CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Mediumship - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"21c6effe-c2f8-4faf-9c8d-37d5cd5ace0d","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Mediumship","wgTitle":"Mediumship","wgCurRevisionId":1276431317,"wgRevisionId":1276431317,"wgArticleId":2269697,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Webarchive template wayback links","Subscription required using via","Pages containing links to subscription-only content","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from August 2024","Articles needing additional references from April 2023","All articles needing additional references","Commons category link is defined as the pagename","Mediumship","Parapsychology", "Pseudoscience","Spiritualism"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Mediumship","wgRelevantArticleId":2269697,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":100000,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q583271", "wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js", "ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.16"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/Medium-Eva-Carriere-1912.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1634"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/Medium-Eva-Carriere-1912.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1089"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="871"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Mediumship - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediumship"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Mediumship&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediumship"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Mediumship rootpage-Mediumship skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" title="Main menu" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Main menu </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z">Main page</a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia">Contents</a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events">Current events</a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x">Random article</a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works">About Wikipedia</a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia">Contact us</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia">Help</a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia">Learn to edit</a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors">Community portal</a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r">Recent changes</a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia">Upload file</a></li><li id="n-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages">Special pages</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"> Search </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Appearance </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class="">Donate</a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Mediumship" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class="">Create account</a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Mediumship" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class="">Log in</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Personal tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en">Donate</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Mediumship" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"> Create account</a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Mediumship" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"> Log in</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing">learn more</a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y">Contributions</a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Concept" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Concept"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1 Concept </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Concept-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 History </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Terminology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Terminology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Terminology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Terminology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Terminology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Terminology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Spirit_guide" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spirit_guide"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Spirit guide </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spirit_guide-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spirit_operator" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spirit_operator"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Spirit operator </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spirit_operator-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demonstrations_of_mediumship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demonstrations_of_mediumship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Demonstrations of mediumship </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Demonstrations_of_mediumship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mental_mediumship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mental_mediumship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Mental mediumship </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mental_mediumship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trance_mediumship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trance_mediumship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Trance mediumship </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trance_mediumship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physical_mediumship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physical_mediumship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Physical mediumship </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physical_mediumship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Direct_voice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Direct_voice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 Direct voice </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Direct_voice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Psychic_senses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Psychic_senses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Psychic senses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Psychic_senses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Explanations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Explanations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Explanations </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Explanations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Explanations subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Explanations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Paranormal_belief" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paranormal_belief"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Paranormal belief </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paranormal_belief-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scientific_skepticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scientific_skepticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Scientific skepticism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scientific_skepticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fraud" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fraud"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Fraud </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Fraud-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Fraud subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Fraud-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-1800s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1800s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 1800s </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1800s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1900s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1900s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 1900s </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1900s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Recent </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Mediumship</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 39 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-39" aria-hidden="true" > 39 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B7%D8%A9_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="وساطة روحية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="وساطة روحية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medium" title="Medium – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Medium" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AA" title="মিডিয়ামশিপ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মিডিয়ামশিপ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A8dium" title="Mèdium – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Mèdium" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9dium_(spiritismus)" title="Médium (spiritismus) – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Médium (spiritismus)" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyfrwng_ysbrydion" title="Cyfrwng ysbrydion – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Cyfrwng ysbrydion" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medium_(person)" title="Medium (person) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Medium (person)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medium_(Person)" title="Medium (Person) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Medium (Person)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9dium" title="Médium – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Médium" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediumo" title="Mediumo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Mediumo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medium" title="Medium – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Medium" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%B7%D9%87_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AD%DB%8C" title="واسطه روحی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="واسطه روحی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9dium_(spiritisme)" title="Médium (spiritisme) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Médium (spiritisme)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medium_(persoan)" title="Medium (persoan) – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Medium (persoan)" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%98%81%EB%A7%A4" title="영매 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="영매" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medij_(spiritizam)" title="Medij (spiritizam) – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Medij (spiritizam)" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cenayang" title="Cenayang – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Cenayang" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi%C3%B0ilsg%C3%A1fa" title="Miðilsgáfa – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Miðilsgáfa" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medium_(spiritismo)" title="Medium (spiritismo) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Medium (spiritismo)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%A7%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%A8" title="תקשור – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="תקשור" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9dium" title="Médium – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Médium" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medium_(esoterie)" title="Medium (esoterie) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Medium (esoterie)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9C%8A%E5%AA%92" title="霊媒 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="霊媒" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%BF%E1%9E%84_%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%92%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%8A%E1%9E%84%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%A0%E1%9F%82%E1%9E%A2%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%8F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%91%E1%9F%85%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%8F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8F" title="រឿង ពិធីដង្ហែអ្នកតាទៅវត្ត – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="រឿង ពិធីដង្ហែអ្នកតាទៅវត្ត" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medium_(osoba)" title="Medium (osoba) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Medium (osoba)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediunidade" title="Mediunidade – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Mediunidade" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medium" title="Medium – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Medium" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%83%D0%BC" title="Медиум – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Медиум" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DB%8E%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%DB%8C%D8%B1%DB%8C%DB%8C_%DA%95%DB%86%D8%AD%DB%8C" title="نێوانگیریی ڕۆحی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="نێوانگیریی ڕۆحی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%98%D1%83%D0%BC_(%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BF%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0)" title="Медијум (парапсихологија) – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Медијум (парапсихологија)" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meedio" title="Meedio – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Meedio" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiritistiskt_medium" title="Spiritistiskt medium – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Spiritistiskt medium" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%87" title="คนทรง – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="คนทรง" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medyum" title="Medyum – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Medyum" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%96%D1%83%D0%BC_(%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0)" title="Медіум (езотерика) – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Медіум (езотерика)" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giao_ti%E1%BA%BFp_linh_h%E1%BB%93n" title="Giao tiếp linh hồn – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Giao tiếp linh hồn" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%80%9A%E9%9D%88" title="通靈 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="通靈" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C4%B1ndar" title="Cındar – Dimli" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Cındar" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Dimli" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%80%9A%E9%9D%88" title="通靈 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="通靈" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q583271#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Mediumship" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Mediumship" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >English </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Mediumship">Read</a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mediumship&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mediumship&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >Tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Mediumship">Read</a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mediumship&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mediumship&action=history">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Mediumship" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j">What links here</a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Mediumship" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k">Related changes</a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u">Upload file</a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mediumship&oldid=1276431317" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page">Permanent link</a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mediumship&action=info" title="More information about this page">Page information</a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Mediumship&id=1276431317&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page">Cite this page</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FMediumship">Get shortened URL</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FMediumship">Download QR code</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Mediumship&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file">Download as PDF</a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mediumship&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p">Printable version</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Mediumship" hreflang="en">Wikimedia Commons</a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q583271" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g">Wikidata item</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Spiritual practice</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Medium-Eva-Carriere-1912.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Medium-Eva-Carriere-1912.jpg/220px-Medium-Eva-Carriere-1912.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/Medium-Eva-Carriere-1912.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="329" data-file-height="448" /></a><figcaption>Medium <a href="/wiki/Eva_Carri%C3%A8re" title="Eva Carrière">Eva Carrière</a> photographed in 1912 with a light appearing between her hands</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Paranormal" title="Category:Paranormal">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:175%;padding:0 0.2em 0.4em;"><a href="/wiki/Paranormal" title="Paranormal">Paranormal</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#ebebeb;;color: var(--color-base)">Main articles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astral_projection" title="Astral projection">Astral projection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">Astrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aura_(paranormal)" title="Aura (paranormal)">Aura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bilocation" title="Bilocation">Bilocation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inedia" title="Inedia">Breatharianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clairvoyance" title="Clairvoyance">Clairvoyance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Close_encounter" title="Close encounter">Close encounter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_spot_(paranormal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cold spot (paranormal)">Cold spot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystal_gazing" title="Crystal gazing">Crystal gazing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evocation" title="Evocation">Conjuration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptozoology" title="Cryptozoology">Cryptozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_possession" title="Spirit possession">Demonic possession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonology" title="Demonology">Demonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doppelg%C3%A4nger" title="Doppelgänger">Doppelgänger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ectoplasm_(paranormal)" title="Ectoplasm (paranormal)">Ectoplasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_voice_phenomenon" title="Electronic voice phenomenon">Electronic voice phenomenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exorcism" title="Exorcism">Exorcism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extrasensory_perception" title="Extrasensory perception">Extrasensory perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forteana" class="mw-redirect" title="Forteana">Forteana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortune-telling" title="Fortune-telling">Fortune-telling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_hunting" title="Ghost hunting">Ghost hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_reportedly_haunted_locations" title="List of reportedly haunted locations">Haunted locations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_reportedly_haunted_locations_in_India" title="List of reportedly haunted locations in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reportedly_haunted_locations_in_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Reportedly haunted locations in the United Kingdom">UK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_reportedly_haunted_locations_in_the_United_States" title="List of reportedly haunted locations in the United States">US</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_(supernatural)" title="Magic (supernatural)">Magic</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mediumship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracle" title="Miracle">Miracle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occult" title="Occult">Occult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orb_(optics)#Paranormal_claims" class="mw-redirect" title="Orb (optics)">Orb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ouija" title="Ouija">Ouija</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paranormal_fiction" title="Paranormal fiction">Paranormal fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paranormal_television" title="Paranormal television">Paranormal television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precognition" title="Precognition">Precognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preternatural" title="Preternatural">Preternatural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychic" title="Psychic">Psychic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychic_reading" title="Psychic reading">Psychic reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychometry_(paranormal)" title="Psychometry (paranormal)">Psychometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reincarnation" title="Reincarnation">Reincarnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remote_viewing" title="Remote viewing">Remote viewing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrocognition" title="Retrocognition">Retrocognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_photography" title="Spirit photography">Spirit photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_possession" title="Spirit possession">Spirit possession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_world_(Spiritualism)" title="Spirit world (Spiritualism)">Spirit world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(beliefs)" title="Spiritualism (beliefs)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_Tape" class="mw-redirect" title="Stone Tape">Stone Tape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernatural" title="Supernatural">Supernatural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telekinesis" title="Telekinesis">Telekinesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telepathy" title="Telepathy">Telepathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Table-turning" title="Table-turning">Table-turning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ufology" title="Ufology">Ufology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#ebebeb;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Skepticism" title="Skepticism">Skepticism</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_reading" title="Cold reading">Cold reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_for_Skeptical_Inquiry" title="Committee for Skeptical Inquiry">Committee for Skeptical Inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debunker" title="Debunker">Debunking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoax" title="Hoax">Hoax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Randi_Educational_Foundation" title="James Randi Educational Foundation">James Randi Educational Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magical_thinking" title="Magical thinking">Magical thinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prizes_for_evidence_of_the_paranormal" title="List of prizes for evidence of the paranormal">Prizes for evidence of the paranormal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoskepticism" title="Pseudoskepticism">Pseudoskepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_literacy" title="Scientific literacy">Scientific literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#ebebeb;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Parapsychology" title="Parapsychology">Parapsychology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anomalous_experiences" title="Anomalous experiences">Anomalous experiences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apparitional_experience" title="Apparitional experience">Apparitional experiences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empath" title="Empath">Empath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_awakening" title="False awakening">False awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypnosis" title="Hypnosis">Hypnosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideomotor_phenomenon" title="Ideomotor phenomenon">Ideomotor phenomenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Out-of-body_experience" title="Out-of-body experience">Out-of-body experiences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parapsychology" title="Parapsychology">Parapsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synchronicity" title="Synchronicity">Synchronicity</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#ebebeb;;color: var(--color-base)">Related</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anomalistics" title="Anomalistics">Anomalistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_ignorance" title="Argument from ignorance">Argument from ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argumentum_ad_populum" title="Argumentum ad populum">Argumentum ad populum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bandwagon_effect" title="Bandwagon effect">Bandwagon effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Begging_the_question" title="Begging the question">Begging the question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance" title="Cognitive dissonance">Cognitive dissonance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communal_reinforcement" title="Communal reinforcement">Communal reinforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy" title="Fallacy">Fallacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fringe_science" title="Fringe science">Fringe science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groupthink" title="Groupthink">Groupthink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypnosis" title="Hypnosis">Hypnosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Junk_science" title="Junk science">Junk science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protoscience" title="Protoscience">Protoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_evidence" title="Scientific evidence">Scientific evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superstition" title="Superstition">Superstition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncertainty" title="Uncertainty">Uncertainty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_legend" title="Urban legend">Urban legend</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Paranormal" title="Template:Paranormal"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Paranormal" title="Template talk:Paranormal"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Paranormal" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Paranormal"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Mediumship is the practice of purportedly mediating communication between <a href="/wiki/Familiar_spirits" class="mw-redirect" title="Familiar spirits">familiar spirits</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ghost" title="Ghost">spirits of the dead</a> and living human beings. Practitioners are known as "mediums" or "spirit mediums".<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> There are different types of mediumship or spirit <a href="/wiki/Conduit_(channeling)" class="mw-redirect" title="Conduit (channeling)">channelling</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Table-turning" title="Table-turning">séance tables</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trance" title="Trance">trance</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ouija" title="Ouija">ouija</a>. The practice is associated with <a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(movement)" title="Spiritualism (movement)">spiritualism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kardecist_spiritism" title="Kardecist spiritism">spiritism</a>. A similar <a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a> practice is known as <a href="/wiki/Channeling_(New_Age)" class="mw-redirect" title="Channeling (New Age)">channeling</a>. Belief in psychic ability is widespread<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> despite the absence of empirical evidence for its existence.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> Scientific researchers have attempted to ascertain the validity of claims of mediumship for more than one hundred years and have consistently failed to confirm them. As late as 2005, an experiment undertaken by the <a href="/wiki/British_Psychological_Society" title="British Psychological Society">British Psychological Society</a> reaffirmed that test subjects who self-identified as mediums demonstrated no mediumistic ability.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> Mediumship gained popularity during the nineteenth century when <a href="/wiki/Ouija_board" class="mw-redirect" title="Ouija board">ouija boards</a> were used as a source of entertainment. Investigations during this period revealed widespread <a href="/wiki/Fraud" title="Fraud">fraud</a>—with some practitioners employing techniques used by <a href="/wiki/Magic_(illusion)" title="Magic (illusion)">stage magicians</a>—and the practice began to lose credibility.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> Fraud is still rife in the medium or psychic industry, with cases of deception and trickery being discovered to this day.<a href="#cite_note-Hines-8">[8]</a> Several different variants of mediumship have been described; arguably the best-known forms involve a spirit purportedly taking control of a medium's voice and using it to relay a message, or where the medium simply "hears" the message and passes it on.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> Other forms involve <a href="/wiki/Materialization_(paranormal)" title="Materialization (paranormal)">materializations</a> of the spirit or the presence of a voice, and <a href="/wiki/Psychokinesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychokinesis">telekinetic</a> activity. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Concept">Concept</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mediumship&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Concept">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Beattie_Eugene_Rochas_seance.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/John_Beattie_Eugene_Rochas_seance.jpg/170px-John_Beattie_Eugene_Rochas_seance.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/John_Beattie_Eugene_Rochas_seance.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9ance" title="Séance">Séance</a> conducted by John Beattie, Bristol, England, 1872</figcaption></figure> In <a href="/wiki/Kardecist_spiritism" title="Kardecist spiritism">Spiritism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(movement)" title="Spiritualism (movement)">Spiritualism</a> the medium has the role of an intermediary between the world of the living and the world of spirit. Mediums say that they can listen to and relay messages from spirits, or that they can allow a spirit to control their body and speak through it directly or by using <a href="/wiki/Automatic_writing" title="Automatic writing">automatic writing</a> or <a href="/wiki/Spiritualist_art#Automatic_drawing" title="Spiritualist art">drawing</a>. Spiritualists classify types of mediumship into two main categories: "mental" and "physical":<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> <ul><li>Mental mediums purportedly "tune in" to the spirit world by listening, sensing, or seeing spirits or symbols.