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class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Capabilities subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Capabilities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Readiness_and_disposition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Readiness_and_disposition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Readiness and disposition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Readiness_and_disposition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Power_projection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Power_projection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Power projection</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Power_projection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Logistics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Logistics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Logistics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Logistics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Policing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Policing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Policing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Policing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Engineering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Engineering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Engineering</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Engineering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_stance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_stance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>International stance</span> </div> </a> <button 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vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Equipment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Equipment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Equipment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medicine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medicine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Medicine</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Medicine-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Medicine subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Medicine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Need_for_specialized_care" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Need_for_specialized_care"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Need for specialized care</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Need_for_specialized_care-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roman_hospitals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman_hospitals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Roman hospitals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman_hospitals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physicians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physicians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Physicians</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physicians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Distinctions_in_practice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Distinctions_in_practice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Distinctions in practice</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Distinctions_in_practice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Diet</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scale" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scale"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6</span> <span>Scale</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scale-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Source_of_knowledge" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Source_of_knowledge"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.7</span> <span>Source of knowledge</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Source_of_knowledge-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Primary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secondary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secondary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4</span> <span>Secondary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secondary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" 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interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forces_armades_de_l%27antiga_Roma" title="Forces armades de l'antiga Roma – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Forces armades de l'antiga Roma" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starov%C4%9Bk%C3%A9_%C5%99%C3%ADmsk%C3%A9_vojenstv%C3%AD" title="Starověké římské vojenství – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Starověké římské vojenství" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%A0%EB%8C%80_%EB%A1%9C%EB%A7%88%EC%9D%98_%EA%B5%B0%EC%82%AC" title="고대 로마의 군사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="고대 로마의 군사" 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title="Roman military engineering">Military engineering</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Castra" title="Castra">Castra</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_siege_engines" title="Roman siege engines">Siege engines</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_triumphal_arches" title="List of Roman triumphal arches">Triumphal arches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_roads" title="Roman roads">Roads</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.45em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Political history of the Roman military">Political history</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div style="font-size:50%;line-height:0.5em;"> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.45em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Strategy_of_the_Roman_military" title="Strategy of the Roman military">Strategy and tactics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_infantry_tactics" title="Roman infantry tactics">Infantry tactics</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.45em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_frontiers_and_fortifications" title="Roman military frontiers and fortifications">Frontiers and fortifications</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Limes_(Roman_Empire)" title="Limes (Roman Empire)">Limes</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_defensive_walls" title="Ancient Roman defensive walls">Walls</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Limes_Britannicus" title="Limes Britannicus">Limes Britannicus</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antonine_Wall" title="Antonine Wall">Antonine Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadrian%27s_Wall" title="Hadrian's Wall">Hadrian's Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxon_Shore" title="Saxon Shore">Saxon Shore</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Limes_Germanicus" title="Limes Germanicus">Limes Germanicus</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alb_Limes" title="Alb Limes">Alb Limes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lautertal_Limes" title="Lautertal Limes">Lauter Valley