delphin" title="Operation Delphin">Operation Delphin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Kopaonik" title="Operation Kopaonik">Operation Kopaonik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Kugelblitz" title="Operation Kugelblitz">Operation Kugelblitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Mihailovic" title="Operation Mihailovic">Operation Mihailovic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Southeast_Croatia" title="Operation Southeast Croatia">Operation Southeast Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Trio" title="Operation Trio">Operation Trio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Uzice" title="Operation Uzice">Operation Uzice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Poljana" title="Battle of Poljana">Battle of Poljana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Prijedor" title="Operation Prijedor">Operation Prijedor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Rogatica_(1941)" title="Siege of Rogatica (1941)">Siege of Rogatica (1941)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_R%C3%B6sselsprung_(1944)" title="Operation Rösselsprung (1944)">Operation Rösselsprung (1944)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosovo_Operation_(1944)" title="Kosovo Operation (1944)">Kosovo Operation (1944)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Spring_Awakening" title="Operation Spring Awakening">Operation Spring Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srb_uprising" title="Srb uprising">Srb uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stratsin-Kumanovo_operation" class="mw-redirect" title="Stratsin-Kumanovo operation">Stratsin-Kumanovo operation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrmian_Front" title="Syrmian Front">Syrmian Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zvornik" title="Battle of Zvornik">Battle of Zvornik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Sarajevo_(1945)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Sarajevo (1945)">Battle of Sarajevo (1945)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zelengora" title="Battle of Zelengora">Battle of Zelengora</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em;vertical-align:top;">Croatian War</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pakrac_clash" title="Pakrac clash">Pakrac clash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plitvice_Lakes_incident" title="Plitvice Lakes incident">Plitvice Lakes incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Borovo_Selo" title="Battle of Borovo Selo">Battle of Borovo Selo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Stinger" title="Operation Stinger">Operation Stinger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Yugoslav_campaign_in_Croatia" title="1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia">1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Osijek" title="Battle of Osijek">Battle of Osijek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vukovar" title="Battle of Vukovar">Battle of Vukovar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gospi%C4%87" title="Battle of Gospić">Battle of Gospić</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_%C5%A0ibenik" title="Battle of Šibenik">Battle of Šibenik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zadar" title="Battle of Zadar">Battle of Zadar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kusonje" title="Battle of Kusonje">Battle of Kusonje</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Barracks" title="Battle of the Barracks">Battle of the Barracks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Vara%C5%BEdin_Barracks" title="Siege of Varaždin Barracks">Siege of Varaždin Barracks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Bjelovar_Barracks" title="Siege of Bjelovar Barracks">Siege of Bjelovar Barracks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Dalmatian_Channels" title="Battle of the Dalmatian Channels">Battle of the Dalmatian Channels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Dubrovnik" title="Siege of Dubrovnik">Siege of Dubrovnik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Otkos_10" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Otkos 10">Operation Otkos 10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Orkan_91" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Orkan 91">Operation Orkan 91</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Whirlwind" title="Operation Whirlwind">Operation Whirlwind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Baranja" title="Operation Baranja">Operation Baranja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Jackal" title="Operation Jackal">Operation Jackal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Miljevci_Plateau" title="Battle of the Miljevci Plateau">Battle of the Miljevci Plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Tiger_(1992)" title="Operation Tiger (1992)">Operation Tiger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Maslenica" title="Operation Maslenica">Operation Maslenica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Medak_Pocket" title="Operation Medak Pocket">Operation Medak Pocket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Winter_%2794" title="Operation Winter '94">Operation Winter '94</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Flash" title="Operation Flash">Operation Flash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Summer_%2795" title="Operation Summer '95">Operation Summer '95</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Operation_Storm" title="Operation Storm">Operation Storm</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em;vertical-align:top;">Bosnian War</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bosanski_Brod" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Bosanski Brod">Battle of Bosanski Brod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kupres_(1992)" title="Battle of Kupres (1992)">Battle of Kupres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Sarajevo" title="Siege of Sarajevo">Siege of Sarajevo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Srebrenica" title="Siege of Srebrenica">Siege of Srebrenica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Gora%C5%BEde" title="Siege of Goražde">Siege of Goražde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Doboj" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Doboj">Siege of Doboj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Jackal" title="Operation Jackal">Operation Jackal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Biha%C4%87_(1992%E2%80%9395)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Bihać (1992–95)">Siege of Bihać (1992–95)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Vrbas_%2792" title="Operation Vrbas '92">Operation Vrbas '92</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Corridor_92" title="Operation Corridor 92">Operation Corridor 92</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Bura" title="Operation Bura">Operation Bura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kravica_attack_(1993)" title="Kravica attack (1993)">Kravica attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Mostar" title="Siege of Mostar">Siege of Mostar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Irma" title="Operation Irma">Operation Irma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_B%C3%B8llebank" title="Operation Bøllebank">Operation Bøllebank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Tiger_(1994)" title="Operation Tiger (1994)">Operation Tiger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kupres_(1994)" title="Battle of Kupres (1994)">Battle of Kupres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Amanda" title="Operation Amanda">Operation Amanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Spider" title="Operation Spider">Operation