</li> <li>Physical mediums are believed to produce the materialization of spirits, <a href="/wiki/Apport_(paranormal)" title="Apport (paranormal)">apports</a> of objects, and other effects such as knocking, rapping, bell-ringing, etc. by using "<a href="/wiki/Ectoplasm_(paranormal)" title="Ectoplasm (paranormal)">ectoplasm</a>" created from the <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a> of their bodies and those of <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9ance" title="Séance">séance</a> attendees.</li></ul> During seances, mediums are said to go into <a href="/wiki/Trance" title="Trance">trances</a>, varying from light to deep, that permit spirits to control their minds.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> Channeling can be seen as the modern form of the old mediumship, where the "channel" (or channeller) purportedly receives messages from "teaching-spirit", an "<a href="/wiki/Ascended_master" title="Ascended master">Ascended master</a>", from <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a>, or from an <a href="/wiki/Angel" title="Angel">angelic entity</a>, but essentially through the filter of his own waking <a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</a> (or "<a href="/wiki/Higher_Self" class="mw-redirect" title="Higher Self">Higher Self</a>").<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mediumship&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> Attempts to communicate with the dead and other living human beings, aka spirits, have been documented back to early human history, such as the Biblical account of the <a href="/wiki/Witch_of_Endor" title="Witch of Endor">Witch of Endor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Pulliam-Fonseca-13">[13]</a> Mediumship became quite popular in the 19th-century United States and the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> after the rise of Spiritualism as a religious movement.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> Modern Spiritualism is said to date from practices and lectures of the <a href="/wiki/Fox_sisters" title="Fox sisters">Fox sisters</a> in <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">New York</a> State in 1848.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The trance mediums <a href="/wiki/Paschal_Beverly_Randolph" title="Paschal Beverly Randolph">Paschal Beverly Randolph</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emma_Hardinge_Britten" title="Emma Hardinge Britten">Emma Hardinge Britten</a> were among the most celebrated lecturers and authors on the subject in the mid-19th century. <a href="/wiki/Allan_Kardec" title="Allan Kardec">Allan Kardec</a> coined the term Spiritism around 1860.<a href="#cite_note-aks-16">[16]</a> Kardec wrote that conversations with spirits by selected mediums were the basis of his The Spirits' Book and later, his five-book collection, <a href="/wiki/Spiritist_Codification" class="mw-redirect" title="Spiritist Codification">Spiritist Codification</a>. Some scientists of the period who investigated Spiritualism also became converts. They included chemist <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hare_(chemist)" title="Robert Hare (chemist)">Robert Hare</a>, physicist <a href="/wiki/William_Crookes#Spiritualism" title="William Crookes">William Crookes</a> (1832–1919) and evolutionary biologist <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace#Spiritualism" title="Alfred Russel Wallace">Alfred Russel Wallace</a> (1823–1913).<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> Nobel laureate <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Curie" title="Pierre Curie">Pierre Curie</a> took a very serious scientific interest in the work of medium <a href="/wiki/Eusapia_Palladino" title="Eusapia Palladino">Eusapia Palladino</a>.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> Other prominent adherents included journalist and pacifist <a href="/wiki/William_T._Stead#Spiritualism" class="mw-redirect" title="William T. Stead">William T. Stead</a> (1849–1912)<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> and physician and author <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Conan_Doyle" title="Arthur Conan Doyle">Arthur Conan Doyle</a> (1859–1930).<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> After the exposure of the fraudulent use of <a href="/wiki/Magic_(illusion)" title="Magic (illusion)">stage magic tricks</a> by physical mediums such as the <a href="/wiki/Davenport_Brothers" class="mw-redirect" title="Davenport Brothers">Davenport Brothers</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Bangs_Sisters" class="mw-redirect" title="Bangs Sisters">Bangs Sisters</a>, mediumship fell into disrepute. However, the religion and its beliefs continue in spite of this, with physical mediumship and seances falling out of practice and platform mediumship coming to the fore. [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In the late 1920s and early 1930s there were around one quarter of a million practising Spiritualists and some two thousand Spiritualist societies in the UK in addition to flourishing microcultures of platform mediumship and 'home circles'.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> Spiritualism continues to be practised, primarily through various denominational Spiritualist churches in the United States, Canada, Australia and the United Kingdom. In the United Kingdom, over 340 Spiritualist churches and centres open their doors to the public and free demonstrations of mediumship are regularly performed.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mediumship&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Terminology">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spirit_guide">Spirit guide</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mediumship&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Spirit guide">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Spirit_guide" title="Spirit guide">Spirit guide</a></div> In 1958, American Spiritualist C. Dorreen Phillips wrote of her experiences with a medium at <a href="/wiki/Camp_Chesterfield" title="Camp Chesterfield">Camp Chesterfield</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indiana" title="Indiana">Indiana</a>: "In Rev. James Laughton's séances there are many <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indians</a>. They are very noisy and appear to have great power. [...] The little guides, or doorkeepers, are usually Indian boys and girls [who act] as messengers who help to locate the spirit friends who wish to speak with you."<a href="#cite_note-Phillips-24">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spirit_operator">Spirit operator</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mediumship&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Spirit operator">edit</a>]</div> A spirit who uses a medium to manipulate psychic "energy" or "energy systems." <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Demonstrations_of_mediumship">Demonstrations of mediumship</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mediumship&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Demonstrations of mediumship">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Colin_Evans_fraud_in_1938.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Colin_Evans_fraud_in_1938.jpg/220px-Colin_Evans_fraud_in_1938.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="321" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Colin_Evans_fraud_in_1938.jpg/330px-Colin_Evans_fraud_in_1938.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Colin_Evans_fraud_in_1938.jpg/440px-Colin_Evans_fraud_in_1938.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="729" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Colin_Evans_(medium)" title="Colin Evans (medium)">Colin Evans</a>, who claimed spirits lifted him into the air, was exposed as a fraud.</figcaption></figure> In old-line Spiritualism, a portion of the services, generally toward the end, is given over to demonstrations of mediumship through purported contact with the spirits of the dead. A typical example of this way of describing a mediumistic church service is found in the 1958 autobiography of C. Dorreen Phillips. She writes of the worship services at the Spiritualist <a href="/wiki/Camp_Chesterfield" title="Camp Chesterfield">Camp Chesterfield</a> in <a href="/wiki/Chesterfield,_Indiana" title="Chesterfield, Indiana">Chesterfield, Indiana</a>: "Services are held each afternoon, consisting of hymns, a lecture on philosophy, and demonstrations of mediumship."<a href="#cite_note-Phillips-24">[24]</a> Today "demonstration of mediumship" is part of the church service at all churches affiliated with the <a href="/wiki/National_Spiritualist_Association_of_Churches" title="National Spiritualist Association of Churches">National Spiritualist Association of Churches</a> (NSAC) and the <a href="/wiki/Spiritualists%27_National_Union" title="Spiritualists' National Union">Spiritualists' National Union</a> (SNU). Demonstration links to NSAC's Declaration of Principal #9. "We affirm that the precepts of Prophecy and Healing are Divine attributes proven through Mediumship." <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mental_mediumship">Mental mediumship</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mediumship&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Mental mediumship">edit</a>]</div> "Mental mediumship" is communication of spirits with a medium by <a href="/wiki/Telepathy" title="Telepathy">telepathy</a>. The medium mentally "hears" (clairaudience), "sees" (clairvoyance), and/or feels (clairsentience) messages from spirits. Directly or with the help of a spirit guide, the medium passes the information on to the message's recipient(s). When a medium is doing a "reading" for a particular person, that person is known as the "sitter". <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trance_mediumship">Trance mediumship</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mediumship&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Trance mediumship">edit</a>]</div> In the 1860s and 1870s, trance mediums, also known as trance speakers, were very popular; this allowed female adherents, many who had strong interests in social justice, to speak in public in an era where doing so went against existing social norms.<a href="#cite_note-Braude-25">[25]</a> Many trance mediums delivered passionate speeches on <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">abolitionism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Temperance_movement" title="Temperance movement">temperance</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage" title="Women's suffrage">women's suffrage</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Braude-25">[25]</a> Scholars have described <a href="/wiki/Leonora_Piper" title="Leonora Piper">Leonora Piper</a> as one of the most famous trance mediums in the history of Spiritualism.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> Trance speakers believed that entering a trance gave them access to the spirits and, through them, to knowledge inaccessible in the waking world.<a href="#cite_note-Braude-25">[25]</a> Sometimes an assistant would write down the medium's words, such as in the early 20th century collaboration between the trance medium Mrs. Cecil M. Cook of the <a href="/wiki/William_T._Stead" class="mw-redirect" title="William T. Stead">William T. Stead</a> Memorial Center in Chicago (a religious body incorporated under the statutes of the State of Illinois) and the journalist <a href="/wiki/Lloyd_Kenyon_Jones" title="Lloyd Kenyon Jones">Lloyd Kenyon Jones</a>. The latter was a non-medium Spiritualist who transcribed Cook's messages in <a href="/wiki/Shorthand" title="Shorthand">shorthand</a>. He <a href="/wiki/Edited" class="mw-redirect" title="Edited">edited</a> them for publication in book and pamphlet form.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> Castillo (1995) states, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Trance phenomena result from the behavior of intense focusing of attention, which is the key psychological mechanism of trance induction. Adaptive responses, including institutionalized forms of trance, are 'tuned' into neural networks in the brain.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Physical_mediumship">Physical mediumship</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mediumship&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Physical mediumship">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Seance_Doll.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Seance_Doll.jpg/220px-Seance_Doll.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Seance_Doll.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="316" data-file-height="239" /></a><figcaption>A photograph of the medium <a href="/wiki/Linda_Gazzera" title="Linda Gazzera">Linda Gazzera</a> with a doll as fake ectoplasm</figcaption></figure> Physical mediumship is defined as manipulation of energies and energy systems by spirits. This type of mediumship is said to involve perceptible manifestations, such as loud raps and noises, voices, materialized objects, apports, materialized spirit bodies, or body parts such as hands, legs and feet. The medium is used as a source of power for such spirit manifestations. By some accounts, this was achieved by using the energy or ectoplasm released by a medium, see <a href="/wiki/Spirit_photography" title="Spirit photography">spirit photography</a>.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> The last physical medium to be tested by a committee from <a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a> was <a href="/wiki/Mina_Crandon" title="Mina Crandon">Mina Crandon</a> in 1924. Most physical mediumship is presented in a darkened or dimly lit room. Most physical mediums make use of a traditional array of tools and appurtenances, including spirit trumpets, spirit cabinets, and levitation tables.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Direct_voice">Direct voice</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mediumship&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Direct voice">edit</a>]</div> Direct voice communication refers to the hypothesis that spirits speak independently of the medium, who facilitates the phenomenon rather than produces it. The role of the medium is to make the connection between the physical and spirit worlds. Trumpets are often utilised to amplify the signal, and directed voice mediums are sometimes known as "trumpet mediums". This form of mediumship also permits the medium to participate in the discourse during séances, since the medium's voice is not required by the spirit to communicate. <a href="/wiki/Leslie_Flint" title="Leslie Flint">Leslie Flint</a> was one of the best known exponents of this form of mediumship.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Psychic_senses">Psychic senses</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mediumship&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Psychic senses">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Mediumship" title="Special:EditPage/Mediumship">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Mediumship%22">"Mediumship"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Mediumship%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Mediumship%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Mediumship%22+-wikipedia">books</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Mediumship%22">scholar</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Mediumship%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a> (April 2023) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Senses used by mental mediums are sometimes defined differently from in other <a href="/wiki/Paranormal" title="Paranormal">paranormal</a> fields. A medium is said to have psychic abilities but not all psychics function as mediums. The term clairvoyance, for instance, may include seeing spirit and visions instilled by the spirit world. The Parapsychological Association defines "clairvoyance" as information derived directly from an external physical source.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clairvoyance" title="Clairvoyance">Clairvoyance</a> or "clear seeing", is the ability to see anything that is not physically present, such as objects, animals or people. This sight occurs "in the mind's eye". Some mediums say that this is their normal vision state. Others say that they must train their minds with such practices as meditation in order to achieve this ability, and that assistance from spiritual helpers is often necessary. Some clairvoyant mediums can see a spirit as though the spirit has a physical body. They see the bodily form as if it were physically present. Other mediums see the spirit in their mind's eye, or it appears as a movie or a television programme or a still picture like a photograph in their mind.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clairaudience" title="Clairaudience">Clairaudience</a> or "clear hearing", is usually defined as the ability to hear the voices or thoughts of spirits. Some mediums hear as though they are listening to a person talking to them on the outside of their head, as though the Spirit is next to or near to the medium, and other mediums hear the voices in their minds as a verbal thought.</li> <li>Clairsentience or "clear sensing",<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> is the ability to have an impression of what a spirit wants to communicate, or to feel sensations instilled by a spirit.</li> <li>Clairsentinence or "clear feeling" is a condition in which the medium takes on the ailments of a spirit, feeling the same physical problem which the spirit person had before death.</li> <li>Clairalience or "clear smelling" is the ability to smell a spirit. For example, a medium may smell the pipe tobacco of a person who smoked during life.</li> <li>Clairgustance or "clear tasting" is the ability to receive taste impressions from a spirit.</li> <li>Claircognizance or "clear knowing", is the ability to know something without receiving it through normal or psychic senses. It is a feeling of "just knowing". Often, a medium will say that they have a feeling that a message or situation is "right" or "wrong."</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Explanations">Explanations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mediumship&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Explanations">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Paranormal_belief">Paranormal belief</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mediumship&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Paranormal belief">edit</a>]</div> Spiritualists believe that phenomena produced by mediums (both mental and physical mediumship) are the result of external spirit agencies.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> The psychical researcher <a href="/wiki/Thomson_Jay_Hudson" title="Thomson Jay Hudson">Thomson Jay Hudson</a> in The Law of Psychic Phenomena (1892) and <a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9odore_Flournoy" title="Théodore Flournoy">Théodore Flournoy</a> in his book Spiritism and Psychology (1911) wrote that all kinds of mediumship could be explained by <a href="/wiki/Suggestion" title="Suggestion">suggestion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Telepathy" title="Telepathy">telepathy</a> from the medium and that there was no evidence for the spirit hypothesis. The idea of mediumship being explained by telepathy was later merged into the "<a href="/wiki/Extrasensory_perception" title="Extrasensory perception">super-ESP</a>" hypothesis of mediumship which is currently advocated by some <a href="/wiki/Parapsychology" title="Parapsychology">parapsychologists</a>.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scientific_skepticism">Scientific skepticism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mediumship&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Scientific skepticism">edit</a>]</div> In their book How to Think About Weird Things: Critical Thinking for a New Age, authors <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Schick" title="Theodore Schick">Theodore Schick</a> and Lewis Vaughn have noted that the spiritualist and ESP hypothesis of mediumship "has yielded no novel predictions, assumes unknown entities or forces, and conflicts with available scientific evidence."<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> Scientists who study <a href="/wiki/Anomalistic_psychology" title="Anomalistic psychology">anomalistic psychology</a> consider mediumship to be the result of fraud and psychological factors. Research from psychology for over a hundred years suggests that where there is not fraud, mediumship and Spiritualist practices can be explained by <a href="/wiki/Hypnotism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypnotism">hypnotism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magical_thinking" title="Magical thinking">magical thinking</a> and <a href="/wiki/Suggestion" title="Suggestion">suggestion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> Trance mediumship, which according to Spiritualists is caused by discarnate spirits speaking through the medium, can be explained by <a href="/wiki/Dissociative_identity_disorder" title="Dissociative identity disorder">dissociative identity disorder</a>.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Illusionists, such as <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Rinn" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Rinn">Joseph Rinn</a> have staged fake séances in which the sitters have claimed to have observed genuine supernatural phenomena.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> <a href="/wiki/Albert_Moll_(German_psychiatrist)" title="Albert Moll (German psychiatrist)">Albert Moll</a> studied the psychology of <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9ance" title="Séance">séance</a> sitters. According to (Wolffram, 2012) "[Moll] argued that the hypnotic atmosphere of the darkened <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9ance" title="Séance">séance</a> room and the suggestive effect of the experimenters' social and scientific prestige could be used to explain why seemingly rational people vouchsafed occult phenomena."<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> The psychologists <a href="/wiki/Leonard_Zusne" title="Leonard Zusne">Leonard Zusne</a> and Warren Jones in their book Anomalistic Psychology: A Study of Magical Thinking (1989) wrote that spirits controls are the "products of the medium's own psychological dynamics."<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> A fraudulent medium may obtain information about their sitters by secretly <a href="/wiki/Eavesdropping" title="Eavesdropping">eavesdropping</a> on sitter's conversations or searching telephone directories, the internet and newspapers before the sittings.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> A technique called <a href="/wiki/Cold_reading" title="Cold reading">cold reading</a> can also be used to obtain information from the sitter's behavior, clothing, posture, and jewellery.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> The psychologist <a href="/wiki/Richard_Wiseman" title="Richard Wiseman">Richard Wiseman</a> has written: <blockquote>Cold reading also explains why psychics have consistently failed scientific tests of their powers. By isolating them from their clients, psychics are unable to pick up information from the way those clients dress or behave. By presenting all of the volunteers involved in the test with all of the readings, they are prevented from attributing meaning to their own reading, and therefore can't identify it from readings made for others. As a result, the type of highly successful hit rate that psychics enjoy on a daily basis comes crashing down and the truth emerges – their success depends on a fascinating application of psychology and not the existence of paranormal abilities.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></blockquote> In a series of experiments holding fake séances, (Wiseman et al. 2003) paranormal believers and disbelievers were suggested by an actor that a table was <a href="/wiki/Levitation_(paranormal)" title="Levitation (paranormal)">levitating</a> when, in fact, it remained stationary. After the seance, approximately one third of the participants incorrectly reported that the table had moved. The results showed a greater percentage of believers reporting that the table had moved. In another experiment the believers had also reported that a handbell had moved when it had remained stationary and expressed their belief that the fake séances contained genuine paranormal phenomena. The experiments strongly supported the notion that in the séance room, believers are more suggestible than disbelievers for suggestions that are <a href="/wiki/Confirmation_bias" title="Confirmation bias">consistent with their belief</a> in paranormal phenomena.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> In a 2019 television segment on <a href="/wiki/Last_Week_Tonight" class="mw-redirect" title="Last Week Tonight">Last Week Tonight</a> featuring prominent purported mediums including <a href="/wiki/Theresa_Caputo" title="Theresa Caputo">Theresa Caputo</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Edward" title="John Edward">John Edward</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tyler_Henry" title="Tyler Henry">Tyler Henry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sylvia_Browne" title="Sylvia Browne">Sylvia Browne</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Oliver" title="John Oliver">John Oliver</a> criticized the media for promoting mediums because this exposure convinces viewers that such powers are real, and so enable neighborhood mediums to prey on grieving families. Oliver said "...when psychic abilities are presented as authentic, it emboldens a vast underworld of unscrupulous vultures, more than happy to make money by offering an open line to the afterlife, as well as many other bullshit services."<a href="#cite_note-theguardian-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-LastWeekTonight-50">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fraud">Fraud</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mediumship&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Fraud">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Helen_Duncan_fake_ectoplasm.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Helen_Duncan_fake_ectoplasm.jpg/220px-Helen_Duncan_fake_ectoplasm.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Helen_Duncan_fake_ectoplasm.jpg/330px-Helen_Duncan_fake_ectoplasm.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Helen_Duncan_fake_ectoplasm.jpg/440px-Helen_Duncan_fake_ectoplasm.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="899" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Helen_Duncan" title="Helen Duncan">Helen Duncan</a> (age 30) in a séance with dolls (1928)</figcaption></figure> From its earliest beginnings to contemporary times, mediumship practices have had many instances of fraud and trickery.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-51">[51]</a> <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9ance" title="Séance">Séances</a> take place in darkness so the poor lighting conditions can become an easy opportunity for fraud. Physical mediumship that has been investigated by scientists has been discovered to be the result of <a href="/wiki/Deception" title="Deception">deception</a> and trickery.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> Ectoplasm, a supposed paranormal substance, was revealed to have been made from cheesecloth, butter, muslin, and cloth. Mediums would also stick cut-out faces from magazines and newspapers onto cloth or on other props and use plastic dolls in their séances to pretend to their audiences spirits were contacting them.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Spence" title="Lewis Spence">Lewis Spence</a> in his book An Encyclopaedia of Occultism (1960) wrote: <blockquote>A very large part is played by fraud in spiritualistic practices, both in the physical and psychical, or automatic, phenomena, but especially in the former. The frequency with which mediums have been convicted of fraud has, indeed, induced many people to abandon the study of psychical research, judging the whole bulk of the phenomena to be fraudulently produced.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a></blockquote> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Henry_Slade_medium.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Henry_Slade_medium.jpg/155px-Henry_Slade_medium.jpg" decoding="async" width="155" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Henry_Slade_medium.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="230" data-file-height="297" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Henry_Slade_(medium)" title="Henry Slade (medium)">Henry Slade</a></figcaption></figure> In Britain, the <a href="/wiki/Society_for_Psychical_Research" title="Society for Psychical Research">Society for Psychical Research</a> has investigated mediumship phenomena. Critical SPR investigations into purported mediums and the exposure of fake mediums has led to a number of resignations by Spiritualist members.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> On the subject of fraud in mediumship <a href="/wiki/Paul_Kurtz" title="Paul Kurtz">Paul Kurtz</a> wrote: <blockquote>No doubt a great importance in the paranormal field is the problem of fraud. The field of psychic research and spiritualism has been so notoriously full of charlatans, such as the <a href="/wiki/Fox_sisters" title="Fox sisters">Fox sisters</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eusapia_Palladino" title="Eusapia Palladino">Eusapia Palladino</a>–individuals who claim to have special power and gifts but who are actually conjurers who have hoodwinked scientists and the public as well–that we have to be especially cautious about claims made on their behalf.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></blockquote> Magicians have a long history of exposing the fraudulent methods of mediumship. Early debunkers included <a href="/wiki/Chung_Ling_Soo" title="Chung Ling Soo">Chung Ling Soo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_R._Evans" title="Henry R. Evans">Henry Evans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Julien_Proskauer" class="mw-redirect" title="Julien Proskauer">Julien Proskauer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> Later magicians to reveal fraud were <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Dunninger" title="Joseph Dunninger">Joseph Dunninger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harry_Houdini" title="Harry Houdini">Harry Houdini</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Rinn" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Rinn">Joseph Rinn</a>. <a href="/wiki/Rose_Mackenberg" title="Rose Mackenberg">Rose Mackenberg</a>, a private investigator who worked with Houdini during the 1920s, was among the most prominent debunkers of psychic fraud during the mid-20th century.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1800s">1800s</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mediumship&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: 1800s">edit</a>]</div> Many 19th century mediums were discovered to be engaged in <a href="/wiki/Fraud" title="Fraud">fraud</a>.<a href="#cite_note-SC-60">[60]</a> While advocates of mediumship claim that their experiences are genuine, the Encyclopædia Britannica article on spiritualism notes in reference to a case in the 19th century that "...one by one, the <a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(movement)" title="Spiritualism (movement)">Spiritualist</a> mediums were discovered to be engaged in fraud, sometimes employing the techniques of stage magicians in their attempts to convince people of their clairvoyant powers." The article also notes that "the exposure of widespread fraud within the spiritualist movement severely damaged its reputation and pushed it to the fringes of society in the United States."<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> At a <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9ance" title="Séance">séance</a> in the house of the solicitor John Snaith Rymer in <a href="/wiki/Ealing" title="Ealing">Ealing</a> in July 1855, a sitter Frederick Merrifield observed that a "spirit-hand" was a false limb attached on the end of the medium <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dunglas_Home" title="Daniel Dunglas Home">Daniel Dunglas Home</a>'s arm. Merrifield also claimed to have observed Home use his foot in the séance room.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> The poet <a href="/wiki/Robert_Browning" title="Robert Browning">Robert Browning</a> and his wife <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Barrett_Browning" title="Elizabeth Barrett Browning">Elizabeth</a> attended a séance on 23, July 1855 in Ealing with the Rymers.<a href="#cite_note-Thomas1989-63">[63]</a> During the séance a spirit face materialized which Home claimed was the son of Browning who had died in infancy. Browning seized the "materialization" and discovered it to be the bare foot of Home. To make the deception worse, Browning had never lost a son in infancy. Browning's son <a href="/wiki/Robert_Barrett_Browning" title="Robert Barrett Browning">Robert</a> in a letter to <a href="/wiki/The_Times" title="The Times">The Times</a>, December 5, 1902, referred to the incident "Home was detected in a vulgar fraud."