Limes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Germanic_Limes" title="Lower Germanic Limes">Lower Germanic Limes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Main_Limes" title="Main Limes">Main Limes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neckar-Odenwald_Limes" title="Neckar-Odenwald Limes">Neckar-Odenwald Limes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Germanic-Rhaetian_Limes" title="Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes">Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wetterau_Limes" title="Wetterau Limes">Wetterau Limes</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Danube%E2%80%93Iller%E2%80%93Rhine_Limes" title="Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes">Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norican_Limes" class="mw-redirect" title="Norican Limes">Norican Limes</a></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Claustra_Alpium_Iuliarum" title="Claustra Alpium Iuliarum">Claustra Alpium Iuliarum</a></i></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pannonian_Limes" title="Pannonian Limes">Pannonian Limes</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Limes_Alutanus" title="Limes Alutanus">Limes Alutanus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limes_Moesiae" class="mw-redirect" title="Limes Moesiae">Limes Moesiae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Wall" title="Trajan's Wall">Trajan's Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anastasian_Wall" title="Anastasian Wall">Anastasian Wall</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Devil%27s_Dykes" title="Devil's Dykes">Limes Sarmatiae</a></i></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Limes_Arabicus" title="Limes Arabicus">Limes Arabicus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Limes_Tripolitanus" title="Limes Tripolitanus">Limes Tripolitanus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Limes_Mauretaniae" title="Limes Mauretaniae">Limes Mauretaniae</a></i></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/32px-SPQRomani.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/48px-SPQRomani.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/64px-SPQRomani.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="931" data-file-height="548" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Rome" title="Portal:Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Rome_military_sidebar" title="Template:Ancient Rome military sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Rome_military_sidebar" title="Template talk:Ancient Rome military sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Rome_military_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Rome military sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>military of ancient Rome</b> was one of largest pre-modern professional <a href="/wiki/Standing_armies" class="mw-redirect" title="Standing armies">standing armies</a> that ever existed. At its height, protecting over 7,000 kilometers of border and consisting of over 400,000 <a href="/wiki/Legionaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Legionaries">legionaries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Auxiliaries" title="Auxiliaries">auxiliaries</a>, the army was the most important institution in the Roman world. According to the Roman historian <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a>, the military was a key element in the rise of Rome over "above seven hundred years"<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> from a small settlement in <a href="/wiki/Latium" title="Latium">Latium</a> to the capital of an empire governing a wide region around the shores of the Mediterranean, or, as the Romans themselves said, <i>mare nostrum</i>, "our sea". Livy asserts: </p> <dl><dd>... if any people ought to be allowed to consecrate their origins and refer them to a divine source, so great is the military glory of the Roman People that when they profess that their Father and the Father of their Founder was none other than Mars, the nations of the earth may well submit to this also with as good a grace as they submit to Rome's dominion.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></dd></dl> <p><a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Titus Flavius Josephus</a>, a contemporary historian, sometime high-ranking officer in the Roman army, and commander of the rebels in the <a href="/wiki/First_Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_War" title="First Jewish–Roman War">Jewish revolt</a> describes the Roman people as if they were "born readily armed".<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the time of the two historians, Roman society had already evolved an effective military and had used it to defend itself against the Etruscans, the <a href="/wiki/Italics" class="mw-redirect" title="Italics">Italics</a>, the Greeks, the Gauls, the maritime empire of Carthage, and the Macedonian kingdoms. In each war, it acquired more territory until, when the civil war ended the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>, nothing was left for the first emperor, <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a>, to do except declare it an empire and defend it.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The role and structure of the military were then altered during the empire. It became less Roman, the duties of border protection and territorial administration being more and more taken by foreign mercenaries officered by Romans. When they divided at last into warring factions the empire fell, unable to keep out invading armies. </p><p>During the Roman Republic, the function of the military was defined as service to the "<span title="Latin-language text"><span lang="la" style="font-style: normal;">Senatus Populusque Romanus</span></span>" – an agency designated by <a href="/wiki/SPQR" title="SPQR">SPQR</a> on public inscriptions. Its main body was the senate, which met in a building still extant in the forum of Rome. Its decrees were handed off to the two chief officers of the state, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">consuls</a>. They could levy from the citizens whatever military force they judged was necessary to execute such decree. This conscription was executed through a draft of male citizens assembled by age class. The officers of the legion were tasked with selecting men for the ranks. The will of the SPQR was binding on the consuls and the men, with the death penalty often assigned for disobedience or failure. The men were under a rigorous code, known now for its punitive crucifixion. </p><p>The consular duties were of any type whatever: military defense, police work, public hygiene, assistance in a civil disaster, health work, agriculture, and especially the construction of public roads, bridges, aqueducts, buildings, and the maintenance of such. The soldiers were kept busy doing whatever service needed to be done: soldiering, manning vessels, carpentry, blacksmithing, clerking, etc. They were trained as required, but also previous skills, such as a trade, were exploited. They were brought to the task and were protected by the authority of the state. </p><p>The military's <a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">campaign history</a> stretched over 1300 years and saw Roman armies campaigning as far east as <a href="/wiki/Parthia" title="Parthia">Parthia</a> (modern-day Iran), as far south as <a