Spider</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Winter_%2794" title="Operation Winter '94">Operation Winter '94</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_of_Vla%C5%A1i%C4%87" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberation of Vlašić">Battle of Vlašić</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Leap_1" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Leap 1">Operation Leap 1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ora%C5%A1je" title="Battle of Orašje">Battle of Orašje</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Leap_2" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Leap 2">Operation Leap 2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Summer_%2795" title="Operation Summer '95">Operation Summer '95</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vrbanja_Bridge" title="Battle of Vrbanja Bridge">Battle of Vrbanja Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vozu%C4%87a" title="Battle of Vozuća">Battle of Vozuća</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Miracle_(1995)" title="Operation Miracle (1995)">Operation Miracle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Mistral_2" title="Operation Mistral 2">Operation Mistral 2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Sana" title="Operation Sana">Operation Sana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Una" title="Operation Una">Operation Una</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Southern_Move" title="Operation Southern Move">Operation Southern Move</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/NATO_intervention_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="NATO intervention in Bosnia and Herzegovina">NATO intervention in Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1995_Pale_air_strikes" title="1995 Pale air strikes">1995 Pale air strikes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Deny_Flight" title="Operation Deny Flight">Operation Deny Flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Deliberate_Force" title="Operation Deliberate Force">Operation Deliberate Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Maritime_Monitor" title="Operation Maritime Monitor">Operation Maritime Monitor</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em;vertical-align:top;">Kosovo War</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Insurgency_in_Kosovo_(1995%E2%80%931998)" title="Insurgency in Kosovo (1995–1998)">Insurgency in Kosovo</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albanian%E2%80%93Yugoslav_border_incident_(December_1998)" class="mw-redirect" title="Albanian–Yugoslav border incident (December 1998)">Albanian–Yugoslav border incident (December 1998)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albania%E2%80%93Yugoslav_border_incident_(April_1999)" title="Albania–Yugoslav border incident (April 1999)">Albania–Yugoslav border incident (April 1999)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/April_23,_1998,_Albanian%E2%80%93Yugoslav_border_ambush" title="April 23, 1998, Albanian–Yugoslav border ambush">April 23, 1998, Albanian–Yugoslav border ambush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Orahovac" title="Attack on Orahovac">Attack on Orahovac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Prekaz" title="Attack on Prekaz">Attack on Prekaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lo%C4%91a" title="Battle of Lođa">Battle of Lođa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Oraovica" title="Battle of Oraovica">Battle of Oraovica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bela%C4%87evac_Mine" title="Battle of Belaćevac Mine">Battle of Belaćevac Mine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Podujevo" title="Battle of Podujevo">Battle of Podujevo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/December_14,_1998,_Albanian%E2%80%93Yugoslav_border_ambush" title="December 14, 1998, Albanian–Yugoslav border ambush">December 14, 1998, Albanian–Yugoslav border ambush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Glo%C4%91ane" title="Battle of Glođane">Battle of Glođane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/July_18,_1998,_Albanian%E2%80%93Yugoslav_border_clashes" title="July 18, 1998, Albanian–Yugoslav border clashes">July 18, 1998, Albanian–Yugoslav border clashes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Junik" title="Battle of Junik">Battle of Junik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ko%C5%A1are" title="Battle of Košare">Battle of Košare</a></li> <li><b> <a href="/wiki/Insurgency_in_the_Pre%C5%A1evo_Valley" title="Insurgency in the Preševo Valley">Insurgency in the Preševo Valley</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prizren_incident_(1999)" title="Prizren incident (1999)">Prizren incident (1999)</a></li> <li><b> <a href="/wiki/NATO_bombing_of_Yugoslavia" title="NATO bombing of Yugoslavia">NATO bombing of Yugoslavia</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dubrava_Prison_bombings_and_executions" title="Dubrava Prison bombings and executions">Dubrava Prison bombings and executions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1999_F-117A_shootdown" title="1999 F-117A shootdown">1999 F-117A shootdown</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">21st century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Peacekeeping" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Peacekeeping" title="Peacekeeping">Peacekeeping</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_African_Republic" title="Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">DR Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivory_Coast" title="Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mali" title="Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q174205#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q174205#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q174205#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" 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class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="rusko-turecká válka (1877-1878)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph125315&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000087971&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007548528105171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/027878627">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/doksanuc-harbi">İslâm Ansiklopedisi</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Russo-Turkish_War_(1877–1878)&oldid=1259276444">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Russo-Turkish_War_(1877–1878)&oldid=1259276444</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)" title="Category:Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)">Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Conflicts_in_1877" title="Category:Conflicts in 1877">Conflicts in 1877</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Conflicts_in_1878" title="Category:Conflicts in 1878">Conflicts in 1878</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Modern_history_of_Bulgaria" title="Category:Modern history of Bulgaria">Modern history of Bulgaria</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wars_involving_Chechnya" title="Category:Wars involving Chechnya">Wars involving Chechnya</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wars_involving_Romania" title="Category:Wars involving Romania">Wars involving Romania</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wars_involving_Serbia" title="Category:Wars involving Serbia">Wars involving Serbia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wars_involving_Montenegro" title="Category:Wars involving Montenegro">Wars involving Montenegro</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wars_involving_Bulgaria" title="Category:Wars involving Bulgaria">Wars involving Bulgaria</a></li><li><a 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