<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> The researchers <a href="/wiki/Joseph_McCabe" title="Joseph McCabe">Joseph McCabe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trevor_H._Hall" title="Trevor H. Hall">Trevor H. Hall</a> exposed the "<a href="/wiki/Levitation_(paranormal)" title="Levitation (paranormal)">levitation</a>" of Home as nothing more than his moving across a connecting ledge between two iron balconies.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> The psychologist and psychical researcher <a href="/wiki/Stanley_LeFevre_Krebs" title="Stanley LeFevre Krebs">Stanley LeFevre Krebs</a> had exposed the <a href="/wiki/Bangs_Sisters" class="mw-redirect" title="Bangs Sisters">Bangs Sisters</a> as frauds. During a séance he employed a hidden mirror and caught them tampering with a letter in an envelope and writing a reply in it under the table which they would pretend a spirit had written.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> The British materialization medium Rosina Mary Showers was caught in many fraudulent séances throughout her career.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> In 1874 during a séance with <a href="/wiki/Edward_William_Cox" title="Edward William Cox">Edward William Cox</a> a sitter looked into the cabinet and seized the spirit, the <a href="/wiki/Headgear" title="Headgear">headdress</a> fell off and was revealed to be Showers.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> In a series of experiments in <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> at the house of <a href="/wiki/William_Crookes" title="William Crookes">William Crookes</a> in February 1875, the medium <a href="/wiki/Anna_Eva_Fay" title="Anna Eva Fay">Anna Eva Fay</a> managed to fool Crookes into believing she had genuine <a href="/wiki/Psychic" title="Psychic">psychic</a> powers. Fay later confessed to her fraud and revealed the tricks she had used.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> Frank Herne a British medium who formed a partnership with the medium Charles Williams was repeatedly exposed in fraudulent materialization séances.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> In 1875, he was caught pretending to be a spirit during a séance in Liverpool and was found "clothed in about two yards of stiffened muslin, wound round his head and hanging down as far as his thigh."<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> <a href="/wiki/Florence_Cook_(medium)" title="Florence Cook (medium)">Florence Cook</a> had been "trained in the arts of the séance" by Herne and was repeatedly exposed as a fraudulent medium.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> The medium <a href="/wiki/Henry_Slade_(medium)" title="Henry Slade (medium)">Henry Slade</a> was caught in fraud many times throughout his career. In a séance in 1876 in London <a href="/wiki/Ray_Lankester" title="Ray Lankester">Ray Lankester</a> and Bryan Donkin snatched his <a href="/wiki/Slate_(writing)" title="Slate (writing)">slate</a> before the "spirit" message was supposed to be written, and found the writing already there.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> Slade also played an <a href="/wiki/Accordion" title="Accordion">accordion</a> with one hand under the table and claimed spirits would play it. The magician <a href="/wiki/Chung_Ling_Soo" title="Chung Ling Soo">Chung Ling Soo</a> revealed how Slade had performed the trick.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cardboard_cut_out_with_Eva_C.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Cardboard_cut_out_with_Eva_C.png/170px-Cardboard_cut_out_with_Eva_C.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="252" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Cardboard_cut_out_with_Eva_C.png/255px-Cardboard_cut_out_with_Eva_C.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Cardboard_cut_out_with_Eva_C.png/340px-Cardboard_cut_out_with_Eva_C.png 2x" data-file-width="344" data-file-height="509" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Eva_Carri%C3%A8re" title="Eva Carrière">Eva Carrière</a> with cardboard cut out figure <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_I_of_Bulgaria" title="Ferdinand I of Bulgaria">King Ferdinand of Bulgaria</a></figcaption></figure> The British medium <a href="/wiki/Francis_Ward_Monck" title="Francis Ward Monck">Francis Ward Monck</a> was investigated by psychical researchers and discovered to be a fraud. On November 3, 1876, during the séance a sitter demanded that Monck be searched. Monck ran from the room, locked himself in another room and escaped out of a window. A pair of stuffed gloves was found in his room, as well as cheesecloth, reaching rods and other fraudulent devices in his luggage.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> After a trial Monck was convicted for his fraudulent mediumship and was sentenced to three months in prison.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> In 1876, <a href="/wiki/William_Eglinton" title="William Eglinton">William Eglinton</a> was exposed as a fraud when the <a href="/wiki/Parapsychology" title="Parapsychology">psychical researcher</a> Thomas Colley seized a "spirit" materialization in his séance and cut off a portion of its cloak. It was discovered that the cut piece matched a <a href="/wiki/Cloth" class="mw-redirect" title="Cloth">cloth</a> found in Eglinton's <a href="/wiki/Suitcase" title="Suitcase">suitcase</a>.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> Colley also pulled the beard off the materialization and it was revealed to be a fake, the same as another one found in the suitcase of Eglinton.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> In 1880 in a <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9ance" title="Séance">séance</a> a spirit named "Yohlande" materialized, a sitter grabbed it and was revealed to be the medium <a href="/wiki/Mme._d%27Esperance" title="Mme. d'Esperance">Mme. d'Esperance</a> herself.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> In September 1878 the British medium Charles Williams and his fellow-medium at the time, A. Rita, were detected in trickery at Amsterdam. During the séance a materialized spirit was seized and found to be Rita and a bottle of phosphorus oil, <a href="/wiki/Muslin" title="Muslin">muslin</a> and a false beard were found amongst the two mediums.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> In 1882 C. E. Wood was exposed in a séance in Peterborough. Her Indian spirit control "Pocka" was found to be the medium on her knees, covered in muslin.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> In 1880 the American stage mentalist <a href="/wiki/Washington_Irving_Bishop" title="Washington Irving Bishop">Washington Irving Bishop</a> published a book revealing how mediums would use secret codes as the trick for their <a href="/wiki/Clairvoyance" title="Clairvoyance">clairvoyant</a> readings.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Seybert_Commission" title="Seybert Commission">Seybert Commission</a> was a group of faculty at the University of Pennsylvania who in 1884–1887 exposed fraudulent mediums such as <a href="/wiki/Pierre_L._O._A._Keeler" title="Pierre L. O. A. Keeler">Pierre L. O. A. Keeler</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henry_Slade_(medium)" title="Henry Slade (medium)">Henry Slade</a>.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Fox_sisters" title="Fox sisters">Fox sisters</a> confessed to fraud in 1888. Margaret Fox revealed that she and her sister had produced the "spirit" rappings by cracking their toe joints.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> In 1891 at a public séance with twenty sitters the medium <a href="/wiki/Cecil_Husk" title="Cecil Husk">Cecil Husk</a> was caught leaning over a table pretending to be a spirit by covering his face with phosphor material.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> The magician <a href="/wiki/Will_Goldston" title="Will Goldston">Will Goldston</a> also exposed the fraud mediumship of Husk. In a séance Goldston attended a pale face materialization appeared in the room. Goldston wrote "I saw at once that it was a gauze mask, and that the moustache attached to it was loose at one side through lack of gum. I pulled at the mask. It came away, revealing the face of Husk."<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> The British materialization medium <a href="/wiki/Annie_Fairlamb_Mellon" title="Annie Fairlamb Mellon">Annie Fairlamb Mellon</a> was exposed as a fraud on October 12, 1894. During the séance a sitter seized the materialized spirit, and found it to be the Mellon on her knees with white <a href="/wiki/Muslin" title="Muslin">muslin</a> on her head and shoulders.<a href="#cite_note-MHarris-88">[88]</a> The magician <a href="/wiki/Samri_Baldwin" title="Samri Baldwin">Samri Baldwin</a> exposed the tricks of the <a href="/wiki/Davenport_brothers" title="Davenport brothers">Davenport brothers</a> in his book The Secrets of Mahatma Land Explained (1895).<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> The medium <a href="/wiki/Swami_Laura_Horos" class="mw-redirect" title="Swami Laura Horos">Swami Laura Horos</a> was convicted of fraud several times and was tried for <a href="/wiki/Rape" title="Rape">rape</a> and fraud in London in 1901. She was described by the magician <a href="/wiki/Harry_Houdini" title="Harry Houdini">Harry Houdini</a> as "one of the most extraordinary fake mediums and mystery swindlers the world has ever known".<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> In the late 19th century, the fraudulent methods of <a href="/wiki/Spirit_photography" title="Spirit photography">spirit photographers</a> such as <a href="/wiki/David_Duguid_(medium)" title="David Duguid (medium)">David Duguid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edward_Wyllie" title="Edward Wyllie">Edward Wyllie</a> were revealed by psychical researchers.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hereward_Carrington" title="Hereward Carrington">Hereward Carrington</a> documented various methods (with diagrams) how the medium would manipulate the <a href="/wiki/Photographic_plate" title="Photographic plate">plates</a> before, during, and after the séance to produce spirit forms.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> The ectoplasm materializations of the French medium <a href="/wiki/Eva_Carri%C3%A8re" title="Eva Carrière">Eva Carrière</a> were exposed as fraudulent. The fake ectoplasm of Carrière was made of cut-out paper faces from newspapers and magazines on which fold marks could sometimes be seen from the photographs.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> Cut out faces that she used included <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a>, King Ferdinand of Bulgaria, French president <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Raymond Poincaré">Raymond Poincaré</a> and the actress Mona Delza.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> The séance trick of the <a href="/wiki/Eddy_Brothers" title="Eddy Brothers">Eddy Brothers</a> was revealed by the magician <a href="/wiki/Chung_Ling_Soo" title="Chung Ling Soo">Chung Ling Soo</a> in 1898. The brothers utilized a fake hand made of lead, and with their hands free from control would play musical instruments and move objects in the séance room.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> The physiologist <a href="/wiki/Ivor_Lloyd_Tuckett" title="Ivor Lloyd Tuckett">Ivor Lloyd Tuckett</a> examined a case of <a href="/wiki/Spirit_photography" title="Spirit photography">spirit photography</a> that <a href="/wiki/William_Thomas_Stead" class="mw-redirect" title="William Thomas Stead">W. T. Stead</a> had claimed was genuine. Stead visited a photographer who had produced a photograph of him with deceased soldier known as "Piet Botha". Stead claimed that the photographer could not have come across any information about Piet Botha, however, Tuckett discovered that an article in 1899 had been published on Pietrus Botha in a weekly magazine with a portrait and personal details.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> The trance medium <a href="/wiki/Leonora_Piper" title="Leonora Piper">Leonora Piper</a> was investigated by psychical researchers and <a href="/wiki/Psychologist" title="Psychologist">psychologists</a> in the late 19th and early 20th century. In an experiment to test if Piper's "spirit" controls were purely fictitious the psychologist <a href="/wiki/G._Stanley_Hall" title="G. Stanley Hall">G. Stanley Hall</a> invented a niece called Bessie Beals and asked Piper's 'control' to get in touch with it. Bessie appeared, answered questions and accepted Hall as her uncle.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> The psychologist <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Jastrow" title="Joseph Jastrow">Joseph Jastrow</a> wrote that Piper pretended to be controlled by spirits and fell into simple and logical traps from her comments.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> Science writer <a href="/wiki/Martin_Gardner" title="Martin Gardner">Martin Gardner</a> concluded Piper was a <a href="/wiki/Cold_reading" title="Cold reading">cold reader</a> that would "fish" for information from her séance sitters.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> The physiologist <a href="/wiki/Ivor_Lloyd_Tuckett" title="Ivor Lloyd Tuckett">Ivor Lloyd Tuckett</a> who examined Piper's mediumship in detail wrote it could be explained by "muscle-reading, fishing, guessing, hints obtained in the sitting, knowledge surreptitiously obtained, knowledge acquired in the interval between sittings and lastly, facts already within Mrs. Piper's knowledge."<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1900s">1900s</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mediumship&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: 1900s">edit</a>]</div> In March 1902 in <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>, police officers interrupted a séance of the German apport medium Frau Anna Rothe. Her hands were grabbed and she was wrestled to the ground. A female police assistant physically examined Rothe and discovered 157 <a href="/wiki/Flower" title="Flower">flowers</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Orange_(fruit)" title="Orange (fruit)">oranges</a> and lemons hidden in her petticoat. She was arrested and charged with fraud.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> Another apport medium Hilda Lewis known as the "flower medium" confessed to fraud.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> The psychical researchers <a href="/wiki/W._W._Baggally" title="W. W. Baggally">W. W. Baggally</a> and <a href="/wiki/Everard_Feilding" title="Everard Feilding">Everard Feilding</a> exposed the British materialization medium Christopher Chambers as a fraud in 1905. A false moustache was discovered in the séance room which he used to fabricate the spirit materializations.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> The British medium Charles Eldred was exposed as a fraud in 1906. Eldred would sit in a chair in a curtained off area in the room known as a "séance cabinet". Various spirit figures would emerge from the cabinet and move around the séance room, however, it was discovered that the chair had a secret compartment that contained beards, cloths, <a href="/wiki/Mask" title="Mask">masks</a>, and wigs that Eldred would dress up in to pretend to be spirits.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> The spirit photographer <a href="/wiki/William_Hope_(paranormal_investigator)" title="William Hope (paranormal investigator)">William Hope</a> tricked <a href="/wiki/William_Crookes" title="William Crookes">William Crookes</a> with a fake spirit photograph of his wife in 1906. <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Lodge" title="Oliver Lodge">Oliver Lodge</a> revealed there had been obvious signs of double exposure, the picture of Lady Crookes had been copied from a wedding anniversary photograph, however, Crookes was a convinced spiritualist and claimed it was genuine evidence for <a href="/wiki/Spirit_photography" title="Spirit photography">spirit photography</a>.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> In 1907, <a href="/wiki/Hereward_Carrington" title="Hereward Carrington">Hereward Carrington</a> exposed the tricks of fraudulent mediums such as those used in slate-writing, <a href="/wiki/Table-turning" title="Table-turning">table-turning</a>, trumpet mediumship, materializations, sealed-letter reading and <a href="/wiki/Spirit_photography" title="Spirit photography">spirit photography</a>.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> between 1908 and 1914 the Italian medium Francesco Carancini was investigated by psychical researchers and they discovered that he used <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a> <a href="/wiki/Match" title="Match">matches</a> to produce "spirit lights" and with a freed hand would move objects in the séance room.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> In 1908 at a hotel in <a href="/wiki/Naples" title="Naples">Naples</a>, the psychical researchers <a href="/wiki/W._W._Baggally" title="W. W. Baggally">W. W. Baggally</a>, Hereward Carrington and <a href="/wiki/Everard_Feilding" title="Everard Feilding">Everard Feilding</a> attended a series of séances with <a href="/wiki/Eusapia_Palladino" title="Eusapia Palladino">Eusapia Palladino</a>. In a report they claimed that genuine supernatural activity had occurred in the séances, this report became known as the Feilding report.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> In 1910, Feilding returned to Naples, but this time accompanied with the magician <a href="/w/index.php?title=William_S._Marriott&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="William S. Marriott (page does not exist)">William S. Marriott</a>. Unlike the 1908 sittings, Feilding and Marriott detected her cheating, just as she had done in America. Her deceptions were obvious. Palladino evaded control and was caught moving objects with her foot, shaking the curtain with her hands, moving the cabinet table with her elbow and touching the séance sitters. <a href="/wiki/Milbourne_Christopher" title="Milbourne Christopher">Milbourne Christopher</a> wrote regarding the exposure "when one knows how a feat can be done and what to look for, only the most skillful performer can maintain the illusion in the face of such informed scrutiny."<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stanis%C5%82awa_Tomczyk_and_William_Marriott.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Stanis%C5%82awa_Tomczyk_and_William_Marriott.png/260px-Stanis%C5%82awa_Tomczyk_and_William_Marriott.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Stanis%C5%82awa_Tomczyk_and_William_Marriott.png/390px-Stanis%C5%82awa_Tomczyk_and_William_Marriott.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Stanis%C5%82awa_Tomczyk_and_William_Marriott.png/520px-Stanis%C5%82awa_Tomczyk_and_William_Marriott.png 2x" data-file-width="617" data-file-height="472" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82awa_Tomczyk" title="Stanisława Tomczyk">Stanisława Tomczyk</a> (left) and the magician William Marriott (right) who duplicated by natural means her <a href="/wiki/Levitation_(paranormal)" title="Levitation (paranormal)">levitation</a> trick of a glass beaker</figcaption></figure> In 1910 at a séance in Grenoble, France the apport medium <a href="/wiki/Charles_Bailey_(medium)" title="Charles Bailey (medium)">Charles Bailey</a> produced two live birds in the séance room. Bailey was unaware that the dealer he had bought the birds from was present in the séance and he was exposed as a fraud.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> The psychical researcher <a href="/wiki/Eric_Dingwall" title="Eric Dingwall">Eric Dingwall</a> observed the medium <a href="/wiki/Bert_Reese" title="Bert Reese">Bert Reese</a> in New York and claimed to have discovered his <a href="/wiki/Billet_reading" title="Billet reading">billet reading</a> tricks.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> The most detailed account at exposing his tricks (with diagrams) was by the magician <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Annemann" title="Theodore Annemann">Theodore Annemann</a>.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> The Polish medium <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82awa_Tomczyk" title="Stanisława Tomczyk">Stanisława Tomczyk</a>'s levitation of a glass beaker was exposed and replicated in 1910 by the magician <a href="/w/index.php?title=William_S._Marriott&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="William S. Marriott (page does not exist)">William S. Marriott</a> by means of a hidden thread.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> The Italian medium Lucia Sordi was exposed in 1911, she was bound to a chair by psychical researchers but would free herself during her séances. The tricks of another Italian medium <a href="/wiki/Linda_Gazzera" title="Linda Gazzera">Linda Gazzera</a> were revealed in the same year, she would release her hands and feet from control in her séances and use them. Gazzera would not permit anyone to search her before a séance sitting, as she concealed <a href="/wiki/Muslin" title="Muslin">muslin</a> and other objects in her hair.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> In 1917, <a href="/wiki/Edward_Clodd" title="Edward Clodd">Edward Clodd</a> analyzed the mediumship of the trance medium <a href="/wiki/Gladys_Osborne_Leonard" title="Gladys Osborne Leonard">Gladys Osborne Leonard</a> and came to the conclusion that Leonard had known her séance sitters before she had held the séances, and could have easily obtained such information by natural means.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> The British psychiatrist <a href="/wiki/Charles_Arthur_Mercier" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Arthur Mercier">Charles Arthur Mercier</a> wrote in his book Spiritualism and Sir Oliver Lodge (1917) that <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Lodge" title="Oliver Lodge">Oliver Lodge</a> had been duped into believing mediumship by trickery and his spiritualist views were based on assumptions and not scientific evidence.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> In 1918, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Jastrow" title="Joseph Jastrow">Joseph Jastrow</a> wrote about the tricks of <a href="/wiki/Eusapia_Palladino" title="Eusapia Palladino">Eusapia Palladino</a> who was an expert at freeing her hands and feet from the control in the séance room.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> In the séance room Palladino would move curtains from a distance by releasing a jet of air from a rubber bulb that she had in her hand.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> According to the psychical researcher <a href="/wiki/Harry_Price" title="Harry Price">Harry Price</a> "Her tricks were usually childish: long hairs attached to small objects in order to produce 'telekinetic movements'; the gradual substitution of one hand for two when being controlled by sitters; the production of 'phenomena' with a foot which had been surreptitiously removed from its shoe and so on."<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> In the 1920s the British medium Charles Albert Beare duped the Spiritualist organization the Temple of Light into believing he had genuine mediumship powers. In 1931 Beare published a confession in the newspaper <a href="/wiki/Daily_Express" title="Daily Express">Daily Express</a>. In the confession he stated "I have deceived hundreds of people…. I have been guilty of fraud and deception in spiritualistic practices by pretending that I was controlled by a spirit guide…. I am frankly and whole-heartedly sorry that I have allowed myself to deceive people."<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> Due to the exposure of <a href="/wiki/William_Hope_(paranormal_investigator)" title="William Hope (paranormal investigator)">William Hope</a> and other fraudulent spiritualists, Arthur Conan Doyle in the 1920s led a mass resignation of eighty-four members of the <a href="/wiki/Society_for_Psychical_Research" title="Society for Psychical Research">Society for Psychical Research</a>, as they believed the Society was opposed to spiritualism.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> Between 8 November and 31 December 1920 <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Geley" title="Gustav Geley">Gustav Geley</a> of the Institute Metapsychique International attended fourteen séances with the medium <a href="/wiki/Franek_Kluski" title="Franek Kluski">Franek Kluski</a> in Paris. A bowl of hot paraffin was placed in the room and according to Kluski spirits dipped their limbs into the <a href="/wiki/Paraffin_wax" title="Paraffin wax">paraffin</a> and then into a bath of water to materialize. Three other series of séances were held in Warsaw in Kluski's own apartment, these took place over a period of three years. Kluski was not searched in any of the séances. Photographs of the molds were obtained during the four series of experiments and were published by Geley in 1924.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rogo1978-123">[123]</a> <a href="/wiki/Harry_Houdini" title="Harry Houdini">Harry Houdini</a> replicated the Kluski materialization moulds by using his hands and a bowl of hot paraffin.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> The British direct-voice medium <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Tansley_Munnings" title="Frederick Tansley Munnings">Frederick Tansley Munnings</a> was exposed as a fraud when one of his séance sitters turned the lights on which revealed him to be holding a trumpet by means of a telescopic extension piece and using an angle piece to change the auditory effect of his voice.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Hodgson_(parapsychologist)" title="Richard Hodgson (parapsychologist)">Richard Hodgson</a> held six sittings with the medium <a href="/wiki/Rosina_Thompson" title="Rosina Thompson">Rosina Thompson</a> and came to the conclusion she was a fraud as he discovered Thompson had access to documents and information about her séance sitters.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> On 4 February 1922, <a href="/wiki/Harry_Price" title="Harry Price">Harry Price</a> with James Seymour, <a href="/wiki/Eric_Dingwall" title="Eric Dingwall">Eric Dingwall</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=William_S._Marriott&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="William S. Marriott (page does not exist)">William S. Marriott</a> had proven the spirit photographer <a href="/wiki/William_Hope_(paranormal_investigator)" title="William Hope (paranormal investigator)">William Hope</a> was a fraud during tests at the British College of Psychic Science. Price wrote in his SPR report "William Hope has been found guilty of deliberately substituting his own plates for those of a sitter... It implies that the medium brings to the sitting a duplicate slide and faked plates for fraudulent purposes."<a href="#cite_note-csicop.org-127">[127]</a> The medium <a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Goligher" title="Kathleen Goligher">Kathleen Goligher</a> was investigated by the physicist <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Edward_Fournier_d%27Albe" title="Edmund Edward Fournier d'Albe">Edmund Edward Fournier d'Albe</a>. On July 22, 1921, in a séance he observed Goligher holding the table up with her foot. He also discovered that her ectoplasm was made of muslin. During a séance d'Albe observed white muslin between Goligher's feet.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> The Danish medium <a href="/wiki/Einer_Nielsen" title="Einer Nielsen">Einer Nielsen</a> was investigated by a committee from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oslo" title="University of Oslo">Kristiania University</a> in Norway, 1922 and discovered in a séance that his ectoplasm was fake.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> In 1923 the Polish medium <a href="/wiki/Jan_Guzyk" title="Jan Guzyk">Jan Guzyk</a> was exposed as a fraud in a series of séances in Sorbonne in <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>. Guzyk would use his elbows and legs to move objects around the room and touch the sitters. According to <a href="/wiki/Max_Dessoir" title="Max Dessoir">Max Dessoir</a> the trick of Guzyk was to use his "foot for psychic touches and sounds".<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> The psychical researchers <a href="/wiki/Eric_Dingwall" title="Eric Dingwall">Eric Dingwall</a> and <a href="/wiki/Harry_Price" title="Harry Price">Harry Price</a> re-published an anonymous work written by a former medium entitled Revelations of a Spirit Medium (1922) which exposed the tricks of mediumship and the fraudulent methods of producing "spirit hands".<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> Originally all the copies of the book were bought up by spiritualists and deliberately destroyed.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> In 1923, the magician <a href="/wiki/Carlos_Mar%C3%ADa_de_Heredia" title="Carlos María de Heredia">Carlos María de Heredia</a> revealed how fake spirit hands could be made by using a rubber glove, paraffin and a jar of cold water.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> The Hungarian medium <a href="/wiki/Ladislas_Lasslo" class="mw-redirect" title="Ladislas Lasslo">Ladislas Lasslo</a> confessed that all of his spirit materializations were fraudulent in 1924. A séance sitter was also found to be working as a confederate for Lasslo.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mina_Crandon_Fake_Ectoplasm.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Mina_Crandon_Fake_Ectoplasm.jpg/220px-Mina_Crandon_Fake_Ectoplasm.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Mina_Crandon_Fake_Ectoplasm.jpg/330px-Mina_Crandon_Fake_Ectoplasm.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Mina_Crandon_Fake_Ectoplasm.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="398" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mina_Crandon" title="Mina Crandon">Mina Crandon</a> with her "spirit hand" which was discovered to be made from a piece of carved <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animal</a> <a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">liver</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Medium_Stanis%C5%82awa_P.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Medium_Stanis%C5%82awa_P.png/220px-Medium_Stanis%C5%82awa_P.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Medium_Stanis%C5%82awa_P.png/330px-Medium_Stanis%C5%82awa_P.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Medium_Stanis%C5%82awa_P.png/440px-Medium_Stanis%C5%82awa_P.png 2x" data-file-width="743" data-file-height="473" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82awa_P." title="Stanisława P.">Stanisława P.</a> with ectoplasm</figcaption></figure> The Austrian medium <a href="/wiki/Rudi_Schneider" title="Rudi Schneider">Rudi Schneider</a> was investigated in 1924 by the physicists <a href="/wiki/Stefan_Meyer_(physicist)" title="Stefan Meyer (physicist)">Stefan Meyer</a> and Karl Przibram. They caught Rudi freeing his arm in a series of séances.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> Rudi claimed he could <a href="/wiki/Levitation_(paranormal)" title="Levitation (paranormal)">levitate</a> objects but according to <a href="/wiki/Harry_Price" title="Harry Price">Harry Price</a> a photograph taken on April 28, 1932, showed that Rudi had managed to free his arm to move a handkerchief from the table.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> According to Warren Jay Vinton, Schneider was an expert at freeing himself from control in the séance room.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Gatty" title="Oliver Gatty">Oliver Gatty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Besterman" title="Theodore Besterman">Theodore Besterman</a> who tested Schneider concluded that in their tests there was "no good evidence that Rudi Schneider possesses supernormal powers."<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> The spiritualists Arthur Conan Doyle and <a href="/wiki/William_Thomas_Stead" class="mw-redirect" title="William Thomas Stead">W. T. Stead</a> were duped into believing <a href="/wiki/Julius_and_Agnes_Zancig" title="Julius and Agnes Zancig">Julius and Agnes Zancig</a> had genuine psychic powers. Both Doyle and Stead wrote that the Zancigs performed <a href="/wiki/Telepathy" title="Telepathy">telepathy</a>. In 1924 Julius and Agnes Zancig confessed that their <a href="/wiki/Mentalism" title="Mentalism">mind reading</a> act was a trick and published the secret code and all the details of the trick method they had used under the title of Our Secrets!! in a London Newspaper.