href="/wiki/Africa_(Roman_province)" title="Africa (Roman province)">Africa</a> (modern-day Tunisia) and <a href="/wiki/Egypt_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt (Roman province)">Aegyptus</a> (modern-day Egypt) and as far north as <a href="/wiki/Britannia" title="Britannia">Britannia</a> (modern-day England, southern Scotland, and Wales). The makeup of the Roman military changed substantially over its history, from its early days as an unsalaried citizen militia to a later professional force, the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Roman_army" title="Imperial Roman army">Imperial Roman army</a>. The equipment used by the military altered greatly in type over time, though there were very few technological improvements in weapons manufacture, in common with the rest of the classical world. For much of its history, the vast majority of Rome's forces were maintained at or beyond the limits of its territory, to either expand Rome's domain or protect its existing borders. Expansions were infrequent, as the emperors, adopting a strategy of fixed lines of defense, had determined to maintain existing borders. For that purpose, they constructed extensive walls and created permanent stations that became cities. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Personnel">Personnel</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_of_ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Personnel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Structural_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Structural history of the Roman military">Structural history of the Roman military</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Population_base_of_the_early_empire">Population base of the early empire</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_of_ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Population base of the early empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cornicen_on_Trajan%27s_column.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Cornicen_on_Trajan%27s_column.JPG/250px-Cornicen_on_Trajan%27s_column.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Cornicen_on_Trajan%27s_column.JPG/375px-Cornicen_on_Trajan%27s_column.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Cornicen_on_Trajan%27s_column.JPG/500px-Cornicen_on_Trajan%27s_column.JPG 2x" data-file-width="506" data-file-height="387" /></a><figcaption>Roman soldiers on the cast of <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Column" title="Trajan's Column">Trajan's Column</a> in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London</figcaption></figure> <p>At its territorial height, the Roman Empire may have contained between 45 million and 120 million people.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian <a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Edward Gibbon</a> estimated that the size of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Roman army</a> "most probably formed a standing force of three hundred and seventy-five thousand men"<sup id="cite_ref-gibbon65_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gibbon65-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> at the empire's territorial peak in the time of the Roman emperor <a href="/wiki/Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> </span>117–138). This estimate probably included only <a href="/wiki/Legionary" title="Legionary">legionary</a> and <a href="/wiki/Auxiliaries_(Roman_military)" class="mw-redirect" title="Auxiliaries (Roman military)">auxiliary</a> troops of the Roman army.<sup id="cite_ref-gibbon65_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gibbon65-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Gibbon states that it is "not... easy to define the size of the Roman military with any tolerable accuracy". In the late imperial period, when vast numbers of <i><a href="/wiki/Foederati" title="Foederati">foederati</a></i> were employed by the Romans, <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Santosuosso" title="Antonio Santosuosso">Antonio Santosuosso</a> (2001) estimated the combined number of men in arms of the two Roman empires numbered closer to 700,000 in total (not all members of a standing army), drawing on data from the <i><a href="/wiki/Notitia_Dignitatum" title="Notitia Dignitatum">Notitia Dignitatum</a></i>. However, he notes that these figures were probably subject to inflation due to the practice of leaving dead soldiers "on the books" to continue to draw their wages and ration. Furthermore, it is irrespective of whether the troops were raised by the Romans or simply hired by them to fight on their behalf.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESantosuosso2001188_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESantosuosso2001188-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recruitment">Recruitment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_of_ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Recruitment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Column_of_Marcus_Aurelius_-_detail3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Column_of_Marcus_Aurelius_-_detail3.jpg/250px-Column_of_Marcus_Aurelius_-_detail3.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Column_of_Marcus_Aurelius_-_detail3.jpg/375px-Column_of_Marcus_Aurelius_-_detail3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Column_of_Marcus_Aurelius_-_detail3.jpg/500px-Column_of_Marcus_Aurelius_-_detail3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>Relief scene of Roman legionaries marching, from the <a href="/wiki/Column_of_Marcus_Aurelius" title="Column of Marcus Aurelius">Column of Marcus Aurelius</a>, Rome, Italy, 2nd century AD</figcaption></figure> <p>Initially, Rome's military consisted of an annual citizen levy performing military service as part of their duty to the state. During this period, the Roman army prosecuted seasonal campaigns against largely local adversaries. As the extent of the territories falling under Roman suzerainty expanded, and the size of the city's forces increased, the soldiery of ancient Rome became increasingly professional and salaried. As a consequence, military service at the lower (non-staff) levels became progressively longer-term. Roman military units of the period were largely homogeneous and highly regulated. The army consisted of units of citizen infantry known as <a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">legions</a> (Latin: <i>legio</i>) as well as non-legionary allied troops known as <a href="/wiki/Auxilia" title="Auxilia">auxiliary</a>. The latter were most commonly called upon to provide light infantry or cavalry support.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Military service in the later empire continued to be salaried yearly and professionally for Rome's regular troops. However, the trend of employing allied or mercenary troops was expanded such that these troops came to represent a substantial proportion of Rome's forces. At the same time, the uniformity of structure found in Rome's earlier military forces disappeared. The soldiery of the era ranged from lightly armed mounted archers to heavy infantry, in regiments of varying size and quality. This was accompanied by a trend in the late empire of an increasing predominance of cavalry rather than infantry troops, as well as an emphasis on more mobile operations.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military_subculture">Military subculture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_of_ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Military subculture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The British historian <a href="/wiki/Peter_Heather" title="Peter Heather">Peter Heather</a> describes Roman military culture as being "just like the Marines, but much nastier".<sup id="cite_ref-Heather,_P._2005,_p._6_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heather,_P._2005,_p._6-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The army did not provide much social mobility, and it also took quite some time to complete one's service. The pay was not the best for the time but could be remedied by advance in rank, loot from wars, and additional pay from emperors. Also, the army did provide a guaranteed supply of food (many times soldiers had to pay for food and supplies), doctors, and stability. In the legions of the Republic, discipline was fierce and training harsh, all intended to instill a group cohesion or <i><a href="/wiki/Esprit_de_corps" class="mw-redirect" title="Esprit de corps">esprit de corps</a></i> that could bind the men together into effective fighting units. Unlike opponents such as the Gauls, who were fierce individual warriors, Roman military training concentrated on instilling teamwork and maintaining a level head over individual bravery − troops were to maintain exact formations in battle and "despise wild swinging blows"<sup id="cite_ref-Heather,_P._2005,_p._6_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heather,_P._2005,_p._6-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in favor of taking shelter behind one's shield and delivering efficient stabs when an opponent made himself vulnerable.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Loyalty was to the Roman state but pride was based in the soldier's unit, to which was attached a military standard − in the case of the legions a legionary <a href="/wiki/Aquila_(Roman)" title="Aquila (Roman)">eagle</a>. Successful units were awarded accolades that became part of their official name, such as the 20th Legion, which became the XX Valeria Victrix (the "Valiant and Victorious 20th").<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Of the martial culture of less valued units such as sailors, and light infantry, less is known, but it is doubtful that its training was as intense or its <i>esprit de corps</i> as strong as in the legions.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Literacy was highly valued in the Roman military, and literacy rates in the military far exceeded that of the Roman society as a whole.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Funding_and_expenditures">Funding and expenditures</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_of_ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Funding and expenditures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Economics_of_the_Roman_army" title="Economics of the Roman army">Economics of the Roman army</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Private_funding">Private funding</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_of_ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Private funding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:7antoninianii.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/7antoninianii.jpg/250px-7antoninianii.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/7antoninianii.jpg/375px-7antoninianii.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/7antoninianii.jpg/500px-7antoninianii.jpg 2x" data-file-width="515" data-file-height="322" /></a><figcaption>Roman coins grew gradually more <a href="/wiki/Debasement" title="Debasement">debased</a> due to the demands placed on the treasury of the Roman state by the military.</figcaption></figure> <p>Although early in its history, troops were expected to provide much of their equipment, eventually, the Roman military became almost entirely funded by the state. Since soldiers of the early <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">republican</a> armies were also unpaid citizens, the financial burden of the army on the state was minimal. However, since the Roman state did not provide services such as housing, health, education, social security, and public transport that are part and parcel of modern states, the military always represented by far the greatest expenditure of the state.<sup id="cite_ref-Heather,_P._2005,_p._64_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heather,_P._2005,_p._64-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plunder_economy">Plunder economy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_of_ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Plunder economy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the time of expansion in the Republic and early Empire, Roman armies had acted as a source of revenue for the Roman state, plundering conquered territories, displaying the massive wealth in <a href="/wiki/Roman_triumph" title="Roman triumph">triumphs</a> upon their return and fuelling the economy<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to the extent that historians such as <a href="/wiki/Arnold_J._Toynbee" title="Arnold J. Toynbee">Toynbee</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_Burke_(science_historian)" title="James Burke (science historian)">Burke</a> believe that the Roman economy was essentially a <a href="/wiki/Raubwirtschaft" class="mw-redirect" title="Raubwirtschaft">plunder economy</a>. Nathan Rosenstein has questioned this assumption, indicating that Rome ran the majority of its campaigns in the 2nd century BC at a loss and relied on rare windfalls such as <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Aemilius_Paullus_Macedonicus" title="Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus">Aemilius Paullus</a>' campaign in the east in 168 BC to make up the cost of war.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Regardless, after the empire had stopped expanding in the 2nd century AD, this source of revenue dried up; by the end of the 3rd century AD, Rome had "ceased to vanquish".<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As tax revenue was plagued by corruption and <a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation" title="Hyperinflation">hyperinflation</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a>, military expenditures began to become a "crushing burden"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESantosuosso2001214_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESantosuosso2001214-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> on the finances of the Roman state.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It now highlighted weaknesses that earlier expansion had disguised. By 440 AD, an imperial law frankly states that the Roman state has insufficient tax revenue to fund an army of a size required by the demands placed upon it.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Several additional factors bloated the military expenditure of the Roman Empire. First, substantial rewards were paid to "<a href="/wiki/Barbarian" title="Barbarian">barbarian</a>" chieftains for their good conduct in the form of negotiated subsidies and the provision of allied troops.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Secondly, the military boosted its numbers, possibly by one third in a single century.