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> In 1925, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Soal" title="Samuel Soal">Samuel Soal</a> claimed to have taken part in a series of séances with the medium <a href="/wiki/Blanche_Cooper" class="mw-redirect" title="Blanche Cooper">Blanche Cooper</a> who contacted the spirit of a soldier Gordon Davis and revealed the <a href="/wiki/House" title="House">house</a> that he had lived in. Researchers later discovered fraud as the séances had taken place in 1922, not 1925. The magician and paranormal investigator Bob Couttie revealed that Davis was alive, Soal lived close to him and had altered the records of the sittings after checking out the house. Soal's co-workers knew that he had fiddled the results but were kept quiet with threats of libel suits.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mina_Crandon" title="Mina Crandon">Mina Crandon</a> claimed to materialize a "spirit hand", but when examined by biologists the hand was discovered to be made from a piece of carved animal liver.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> The German apport medium <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Melzer" title="Heinrich Melzer">Heinrich Melzer</a> was discovered to be a fraud in 1926. In a séance psychical researchers found that Melzer had small stones attached to the back of his ears by flesh coloured tape.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> Psychical researchers who investigated the mediumship of <a href="/wiki/Maria_Silbert" title="Maria Silbert">Maria Silbert</a> revealed that she used her feet and toes to move objects in the séance room.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> In 1930 the Polish medium <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82awa_P." title="Stanisława P.">Stanisława P.</a> was tested at the Institut Metapsychique in <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>. French psychical researcher <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A9ne_Osty" class="mw-redirect" title="Eugéne Osty">Eugéne Osty</a> suspected in the séance that Stanislawa had freed her hand from control. Secret flashlight photographs that were taken revealed that her hand was free and she had moved objects on the séance table.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> It was claimed by spiritualists that during a series of séances in 1930 the medium <a href="/wiki/Eileen_J._Garrett" title="Eileen J. Garrett">Eileen J. Garrett</a> channeled secret information from the spirit of the Lieutenant <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Carmichael_Irwin" title="Herbert Carmichael Irwin">Herbert Carmichael Irwin</a> who had died in the <a href="/wiki/R101" title="R101">R101</a> crash a few days before the séance. Researcher Melvin Harris who studied the case wrote that the information described in Garrett's séances were "either commonplace, easily absorbed bits and pieces, or plain gobblede-gook. The so-called secret information just doesn't exist."<a href="#cite_note-MHarris-88">[88]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Helen-duncan-platexi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Helen-duncan-platexi.jpg/188px-Helen-duncan-platexi.jpg" decoding="async" width="188" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Helen-duncan-platexi.jpg/283px-Helen-duncan-platexi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Helen-duncan-platexi.jpg/377px-Helen-duncan-platexi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="712" data-file-height="1133" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Helen_Duncan" title="Helen Duncan">Helen Duncan</a> with fake ectoplasm, analysed by <a href="/wiki/Harry_Price" title="Harry Price">Harry Price</a> to be made of cheesecloth and a rubber glove</figcaption></figure> In the 1930s <a href="/wiki/Harry_Price" title="Harry Price">Harry Price</a> (director of the <a href="/wiki/National_Laboratory_of_Psychical_Research" title="National Laboratory of Psychical Research">National Laboratory of Psychical Research</a>) had investigated the medium <a href="/wiki/Helen_Duncan" title="Helen Duncan">Helen Duncan</a> and had her perform a number of test séances. She was suspected of swallowing cheesecloth which was then regurgitated as "ectoplasm".<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> Price had proven through analysis of a sample of ectoplasm produced by Duncan, that it was made of cheesecloth.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> <a href="/wiki/Helen_Duncan" title="Helen Duncan">Helen Duncan</a> would also use a doll made of a painted papier-mâché mask draped in an old sheet which she pretended to her sitters was a spirit.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> The photographs taken by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Glendenning_Hamilton" title="Thomas Glendenning Hamilton">Thomas Glendenning Hamilton</a> in the 1930s of ectoplasm reveal the substance to be made of tissue paper and magazine cut-outs of people. The famous photograph taken by Hamilton of the medium Mary Ann Marshall depicts <a href="/wiki/Tissue_paper" title="Tissue paper">tissue paper</a> with a cut out of Arthur Conan Doyle's head from a newspaper. Skeptics have suspected that Hamilton may have been behind the <a href="/wiki/Hoax" title="Hoax">hoax</a>.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> Psychologists and researchers who studied Pearl Curran's <a href="/wiki/Automatic_writing" title="Automatic writing">automatic writings</a> in the 1930s came to the conclusion <a href="/wiki/Patience_Worth" title="Patience Worth">Patience Worth</a> was a fictitious creation of Curran.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> In 1931 <a href="/wiki/George_Valiantine" title="George Valiantine">George Valiantine</a> was exposed as a fraud in the séance room as it was discovered that he produced fraudulent "spirit" fingerprints in wax. The "spirit" thumbprint that Valiantine claimed belonged to Arthur Conan Doyle was revealed to be the print of his big toe on his right foot. It was also revealed that Valiantine made some of the prints with his elbow.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> The medium <a href="/wiki/Frank_Decker_(medium)" title="Frank Decker (medium)">Frank Decker</a> was exposed as a fraud in 1932. A magician and séance sitter who called himself M. Taylor presented a mail bag and Decker agreed to lock himself inside it. During the séance objects were moved around the room and it was claimed spirits had released Decker from the bag. It was later discovered to have been a trick as Martin Sunshine, a magic dealer admitted that he sold Decker a trick mail bag, such as stage <a href="/wiki/Escapology" title="Escapology">escapologists</a> use, and had acted as the medium's confederate by pretending to be M. Taylor, a magician.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> The British medium <a href="/wiki/Estelle_Roberts" title="Estelle Roberts">Estelle Roberts</a> claimed to materialize an Indian <a href="/wiki/Spirit_guide" title="Spirit guide">spirit guide</a> called "Red Cloud". Researcher Melvin Harris who examined some photographs of Red Cloud wrote the face was the same as Roberts and she had dressed up in a feathered war-bonnet.<a href="#cite_note-MHarris-88">[88]</a> In 1936, the psychical researcher <a href="/wiki/Nandor_Fodor" title="Nandor Fodor">Nandor Fodor</a> tested the Hungarian apport medium <a href="/wiki/Lajos_Pap" title="Lajos Pap">Lajos Pap</a> in <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> and during the séance a dead snake appeared. Pap was searched and was found to be wearing a device under his robe, where he had hidden the snake.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> A photograph taken at a séance in 1937 in London shows the medium <a href="/wiki/Colin_Evans_(medium)" title="Colin Evans (medium)">Colin Evans</a> "levitating" in mid air. He claimed that spirits had lifted him. Evans was later discovered to be a fraud as a cord leading from a device in his hand has indicated that it was himself who triggered the flash-photograph and that all he had done was jump from his chair into the air and pretend he had levitated.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> According to the magician <a href="/wiki/John_Booth_(magician)" title="John Booth (magician)">John Booth</a> the stage mentalist <a href="/wiki/David_Devant" title="David Devant">David Devant</a> managed to fool a number of people into believing he had genuine <a href="/wiki/Psychic" title="Psychic">psychic</a> ability who did not realize that his feats were magic tricks. At <a href="/wiki/St._George%27s_Hall,_London" title="St. George's Hall, London">St. George's Hall, London</a> he performed a fake "clairvoyant" act where he would read a message sealed inside an envelope. The spiritualist <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Lodge" title="Oliver Lodge">Oliver Lodge</a> who was present in the audience was duped by the trick and claimed that Devant had used psychic powers. In 1936 Devant in his book Secrets of My Magic revealed the trick method he had used.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> The physicist <a href="/wiki/Kristian_Birkeland" title="Kristian Birkeland">Kristian Birkeland</a> exposed the fraud of the direct voice medium <a href="/wiki/Etta_Wriedt" title="Etta Wriedt">Etta Wriedt</a>. Birkeland turned on the lights during a séance, snatched her trumpets and discovered that the "spirit" noises were caused by chemical explosions induced by potassium and water and in other cases by <a href="/wiki/Lycopodium" title="Lycopodium">lycopodium</a> powder.<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> The British medium Isa Northage claimed to materialize the spirit of a <a href="/wiki/Surgeon" title="Surgeon">surgeon</a> known as Dr. Reynolds. When photographs taken of Reynolds were analyzed by researchers they discovered that Northage looked like Reynolds with a glued stage beard.<a href="#cite_note-MHarris-88">[88]</a> The magician <a href="/wiki/Julien_Proskauer" class="mw-redirect" title="Julien Proskauer">Julien Proskauer</a> revealed that the levitating trumpet of <a href="/wiki/Jack_Webber" title="Jack Webber">Jack Webber</a> was a trick. Close examination of photographs reveal Webber to be holding a telescopic reaching rod attached to the trumpet, and sitters in his séances only believed it to have levitated because the room was so dark they could not see the rod. Webber would cover the rod with crepe paper to disguise its real construction.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kathleen_Goligher_fake_ectoplasm.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Kathleen_Goligher_fake_ectoplasm.jpg/174px-Kathleen_Goligher_fake_ectoplasm.jpg" decoding="async" width="174" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Kathleen_Goligher_fake_ectoplasm.jpg/262px-Kathleen_Goligher_fake_ectoplasm.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Kathleen_Goligher_fake_ectoplasm.jpg 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="447" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Goligher" title="Kathleen Goligher">Kathleen Goligher</a> with fake ectoplasm made of muslin</figcaption></figure> In 1954, the psychical researcher Rudolf Lambert published a report revealing details about a case of fraud that was covered up by many early members of the <a href="/wiki/Institute_Metapsychique_International" class="mw-redirect" title="Institute Metapsychique International">Institute Metapsychique International</a> (IMI).<a href="#cite_note-Lachapelle2011-159">[159]</a> Lambert who had studied <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Geley" title="Gustav Geley">Gustav Geley</a>'s files on the medium <a href="/wiki/Eva_Carri%C3%A8re" title="Eva Carrière">Eva Carrière</a> discovered photographs depicting fraudulent ectoplasm taken by her companion Juliette Bisson.<a href="#cite_note-Lachapelle2011-159">[159]</a> Various "materializations" were artificially attached to Eva's hair by wires. The discovery was never published by Geley. <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A9ne_Osty" class="mw-redirect" title="Eugéne Osty">Eugéne Osty</a> (the director of the institute) and members Jean Meyer, <a href="/wiki/Albert_von_Schrenck-Notzing" title="Albert von Schrenck-Notzing">Albert von Schrenck-Notzing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Richet" title="Charles Richet">Charles Richet</a> all knew about the fraudulent photographs but were firm believers in mediumship phenomena so demanded the scandal be kept secret.<a href="#cite_note-Lachapelle2011-159">[159]</a> The fraudulent medium Ronald Edwin confessed he had duped his séance sitters and revealed the fraudulent methods he had used in his book Clock Without Hands (1955).<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> The psychical researcher <a href="/wiki/Tony_Cornell" title="Tony Cornell">Tony Cornell</a> investigated the mediumship of <a href="/wiki/Alec_Harris" title="Alec Harris">Alec Harris</a> in 1955. During the séance "spirit" materializations emerged from a cabinet and walked around the room. Cornell wrote that a stomach rumble, nicotine smelling breath and a pulse gave it away that all the spirit figures were in fact Harris and that he had dressed up as each one behind the cabinet.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> The British medium <a href="/wiki/William_Roy_(medium)" title="William Roy (medium)">William Roy</a> earned over £50,000 from his séance sitters. He confessed to fraud in 1958 revealing the microphone and trick-apparatus that he had used.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Automatic_writing" title="Automatic writing">automatic writings</a> of the Irish medium <a href="/wiki/Geraldine_Cummins" title="Geraldine Cummins">Geraldine Cummins</a> were analyzed by psychical researchers in the 1960s and they revealed that she worked as a cataloguer at the <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Ireland" title="National Library of Ireland">National Library of Ireland</a> and took information from various books that would appear in her automatic writings about ancient history.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> In 1960, psychic investigator <a href="/wiki/Andrija_Puharich" title="Andrija Puharich">Andrija Puharich</a> and Tom O'Neill, publisher of the Spiritualist magazine Psychic Observer, arranged to film two seances at <a href="/wiki/Camp_Chesterfield" title="Camp Chesterfield">Camp Chesterfield</a>, Indiana, using infrared film, intending to procure scientific proof of spirit materializations. The medium was shown the camera beforehand, and was aware that she was being filmed. However, the film revealed obvious fraud on the part of the medium and her cabinet assistant. The exposé was published in the 10 July 1960 issue of the Psychic Observer.<a href="#cite_note-spraggett-164">[164]</a>: 96–97  In 1966 the son of <a href="/wiki/James_Pike" title="James Pike">Bishop Pike</a> committed suicide. After his death, Pike contacted the British medium <a href="/wiki/Ena_Twigg" title="Ena Twigg">Ena Twigg</a> for a series of séances and she claimed to have communicated with his son. Although Twigg denied formerly knowing anything about Pike and his son, the magician John Booth discovered that Twigg had already known information about the Pike family before the séances. Twigg had belonged to the same denomination of Bishop Pike, he had preached at a <a href="/wiki/Cathedral" title="Cathedral">cathedral</a> in Kent and she had known information about him and his deceased son from newspapers.<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> In 1970 two psychical researchers investigated the direct-voice medium <a href="/wiki/Leslie_Flint" title="Leslie Flint">Leslie Flint</a> and found that all the "spirit" voices in his séance sounded exactly like himself and attributed his mediumship to "second-rate <a href="/wiki/Ventriloquism" title="Ventriloquism">ventriloquism</a>".<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> The medium <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Ford_(psychic)" title="Arthur Ford (psychic)">Arthur Ford</a> died leaving specific instructions that all of his files should be burned. In 1971 after his death, psychical researchers discovered his files but instead of burning them they were examined and discovered to be filled with obituaries, <a href="/wiki/Newspaper" title="Newspaper">newspaper</a> articles and other information, which enabled Ford to research his séance sitters backgrounds.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Pearsall" title="Ronald Pearsall">Ronald Pearsall</a> in his book Table-rappers: The Victorians and the Occult (1972) documented how every Victorian medium investigated had been exposed as using trickery, in the book he revealed how mediums would even use acrobatic techniques during séances to convince audiences of spirit presences.<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> In 1976, <a href="/wiki/M._Lamar_Keene" title="M. Lamar Keene">M. Lamar Keene</a>, a medium in <a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a> and at the <a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(movement)" title="Spiritualism (movement)">Spiritualist</a> <a href="/wiki/Camp_Chesterfield" title="Camp Chesterfield">Camp Chesterfield</a> in <a href="/wiki/Indiana" title="Indiana">Indiana</a>, confessed to defrauding the public in his book <a href="/wiki/The_Psychic_Mafia" class="mw-redirect" title="The Psychic Mafia">The Psychic Mafia</a>. <a href="/wiki/M._Lamar_Keene" title="M. Lamar Keene">Keene</a> detailed a multitude of common stage magic techniques utilized by mediums which are supposed to give an appearance of paranormal powers or supernatural involvement.<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> After her death in the 1980s the medium <a href="/wiki/Doris_Stokes" title="Doris Stokes">Doris Stokes</a> was accused of fraud, by author and investigator <a href="/wiki/Ian_Wilson_(author)" title="Ian Wilson (author)">Ian Wilson</a>. Wilson stated that Mrs Stokes planted specific people in her audience and did prior research into her sitters.<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> <a href="/wiki/Rita_Goold" title="Rita Goold">Rita Goold</a> a physical medium during the 1980s was accused of fraud, by the psychical researcher <a href="/wiki/Tony_Cornell" title="Tony Cornell">Tony Cornell</a>. He claimed she would dress up as the spirits in her séances and would play music during them which provided cover for her to change clothes.<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Silver_Belle_Fraud.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Silver_Belle_Fraud.jpg/220px-Silver_Belle_Fraud.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Silver_Belle_Fraud.jpg/330px-Silver_Belle_Fraud.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Silver_Belle_Fraud.jpg/440px-Silver_Belle_Fraud.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="486" /></a><figcaption>The spirit guide Silver Belle was made from cardboard. Both <a href="/wiki/Ethel_Post-Parrish" title="Ethel Post-Parrish">Ethel Post-Parrish</a> and the lady standing outside of the curtain were in on the hoax.</figcaption></figure> The British journalist <a href="/wiki/Ruth_Brandon" title="Ruth Brandon">Ruth Brandon</a> published the book The Spiritualists (1983) which exposed the fraud of the Victorian mediums.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-6">[6]</a> The book received positive reviews and has been influential to skeptics of spiritualism.<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> The British apport medium Paul McElhoney was exposed as a fraud during a séance in Osset, Yorkshire in 1983. The <a href="/wiki/Tape_recorder" title="Tape recorder">tape recorder</a> that McElhoney took to his séances was investigated and a black tape was discovered bound around the battery compartment and inside <a href="/wiki/Dianthus_caryophyllus" title="Dianthus caryophyllus">carnation</a> flowers were found as well as a key-ring torch and other objects.<a href="#cite_note-MHarris-88">[88]</a> In 1988, the magician Bob Couttie criticized the paranormal author <a href="/wiki/Brian_Inglis" title="Brian Inglis">Brian Inglis</a> for deliberately ignoring evidence of fraud in mediumship. Couttie wrote Inglis had not familiarized himself with magician techniques.<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> In 1990 the researcher <a href="/wiki/Gordon_Stein" title="Gordon Stein">Gordon Stein</a> discovered that the <a href="/wiki/Levitation_(paranormal)" title="Levitation (paranormal)">levitation</a> photograph of the medium <a href="/wiki/Carmine_Mirabelli" title="Carmine Mirabelli">Carmine Mirabelli</a> was fraudulent. The photograph was a trick as there were signs of chemical retouching under Mirabelli's feet. The retouching showed that Mirabelli was not levitating but was standing on a ladder which was erased from the photograph.<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> In 1991, <a href="/wiki/Wendy_M._Grossman" title="Wendy M. Grossman">Wendy Grossman</a> in the <a href="/wiki/New_Scientist" title="New Scientist">New Scientist</a> criticized the parapsychologist <a href="/wiki/Stephen_E._Braude" title="Stephen E. Braude">Stephen E. Braude</a> for ignoring evidence of fraud in mediumship. According to Grossman "[Braude] accuses sceptics of ignoring the evidence he believes is solid, but himself ignores evidence that does not suit him. If a medium was caught cheating on some occasions, he says, the rest of that medium's phenomena were still genuine." Grossman came to the conclusion that Braude did not do proper research on the subject and should study "the art of conjuring."<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> In 1992, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Wiseman" title="Richard Wiseman">Richard Wiseman</a> analyzed the Feilding report of <a href="/wiki/Eusapia_Palladino" title="Eusapia Palladino">Eusapia Palladino</a> and argued that she employed a secret accomplice that could enter the room by a fake door panel positioned near the séance cabinet. Wiseman discovered this trick was already mentioned in a book from 1851, he also visited a carpenter and skilled magician who constructed a door within an hour with a false panel. The accomplice was suspected to be her second husband, who insisted on bringing Palladino to the hotel where the séances took place.<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> <a href="/wiki/Massimo_Polidoro" title="Massimo Polidoro">Massimo Polidoro</a> and Gian Marco Rinaldi also analyzed the Feilding report but came to the conclusion no secret accomplice was needed as Palladino during the 1908 Naples séances could have produced the phenomena by using her foot.<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a> <a href="/wiki/Colin_Fry" title="Colin Fry">Colin Fry</a> was exposed in 1992 when during a séance the lights were unexpectedly turned on and he was seen holding a spirit trumpet in the air, which the audience had been led to believe was being levitated by spiritual energy.<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a> In 1997, <a href="/wiki/Massimo_Polidoro" title="Massimo Polidoro">Massimo Polidoro</a> and Luigi Garlaschelli produced wax-moulds directly from one's hand which were exactly the same copies as Gustav Geley obtained from <a href="/wiki/Franek_Kluski" title="Franek Kluski">Franek Kluski</a>, which are kept at the Institute Metapsychique International.<a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a> A series of mediumistic séances known as the Scole Experiment took place between 1993 and 1998 in the presence of the researchers <a href="/wiki/David_Fontana" title="David Fontana">David Fontana</a>, Arthur Ellison and Montague Keen. This has produced photographs, audio recordings and physical objects which appeared in the dark séance room (known as apports).<a href="#cite_note-Skeptoid-180">[180]</a> A criticism of the experiment was that it was flawed because it did not rule out the possibility of fraud. The skeptical investigator <a href="/wiki/Brian_Dunning_(skeptic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Brian Dunning (skeptic)">Brian Dunning</a> wrote the Scole experiments fail in many ways. The séances were held in the basement of two of the mediums, only total darkness was allowed with no night vision apparatus as it might "frighten the spirits away". The box containing the film was not examined and could easily have been accessible to fraud. And finally, even though many years have passed, there has been no follow-up, no further research by any credible agency or published accounts.<a href="#cite_note-Skeptoid-180">[180]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recent">Recent</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mediumship&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Recent">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Joe_Nickell_European_Skeptics_Congress_Budapest.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Joe_Nickell_European_Skeptics_Congress_Budapest.png/200px-Joe_Nickell_European_Skeptics_Congress_Budapest.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Joe_Nickell_European_Skeptics_Congress_Budapest.png/300px-Joe_Nickell_European_Skeptics_Congress_Budapest.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Joe_Nickell_European_Skeptics_Congress_Budapest.png/400px-Joe_Nickell_European_Skeptics_Congress_Budapest.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="689" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Joe_Nickell" title="Joe Nickell">Joe Nickell</a>, a notable skeptic of mediumship. According to Nickell, modern mediums use mentalist techniques such as <a href="/wiki/Cold_reading" title="Cold reading">cold reading</a>.</figcaption></figure> The VERITAS Research Program of the Laboratory for Advances in Consciousness and Health in the Department of Psychology at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Arizona" title="University of Arizona">University of Arizona</a>, run by the parapsychologist <a href="/wiki/Gary_Schwartz" title="Gary Schwartz">Gary Schwartz</a>, was created primarily to test the hypothesis that the consciousness (or identity) of a person survives physical death.<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> Schwartz claimed his experiments were indicative of survival, but do not yet provide conclusive proof.<a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> The experiments described by Schwartz have received criticism from the scientific community for being inadequately designed and using poor controls.<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a><a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ray_Hyman" title="Ray Hyman">Ray Hyman</a> discovered many methodological errors with Schwartz's research including; "Inappropriate control comparisons", "Failure to use double-blind procedures", "Creating non-falsifiable outcomes by reinterpreting failures as successes" and "Failure to independently check on facts the sitters endorsed as true". Hyman wrote "Even if the research program were not compromised by these defects, the claims being made would require replication by independent investigators." Hyman criticizes Schwartz's decision to publish his results without gathering "evidence for their hypothesis that would meet generally accepted scientific criteria... they have lost credibility."<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a> In 2003, skeptic investigator <a href="/wiki/Massimo_Polidoro" title="Massimo Polidoro">Massimo Polidoro</a> in his book Secrets of the Psychics documented the history of fraud in mediumship and spiritualistic practices as well as the psychology of psychic deception.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-51">[51]</a> <a href="/wiki/Terence_Hines" title="Terence Hines">Terence Hines</a> in his book Pseudoscience and the Paranormal (2003) has written: <blockquote>Modern spiritualists and psychics keep detailed files on their victims. As might be expected, these files can be very valuable and are often passed on from one medium or psychic to another when one retires or dies. Even if a psychic doesn't use a private detective or have immediate access to driver's license records and such, there is still a very powerful technique that will allow the psychic to convince people that the psychic knows all about them, their problems, and their deep personal secrets, fears, and desires. The technique is called cold reading and is probably as old as charlatanism itself... If John Edward (or any of the other self-proclaimed speakers with the dead) really could communicate with the dead, it would be a trivial matter to prove it. All that would be necessary would be for him to contact any of the thousands of missing persons who are presumed dead—famous (e.g., Jimmy Hoffa, Judge Crater) or otherwise—and correctly report where the body is. Of course, this is never done. All we get, instead, are platitudes to the effect that Aunt Millie, who liked green plates, is happy on the other side.<a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a></blockquote> An experiment conducted by the <a href="/wiki/British_Psychological_Society" title="British Psychological Society">British Psychological Society</a> in 2005 suggests that under the controlled condition of the experiment, people who claimed to be professional mediums do not demonstrate the mediumistic ability. In the experiment, mediums were assigned to work the participants chosen to be "sitters." The mediums claimed to contact the deceased who were related to the sitters. The research gather the numbers of the statements made and have the sitters rate the accuracy of the statements. The readings that were considered to be somewhat accurate by the sitters were very generalized, and the ones that were considered inaccurate were the ones that were very specific.<a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a> On Fox News on the <a href="/wiki/Geraldo_at_Large" title="Geraldo at Large">Geraldo at Large</a> show, October 6, 2007, <a href="/wiki/Geraldo_Rivera" title="Geraldo Rivera">Geraldo Rivera</a> and other investigators accused Schwartz of being a fraud as he had overstepped his position as a university researcher by requesting over three million dollars from a bereaved father who had lost his son. <a href="/wiki/Gary_Schwartz" title="Gary Schwartz">Schwartz</a> claimed to have contacted the spirit of a 25-year-old man in the bathroom of his parents house and it is alleged he attempted to charge the family 3.5 million dollars for his mediumship services. Schwartz responded saying that the allegations were set up to destroy his science credibility.<a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a><a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a> In 2013 <a href="/wiki/Rose_Marks_and_family_psychic_fraud" class="mw-redirect" title="Rose Marks and family psychic fraud">Rose Marks and members of her family</a> were convicted of fraud for a series of crimes spanning 20 years entailing between $20 and $45 million. They told vulnerable clients that to solve their problems they had to give the purported psychics money and valuables. Marks and family promised to return the cash and goods after "cleansing" them. Prosecutors established they had no intent to return the property.<a href="#cite_note-DOJ_conviction-191">[191]</a><a href="#cite_note-on_all_counts-192">[192]</a><a href="#cite_note-family_affair-193">[193]</a> The exposures of fraudulent activity led to a rapid decline in ectoplasm and materialization séances.<a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a> Investigator <a href="/wiki/Joe_Nickell" title="Joe Nickell">Joe Nickell</a> has written that modern self-proclaimed mediums like <a href="/wiki/John_Edward" title="John Edward">John Edward</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sylvia_Browne" title="Sylvia Browne">Sylvia Browne</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rosemary_Altea" title="Rosemary Altea">Rosemary Altea</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_Van_Praagh" title="James Van Praagh">James Van Praagh</a> are avoiding the Victorian tradition of dark rooms, spirit handwriting and flying tambourines as these methods risk exposure. They instead use "mental mediumship" tactics like <a href="/wiki/Cold_reading" title="Cold reading">cold reading</a> or gleaning information from sitters beforehand (<a href="/wiki/Hot_reading" title="Hot reading">hot reading</a>). Group readings also improve hits by making general statements with conviction, which will fit at least one person in the audience. Shows are carefully edited before airing to show only what appears to be hits and removing anything that does not reflect well on the medium.<a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a> <a href="/wiki/Michael_Shermer" title="Michael Shermer">Michael Shermer</a> criticized mediums in <a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a>, saying, "mediums are unethical and dangerous: they prey on the emotions of the grieving. As grief counselors know, death is best faced head-on as a part of life." Shermer wrote that the human urge to seek connections between events that may form patterns meaningful for survival is a function of natural evolution, and called the alleged ability of mediums to talk to the dead "a well-known illusion of a meaningful pattern."