<sup id="cite_ref-Heather,_P._2005,_p._64_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heather,_P._2005,_p._64-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Third, the military increasingly relied on a higher ratio of cavalry units in the late empire, which were many times more expensive to maintain than infantry units.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Taxation">Taxation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_of_ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Taxation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As military size and costs increased, new taxes were introduced or existing tax laws reformed in the late empire to finance it, even though more inhabitants were available within the borders of the late empire, reducing the per capita costs for an increased standing army was impractical. A large number of the population could not be taxed because they were slaves or held Roman citizenship, both of which exempted them from taxation.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of the remaining, a large number were already impoverished by centuries of warfare and weakened by chronic malnutrition. Still, they had to handle an increasing tax rate<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and so they often abandoned their lands to survive in a city.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESantosuosso2001214_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESantosuosso2001214-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Of the western empire's taxable population, a larger number than in the east could not be taxed because they were "primitive subsistence peasant[s]"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESantosuosso2001214_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESantosuosso2001214-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and did not produce a great deal of goods beyond agricultural products. Plunder was still made from suppressing insurgencies within the empire and on limited incursions into enemy land. Legally, much of it should have returned to the imperial purse, but these goods were simply kept by the common soldiers, who demanded it of their commanders as a right. Given the low wages and high inflation in the later Empire, the soldiers felt that they had a right to acquire plunder.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Capabilities">Capabilities</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_of_ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Capabilities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Readiness_and_disposition">Readiness and disposition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_of_ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Readiness and disposition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_Legions_camps_-_AD_80.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Roman_Legions_camps_-_AD_80.png/250px-Roman_Legions_camps_-_AD_80.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Roman_Legions_camps_-_AD_80.png/375px-Roman_Legions_camps_-_AD_80.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Roman_Legions_camps_-_AD_80.png/500px-Roman_Legions_camps_-_AD_80.png 2x" data-file-width="599" data-file-height="470" /></a><figcaption>Locations of Roman legions, 80 AD</figcaption></figure> <p>The military capability of Rome – its preparedness or readiness – was always primarily based upon the maintenance of an active fighting force acting either at or beyond its military frontiers, something that historian Luttwak refers to as a "thin linear perimeter.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is best illustrated by showing the dispositions of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Roman legions</a>, the backbone of the Roman army. Because of these deployments, the Roman military kept a central <a href="/wiki/Strategic_reserve" title="Strategic reserve">strategic reserve</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Social_War_(91%E2%80%9388_BC)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social War (91–88 BC)">Social War</a>. Such reserves were only re-established during the late empire when the army was split into a border defense force and mobile response field units.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Power_projection">Power projection</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_of_ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Power projection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Roman military was keen on the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Power_projection" title="Power projection">power projection</a> – it frequently removed foreign rulers by force or intimidation and replaced them with puppets. This was facilitated by the maintenance, for at least part of its history, of a series of <a href="/wiki/Client_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Client states">client states</a> and other subjugate and buffer entities beyond its official borders, although over which Rome extended massive political influence and military threat to keep them loyal. However, this could also could lead to the payment of immense subsidies to foreign powers to keep a frontier quiet.<sup id="cite_ref-reference_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reference-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Logistics">Logistics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_of_ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Logistics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The empire's system of building an extensive and well-maintained road network, as well as its absolute command of the Mediterranean for much of its history, enabled a primitive form of <a href="/wiki/Rapid_reaction_force" title="Rapid reaction force">rapid reaction</a>, also stressed in modern military doctrine. During the imperial period, some border regions had <i><a href="/wiki/Limes_(Roman_Empire)" title="Limes (Roman Empire)">limites</a></i> built, forts that would sustain a Roman presence, deal with small incursions themselves, and slow down larger incursion to enable aid to be sent. </p><p>The Roman military had an extensive logistical supply chain. There was no specialised branch of the military devoted to logistics and transportation, although this was to a great extent carried out by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Roman navy</a> due to the ease and low costs of transporting goods via sea and river compared to overland.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Work managing supplies and logistics was probably part of the standard career path of Roman elites, something acquired while working as <a href="/wiki/Military_tribune" title="Military tribune">military tribunes</a> managing foraging expeditions, and reinforced in later positions.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is archaeological evidence that Roman armies campaigning in <a href="/wiki/Germania" title="Germania">Germania</a> were supplied by a logistical supply chain beginning in Italy and <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a>, then transported by sea to the northern coast of Germania, and finally penetrating Germania via barges on inland waterways. Forces were routinely supplied via fixed supply chains. Roman armies in enemy territory obtained their food many ways simultaneously; they would forage for food, purchase food locally, raid local foodstores, and have food shipped to them by supply lines. <a href="/wiki/Peter_Heather" title="Peter Heather">Peter Heather</a> writes that a single legion would have required 13.5 tonnes of food per month, and attempting to get all that food in just a single way would have proved impossible.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Policing">Policing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_of_ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Policing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For the most part, Roman cities had a civil guard used for maintaining peace. Due to fear of rebellions and other uprisings, they were forbidden to be armed at militia levels. Policing was split between the city guard for low-level affairs and the Roman legions and auxiliary for suppressing higher-level rioting and rebellion. This civil guard created a limited strategic reserve, one that fared poorly in actual warfare.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Engineering">Engineering</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_of_ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Engineering"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Roman_military_engineering" title="Roman military engineering">Roman military engineering</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greek_and_Roman_artillery" title="Greek and Roman artillery">Greek and Roman artillery</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vista_general_de_Masada.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Vista_general_de_Masada.jpg/250px-Vista_general_de_Masada.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Vista_general_de_Masada.jpg/375px-Vista_general_de_Masada.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Vista_general_de_Masada.jpg/500px-Vista_general_de_Masada.jpg 2x" data-file-width="597" data-file-height="447" /></a><figcaption>The massive earthen ramp at <a href="/wiki/Masada" title="Masada">Masada</a>, designed by the Roman army to breach the fortress' walls</figcaption></figure> <p>The military engineering of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a>'s armed forces was of a scale and frequency far beyond that of any of its contemporaries. Indeed, military engineering was in many ways institutionally endemic in Roman military culture, as demonstrated by the fact that each Roman <a href="/wiki/Legionary" title="Legionary">legionary</a> had as part of his equipment a shovel, alongside his <i><a href="/wiki/Gladius" title="Gladius">gladius</a></i> (sword) and <i><a href="/wiki/Pilum" title="Pilum">pila</a></i> (spears). Heather writes that "Learning to build, and build quickly, was a standard element of training".<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This engineering prowess was, however, only evident during the peak of Roman military prowess from the mid-republic to the mid-empire. Before the mid-republic period, there is little evidence of protracted or exceptional military engineering, and in the late empire likewise, there is little sign of the kind of engineering feats that were regularly carried out in the earlier empire.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Roman military engineering took both routine and extraordinary forms, the former a proactive part of standard military procedure, and the latter of an extraordinary or reactionary nature. Proactive military engineering took the form of the regular construction of fortified camps, in road-building, and the construction of <a href="/wiki/Siege_engine" title="Siege engine">siege engines</a>. The knowledge and experience learned through such routine engineering lent itself readily to any extraordinary engineering projects required by the army, such as the <a href="/wiki/Circumvallation" class="mw-redirect" title="Circumvallation">circumvallations</a> constructed at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Alesia" title="Battle of Alesia">Alesia</a> and the earthen ramp constructed at <a href="/wiki/Masada" title="Masada">Masada</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>This engineering expertise practiced in daily routines also served in the construction of siege equipment such as <a href="/wiki/Ballista" title="Ballista">ballistae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Onager_(siege_weapon)" class="mw-redirect" title="Onager (siege weapon)">onagers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siege_towers" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege towers">siege towers</a>, as well as allowing the troops to construct roads, bridges, and fortified camps. All of these led to strategic capabilities, allowing Roman troops to, respectively, assault besieged settlements, move more rapidly to wherever they were needed, cross rivers to reduce march times and surprise enemies, and to camp in relative security even in enemy territory.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="International_stance">International stance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_of_ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: International stance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:10_2023_-_Palazzo_Altemps,_Roma,_Lazio,_00186,_Italia_-_Sarcofago_Grande_Ludovisi_(Grande_Ludovisi_sarcophagus)_-_Arte_Romana_-_Photo_Paolo_Villa_FO232047_ombre_gimp_bis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/10_2023_-_Palazzo_Altemps%2C_Roma%2C_Lazio%2C_00186%2C_Italia_-_Sarcofago_Grande_Ludovisi_%28Grande_Ludovisi_sarcophagus%29_-_Arte_Romana_-_Photo_Paolo_Villa_FO232047_ombre_gimp_bis.jpg/250px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/10_2023_-_Palazzo_Altemps%2C_Roma%2C_Lazio%2C_00186%2C_Italia_-_Sarcofago_Grande_Ludovisi_%28Grande_Ludovisi_sarcophagus%29_-_Arte_Romana_-_Photo_Paolo_Villa_FO232047_ombre_gimp_bis.jpg/375px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/10_2023_-_Palazzo_Altemps%2C_Roma%2C_Lazio%2C_00186%2C_Italia_-_Sarcofago_Grande_Ludovisi_%28Grande_Ludovisi_sarcophagus%29_-_Arte_Romana_-_Photo_Paolo_Villa_FO232047_ombre_gimp_bis.jpg/500px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="10569" data-file-height="7000" /></a><figcaption>Third-century Roman soldiers battling barbarian troops on the <a href="/wiki/Ludovisi_Battle_sarcophagus" title="Ludovisi Battle sarcophagus">Ludovisi Battle sarcophagus</a> (250–260)</figcaption></figure> <p>Rome was established as a nation by making aggressive use of its high military potential. From very early on in its history, it would raise two armies annually to campaign abroad. The Roman military was far from being solely a defense force. For much of its history, it was a tool of aggressive expansion. The Roman army had derived from a militia of main farmers and the gain of new farmlands for the growing population or later retiring soldiers was often one of the campaign's chief objectives. Only in the late empire did the preservation of control over Rome's territories become the Roman military's primary role. The remaining major powers confronting Rome were the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Kingdom of Aksum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Huns#Unified_Empire_under_Attila" title="Huns">Hunnic Empire</a>. Knowledge of <a href="/wiki/History_of_China#Ancient_China" title="History of China">China</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> at the times of <a href="/wiki/Mani_(prophet)" title="Mani (prophet)">Mani</a>, existed and it is believed that Rome and China swapped embassies in about 170 AD.