<a href="#cite_note-Scientific_American-196">[196]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/James_Randi" title="James Randi">James Randi</a>, a skeptic who has debunked many claims of psychic ability and uncovered fraudulent practices,<a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a> mediums who do <a href="/wiki/Cold_reading" title="Cold reading">cold readings</a> "fish, suggest possibilities, make educated guesses and give options." Randi offered <a href="/wiki/One_Million_Dollar_Paranormal_Challenge" title="One Million Dollar Paranormal Challenge">$1 million US dollars</a> for anyone who could demonstrate psychic ability under controlled conditions. Most prominent psychics and mediums did not take up his offer.<a href="#cite_note-New_York_Times-198">[198]</a><a href="#cite_note-rolling-199">[199]</a><a href="#cite_note-challenge-200">[200]</a> The key role in mediumship of this sort is played by "effect of subjective confirmation" (see <a href="/wiki/Barnum_effect" title="Barnum effect">Barnum effect</a>) — people are predisposed to consider reliable that information which though is casual coincidence or a guess, however it seems to them personally important and significant and answers their personal belief.<a href="#cite_note-201">[201]</a> The article about this phenomenon in Encyclopædia Britannica places emphasis that "… one by one spiritual mediums were convicted of fraud, sometimes using the tricks borrowed from scenic "magicians" to convince their paranormal abilities". In the article it is also noted that "… the opening of the wide ranging fraud happening on spiritualistic sessions caused serious damage to reputation of the movement of a Spiritualism and in the USA pushed it on the public periphery".<a href="#cite_note-202">[202]</a> In March 2017, medium <a href="/wiki/Thomas_John_Flanagan" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas John Flanagan">Thomas John</a> was targeted in a sting operation and caught doing a <a href="/wiki/Hot_reading" title="Hot reading">hot reading</a>. The sting was planned and implemented by <a href="/wiki/Skeptical_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Skeptical movement">skeptical activist</a> <a href="/wiki/Susan_Gerbic" title="Susan Gerbic">Susan Gerbic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mentalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Mentalist">mentalist</a> <a href="/wiki/Mark_Edward" title="Mark Edward">Mark Edward</a>. The unmarried couple attended John's show using <a href="/wiki/Pseudonym" title="Pseudonym">aliases</a>, and were "read" as a married couple Susanna and Mark Wilson by John. During the entire reading, John failed to determine the actual identities of Gerbic and Edward, or that they were being deceptive during his reading. All personal information he gave them matched what was on their falsified <a href="/wiki/Facebook" title="Facebook">Facebook</a> accounts, rather than being about their actual lives, and John pretended he was getting this information from Gerbic and Edward's supposedly dead—but actually nonexistent—relatives.<a href="#cite_note-Pizza-203">[203]</a> As Jack Hitt reported in <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">"Over the course of the reading, John comfortably laid down the specifics of Susanna Wilson’s life — he named “Andy” and amazingly knew him to be her twin. He knew that she and her brother grew up in Michigan and that his girlfriend was Maria. He knew about Susanna’s father-in-law and how he died."<a href="#cite_note-secret-204">[204]</a></blockquote> These details were from the falsified Facebook accounts for the pair which were prepared by a group of <a href="/wiki/Skeptical_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Skeptical movement">skeptics</a> in advance of the reading, and Gerbic and Edward were not aware of the specific information in these accounts.<a href="#cite_note-Jezebel-205">[205]</a> This blinding was done in order to avoid John later being able to claim he obtained the false information by reading Gerbic and Edward's minds.<a href="#cite_note-Pizza-203">[203]</a> In her report, Gerbic also revealed that during an after-show private event, John disclosed in a group setting that at least one of the people in the audience which he did a reading about was actually his own student.<a href="#cite_note-Pizza-203">[203]</a> The same week that the Thomas John sting revelation was made in The New York Times, John's claimed mediumship abilities portrayed in the <a href="/wiki/Lifetime_(TV_network)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lifetime (TV network)">Lifetime</a> <a href="/wiki/Reality_show" class="mw-redirect" title="Reality show">reality TV show</a> called Seatbelt Psychic were challenged by Gerbic in an article published by <a href="/wiki/Skeptical_Inquirer" title="Skeptical Inquirer">Skeptical Inquirer</a>. In the show, John is a <a href="/wiki/Ridesharing_company" title="Ridesharing company">ride-share</a> driver who surprises “unsuspecting” passengers when he delivers messages from their <a href="/wiki/Death" title="Death">deceased</a> relatives. Gerbic investigated and revealed that John's passengers are actually actors, several of which are documented in <a href="/wiki/IMDb" title="IMDb">IMDb</a>. Gerbic concluded that the riders were likely hired to ride with John, but were probably not acting when talking with him. She concluded that the details about their lives mentioned by John were easily found on social media sources, and likely fed to John, making the readings actually <a href="/wiki/Hot_reading" title="Hot reading">hot readings</a>. One rider, Wendy Westmoreland, played a character on Stalked by a Doctor, a TV show also produced by Lifetime.<a href="#cite_note-Buckle-206">[206]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mediumship&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automatic_writing" title="Automatic writing">Automatic writing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_healing" title="Faith healing">Faith healing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_channelers" title="List of channelers">List of channelers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience" title="List of topics characterized as pseudoscience">List of topics characterized as pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9ance" title="Séance">Séance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_possession" title="Spirit possession">Spirit possession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(movement)" title="Spiritualism (movement)">Spiritualism</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mediumship&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGilmore2005" class="citation news cs1">Gilmore, Mernie (October 31, 2005). "A spiritual connection". The Express. London.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Express&rft.atitle=A+spiritual+connection&rft.date=2005-10-31&rft.aulast=Gilmore&rft.aufirst=Mernie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMediumship" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrandreth2002" class="citation news cs1">Brandreth, Gyles (November 3, 2002). "Is Anybody There?". The Sunday Telegraph. London.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Sunday+Telegraph&rft.atitle=Is+Anybody+There%3F&rft.date=2002-11-03&rft.aulast=Brandreth&rft.aufirst=Gyles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMediumship" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/psychic-ability-belief-people-science-behind-peter-popoff-world-a8795711.html">"Why do a quarter of people across the world believe humans have psychic abilities?"</a>. 2019-02-27. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220512/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/psychic-ability-belief-people-science-behind-peter-popoff-world-a8795711.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-05-12. Retrieved 2020-09-23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Why+do+a+quarter+of+people+across+the+world+believe+humans+have+psychic+abilities%3F&rft.date=2019-02-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fscience%2Fpsychic-ability-belief-people-science-behind-peter-popoff-world-a8795711.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMediumship" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/03/120315094737.htm">"Believing the impossible: No evidence for existence of psychic ability found"</a>. Retrieved 2020-09-23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Believing+the+impossible%3A+No+evidence+for+existence+of+psychic+ability+found&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedaily.com%2Freleases%2F2012%2F03%2F120315094737.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMediumship" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Keeffe2005" class="citation journal cs1">O'Keeffe, Ciaran (May 2005). "Testing Alleged Mediumship: Methods and Results". British Journal of Psychology. 96 (2): 165–179. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1348%2F000712605X36361">10.1348/000712605X36361</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0007-1269">0007-1269</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15969829">15969829</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=British+Journal+of+Psychology&rft.atitle=Testing+Alleged+Mediumship%3A+Methods+and+Results&rft.volume=96&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E165-%3C%2Fspan%3E179&rft.date=2005-05&rft.issn=0007-1269&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15969829&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1348%2F000712605X36361&rft.aulast=O%27Keeffe&rft.aufirst=Ciaran&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMediumship" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_6-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_6-2">c</a> <a href="/wiki/Ruth_Brandon" title="Ruth Brandon">Ruth Brandon</a>. (1983). The Spiritualists: The Passion for the Occult in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries. Alfred E. Knopf. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-394-52740-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-394-52740-6">978-0-394-52740-6</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Milbourne_Christopher" title="Milbourne Christopher">Milbourne Christopher</a>. (1979). Search for the Soul. T. Y. Crowell. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-690-01760-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-690-01760-1">978-0-690-01760-1</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hines-8"><a href="#cite_ref-Hines_8-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Terence_Hines" title="Terence Hines">Terence Hines</a>. (2003). Pseudoscience and the Paranormal. Prometheus Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57392-979-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57392-979-0">978-1-57392-979-0</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_Eyghen2023" class="citation book cs1">Van Eyghen, Hans (14 April 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-mono/10.4324/9781003281139/epistemology-spirit-beliefs-hans-van-eyghen">The Epistemology of Spirit Beliefs</a>. Routledge Studies in the Philosophy of Religion. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781003281139">10.4324/9781003281139</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781003281139" title="Special:BookSources/9781003281139"><bdi>9781003281139</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Epistemology+of+Spirit+Beliefs&rft.series=Routledge+Studies+in+the+Philosophy+of+Religion&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2023-04-14&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9781003281139&rft.isbn=9781003281139&rft.aulast=Van+Eyghen&rft.aufirst=Hans&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.taylorfrancis.com%2Fbooks%2Foa-mono%2F10.4324%2F9781003281139%2Fepistemology-spirit-beliefs-hans-van-eyghen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMediumship" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> Imagine Spirit (2019). 'Differences between Mental-Physical-Trance Mediumship'. Imagine Spirit Universal Psychic Arts Training [online] Accessed at: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://imaginespirit.com/differences-between-mental-physical-and-trance-mediums/">https://imaginespirit.com/differences-between-mental-physical-and-trance-mediums/</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190422141154/https://imaginespirit.com/differences-between-mental-physical-and-trance-mediums/">Archived</a> 2019-04-22 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> Thirty Years of Psychical Research by Charles Richet p. 38 The Macmillan Company 1923 </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://parapsych.org/historical_terms.html">"Glossary of Key Words Frequently Used in Parapsychology"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101224015404/http://parapsych.org/historical_terms.html">Archived</a> 2010-12-24 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parapsychological_Association" title="Parapsychological Association">Parapsychological Association</a> website. "Materialization: A phenomenon of physical mediumship in which living entities or inanimate objects are caused to take form, sometimes from ectoplasm." Retrieved January 24, 2006 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/medium">"Medium – Definition"</a>. Dictionary.com. Retrieved 23 March 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Dictionary.com&rft.atitle=Medium+%E2%80%93+Definition&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdictionary.reference.com%2Fbrowse%2Fmedium&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMediumship" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pulliam-Fonseca-13"><a href="#cite_ref-Pulliam-Fonseca_13-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPulliamFonseca2016" class="citation book cs1">Pulliam, June Michele; Fonseca (26 September 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RUfpDAAAQBAJ&dq=mediumship+witch+of+endor&pg=PA206">Ghosts in Popular Culture and Legend</a>. ABC-CLIO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781440834912" title="Special:BookSources/9781440834912"><bdi>9781440834912</bdi></a>. Retrieved 5 December 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ghosts+in+Popular+Culture+and+Legend&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2016-09-26&rft.isbn=9781440834912&rft.aulast=Pulliam&rft.aufirst=June+Michele&rft.au=Fonseca&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRUfpDAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dmediumship%2Bwitch%2Bof%2Bendor%26pg%3DPA206&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMediumship" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBastos_Jr.BastosGonçalvesOsório2015" class="citation journal cs1">Bastos Jr., Marco Aurélio Vinhosa; Bastos, Paulo Roberto Haidamus de Oliveira; Gonçalves, Lídia Maria; Osório, Igraíne Helena Scholz; Lucchetti, Giancarlo (2015-10-08). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scielo.br/j/rpc/a/xWMrc5mxLxmGyj9sBZ8NrDP">"Mediumship: review of quantitatives studies published in the 21st century"</a>. Archives of Clinical Psychiatry (São Paulo). 42: 129–138. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1590%2F0101-60830000000063">10.1590/0101-60830000000063</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0101-6083">0101-6083</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archives+of+Clinical+Psychiatry+%28S%C3%A3o+Paulo%29&rft.atitle=Mediumship%3A+review+of+quantitatives+studies+published+in+the+21st+century&rft.volume=42&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E129-%3C%2Fspan%3E138&rft.date=2015-10-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1590%2F0101-60830000000063&rft.issn=0101-6083&rft.aulast=Bastos+Jr.&rft.aufirst=Marco+Aur%C3%A9lio+Vinhosa&rft.au=Bastos%2C+Paulo+Roberto+Haidamus+de+Oliveira&rft.au=Gon%C3%A7alves%2C+L%C3%ADdia+Maria&rft.au=Os%C3%B3rio%2C+Igra%C3%ADne+Helena+Scholz&rft.au=Lucchetti%2C+Giancarlo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scielo.br%2Fj%2Frpc%2Fa%2FxWMrc5mxLxmGyj9sBZ8NrDP&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMediumship" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSarrafWoodley_of_MenieTressoldi2021" class="citation journal cs1">Sarraf, Matthew; Woodley of Menie, Michael A.; Tressoldi, Patrizio (2021-09-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1550830720301518">"Anomalous information reception by mediums: A meta-analysis of the scientific evidence"</a>. EXPLORE. 17 (5): 396–402. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.explore.2020.04.002">10.1016/j.explore.2020.04.002</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1550-8307">1550-8307</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=EXPLORE&rft.atitle=Anomalous+information+reception+by+mediums%3A+A+meta-analysis+of+the+scientific+evidence&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E396-%3C%2Fspan%3E402&rft.date=2021-09-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.explore.2020.04.002&rft.issn=1550-8307&rft.aulast=Sarraf&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rft.au=Woodley+of+Menie%2C+Michael+A.&rft.au=Tressoldi%2C+Patrizio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fpii%2FS1550830720301518&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMediumship" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-aks-16"><a href="#cite_ref-aks_16-0">^</a> "Spiritism is not a religion but a science", as the famous French astronomer Camille Flammarion said in Allan Kardec's Eulogy on April 2, 1869, in Death and Its Mystery – After Death. Manifestations and Apparitions of the Dead; The Soul After Death Translated by Latrobe Carroll (London: Adelphi Terrace, 1923), archive version at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090706000819/http://www.survivalafterdeath.org.uk/articles/flammarion/manifestations.htm">Allan Kardec eulogy</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Ruth_Brandon" title="Ruth Brandon">Brandon, Ruth</a>. (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BX7c6gVuyVQC&dq=%22Scientists+and+the+supernormal%22&pg=PA783">Scientists and the Supernormal</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230717204921/https://books.google.com/books?id=BX7c6gVuyVQC&dq=%22Scientists+and+the+supernormal%22&pg=PA783">Archived</a> 2023-07-17 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. New Scientist. 16 June. pp. 783–86. </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> Hines, Terence. (2003). Pseudoscience and the Paranormal. Prometheus Books. p. 52. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57392-979-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-57392-979-4">1-57392-979-4</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> Anna Hurwic, Pierre Curie, translated by Lilananda Dasa and Joseph Cudnik, Paris, Flammarion, 1995, pp. 65, 66, 68, 247–48. </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.attackingthedevil.co.uk/spiritualism/index.php">"W.T. Stead and Spiritualism"</a>. attackingthedevil.co.uk.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=attackingthedevil.co.uk&rft.atitle=W.T.+Stead+and+Spiritualism&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.attackingthedevil.co.uk%2Fspiritualism%2Findex.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMediumship" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> Jones, Kelvin I. (1989). Conan Doyle and the Spirits: The Spiritualist Career of Arthur Conan Doyle. Aquarian Press. </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> Sutcliffe, Steven J. (2002). Children of the New Age. p. 35. </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.snu.org.uk/snu/about.html">"The SNU"</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Phillips-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Phillips_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Phillips_24-1">b</a> The Autobiography of a Fortune Teller by C. Doreen Phillips, Vantage Press, 1958. </li> <li id="cite_note-Braude-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Braude_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Braude_25-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Braude_25-2">c</a> Braude, Anne, Radical Spirits, Spiritualism and Women's Rights in Nineteenth Century America. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2001. </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> Deborah Blum. (2006). Ghost Hunters, William James and the Search for Scientific Proof of Life After Death. The Penguin Press. </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Amy_Tanner" title="Amy Tanner">Amy Tanner</a>. (1994, originally published 1910). Studies in Spiritism. With an introduction by <a href="/wiki/G._Stanley_Hall" title="G. Stanley Hall">G. Stanley Hall</a>. Prometheus Press. p. 18 </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> God's World: A Treatise on Spiritualism Founded on Transcripts of Shorthand Notes Taken Down, Over a Period of Five Years, in the Seance-Room of the William T. Stead Memorial Center (a Religious Body Incorporated Under the Statutes of the State of Illinois), Mrs. Cecil M. Cook, Medium and Pastor. Compiled and Written by Lloyd Kenyon Jones. Chicago, Ill.: The William T. Stead Memorial Center, 1919. </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> Richard Castillo (1995) Culture, Trance, and the Mind-Brain. Anthropology of Consciousness. Volume 6, Issue 1, pp. 17–34, March 1995. </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ectoplasm">"Ectoplasm" def. Merriam Webster dictionary</a>, Retrieved 18 January 2007 </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> Somerlott, Robert, Here, Mr. Splitfoot. Viking, 1971. </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConnor1999" class="citation book cs1">Connor, Steven (1999). "9. The Machine in the Ghost: Spiritualism, Technology and the 'Direct Voice'". In Buse, Peter; Stott, Andrew (eds.). Ghosts: deconstruction, psychoanalysis, history. <a href="/wiki/Palgrave_Macmillan" title="Palgrave Macmillan">Palgrave Macmillan</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eqh1Efz8fIoC&pg=PA203">203–25</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-21739-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-21739-6"><bdi>978-0-312-21739-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=9.+The+Machine+in+the+Ghost%3A+Spiritualism%2C+Technology+and+the+%27Direct+Voice%27&rft.btitle=Ghosts%3A+deconstruction%2C+psychoanalysis%2C+history&rft.pages=203-25&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-312-21739-6&rft.aulast=Connor&rft.aufirst=Steven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMediumship" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://parapsych.org/glossary_a_d.html#c">"Glossary of Key Words Frequently Used in Parapsychology"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101120215806/http://www.parapsych.org/glossary_a_d.html">Archived</a> 2010-11-20 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Parapsychological Association website, Retrieved January 29, 2007 </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://psychiclibrary.com/clairsentience/">"Clairsentience | Psychic Sensing | Psychic Abilities | Development |"</a>. Retrieved 2024-03-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Clairsentience+%7C+Psychic+Sensing+%7C+Psychic+Abilities+%7C+Development+%7C&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpsychiclibrary.com%2Fclairsentience%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMediumship" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> Ilya Vinitsky. (2009). Ghostly Paradoxes: Modern Spiritualism and Russian Culture in the Age of Realism. University of Toronto Press. p. 25. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-9935-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-9935-8">978-0-8020-9935-8</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> Harvey J. Irwin, <a href="/wiki/Caroline_Watt" title="Caroline Watt">Caroline Watt</a>. (2007). An Introduction to Parapsychology. McFarland. pp. 138–44. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-3059-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-3059-8">978-0-7864-3059-8</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Schick" title="Theodore Schick">Theodore Schick</a>; Lewis Vaughn. (2013). How to Think About Weird Things: Critical Thinking for a New Age. McGraw-Hill Higher Education. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-752631-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-752631-3">978-0-07-752631-3</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <a href="/wiki/David_Marks_(psychologist)" title="David Marks (psychologist)">David Marks</a>. (2000). The Psychology of the Psychic. Prometheus Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57392-798-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57392-798-7">978-1-57392-798-7</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> Nicola Holt, Christine Simmonds-Moore, David Luke, <a href="/wiki/Chris_French" title="Chris French">Christopher French</a>. (2012). Anomalistic Psychology (Palgrave Insights in Psychology). Palgrave Macmillan. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-30150-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-30150-4">978-0-230-30150-4</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Millais_Culpin" title="Millais Culpin">Millais Culpin</a>. (1920). Spiritualism and the New Psychology, an Explanation of Spiritualist Phenomena and Beliefs in Terms of Modern Knowledge. Kennelly Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4460-5651-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4460-5651-6">978-1-4460-5651-6</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Rinn" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Rinn">Joseph Rinn</a>. (1950). Sixty Years of Psychical Research. New York: Truth Seeker. pp. 200–05 </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolffram2012" class="citation journal cs1">Wolffram, H. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3381525">"'Trick', 'Manipulation' and 'Farce': Albert Moll's Critique of Occultism"</a>. Medical History. 56 (2): 277–295. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fmdh.2011.37">10.1017/mdh.2011.37</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3381525">3381525</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23002297">23002297</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medical+History&rft.atitle=%27Trick%27%2C+%27Manipulation%27+and+%27Farce%27%3A+Albert+Moll%27s+Critique+of+Occultism&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E277-%3C%2Fspan%3E295&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3381525%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23002297&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fmdh.2011.37&rft.aulast=Wolffram&rft.aufirst=H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3381525&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMediumship" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> Leonard Zusne, Warren H. Jones. (1989). Anomalistic Psychology: A Study of Magical Thinking. Psychology Press. p. 221. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8058-0508-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8058-0508-6">978-0-8058-0508-6</a> "The spirits, controls, and guides of a medium are the products of the medium's own psychological dynamics. On the one hand, they personify the medium's hidden impulses and wish life. On the other, they are also shaped by the expectations of the medium's sitters, the medium's experience, the cultural background, and the spirit of the times." </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> Ian Rowland. (1998). The full facts book of cold reading. London, England: Ian Roland. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9558476-0-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9558476-0-8">978-0-9558476-0-8</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> Brad Clark (2002). Spiritualism. pp. 220–26. In Michael Shermer. The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience. ABC-CLIO. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57607-653-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57607-653-8">978-1-57607-653-8</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> Jonathan Smith. (2009). Pseudoscience and Extraordinary Claims of the Paranormal: A Critical Thinker's Toolkit. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 141–241. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-8122-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-8122-8">978-1-4051-8122-8</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Wiseman" title="Richard Wiseman">Richard Wiseman</a>. (2011). Paranormality: Why We See What Isn't There. Macmillan. p. 38. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-75298-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-75298-6">978-0-230-75298-6</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWisemanGreeningSmith2003" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Wiseman" title="Richard Wiseman">Wiseman, Richard</a>; Greening, Emma; Smith, Matthew (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.richardwiseman.com/resources/seanceBJP.pdf">"Belief in the paranormal and suggestion in the seance room"</a> (PDF). British Journal of Psychology. 94 (3): 285–297. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.528.2693">10.1.1.528.2693</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1348%2F000712603767876235">10.1348/000712603767876235</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2044-8295">2044-8295</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14511544">14511544</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=British+Journal+of+Psychology&rft.atitle=Belief+in+the+paranormal+and+suggestion+in+the+seance+room&rft.volume=94&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E285-%3C%2Fspan%3E297&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.528.2693%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft.issn=2044-8295&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14511544&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1348%2F000712603767876235&rft.aulast=Wiseman&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft.au=Greening%2C+Emma&rft.au=Smith%2C+Matthew&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.richardwiseman.com%2Fresources%2FseanceBJP.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMediumship" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-theguardian-49"><a href="#cite_ref-theguardian_49-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHorton2019" class="citation news cs1">Horton, Adrian (February 25, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190225190230/https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2019/feb/25/john-oliver-last-week-tonight-recap-psychics">"John Oliver on psychics: 'A vast underworld of unscrupulous vultures'"</a>. The Guardian. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2019/feb/25/john-oliver-last-week-tonight-recap-psychics">the original</a> on February 25, 2019. Retrieved February 25, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=John+Oliver+on+psychics%3A+%27A+vast+underworld+of+unscrupulous+vultures%27&rft.date=2019-02-25&rft.aulast=Horton&rft.aufirst=Adrian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fculture%2F2019%2Ffeb%2F25%2Fjohn-oliver-last-week-tonight-recap-psychics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMediumship" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-LastWeekTonight-50"><a href="#cite_ref-LastWeekTonight_50-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WhMGcp9xIhY">"Psychics: Last Week Tonight with John Oliver (HBO)"</a>. Youtube. LastWeekTonight. 25 February 2019. Retrieved 25 February 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Youtube&rft.atitle=Psychics%3A+Last+Week+Tonight+with+John+Oliver+%28HBO%29&rft.date=2019-02-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DWhMGcp9xIhY&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMediumship" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceB-51">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_51-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_51-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Massimo_Polidoro" title="Massimo Polidoro">Polidoro, Massimo</a> (2003). Secrets of the Psychics: Investigating Paranormal Claims. Prometheus Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59102-086-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59102-086-8">978-1-59102-086-8</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> James Houran. (2004). From Shaman to Scientist: Essays on Humanity's Search for Spirits. Scarecrow Press. p. 177. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-5054-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-5054-5">978-0-8108-5054-5</a> Also see <a href="/wiki/Michael_Shermer" title="Michael Shermer">Michael Shermer</a>. (2002). The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience. ABC-CLIO. pp. 220–26. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57607-653-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57607-653-8">978-1-57607-653-8</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Paul_Kurtz" title="Paul Kurtz">Paul Kurtz</a>. (1985). A Skeptic's Handbook of Parapsychology. Prometheus Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87975-300-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87975-300-9">978-0-87975-300-9</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Spence" title="Lewis Spence">Spence, Lewis</a> (2003). An Encyclopaedia of Occultism. Dover. p. 172. </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> Alan Gauld. (1968). The Founders of Psychical Research. Routledge & K. Paul. </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> Janet Oppenheim. (1988). The Other World: Spiritualism and Psychical Research in England, 1850–1914. Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-34767-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-34767-9">978-0-521-34767-9</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=e9OJSW5dkM8C&dq=The+Problem+of+Fraud+by+Paul+Kurtz&pg=PA159">The Problem of Fraud</a> by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Kurtz" title="Paul Kurtz">Paul Kurtz</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Chung_Ling_Soo" title="Chung Ling Soo">Chung Ling Soo</a>. (1898). Spirit Slate Writing and Kindred Phenomena. Munn & Company. <a href="/wiki/Henry_R._Evans" title="Henry R. Evans">Henry Evans</a>. (1897). Hours With the Ghosts Or Nineteenth Century Witchcraft. Kessinger Publishing. <a href="/wiki/Julien_Proskauer" class="mw-redirect" title="Julien Proskauer">Julien Proskauer</a>. (1932). Spook crooks! Exposing the secrets of the prophet-eers who conduct our wickedest industry. New York, <a href="/wiki/A._L._Burt" title="A. L. Burt">A. L. Burt</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Dunninger" title="Joseph Dunninger">Joseph Dunninger</a>. (1935). Inside the Medium's Cabinet. New York, D. Kemp and Company. <a href="/wiki/Harry_Houdini" title="Harry Houdini">Harry Houdini</a>. (1924). A Magician Among the Spirits. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Rinn" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Rinn">Joseph Rinn</a>. (1950). Sixty Years Of Psychical Research: Houdini And I Among The Spiritualists. Truth Seeker. </li> <li id="cite_note-SC-60"><a href="#cite_ref-SC_60-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/11950">Preliminary Report of the Commission Appointed by the University of Pennsylvania</a>, The Seybert Commission, 1887. 1 April 2004. </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/560501/spiritualism/274868/History">Spiritualism (religion) :: History – Britannica Online Encyclopedia</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Joseph_McCabe" title="Joseph McCabe">Joseph McCabe</a>. (1920). Spiritualism: A Popular History from 1847. Dodd, Mead and Company. pp. 110–12. A Mr. Merrifield was present at one of the sittings. Home's usual phenomena were messages, the moving of objects (presumably at a distance), and the playing of an accordion which he held with one hand under the shadow of the table. But from an early date in America he had been accustomed occasionally to "materialise" hands (as it was afterwards called). The sitters would, in the darkness, faintly see a ghostly hand and arm, or they might feel the touch of an icy limb. Mr. Merrifield and the other sitters saw a "spirit-hand" stretch across the faintly lit space of the window. But Mr. Merrifield says that Home sat, or crouched, low in a low chair, and that the "spirit-hand" was a false limb on the end of Home's arm. At other times, he says, he saw that Home was using his foot." </li> <li id="cite_note-Thomas1989-63"><a href="#cite_ref-Thomas1989_63-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Donald_Serrell_Thomas" title="Donald Serrell Thomas">Donald Serrell Thomas</a>. (1989). Robert Browning: A Life Within Life. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. pp. 157–58. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-297-79639-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-297-79639-8">978-0-297-79639-8</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Harry_Houdini" title="Harry Houdini">Harry Houdini</a>. (2011 reprint edition). Originally published in 1924. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aNUo2iJ5wZIC&q=%22london+times%22+browning+home%27%27A&pg=PA42">Magician Among the Spirits</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 42. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-02748-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-02748-9">978-1-108-02748-9</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Casey_(academic)" title="John Casey (academic)">John Casey</a>. (2009). After Lives: A Guide to Heaven, Hell and Purgatory. Oxford. p. 373. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-997503-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-997503-7">978-0-19-997503-7</a> "The poet attended one of Home's seances where a face was materialized, which, Home's spirit guide announced, was that of Browning's dead son. Browning seized the supposed materialized head, and it turned out to be the bare foot of Home. The deception was not helped by the fact that Browning never had lost a son in infancy." </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Joseph_McCabe" title="Joseph McCabe">Joseph McCabe</a>. (1920). Is Spiritualism based on Fraud?: The Evidence Given by Sir A.C. Doyle and Others Drastically Examined. London: Watts & Co. pp. 48–50. Also see the review of The Enigma of Daniel Home: Medium or Fraud? by <a href="/wiki/Trevor_H._Hall" title="Trevor H. Hall">Trevor H. Hall</a> in F. B. Smith. (1986). Victorian Studies. Volume. 29, No. 4. pp. 613–14. </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Joe_Nickell" title="Joe Nickell">Joe Nickell</a>. (2001). Real-Life X-Files: Investigating the Paranormal. The University Press of Kentucky. pp. 267–68. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-2210-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-2210-6">978-0-8131-2210-6</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> Sherrie Lynne Lyons. (2010). Species, Serpents, Spirits, and Skulls: Science at the Margins in the Victorian Age. State University of New York Press. p. 100. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-2798-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-2798-0">978-1-4384-2798-0</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> Alex Owen. (2004). The Darkened Room: Women, Power, and Spiritualism in Late Victorian England. University Of Chicago Press. pp. 70–71. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-64205-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-64205-5">978-0-226-64205-5</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Massimo_Polidoro" title="Massimo Polidoro">Massimo Polidoro</a>. (2000). Anna Eva Fay: The Mentalist Who Baffled Sir William Crookes. Skeptical Inquirer 24: 36–38. </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Georgess_McHargue" title="Georgess McHargue">Georgess McHargue</a>. (1972). Facts, Frauds, and Phantasms: A Survey of the Spiritualist Movement. Doubleday. p. 113. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-05305-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-385-05305-1">978-0-385-05305-1</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> Janet Oppenheim. (1985). The Other World: Spiritualism and Psychical Research in England, 1850–1914. Cambridge University Press. p. 19. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-26505-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-26505-8">978-0-521-26505-8</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Paul_Kurtz" title="Paul Kurtz">Paul Kurtz</a>. (1985). A Skeptic's Handbook of Parapsychology. Prometheus Books. p. 29. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87975-300-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87975-300-9">978-0-87975-300-9</a> "Florence Cook was caught cheating not only before her séances with Crookes but also afterward. Furthermore, she learned her trade from the mediums Frank Herne and Charles Williams, who were notorious for their cheating." Also see <a href="/wiki/M._Lamar_Keene" title="M. Lamar Keene">M. Lamar Keene</a>. (1997). <a href="/wiki/The_Psychic_Mafia" class="mw-redirect" title="The Psychic Mafia">The Psychic Mafia</a>. Prometheus Books. p. 64. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57392-161-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57392-161-9">978-1-57392-161-9</a> "The most famous of materialization mediums, Florence Cook – though she managed to convince a scientist, Sir William Crookes, that she was genuine – was repeatedly exposed in fraud. Florence had been trained in the arts of the séance by Frank Herne, a well-known physical medium whose materializations were grabbed on more than one occasion and found to be the medium himself." </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Joseph_McCabe" title="Joseph McCabe">Joseph McCabe</a>. (1920). Spiritualism: A Popular History from 1847. Dodd, Mead and Company. pp. 160–61 </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Chung_Ling_Soo" title="Chung Ling Soo">Chung Ling Soo</a>. (1898). Spirit Slate Writing and Kindred Phenomena. Munn & Company. pp. 105–06 </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Spence" title="Lewis Spence">Lewis Spence</a>. (1991). Encyclopedia of Occultism & Parapsychology. Gale Research Company. p. 1106 </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> Adin Ballou. (2001). The Rise of Victorian Spiritualism. Routledge. p. 16 </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Joseph_McCabe" title="Joseph McCabe">Joseph McCabe</a>. (1920). Is Spiritualism based on Fraud?: The Evidence Given by Sir A.C. Doyle and Others Drastically Examined. London: Watts & Co. p. 115 </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> Roy Stemman. (1976). The Supernatural. Danbury Press. p. 62 </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Joseph_McCabe" title="Joseph McCabe">Joseph McCabe</a>. (1920). Spiritualism: A Popular History From 1847. T. F. Unwin Ltd. p. 167 </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Trevor_H._Hall" title="Trevor H. Hall">Trevor H. Hall</a>. (1963). The Spiritualists: The Story of Florence Cook and William Crookes. Helix Press. p. 10 </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Trevor_H._Hall" title="Trevor H. Hall">Trevor H. Hall</a>. (1980). The Strange Case of Edmund Gurney. Duckworth. p. 47 </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Washington_Irving_Bishop" title="Washington Irving Bishop">Washington Irving Bishop</a>. (1880). Second Sight Explained: A Complete Exposition of Clairvoyance or Second Sight. Edinburgh: John Menzies. </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> Preliminary report of the Commission appointed by the University of Pennsylvania to investigate modern spiritualism, in accordance with the request of the late Henry Seybert (1887). </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> Paul Boyer. The Oxford Companion to United States History. Oxford University Press. p. 738. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-508209-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-508209-8">978-0-19-508209-8</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> Rodger Anderson. (2006). Psychics, Sensitives and Somnambules. McFarland & Company. p. 90. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-2770-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-2770-3">978-0-7864-2770-3</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Will_Goldston" title="Will Goldston">Will Goldston</a>. (1942). Tricks Of The Masters. G. Routledge & Sons, Ltd. p. 4 </li> <li id="cite_note-MHarris-88">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MHarris_88-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MHarris_88-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MHarris_88-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MHarris_88-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MHarris_88-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Melvin_Harris&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Melvin Harris (page does not exist)">Harris, Melvin</a> (2003). Investigating the unexplained : psychic detectives, the Amityville horror-mongers, Jack the Ripper, and other mysteries of the paranormal. Prometheus Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59102-108-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59102-108-7"><bdi>978-1-59102-108-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Investigating+the+unexplained+%3A+psychic+detectives%2C+the+Amityville+horror-mongers%2C+Jack+the+Ripper%2C+and+other+mysteries+of+the+paranormal&rft.pub=Prometheus+Books&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-59102-108-7&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=Melvin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMediumship" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Samri_Baldwin" title="Samri Baldwin">Samri Baldwin</a>. (1895). The Secrets of Mahatma Land Explained Brooklyn, N.Y., Press of T. J. Dyson & Son. </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Harry_Houdini" title="Harry Houdini">Harry Houdini</a>. (2011). A Magician Among the Spirits. Cambridge University Press. p. 66. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-02748-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-02748-9">978-1-108-02748-9</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Joe_Nickell" title="Joe Nickell">Joe Nickell</a>. (2001). Real-Life X-Files: Investigating the Paranormal. The University Press of Kentucky. pp. 260–61. Also see <a href="/wiki/Joe_Nickell" title="Joe Nickell">Joe Nickell</a>. (2005). Camera Clues: A Handbook for Photographic Investigation. The University Press of Kentucky. p. 151 </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Hereward_Carrington" title="Hereward Carrington">Hereward Carrington</a>. (1907). The Physical Phenomena of Spiritualism. Herbert B. Turner & Co. pp. 206–23 </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Donald_J._West" title="Donald J. West">Donald West</a>. (1954). Psychical Research Today. Chapter Séance-Room Phenomena. Duckworth. p. 49 </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Gordon_Stein" title="Gordon Stein">Gordon Stein</a>. (1996). The Encyclopedia of the Paranormal. Prometheus Books. p. 520. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57392-021-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57392-021-6">978-1-57392-021-6</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Chung_Ling_Soo" title="Chung Ling Soo">Chung Ling Soo</a>. (1898). Spirit Slate Writing and Kindred Phenomena. Munn & Company. pp. 101–04 </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Ivor_Lloyd_Tuckett" title="Ivor Lloyd Tuckett">Ivor Lloyd Tuckett</a>. (1911). The Evidence for the Supernatural: A Critical Study Made with "Uncommon Sense". Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Company. pp. 52–53 </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> Julian Franklyn. (1935). A Survey of the Occult. Kessinger Publishing. p. 248 </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Jastrow" title="Joseph Jastrow">Joseph Jastrow</a>. (1911). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1413084">Studies in Spiritism by Amy E. Tanner</a>. The American Journal of Psychology. Vol. 22, No. 1. pp. 122–24. </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Martin_Gardner" title="Martin Gardner">Martin Gardner</a>. Are Universes Thicker Than Blackberries? "How Mrs. Piper Bamboozled William James". W. W. Norton & Company. pp. 252–62. </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Ivor_Lloyd_Tuckett" title="Ivor Lloyd Tuckett">Ivor Lloyd Tuckett</a>. (1911). The Evidence for the Supernatural: A Critical Study Made with "Uncommon Sense". K. Paul, Trench, Trübner. pp. 321–95 </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> Corinna Treitel. (2004). A Science for the Soul: Occultism and the Genesis of the German Modern. The Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 165. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-7812-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-7812-1">978-0-8018-7812-1</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Harry_Price" title="Harry Price">Harry Price</a>. (1939). Fifty Years of Psychical Research. Kessinger Publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7661-4242-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7661-4242-8">978-0-7661-4242-8</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Wiseman" title="Richard Wiseman">Richard Wiseman</a>. (1997). Deception & Self-Deception: Investigating Psychics. Prometheus Books. p. 23 </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Wiseman" title="Richard Wiseman">Richard Wiseman</a>. (1997). Deception & Self-Deception: Investigating Psychics. Prometheus Books. p. 12 </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <a href="/wiki/William_Hodson_Brock" title="William Hodson Brock">William Hodson Brock</a>. (2008). William Crookes (1832–1919) and the Commercialization of Science. Ashgate. p. 474. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-6322-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-6322-5">978-0-7546-6322-5</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Hereward_Carrington" title="Hereward Carrington">Hereward Carrington</a>. (1907). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/physicalphenomen00carr#page/n7/mode/2up">The Physical Phenomena of Spiritualism</a>. Herbert B. Turner & Co. </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> Rodger Anderson. (2006). Psychics, Sensitives And Somnambules. McFarland & Company. p. 26. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-2770-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-2770-3">978-0-7864-2770-3</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.csicop.org/si/show/new_paranatural_paradigm_claims_of_communicating_with_the_dead/">The New Paranatural Paradigm: Claims of Communicating with the Dead by Paul Kurtz</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Milbourne_Christopher" title="Milbourne Christopher">Milbourne Christopher</a>. (1971). ESP, Seers & Psychics. Crowell. pp. 188–204. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-690-26815-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-690-26815-7">978-0-690-26815-7</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Everard_Feilding" title="Everard Feilding">Everard Feilding</a>, William Marriott. (1910). Report on Further Series of Sittings with Eusapia Palladino at Naples. Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research. Volume 15. pp. 20–32.</li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <a href="/wiki/J._Gordon_Melton" title="J. Gordon Melton">J. Gordon Melton</a>. (2007). The Encyclopedia of Religious Phenomena. Visible Ink Press. p. 12. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57859-209-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57859-209-8">978-1-57859-209-8</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Eric_Dingwall" title="Eric Dingwall">Eric Dingwall</a>. (1927). How to Go to a Medium. K. Paul, Trench, Trübner. pp. 31–32. </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Annemann" title="Theodore Annemann">Theodore Annemann</a>. (1983). Practical Mental Magic. Dover Publications. pp. 7–11 </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Pearson%27s_Magazine" title="Pearson's Magazine">Pearson's Magazine</a>. June 1910. C. Arthur Pearson Ltd. p. 615 </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Joseph_McCabe" title="Joseph McCabe">Joseph McCabe</a>. (1920). Is Spiritualism Based On Fraud? The Evidence Given By Sir A. C. Doyle and Others Drastically Examined. London Watts & Co. pp. 33–34 </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Edward_Clodd" title="Edward Clodd">Edward Clodd</a>. (1917). The Question: A Brief History and Examination of Modern Spiritualism. Chapter Mrs. Leonard and Others. pp. 215–41 </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Arthur_Mercier" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Arthur Mercier">Charles Arthur Mercier</a>. (1917). Spiritualism and Sir Oliver Lodge. London: Mental Culture Enterprise. </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Jastrow" title="Joseph Jastrow">Joseph Jastrow</a> (1918). The Psychology of Conviction. Houghton Mifflin Company. pp. 101–27 </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UCuriAsVxgoC&dq=Eusapia+Palladino+%22rubber+bulb%22&pg=PA14">Fakebusters II: Scientific Detection of Fakery in Art and Philately</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Harry_Price" title="Harry Price">Harry Price</a>, Fifty Years of Psychical Research, chapter XI: The Mechanics of Spiritualism, F&W Media International, Ltd, 2012. </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Harry_Price" title="Harry Price">Harry Price</a>. (1939). Chapter The Mechanics of Spiritualism in Fifty Years of Psychical Research. Kessinger Publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7661-4242-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7661-4242-8">978-0-7661-4242-8</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> G. K. Nelson. (2013). Spiritualism and Society. Routledge. p. 159. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-71462-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-71462-4">978-0-415-71462-4</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> Clément Chéroux. (2005). The Perfect Medium: Photography and the Occult. Yale University Press. p. 268. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-11136-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-11136-1">978-0-300-11136-1</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rogo1978-123"><a href="#cite_ref-Rogo1978_123-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/D._Scott_Rogo" title="D. Scott Rogo">D. Scott Rogo</a>. (1978). Mind and Motion: The Riddle of Psychokinesis. Taplinger Publishing. pp. 245–46. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8008-2455-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8008-2455-6">978-0-8008-2455-6</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Massimo_Polidoro" title="Massimo Polidoro">Massimo Polidoro</a>. (2001). Final Séance: The Strange Friendship Between Houdini and Conan Doyle. Prometheus Books. pp. 71–73. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57392-896-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57392-896-0">978-1-57392-896-0</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> Julian Franklyn. (2003). A Survey of the Occult. pp. 238–39. Kessinger Publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7661-3007-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7661-3007-4">978-0-7661-3007-4</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Joseph_McCabe" title="Joseph McCabe">Joseph McCabe</a>. (1920). Spiritualism: A Popular History from 1847. Dodd, Mead and Company. p. 192 </li> <li id="cite_note-csicop.org-127"><a href="#cite_ref-csicop.org_127-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.csicop.org/si/show/photos_of_ghosts_the_burden_of_believing_the_unbelievable">Photos of Ghosts: The Burden of Believing the Unbelievable by Massimo Polidoro</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> Edmund Edward Fournier d'Albe. (1922). The Goligher Circle. J. M. Watkins. p. 37 </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> Universitetskomiteen, Mediet Einer Nielsen, kontrolundersøkelser av universitetskomiteen i Kristiania. (Kristiania 1922). "Rapport fra den av Norsk Selskab for Psykisk Forskning nedsatte Kontrolkomité", Norsk Tidsskrift for Psykisk Forskning 1 (1921–22). </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Spence" title="Lewis Spence">Lewis Spence</a>. (2003). Encyclopedia of Occultism & Parapsychology. Kessinger publishing. p. 399. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7661-2815-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7661-2815-6">978-0-7661-2815-6</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Eric_Dingwall" title="Eric Dingwall">Eric Dingwall</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harry_Price" title="Harry Price">Harry Price</a>. (1922). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/revelationsofspi00farriala#page/n5/mode/2up">Revelations of a Spirit Medium</a>. Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co. </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Georgess_McHargue" title="Georgess McHargue">Georgess McHargue</a>. (1972). Facts, Frauds, and Phantasms: A Survey of the Spiritualist Movement. Doubleday. p. 158. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-05305-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-385-05305-1">978-0-385-05305-1</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Carlos_Mar%C3%ADa_de_Heredia" title="Carlos María de Heredia">Carlos María de Heredia</a>. (1923). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FNoDAAAAMBAJ&dq=Heredia+spirit+hands&pg=RA1-PA14">Spirit Hands, "ectoplasm," and Rubber Gloves</a>. <a href="/wiki/Popular_Mechanics" title="Popular Mechanics">Popular Mechanics</a>. pp. 14–15 </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> Paul Tabori. (1961). The Art of Folly. Prentice-Hall International, Inc. pp. 178–79 </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pflyceum.org/83.html">"Fraudulent Mediums"</a>. Lyceum Library. </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> Julian Franklyn. (2003). Dictionary of the Occult. Kessinger Publishing. p. 228 </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Harry_Price" title="Harry Price">Harry Price</a>. (1936). Confessions of a Ghost-Hunter. Putnam. p. 232 </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> Warren Jay Vinton. The Famous Schneider Mediumship: A Critical Study of Alleged Supernormal Events. No. 4 April 1927 in C. K. Ogden Psyche: An Annual General and Linguistic Psychology. 1920–1952 Routledge/Thoemmes Press, 1995. </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F134965c0">"Further Tests of the Medium Rudi Schneider"</a>. Nature. 134 (3399): 965–966. 1934-12-01. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1934Natur.134S.965.">1934Natur.134S.965.</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F134965c0">10.1038/134965c0</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1476-4687">1476-4687</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Further+Tests+of+the+Medium+Rudi+Schneider&rft.volume=134&rft.issue=3399&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E965-%3C%2Fspan%3E966&rft.date=1934-12-01&rft.issn=1476-4687&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F134965c0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1934Natur.134S.965.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252F134965c0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMediumship" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Booth_(magician)" title="John Booth (magician)">John Booth</a>. (1986). Psychic Paradoxes. Prometheus Books. p. 8. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87975-358-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87975-358-0">978-0-87975-358-0</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> Bob Couttie. (1988). Forbidden Knowledge: The Paranormal Paradox. Lutterworth Press. pp. 104–05 </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> Brian Righi. (2008). Ghosts, Apparitions and Poltergeists: An Exploration of the Supernatural through History. Llewellyn Publications. Llewellyn Publications. p. 52. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7387-1363-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7387-1363-2">978-0-7387-1363-2</a> "One medium of the 1920s, Mina Crandon, became famous for producing ectoplasm during her sittings. At the height of the séance, she was even able to produce a tiny ectoplasmic hand from her navel, which waved about in the darkness. Her career ended when Harvard biologists were able to examine the tiny hand and found it to be nothing more than a carved piece of animal liver." </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> <a href="/wiki/E._Clephan_Palmer" title="E. Clephan Palmer">E. Clephan Palmer</a>. (2003). The Riddle of Spiritualism. Kessinger Publishing. pp. 35–39. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7661-7931-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7661-7931-8">978-0-7661-7931-8</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Spence" title="Lewis Spence">Lewis Spence</a>. (1991). Encyclopedia of Occultism & Parapsychology. Gale Research Company. p. 1522. <a href="/wiki/Massimo_Polidoro" title="Massimo Polidoro">Massimo Polidoro</a>. (2001). Final Seance: The Strange Friendship Between Houdini and Conan Doyle. Prometheus Books. p. 103. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57392-896-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57392-896-0">978-1-57392-896-0</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Spence" title="Lewis Spence">Lewis Spence</a>. (2003). Encyclopedia of Occultism & Parapsychology. Kessinger Publishing. p. 880 </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Harry_Price" title="Harry Price">Harry Price</a>. (1931). Regurgitation and the Duncan Mediumship. (Bulletin I of the National Laboratory of Psychical Research, 120pp with 44 illustrations.) </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Marina_Warner" title="Marina Warner">Marina Warner</a>. (2008). Phantasmagoria: Spirit Visions, Metaphors, and Media into the Twenty-first Century. Oxford University Press. p. 299 </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> Jason Karl. (2007). An Illustrated History of the Haunted World. New Holland Publishers. p. 79 </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJokinen2012" class="citation web cs1">Jokinen, Tom (2012-10-25). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131203040141/http://www.randomhouse.ca/hazlitt/feature/touching-dead-spooky-winnipeg">"Touching the Dead: Spooky Winnipeg"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.randomhouse.ca/hazlitt/feature/touching-dead-spooky-winnipeg">the original</a> on 2013-12-03. Retrieved 2013-09-08.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Touching+the+Dead%3A+Spooky+Winnipeg&rft.date=2012-10-25&rft.aulast=Jokinen&rft.aufirst=Tom&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.randomhouse.ca%2Fhazlitt%2Ffeature%2Ftouching-dead-spooky-winnipeg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMediumship" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Jastrow" title="Joseph Jastrow">Joseph Jastrow</a>. (1935). Patience Worth: An Alter Ego in Wish and Wisdom: Episodes in the Vagaries of Belief. D. Appleton-Century Company. pp. 78–92. <a href="/wiki/L._Sprague_de_Camp" title="L. Sprague de Camp">Lyon Sprague de Camp</a>. (1966). <a href="/wiki/Spirits,_Stars,_and_Spells" title="Spirits, Stars, and Spells">Spirits, Stars, and Spells</a>. New York: Canaveral. p. 247. Robert Goldenson. (1973). Mysteries of the Mind: The Drama of Human Behavior. Doubleday. pp. 44–53. <a href="/wiki/Milbourne_Christopher" title="Milbourne Christopher">Milbourne Christopher</a>. (1970). ESP, Seers and Psychics. New York: Crowell. pp. 128–29 </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.skepdic.com/patienceworth.html">Patience Worth by Robert Todd Carroll</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> Julian Franklyn. (2003). A Survey of the Occult. pp. 263–395. Kessinger Publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7661-3007-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7661-3007-4">978-0-7661-3007-4</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> <a href="/wiki/M._Lamar_Keene" title="M. Lamar Keene">M. Lamar Keene</a>. (1997). <a href="/wiki/The_Psychic_Mafia" class="mw-redirect" title="The Psychic Mafia">The Psychic Mafia</a>. Prometheus Books. p. 123. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57392-161-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57392-161-9">978-1-57392-161-9</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Nandor_Fodor" title="Nandor Fodor">Nandor Fodor</a>. (1960). The Haunted Mind: A Psychoanalyst Looks at the Supernatural. Helix Press. p. 100-22 </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Joe_Nickell" title="Joe Nickell">Joe Nickell</a>. (2005). Camera Clues: A Handbook for Photographic Investigation. The University Press of Kentucky. pp. 177–78. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-9124-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-9124-9">978-0-8131-9124-9</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Booth_(magician)" title="John Booth (magician)">John Booth</a>. (1986). Psychic Paradoxes. Prometheus Books. pp. 15–16. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87975-358-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87975-358-0">978-0-87975-358-0</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Joseph_McCabe" title="Joseph McCabe">Joseph McCabe</a>. (1920). Is Spiritualism based on Fraud?: The Evidence Given by Sir A.C. Doyle and Others Drastically Examined. London: Watts & CO. p. 126 </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Julien_Proskauer" class="mw-redirect" title="Julien Proskauer">Julien Proskauer</a>. (1946). The Dead Do Not Talk. Harper & Brothers. p. 94 </li> <li id="cite_note-Lachapelle2011-159">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lachapelle2011_159-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lachapelle2011_159-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lachapelle2011_159-2">c</a> Sofie Lachapelle. (2011). Investigating the Supernatural: From Spiritism and Occultism to Psychical Research and Metapsychics in France, 1853–1931. Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 144–45. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4214-0013-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4214-0013-6">978-1-4214-0013-6</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> Ronald Edwin. (1955). Clock Without Hands. Sidgwick. </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Tony_Cornell" title="Tony Cornell">Tony Cornell</a>. (2002). Investigating the Paranormal. Helix Press New York. pp. 327–38. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-912328-98-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-912328-98-0">978-0-912328-98-0</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Georgess_McHargue" title="Georgess McHargue">Georgess McHargue</a>. (1972). Facts, Frauds, and Phantasms: A Survey of the Spiritualist Movement. Doubleday. p. 250. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-05305-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-385-05305-1">978-0-385-05305-1</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> <a href="/wiki/E._R._Dodds" title="E. R. Dodds">Eric Robertson Dodds</a>. (2000). Missing Persons: An Autobiography. Oxford University Press. pp. 105–06. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-812086-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-812086-5">978-0-19-812086-5</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-spraggett-164"><a href="#cite_ref-spraggett_164-0">^</a> Allen Spraggett, The Unexplained, (New York: New American Library, 1967). </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> John Booth. (1986). Psychic Paradoxes. Prometheus Books. p. 148. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87975-358-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87975-358-0">978-0-87975-358-0</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <a href="/wiki/M._Lamar_Keene" title="M. Lamar Keene">M. Lamar Keene</a>. (1997). <a href="/wiki/The_Psychic_Mafia" class="mw-redirect" title="The Psychic Mafia">The Psychic Mafia</a>. Prometheus Books. p 122. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57392-161-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57392-161-9">978-1-57392-161-9</a> "A medium still riding high in England is Leslie Flint, famed as an exponent of direct voice. William Rauscher and Allen Spraggett, who attended a sitting Flint held in 1970 in New York, said that it was the most abysmal flop of any seance they had endured. All the spirit voices sounded exactly like the medium and displayed an incredible ignorance of nearly everything pertaining to the sitters. The "mediumship " was second-rate ventriloquism." </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> Tim Madigan, David Goicoechea, Paul Kurtz. Promethean Love: Paul Kurtz and the Humanistic Perspective on Love. Cambridge Scholars Press. p. 293 </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Pearsall" title="Ronald Pearsall">Ronald Pearsall</a>. Table-rappers: The Victorians and the Occult The History Press Ltd; New Ed edition, 2004 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7509-3684-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7509-3684-3">0-7509-3684-3</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> Keene, Lamar (1997). The Psychic Mafia. Prometheus Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57392-161-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-57392-161-0">1-57392-161-0</a> (Republication of 1976 edition by St. Martin's Press.) </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Ian_Wilson_(author)" title="Ian Wilson (author)">Ian Wilson</a>. (1989). The After Death Experience. William Morrow and Company. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-688-08000-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-688-08000-6">978-0-688-08000-6</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Tony_Cornell" title="Tony Cornell">Tony Cornell</a>. (2002). Investigating the Paranormal. Helix Press New York. pp. 347–52. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-912328-98-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-912328-98-0">978-0-912328-98-0</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Martin_Gardner" title="Martin Gardner">Martin Gardner</a>. (1988). The New Age: Notes of a Fringe Watcher. Prometheus Books. p. 175. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87975-432-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87975-432-7">978-0-87975-432-7</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> Bob Couttie. (1988). Forbidden Knowledge: The Paranormal Paradox. Lutterworth Press. p. 24. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7188-2686-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7188-2686-4">978-0-7188-2686-4</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Joe_Nickell" title="Joe Nickell">Joe Nickell</a>. (2005). Camera Clues: A Handbook for Photographic Investigation. The University Press of Kentucky. p. 178. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-9124-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-9124-9">978-0-8131-9124-9</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Wendy_M._Grossman" title="Wendy M. Grossman">Grossman, Wendy</a>. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg13017685.800-review-dismissal-is-not-disproof-.html">Dismissal is not disproof</a>. <a href="/wiki/New_Scientist" title="New Scientist">New Scientist</a>. Vol. 130. Issue 1768, p. 53. </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Wiseman" title="Richard Wiseman">Richard Wiseman</a>. (1997). Chapter 3 The Feilding Report: A Reconsideration. In Deception and Self-Deception: Investigating Psychics. Prometheus Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57392-121-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-57392-121-1">1-57392-121-1</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Massimo_Polidoro" title="Massimo Polidoro">Massimo Polidoro</a>. (2003). Secrets of the Psychics: Investigating Paranormal Claims. Prometheus Books. pp. 65–95. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59102-086-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59102-086-8">978-1-59102-086-8</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tonyyouens.com/colinfry.htm">Colin Fry an Evaluation</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Massimo_Polidoro" title="Massimo Polidoro">Massimo Polidoro</a>. (2003). Secrets of the Psychics: Investigating Paranormal Claims. Prometheus Books. pp. 168–76. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59102-086-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59102-086-8">978-1-59102-086-8</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Skeptoid-180">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Skeptoid_180-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Skeptoid_180-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDunning2009" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Brian_Dunning_(author)" title="Brian Dunning (author)">Dunning, Brian</a> (2009-11-10). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://skeptoid.com/episodes/4179">"Skeptoid #179: The Scole Experiment"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Brian_Dunning_(author)#Skeptoid_podcasts" title="Brian Dunning (author)">Skeptoid</a>. Retrieved 2011-10-30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Skeptoid&rft.atitle=Skeptoid+%23179%3A+The+Scole+Experiment&rft.date=2009-11-10&rft.aulast=Dunning&rft.aufirst=Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fskeptoid.com%2Fepisodes%2F4179&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMediumship" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://veritas.arizona.edu/index.htm">The VERITAS Research Program of the Laboratory for Advances in Consciousness and Health in the Department of Psychology at the University of Arizona</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070212132117/http://veritas.arizona.edu/index.htm">Archived</a> 2007-02-12 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newsnet5.com/news/2893543/detail.html">newsnet5.com</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090821224454/http://www.newsnet5.com/news/2893543/detail.html">Archived</a> 2009-08-21 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> The Truth about Medium by Gary E. Schwartz, Ph. D., with William L. Simon, Hampton Books, 2005, p. 119 </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.skepdic.com/refuge/afterlife.html">Book Review by Robert T. Carroll</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://skepdic.com/essays/gsandsv.html">Gary Schwartz's Subjective Evaluation of Mediums: Veritas or Wishful Thinking by Robert Todd Carroll</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHyman2003" class="citation web cs1">Hyman, Ray (Jan–Feb 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.csicop.org/si/show/how_not_to_test_mediums_critiquing_the_afterlife_experiments">"How Not to Test Mediums: Critiquing the Afterlife Experiments"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Skeptical_Inquirer" title="Skeptical Inquirer">Skeptical Inquirer</a>. Retrieved 2012-05-21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+Not+to+Test+Mediums%3A+Critiquing+the+Afterlife+Experiments&rft.pub=Skeptical+Inquirer&rft.date=2003-01%2F2003-02&rft.aulast=Hyman&rft.aufirst=Ray&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.csicop.org%2Fsi%2Fshow%2Fhow_not_to_test_mediums_critiquing_the_afterlife_experiments&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMediumship" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Terence_Hines" title="Terence Hines">Terence Hines</a>. (2003). Pseudoscience and the Paranormal. Prometheus Books. pp. 56–64. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57392-979-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57392-979-0">978-1-57392-979-0</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Keeffe2005" class="citation journal cs1">O'Keeffe, Ciaran (May 2005). "Testing Alleged Mediumship: Methods and Results". British Journal of Psychology. 96 (2): 165–179. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1348%2F000712605X36361">10.1348/000712605X36361</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0007-1269">0007-1269</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15969829">15969829</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=British+Journal+of+Psychology&rft.atitle=Testing+Alleged+Mediumship%3A+Methods+and+Results&rft.volume=96&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E165-%3C%2Fspan%3E179&rft.date=2005-05&rft.issn=0007-1269&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15969829&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1348%2F000712605X36361&rft.aulast=O%27Keeffe&rft.aufirst=Ciaran&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMediumship" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> Aykroyd, Peter. and Nart, Angela. (2009). A History of Ghosts: the True Story of Seances, Mediums, Ghosts, and Ghostbusters. Rodale. p. 216. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60529-875-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60529-875-7">978-1-60529-875-7</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tviscool.com/play.php?vid=294">Geraldo at Large show, October 6, 2007</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-DOJ_conviction-191"><a href="#cite_ref-DOJ_conviction_191-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation pressrelease cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131014065032/http://www.justice.gov/usao/fls/PressReleases/130926-04.html">"Jury Convicts Defendant in $25 Million Fraud Scheme"</a> (Press release). <a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney_for_the_Southern_District_of_Florida" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Attorney for the Southern District of Florida">Southern District of Florida</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney" title="United States Attorney">US Attorney's Office</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice" title="United States Department of Justice">US Department of Justice</a>. 2013-09-26. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.justice.gov/usao/fls/PressReleases/130926-04.html">the original</a> on 2013-10-14. Retrieved 2013-10-10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jury+Convicts+Defendant+in+%2425+Million+Fraud+Scheme&rft.pub=Southern+District+of+Florida%2C+US+Attorney%27s+Office%2C+US+Department+of+Justice&rft.date=2013-09-26&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.justice.gov%2Fusao%2Ffls%2FPressReleases%2F130926-04.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMediumship" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-on_all_counts-192"><a href="#cite_ref-on_all_counts_192-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMusgrave2013" class="citation news cs1">Musgrave, Jane (2013-09-27). "Psychic convicted on all fraud counts". <a href="/wiki/The_Palm_Beach_Post" title="The Palm Beach Post">The Palm Beach Post</a>. Vol. 105, no. 171 (First ed.). p. 1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Palm+Beach+Post&rft.atitle=Psychic+convicted+on+all+fraud+counts&rft.volume=105&rft.issue=171&rft.pages=1&rft.date=2013-09-27&rft.aulast=Musgrave&rft.aufirst=Jane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMediumship" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-family_affair-193"><a href="#cite_ref-family_affair_193-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVasquez2011" class="citation news cs1">Vasquez, Michael (2011-08-16). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://docs.newsbank.com/openurl?ctx_ver=z39.88-2004&rft_id=info:sid/iw.newsbank.com:NewsBank:MIHB&rft_val_format=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:ctx&rft_dat=1392C80F9AF88A80&svc_dat=InfoWeb:aggregated5&req_dat=0FA7F96713C3C89F">"Psychic scam a $40 million Fort Lauderdale – family affair, feds allege – A Fort Lauderdale family spent the last 20 years raking in millions as fake psychics, prosecutors allege in a newly unsealed indictment"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Miami_Herald" class="mw-redirect" title="The Miami Herald">The Miami Herald</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Miami+Herald&rft.atitle=Psychic+scam+a+%2440+million+Fort+Lauderdale+%E2%80%93+family+affair%2C+feds+allege+%E2%80%93+A+Fort+Lauderdale+family+spent+the+last+20+years+raking+in+millions+as+fake+psychics%2C+prosecutors+allege+in+a+newly+unsealed+indictment&rft.date=2011-08-16&rft.aulast=Vasquez&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdocs.newsbank.com%2Fopenurl%3Fctx_ver%3Dz39.88-2004%26rft_id%3Dinfo%3Asid%2Fiw.newsbank.com%3ANewsBank%3AMIHB%26rft_val_format%3Dinfo%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Actx%26rft_dat%3D1392C80F9AF88A80%26svc_dat%3DInfoWeb%3Aaggregated5%26req_dat%3D0FA7F96713C3C89F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMediumship" class="Z3988"> – via NewsBank (subscription required) . </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> <a href="/wiki/J._Gordon_Melton" title="J. Gordon Melton">J. Gordon Melton</a>. (2007). The Encyclopedia of Religious Phenomena. Visible Ink Press. p. 96. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57859-209-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57859-209-8">978-1-57859-209-8</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.csicop.org/si/show/john_edward_hustling_the_bereaved/">"Investigative Files: John Edward: Hustling the Bereaved"</a>. CSI. Nov–Dec 2001. Retrieved 2011-05-12.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Investigative+Files%3A+John+Edward%3A+Hustling+the+Bereaved&rft.pub=CSI&rft.date=2001-11%2F2001-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.csicop.org%2Fsi%2Fshow%2Fjohn_edward_hustling_the_bereaved%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMediumship" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Scientific_American-196"><a href="#cite_ref-Scientific_American_196-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShermer2001" class="citation web cs1">Shermer, Michael (August 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.michaelshermer.com/2001/08/deconstructing-the-dead/">"Deconstructing the Dead, "Crossing over" to expose the tricks of popular spirit mediums"</a>. Scientific American. Retrieved 24 December 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Deconstructing+the+Dead%2C+%22Crossing+over%22+to+expose+the+tricks+of+popular+spirit+mediums&rft.pub=Scientific+American&rft.date=2001-08&rft.aulast=Shermer&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.michaelshermer.com%2F2001%2F08%2Fdeconstructing-the-dead%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMediumship" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.randi.org/jr/2006-04/042106edward.html">"James Randi's Swift"</a>. Randi.org. April 21, 2006. Retrieved 2012-01-03.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=James+Randi%27s+Swift&rft.pub=Randi.org&rft.date=2006-04-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.randi.org%2Fjr%2F2006-04%2F042106edward.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMediumship" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-New_York_Times-198"><a href="#cite_ref-New_York_Times_198-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoliver2000" class="citation news cs1">Woliver, Robbie (July 16, 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2000/07/16/nyregion/an-encounter-with-a-television-psychic.html">"An Encounter With a Television Psychic"</a>. The New York Times. Retrieved 24 December 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=An+Encounter+With+a+Television+Psychic&rft.date=2000-07-16&rft.aulast=Woliver&rft.aufirst=Robbie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2000%2F07%2F16%2Fnyregion%2Fan-encounter-with-a-television-psychic.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMediumship" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-rolling-199"><a href="#cite_ref-rolling_199-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/culture-news/james-randi-obituary-1079316/">"James Randi, Famed Magician and Paranormal Skeptic, Dead at 92"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Rolling_Stone" title="Rolling Stone">Rolling Stone</a>. October 22, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Rolling+Stone&rft.atitle=James+Randi%2C+Famed+Magician+and+Paranormal+Skeptic%2C+Dead+at+92&rft.date=2020-10-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rollingstone.com%2Fculture%2Fculture-news%2Fjames-randi-obituary-1079316%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMediumship" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-challenge-200"><a href="#cite_ref-challenge_200-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHigginbotham2014" class="citation news cs1">Higginbotham, Adam (November 7, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/09/magazine/the-unbelievable-skepticism-of-the-amazing-randi.html?_r=0">"The Unbelievable Skepticism of the Amazing Randi"</a>. The New York Times.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=The+Unbelievable+Skepticism+of+the+Amazing+Randi&rft.date=2014-11-07&rft.aulast=Higginbotham&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2014%2F11%2F09%2Fmagazine%2Fthe-unbelievable-skepticism-of-the-amazing-randi.html%3F_r%3D0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMediumship" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> Robert T. Carroll. Subjective validation. // The Skeptic's Dictionary. </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a> Spiritualism (religion). www.britannica.com. </li> <li id="cite_note-Pizza-203">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pizza_203-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pizza_203-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pizza_203-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGerbic2019" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Susan_Gerbic" title="Susan Gerbic">Gerbic, Susan</a> (February 21, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190224032143/https://www.csicop.org/specialarticles/show/operation_pizza_roll_-_thomas_john">"Operation Pizza Roll- Thomas John"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.csicop.org/specialarticles/show/operation_pizza_roll_-_thomas_john">the original</a> on February 24, 2019. Retrieved February 23, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Operation+Pizza+Roll-+Thomas+John&rft.date=2019-02-21&rft.aulast=Gerbic&rft.aufirst=Susan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.csicop.org%2Fspecialarticles%2Fshow%2Foperation_pizza_roll_-_thomas_john&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMediumship" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-secret-204"><a href="#cite_ref-secret_204-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHitt2019" class="citation web cs1">Hitt, Jack (February 26, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/26/magazine/psychics-skeptics-facebook.html">"Inside the Secret Sting Operations to Expose Celebrity Psychics"</a>. New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190226133658/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/26/magazine/psychics-skeptics-facebook.html">Archived</a> from the original on February 26, 2019. Retrieved February 26, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Inside+the+Secret+Sting+Operations+to+Expose+Celebrity+Psychics&rft.date=2019-02-26&rft.aulast=Hitt&rft.aufirst=Jack&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2019%2F02%2F26%2Fmagazine%2Fpsychics-skeptics-facebook.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMediumship" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jezebel-205"><a href="#cite_ref-Jezebel_205-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarza2019" class="citation web cs1">Garza, Frida (27 February 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://jezebel.com/of-course-psychics-are-reading-your-facebook-page-1832935206">"Of Course Psychics Are Reading Your Facebook Page"</a>. Jezebel.com. Jezebel. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190228115129/https://jezebel.com/of-course-psychics-are-reading-your-facebook-page-1832935206">Archived</a> from the original on 28 February 2019. Retrieved 28 February 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Jezebel.com&rft.atitle=Of+Course+Psychics+Are+Reading+Your+Facebook+Page&rft.date=2019-02-27&rft.aulast=Garza&rft.aufirst=Frida&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjezebel.com%2Fof-course-psychics-are-reading-your-facebook-page-1832935206&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMediumship" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Buckle-206"><a href="#cite_ref-Buckle_206-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGerbic2019" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Susan_Gerbic" title="Susan Gerbic">Gerbic, Susan</a> (February 21, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190224032258/https://www.csicop.org/specialarticles/show/buckle_up_-_seatbelt_psychic">"Buckle Up - Seatbelt Psychic"</a>. Center for Inquiry. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.csicop.org/specialarticles/show/buckle_up_-_seatbelt_psychic">the original</a> on February 24, 2019. Retrieved February 23, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Center+for+Inquiry&rft.atitle=Buckle+Up+-+Seatbelt+Psychic&rft.date=2019-02-21&rft.aulast=Gerbic&rft.aufirst=Susan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.csicop.org%2Fspecialarticles%2Fshow%2Fbuckle_up_-_seatbelt_psychic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMediumship" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mediumship&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Clodd" title="Edward Clodd">Edward Clodd</a>. (1917). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/questionifmandie00cloduoft#page/n5/mode/2up">The Question: A Brief History and Examination of Modern Spiritualism</a>. Grant Richards, London.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuart_Cumberland" title="Stuart Cumberland">Stuart Cumberland</a>. (1919). Spiritualism: The Inside Truth. London: Odhams.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Dunninger" title="Joseph Dunninger">Joseph Dunninger</a>. (1935). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/009645367">Inside the Medium's Cabinet</a>. New York, D. Kemp and Company.</li> <li>Willis Dutcher. (1922). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/onothersideoffoo00dutcrich#page/n3/mode/2up">On the Other Side of the Footlights: An Expose of Routines, Apparatus and Deceptions Resorted to by Mediums, Clairvoyants, Fortune Tellers and Crystal Gazers in Deluding the Public</a>. Berlin, WI: Heaney Magic.</li> <li>Walter Mann. (1919). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/folliesfraudsofs00manniala#page/n3/mode/2up">The Follies and Frauds of Spiritualism</a>. Rationalist Association. London: Watts & Co.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_McCabe" title="Joseph McCabe">Joseph McCabe</a>. (1920). Scientific Men and Spiritualism: A Skeptic's Analysis. The Living Age. June 12. pp. 652–57. A skeptical look at SPR members who had supported Spiritualism, concludes they were duped by fraudulent mediums.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_McCabe" title="Joseph McCabe">Joseph McCabe</a>. (1920). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/isspiritualismba00mccarich#page/n3/mode/2up">Is Spiritualism Based On Fraud? The Evidence Given By Sir A. C. Doyle and Others Drastically Examined</a>. London: Watts & Co.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgess_McHargue" title="Georgess McHargue">Georgess McHargue</a>. (1972). Facts, Frauds, and Phantasms: A Survey of the Spiritualist Movement. Doubleday. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-05305-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-385-05305-1">978-0-385-05305-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alex_Owen" class="mw-redirect" title="Alex Owen">Alex Owen</a>. (2004). The Darkened Room: Women, Power, and Spiritualism in Late Victorian England. University Of Chicago Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-64205-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-64205-5">978-0-226-64205-5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Podmore" title="Frank Podmore">Frank Podmore</a>. (1911). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/newerspiritualis00podmrich#page/n5/mode/2up">The Newer Spiritualism</a>. Henry Holt and Company.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massimo_Polidoro" title="Massimo Polidoro">Massimo Polidoro</a>. (2003). Secrets of the Psychics: Investigating Paranormal Claims. Prometheus Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59102-086-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59102-086-8">978-1-59102-086-8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Price" title="Harry Price">Harry Price</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eric_Dingwall" title="Eric Dingwall">Eric Dingwall</a>. (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/revelationsofspi00farriala#page/n5/mode/2up">Revelations of a Spirit Medium</a>. Arno Press. Reprint of 1891 edition by Charles F. Pidgeon. This rare, overlooked, and forgotten, book gives the "insider's knowledge" of 19th century deceptions.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Rinn" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Rinn">Joseph Rinn</a>. (1950). Sixty Years Of Psychical Research: Houdini And I Among The Spiritualists. Truth Seeker.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chung_Ling_Soo" title="Chung Ling Soo">Chung Ling Soo</a>. (1898). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/spiritslatewriti00sooc#page/n7/mode/2up">Spirit Slate Writing and Kindred Phenomena</a>. Munn & Company.