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Grand_strategy">Grand strategy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_of_ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Grand strategy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Strategy_of_the_Roman_military" title="Strategy of the Roman military">Strategy of the Roman military</a></div> <p>In its purest form, the concept of strategy deals solely with military issues. However, Rome is offered by <a href="/wiki/Edward_Luttwak" title="Edward Luttwak">Edward Luttwak</a> and others as an early example of a state that possessed a <a href="/wiki/Grand_strategy" title="Grand strategy">grand strategy</a> which encompassed the management of the resources of an entire nation in the conduct of warfare. Up to half of the funds raised by the Roman state were spent on its military, and the Romans displayed a strategy that was more complicated than simple knee-jerk strategic or tactical responses to individual threats. Rome's strategy changed over time, implementing different systems to meet different challenges that reflected changing internal priorities. Elements of Rome's strategy included the use of client states, the deterrent of armed response in parallel with manipulative diplomacy, and a fixed system of troop deployments and road networks. Luttwak states that there are "instructive similarities" between Roman and modern military strategy.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rome would rely on brute force and sheer numbers when in doubt. The soldiers were trained to memorize every step in battle, so discipline and order could not break down into chaos. They were largely successful because of this.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Campaigns">Campaigns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_of_ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Campaigns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">Campaign history of the Roman military</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Equipment">Equipment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_of_ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Equipment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although Roman iron-working was enhanced by a process known as <a href="/wiki/Carburizing" title="Carburizing">carburizing</a>, the Romans are not thought to have developed true steel production. From the earliest history of the Roman state to its downfall, Roman arms were therefore uniformly produced from either bronze or, later, iron. As a result, the 1300 years of Roman military technology saw little radical change at the technological level. Within the bounds of classical military technology, however, Roman arms and armor were developed, discarded, and adopted from other peoples based on changing methods of engagement. It included at various times stabbing daggers and swords, stabbing or thrusting swords, long thrusting spears or pikes, lances, light throwing javelins and darts, slings, and bow and arrows.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:046_Conrad_Cichorius,_Die_Reliefs_der_Traianss%C3%A4ule,_Tafel_XLVI_(Ausschnitt_01).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/046_Conrad_Cichorius%2C_Die_Reliefs_der_Traianss%C3%A4ule%2C_Tafel_XLVI_%28Ausschnitt_01%29.jpg/220px-046_Conrad_Cichorius%2C_Die_Reliefs_der_Traianss%C3%A4ule%2C_Tafel_XLVI_%28Ausschnitt_01%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/046_Conrad_Cichorius%2C_Die_Reliefs_der_Traianss%C3%A4ule%2C_Tafel_XLVI_%28Ausschnitt_01%29.jpg/330px-046_Conrad_Cichorius%2C_Die_Reliefs_der_Traianss%C3%A4ule%2C_Tafel_XLVI_%28Ausschnitt_01%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/046_Conrad_Cichorius%2C_Die_Reliefs_der_Traianss%C3%A4ule%2C_Tafel_XLVI_%28Ausschnitt_01%29.jpg/440px-046_Conrad_Cichorius%2C_Die_Reliefs_der_Traianss%C3%A4ule%2C_Tafel_XLVI_%28Ausschnitt_01%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1593" data-file-height="1097" /></a><figcaption>Relief from <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Column" title="Trajan's Column">Trajan's Column</a> showing a legionary with <i><a href="/wiki/Lorica_segmentata" title="Lorica segmentata">lorica segmentata</a></i>, manning a <i><a href="/wiki/Carroballista" title="Carroballista">carroballista</a></i></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_personal_equipment" title="Roman military personal equipment">Roman military personal equipment</a> was produced in large numbers to established patterns and used in an established way. It, therefore, varied little in design and quality within each historical period. According to Hugh Elton, Roman equipment gave them "a distinct advantage over their barbarian enemies." Elton, Hugh, 1996, "Warfare in Roman Europe, AD 350–425", who were often, as Germanic tribesmen, completely unarmoured. However, Luttwak points out that whilst the uniform possession of armour gave Rome an advantage, the actual standard of each item of Roman equipment was of no better quality than that used by the majority of its adversaries. In Luttwack, E., "The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire", JHUP, 1979, Luttwack states that "Roman weapons, far from being universally more advanced, were frequently inferior to those used by enemies. The relatively low quality of Roman weaponry was primarily a function of its large-scale production, and later factors such as governmental price-fixing for certain items, which gave no allowance for quality and incentivized cheap, poor-quality goods.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The Roman military readily adopted types of arms and armor that were effectively used against them by their enemies. Initially, Roman troops were armed after Greek and Etruscan models, using large oval shields and long pikes. On encountering the Celts they adopted much Celtic equipment and again later adopted items such as the <i>gladius</i> from Iberian peoples. Later in Rome's history, it adopted practices such as arming its cavalry with bows in the Parthian style and even experimented briefly with niche weaponry such as elephants and camel-troops.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Besides personal weaponry, the Roman military adopted team weaponry such as the <a href="/wiki/Ballista" title="Ballista">ballista</a> and developed a naval weapon known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Corvus_(boarding_device)" title="Corvus (boarding device)">corvus</a></i>, a spiked plank used for affixing and boarding enemy ships.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Medicine">Medicine</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_of_ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Medicine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Need_for_specialized_care">Need for specialized care</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_of_ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Need for specialized care"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hospital_at_Novaesium_near_Dusseldorft._Wellcome_L0005983.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Hospital_at_Novaesium_near_Dusseldorft._Wellcome_L0005983.jpg/220px-Hospital_at_Novaesium_near_Dusseldorft._Wellcome_L0005983.