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Wiseman" title="Richard Wiseman">Richard Wiseman</a>. (1997). Deception & Self-Deception: Investigating Psychics. Prometheus Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57392-121-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57392-121-3">978-1-57392-121-3</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mediumship&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Mediumship" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Mediumship">Mediumship</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/16px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/24px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/32px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a> The dictionary definition of <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Mediumship" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Mediumship">Mediumship</a> at Wiktionary</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cicap.org/new/stampa.php?id=101010">Houdini v. The Blond Witch of Lime Street: A Historical Lesson in Skepticism</a> – <a href="/wiki/Massimo_Polidoro" title="Massimo Polidoro">Massimo Polidoro</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.prairieghosts.com/seance2.html">How to Have a Séance: Tricks of the Fraudulent Mediums</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120623192450/http://www.prairieghosts.com/seance2.html">Archived</a> 2012-06-23 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.csicop.org/si/show/john_edward_hustling_the_bereaved/">John Edward: Hustling the Bereaved</a> – <a href="/wiki/Joe_Nickell" title="Joe Nickell">Joe Nickell</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://skepdic.com/medium.html">Mediumship</a> – <a href="/wiki/Skeptic%27s_Dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Skeptic's Dictionary">Skeptic's Dictionary</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wired.com/underwire/2012/04/opinion_randilimedium0409/">The 'Medium' Is Not the Messenger</a> – <a href="/wiki/James_Randi" title="James Randi">James Randi</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130927114745/http://www.libertymagazine.com/icons_houdini.htm">Tricks of Fake Mediums</a> – <a href="/wiki/Harry_Houdini" title="Harry Houdini">Harry Houdini</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-vIaXyQoLH8">Psychic Methods Exposed - Cold Reading Tricks</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WhMGcp9xIhY">Psychics: Last Week Tonight with John Oliver (HBO)</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Spiritualism_and_spiritism131" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Spiritualism_and_spiritism" title="Template:Spiritualism and spiritism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Spiritualism_and_spiritism" title="Template talk:Spiritualism and spiritism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Spiritualism_and_spiritism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Spiritualism and spiritism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Spiritualism_and_spiritism131" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(movement)" title="Spiritualism (movement)">Spiritualism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kardecist_spiritism" title="Kardecist spiritism">spiritism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History and beliefs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apport_(paranormal)" title="Apport (paranormal)">Apport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automatic_writing" title="Automatic writing">Automatic writing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-Correspondences" class="mw-redirect" title="Cross-Correspondences">Cross-Correspondences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ectoplasm_(paranormal)" title="Ectoplasm (paranormal)">Ectoplasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_healing" title="Faith healing">Faith healing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialization_(paranormal)" title="Materialization (paranormal)">Materialization</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mediumship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9ance" title="Séance">Séance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_guide" title="Spirit guide">Spirit guides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritual_healing" class="mw-redirect" title="Spiritual healing">Spiritual healing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obsession_(Spiritism)" title="Obsession (Spiritism)">Spirit obsession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_photography" title="Spirit photography">Spirit photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_possession" title="Spirit possession">Spirit possession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_world_(Spiritualism)" title="Spirit world (Spiritualism)">Spirit world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Table-turning" title="Table-turning">Table-turning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">Theism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Spiritualists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Acorah" title="Derek Acorah">Derek Acorah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosemary_Altea" title="Rosemary Altea">Rosemary Altea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dan_Aykroyd" title="Dan Aykroyd">Dan Aykroyd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Bailey_(medium)" title="Charles Bailey (medium)">Charles Bailey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangs_Sisters" class="mw-redirect" title="Bangs Sisters">Bangs Sisters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ada_Besinnet" title="Ada Besinnet">Ada Besinnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_E._Braude" title="Stephen E. Braude">Stephen E. Braude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Breeze" title="William Breeze">William Breeze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosemary_Brown_(spiritualist)" title="Rosemary Brown (spiritualist)">Rosemary Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylvia_Browne" title="Sylvia Browne">Sylvia Browne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eva_Carri%C3%A8re" title="Eva Carrière">Eva Carrière</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doris_Collins" title="Doris Collins">Doris Collins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florence_Cook_(medium)" title="Florence Cook (medium)">Florence Cook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mina_Crandon" title="Mina Crandon">Mina Crandon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Crookes" title="William Crookes">William Crookes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geraldine_Cummins" title="Geraldine Cummins">Geraldine Cummins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patience_Worth" title="Patience Worth">Pearl Curran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Decker_(medium)" title="Frank Decker (medium)">Frank Decker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Conan_Doyle" title="Arthur Conan Doyle">Arthur Conan Doyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helen_Duncan" title="Helen Duncan">Helen Duncan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eddy_Brothers" title="Eddy Brothers">Eddy Brothers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Edwards_(healer)" title="Harry Edwards (healer)">Harry Edwards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Edward" title="John Edward">John Edward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Eglinton" title="William Eglinton">William Eglinton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colin_Evans_(medium)" title="Colin Evans (medium)">Colin Evans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fox_sisters" title="Fox sisters">Fox sisters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leslie_Flint" title="Leslie Flint">Leslie Flint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Ford_(psychic)" title="Arthur Ford (psychic)">Arthur Ford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colin_Fry" title="Colin Fry">Colin Fry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eileen_J._Garrett" title="Eileen J. Garrett">Eileen Garrett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Goligher" title="Kathleen Goligher">Kathleen Goligher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rita_Goold" title="Rita Goold">Rita Goold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Guzyk" title="Jan Guzyk">Jan Guzyk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hare_(chemist)" title="Robert Hare (chemist)">Robert Hare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alec_Harris" title="Alec Harris">Alec Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Higginson_(medium)" title="Gordon Higginson (medium)">Gordon Higginson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Hodgson_(parapsychologist)" title="Richard Hodgson (parapsychologist)">Richard Hodgson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dunglas_Home" title="Daniel Dunglas Home">Daniel Dunglas Home</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mme._d%27Esperance" title="Mme. d'Esperance">Elizabeth Hope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Hope_(paranormal_investigator)" title="William Hope (paranormal investigator)">William Hope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ann_O%27Delia_Diss_Debar" title="Ann O'Delia Diss Debar">Swami Laura Horos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cecil_Husk" title="Cecil Husk">Cecil Husk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_H._Hyslop" title="James H. Hyslop">James H. Hyslop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allan_Kardec" title="Allan Kardec">Allan Kardec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franek_Kluski" title="Franek Kluski">Franek Kluski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gladys_Osborne_Leonard" title="Gladys Osborne Leonard">Gladys Osborne Leonard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Lodge" title="Oliver Lodge">Oliver Lodge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Melzer" title="Heinrich Melzer">Heinrich Melzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carmine_Mirabelli" title="Carmine Mirabelli">Carmine Mirabelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Ward_Monck" title="Francis Ward Monck">Francis Ward Monck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Usborne_Moore" title="William Usborne Moore">William Usborne Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorin_Morgan-Richards" title="Lorin Morgan-Richards">Lorin Morgan-Richards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Stainton_Moses" title="William Stainton Moses">William Stainton Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Einer_Nielsen" title="Einer Nielsen">Einer Nielsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eusapia_Palladino" title="Eusapia Palladino">Eusapia Palladino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonora_Piper" title="Leonora Piper">Leonora Piper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethel_Post-Parrish" title="Ethel Post-Parrish">Ethel Post-Parrish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Van_Praagh" title="James Van Praagh">James Van Praagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bert_Reese" title="Bert Reese">Bert Reese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estelle_Roberts" title="Estelle Roberts">Estelle Roberts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jane_Roberts" title="Jane Roberts">Jane Roberts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Roy_(medium)" title="William Roy (medium)">William Roy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudi_Schneider" title="Rudi Schneider">Rudi Schneider</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Silbert" title="Maria Silbert">Maria Silbert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Slade_(medium)" title="Henry Slade (medium)">Henry Slade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doris_Stokes" title="Doris Stokes">Doris Stokes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emanuel_Swedenborg" title="Emanuel Swedenborg">Emanuel Swedenborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosina_Thompson" title="Rosina Thompson">Rosina Thompson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82awa_Tomczyk" title="Stanisława Tomczyk">Stanisława Tomczyk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ena_Twigg" title="Ena Twigg">Ena Twigg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Valiantine" title="George Valiantine">George Valiantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Webber" title="Jack Webber">Jack Webber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etta_Wriedt" title="Etta Wriedt">Etta Wriedt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chico_Xavier" title="Chico Xavier">Chico Xavier</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Spiritualist_organizations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Spiritualist organizations">List of Spiritualist organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualist_church" title="Spiritualist church">Spiritualist churches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritist_centre" title="Spiritist centre">Spiritist centres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/London_Spiritualist_Alliance" class="mw-redirect" title="London Spiritualist Alliance">London Spiritualist Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Spiritualist_Association_of_Churches" title="National Spiritualist Association of Churches">National Spiritualist Association of Churches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualists%27_National_Union" title="Spiritualists' National Union">Spiritualists' National Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualist_Association_of_Great_Britain" title="Spiritualist Association of Great Britain">Spiritualist Association of Great Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritual_church_movement" title="Spiritual church movement">Spiritual church movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Findlay_College" title="Arthur Findlay College">Arthur Findlay College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Spiritualist_Federation" title="International Spiritualist Federation">International Spiritualist Federation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Skeptics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/David_Abbott_(magician)" title="David Abbott (magician)">David Abbott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Henry_Anderson" title="John Henry Anderson">John Henry Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Miller_Beard" title="George Miller Beard">George Miller Beard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Brandon" title="Ruth Brandon">Ruth Brandon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L._H._Branson" title="L. H. Branson">Lionel Branson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derren_Brown" title="Derren Brown">Derren Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Benjamin_Carpenter" title="William Benjamin Carpenter">William Carpenter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milbourne_Christopher" title="Milbourne Christopher">Milbourne Christopher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Clodd" title="Edward Clodd">Edward Clodd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Smith_Conklin" title="Edmund Smith Conklin">Edmund Smith Conklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millais_Culpin" title="Millais Culpin">Millais Culpin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuart_Cumberland" title="Stuart Cumberland">Stuart Cumberland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Dingwall" title="Eric Dingwall">Eric Dingwall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Dunninger" title="Joseph Dunninger">Joseph Dunninger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_R._Evans" title="Henry R. Evans">Henry Evans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chris_French" title="Chris French">Chris French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Gardner" title="Martin Gardner">Martin Gardner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._Stanley_Hall" title="G. Stanley Hall">G. Stanley Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trevor_H._Hall" title="Trevor H. Hall">Trevor H. Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_A._Hammond" title="William A. Hammond">William A. Hammond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._E._M._Hansel" title="C. E. M. Hansel">C. E. M. Hansel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlos_Mar%C3%ADa_de_Heredia" title="Carlos María de Heredia">Carlos María de Heredia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Hertz" title="Carl Hertz">Carl Hertz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terence_Hines" title="Terence Hines">Terence Hines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Houdini" title="Harry Houdini">Harry Houdini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Jastrow" title="Joseph Jastrow">Joseph Jastrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_LeFevre_Krebs" title="Stanley LeFevre Krebs">Stanley LeFevre Krebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rose_Mackenberg" title="Rose Mackenberg">Rose Mackenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Marks_(psychologist)" title="David Marks (psychologist)">David Marks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Nevil_Maskelyne" title="John Nevil Maskelyne">John Nevil Maskelyne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Maudsley" title="Henry Maudsley">Henry Maudsley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_McCabe" title="Joseph McCabe">Joseph McCabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_C._McComas" title="Henry C. McComas">Henry C. McComas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgess_McHargue" title="Georgess McHargue">Georgess McHargue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Arthur_Mercier" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Arthur Mercier">Charles Arthur Mercier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Moll_(German_psychiatrist)" title="Albert Moll (German psychiatrist)">Albert Moll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Mulholland_(magician)" title="John Mulholland (magician)">John Mulholland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fulton_Oursler" title="Fulton Oursler">Fulton Oursler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Nickell" title="Joe Nickell">Joe Nickell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._Clephan_Palmer" title="E. Clephan Palmer">E. Clephan Palmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Pearsall" title="Ronald Pearsall">Ronald Pearsall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Podmore" title="Frank Podmore">Frank Podmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massimo_Polidoro" title="Massimo Polidoro">Massimo Polidoro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Price" title="Harry Price">Harry Price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julien_J._Proskauer" title="Julien J. Proskauer">Julien J. Proskauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Randi" title="James Randi">James Randi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Psychology_of_the_Occult" title="The Psychology of the Occult">Donovan Rawcliffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_F._Rinn" title="Joseph F. Rinn">Joseph F. Rinn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._E._Bechhofer_Roberts" title="C. E. Bechhofer Roberts">C. E. Bechhofer Roberts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chung_Ling_Soo" title="Chung Ling Soo">Chung Ling Soo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Stein" title="Gordon Stein">Gordon Stein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amy_Tanner" title="Amy Tanner">Amy Tanner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivor_Lloyd_Tuckett" title="Ivor Lloyd Tuckett">Ivor Lloyd Tuckett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L._Forbes_Winslow" title="L. Forbes Winslow">Lyttelton Winslow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Wiseman" title="Richard Wiseman">Richard Wiseman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ghosts_and_ghostlore254" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ghosts" title="Template:Ghosts"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ghosts" title="Template talk:Ghosts"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ghosts" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ghosts"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ghosts_and_ghostlore254" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ghost" title="Ghost">Ghosts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ghostlore" title="Ghostlore">ghostlore</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/List_of_ghosts" title="List of ghosts">List of ghosts</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Manifestations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Veneration_of_the_dead" title="Veneration of the dead">Ancestral spirits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_ghost_lights" title="Atmospheric ghost lights">Ghost lights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_reportedly_haunted_locations" title="List of reportedly haunted locations">Haunted locations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_reportedly_haunted_highways" title="List of reportedly haunted highways">Haunted highways</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haunted_house" title="Haunted house">Haunted house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_train" title="Ghost train">Haunted trains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_ship" title="Ghost ship">Haunted ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungry_ghost" title="Hungry ghost">Hungry ghost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poltergeist" title="Poltergeist">Poltergeist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_Tape_Theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Stone Tape Theory">Residual haunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vengeful_ghost" title="Vengeful ghost">Vengeful ghost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procession_of_the_dead" title="Procession of the dead">Procession of the dead</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By continent and culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">African</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Madam_Koi_Koi" title="Madam Koi Koi">Madam Koi Koi</a></li> <li>South Africa (<a href="/wiki/List_of_reportedly_haunted_locations_in_South_Africa" title="List of reportedly haunted locations in South Africa">locations</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nat_(deity)" title="Nat (deity)">Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghosts_in_Chinese_culture" title="Ghosts in Chinese culture">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_reportedly_haunted_locations_in_China" title="List of reportedly haunted locations in China">locations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghosts_in_Tibetan_culture" title="Ghosts in Tibetan culture">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Souls_in_Filipino_cultures" title="Souls in Filipino cultures">Filipino</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_reportedly_haunted_locations_in_the_Philippines" title="List of reportedly haunted locations in the Philippines">locations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_Festival" title="Ghost Festival">Ghost Festival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhoota_(ghost)" title="Bhoota (ghost)">Indian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_reportedly_haunted_locations_in_India" title="List of reportedly haunted locations in India">locations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghosts_in_Bengali_culture" title="Ghosts in Bengali culture">Bengali</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y%C5%ABrei" title="Yūrei">Japanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_reportedly_haunted_locations_in_Japan" title="List of reportedly haunted locations in Japan">locations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onry%C5%8D" title="Onryō">Onryō</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gwisin" title="Gwisin">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghosts_in_Malay_culture" title="Ghosts in Malay culture">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghosts_in_Thai_culture" title="Ghosts in Thai culture">Thai</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_reportedly_haunted_locations_in_Thailand" title="List of reportedly haunted locations in Thailand">locations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghosts_in_Vietnamese_culture" title="Ghosts in Vietnamese culture">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghosts_in_English-speaking_cultures" title="Ghosts in English-speaking cultures">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reportedly_haunted_locations_in_Scotland" title="Reportedly haunted locations in Scotland">locations in Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_reportedly_haunted_locations_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of reportedly haunted locations in the United Kingdom">locations in United Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li>France <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_reportedly_haunted_locations_in_France" title="List of reportedly haunted locations in France">locations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernatural_beings_in_Slavic_religion" title="Supernatural beings in Slavic religion">Slavic religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_reportedly_haunted_locations_in_Romania" title="List of reportedly haunted locations in Romania">Romania</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_reportedly_haunted_locations_in_Canada" title="List of reportedly haunted locations in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li>Caribbean <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duppy" title="Duppy">Duppy</a></li></ul></li> <li>Navajo <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chindi" title="Chindi">Chindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_sickness" title="Ghost sickness">Ghost sickness</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghosts_in_Mexican_culture" title="Ghosts in Mexican culture">Mexican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_reportedly_haunted_locations_in_Mexico" title="List of reportedly haunted locations in Mexico">locations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Day_of_the_Dead" title="Day of the Dead">Day of the Dead</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_reportedly_haunted_locations_in_the_United_States" title="List of reportedly haunted locations in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reportedly_haunted_locations_in_California" title="Reportedly haunted locations in California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reportedly_haunted_locations_in_the_District_of_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="Reportedly haunted locations in the District of Columbia">District of Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indiana_ghostlore" title="Indiana ghostlore">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reportedly_haunted_locations_in_Oregon" title="Reportedly haunted locations in Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reportedly_haunted_locations_in_Pennsylvania" title="Reportedly haunted locations in Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reportedly_haunted_locations_in_the_San_Francisco_Bay_Area" title="Reportedly haunted locations in the San Francisco Bay Area">San Francisco</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_reportedly_haunted_locations_in_Colombia" title="List of reportedly haunted locations in Colombia">Colombia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghosts_in_Polynesian_culture" title="Ghosts in Polynesian culture">Polynesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghosts_and_spirits_in_M%C4%81ori_culture" title="Ghosts and spirits in Māori culture">Maori</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghosts_in_Mesopotamian_religions" title="Ghosts in Mesopotamian religions">Mesopotamian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_conception_of_the_soul" title="Ancient Egyptian conception of the soul">Ancient Egyptian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shade_(mythology)" title="Shade (mythology)">Classical antiquity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Parapsychology" title="Parapsychology">Parapsychology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apparitional_experience" title="Apparitional experience">Apparitional experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_voice_phenomenon" title="Electronic voice phenomenon">Electronic voice phenomenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_hunting" title="Ghost hunting">Ghost hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9ance" title="Séance">Séance</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mediumship</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_photography" title="Spirit photography">Spirit photography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Popular culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ghost_films" title="List of ghost films">Films about ghosts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_ghost_movie" title="Indian ghost movie">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_horror" title="Indonesian horror">Indonesia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_story" title="Ghost story">Stories about ghosts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kaidan" title="Kaidan">Kaidan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halloween" title="Halloween">Halloween</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samhain" title="Samhain">Samhain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paranormal_television" title="Paranormal television">Paranormal television</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Court cases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Booty_v_Barnaby" title="Booty v Barnaby">Booty v Barnaby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hammersmith_Ghost_murder_case" title="Hammersmith Ghost murder case">Hammersmith Ghost murder case</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_ghosts" title="Fear of ghosts">Fear of ghosts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectrophilia" title="Spectrophilia">Spectrophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(movement)" title="Spiritualism (movement)">Spiritualism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kardecist_spiritism" title="Kardecist spiritism">Kardecist spiritism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Ghost_Club" title="The Ghost Club">The Ghost Club</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geist" title="Geist">Geist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)" title="Spirit (animating force)">Spirit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Ghosts" title="Category:Ghosts">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox1470" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q583271#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4038242-4">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85083238">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11951786m">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11951786m">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph125909&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000128286&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007563016905171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mediumship&oldid=1276431317">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mediumship&oldid=1276431317</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mediumship" title="Category:Mediumship">Mediumship</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Parapsychology" title="Category:Parapsychology">Parapsychology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pseudoscience" title="Category:Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Spiritualism" title="Category:Spiritualism">Spiritualism</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Subscription_required_using_via" title="Category:Subscription required using via">Subscription required using via</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_containing_links_to_subscription-only_content" title="Category:Pages containing links to subscription-only content">Pages containing links to subscription-only content</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_August_2024" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from August 2024">Articles with unsourced statements from August 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_additional_references_from_April_2023" title="Category:Articles needing additional references from April 2023">Articles needing additional references from April 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_needing_additional_references" title="Category:All articles needing additional references">All articles needing additional references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_is_defined_as_the_pagename" title="Category:Commons category link is defined as the pagename">Commons category link is defined as the pagename</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 18 February 2025, at 20:39 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mediumship&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" lang="en" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" width="88" height="31"><img src="/w/resources/assets/mediawiki_compact.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="25" height="25" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-header-container vector-sticky-header-container"> <div id="vector-sticky-header" class="vector-sticky-header"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-start"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-start vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" aria-hidden="true"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-sticky-header-search-toggle" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.vector-sticky-search-form.icon"> Search </button> </div> <div role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box"> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="vector-sticky-search-form" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia"> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-sticky-header-toc vector-sticky-header-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-sticky-header-toc-label" for="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar-primary" aria-hidden="true" >Mediumship</div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-end" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icons"> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-talk-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="talk-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-subject-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="subject-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-history-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="history-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only mw-watchlink" id="ca-watchstar-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="watch-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="wikitext-edit-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-ve-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-viewsource-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-protected-sticky-header"> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-buttons"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet mw-interlanguage-selector" id="p-lang-btn-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn-sticky-header"> 39 languages </button> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"> Add topic </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-65b64b4b74-8bxmz","wgBackendResponseTime":146,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.739","walltime":"1.995","ppvisitednodes":{"value":22757,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":220090,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":15265,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":16,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":4,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":435371,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1642.900 1 -total"," 53.01% 870.833 1 Template:Reflist"," 25.22% 414.314 79 Template:ISBN"," 12.64% 207.690 79 Template:Catalog_lookup_link"," 10.60% 174.143 10 Template:Cite_news"," 7.49% 123.090 1 Template:Short_description"," 5.97% 98.000 1 Template:Paranormal"," 5.82% 95.697 1 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"," 5.28% 86.735 13 Template:Cite_web"," 5.00% 82.144 3 Template:Navbox"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.826","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":8608973,"limit":52428800}},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-65b64b4b74-rztwn","timestamp":"20250219122743","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Mediumship","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mediumship","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q583271","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q583271","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2005-07-20T01:41:44Z","dateModified":"2025-02-18T20:39:12Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/5\/5d\/Medium-Eva-Carriere-1912.jpg","headline":"person said to mediate communication between spirits of the dead and other human beings"}</script> </body> </html>