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Hospital_at_Novaesium_near_Dusseldorft._Wellcome_L0005983.jpg/330px-Hospital_at_Novaesium_near_Dusseldorft._Wellcome_L0005983.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Hospital_at_Novaesium_near_Dusseldorft._Wellcome_L0005983.jpg/440px-Hospital_at_Novaesium_near_Dusseldorft._Wellcome_L0005983.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1576" data-file-height="1214" /></a><figcaption>General set up of ancient Roman military hospital.</figcaption></figure> <p>The expansion of the Roman Empire was achieved through military force in nearly every case. Roman culture as a whole revolved around its military for both expansion and protection.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Geographic areas on the outskirts of the empire were prone to attack and required heavy military presence. The constant barrage of attacks and the increase of expansion caused casualties. Due to attack there was a need for specialized medical care for these armies in order to keep them in operational status.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The specialized form of care however, was not created until the time of <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 27 BC – AD 14</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prior to this there is little information about the care of soldiers. It is assumed soldiers were self-reliant, treating their own wounds and caring for other ailments encountered.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They would also turn to civilians for help throughout the villages they would come across. This was considered a custom of the time, and was quite common for households to take in wounded soldiers and tend to them.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As time progressed, there was an increase in care for the wounded as hospitals appeared. The idea was held by the Romans that a healed soldier was better than a dead one and a healed <a href="/wiki/Veteran" title="Veteran">veteran</a> was better than a new <a href="/wiki/Recruitment" title="Recruitment">recruit</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roman_hospitals">Roman hospitals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_of_ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Roman hospitals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With the need for soldier health a growing concern, places for the sick to go in the army were starting to show up. Dates ranged from AD 9 to AD 50, but this is when the first evidence of hospitals was seen in archeological remains.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These hospitals were specific places for only military members to go to if they were injured or fell ill. Similar hospitals were set up for slaves in areas where slaves were used in large numbers. Military hospitals were permanent structures set up in forts. These buildings had clear patient rooms and were designed to accommodate large numbers of soldiers.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_30-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The size of these hospitals varied based on their location. Some of the large facilities, such as the hospital in <a href="/wiki/Hod_Hill" title="Hod Hill">Hod Hill</a> England, was large enough to accommodate roughly 12% of the force within the hospital. In more stable areas such as <a href="/wiki/Inchtuthil" title="Inchtuthil">Inchtuthil</a> in Scotland, there was room for as little as 2% of the force within the hospital. In areas with more conflict, there were larger medical facilities as they saw more casualties.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_30-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These hospitals were solely designed for the use of the military. If a civilian fell ill or needed surgery they would likely go to the physician's home and stay, not a hospital.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_30-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prior to these permanent structures there were tents set up as mobile <a href="/wiki/Field_hospital" title="Field hospital">field hospitals</a>. Soldiers suffering from severe wounds were brought to these for treatment. These were quickly assembled and disassembled as the army moved. The tents served as a precursor for the permanent structured hospitals.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These permanent hospitals and mobile treatment centers were a relatively new concept in this time period.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Physicians">Physicians</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_of_ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Physicians"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Capsarius_(Trajans%C3%A4ule).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Capsarius_%28Trajans%C3%A4ule%29.jpg/220px-Capsarius_%28Trajans%C3%A4ule%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Capsarius_%28Trajans%C3%A4ule%29.jpg/330px-Capsarius_%28Trajans%C3%A4ule%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Capsarius_%28Trajans%C3%A4ule%29.jpg/440px-Capsarius_%28Trajans%C3%A4ule%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1960" data-file-height="1548" /></a><figcaption>Capsarii tending to injured soldiers depicted on <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Column" title="Trajan's Column">Trajan's Column</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Doctors serving in the army were considered to be a member of the military. Just like everyone else they would take the military oath and be bound by the military law. They would also start among the lower fighting ranks. Even though they took the military oath and were among the lower ranks it did not mean they would be fighting among the masses.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These doctors were not always professionals or career physicians. Oftentimes they were slaves who were forced into that career.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The <i>capsarii</i> were a group that also treated wounded soldiers on the battlefield. These men were not trained physicians even though they played the role of one. Typically they were soldiers who demonstrated they had knowledge in wound treatment and even simple surgical techniques.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These men were used before the actual trained doctors were largely implemented. Physicians got their knowledge from experience and information being passed down from person to person. Likely they never used medical texts, as it was not commonplace even in the civilian field.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Generals and emperors were exceptions, as they would typically have their physicians with them. This was a common occurrence as emperors such as <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a> employed famous physicians such as <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a>. There were also physicians among the ranks of the Roman soldiers.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Distinctions_in_practice">Distinctions in practice</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_of_ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Distinctions in practice"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With any large number of people being in close quarters, there was a constant threat of <a href="/wiki/Disease_in_Imperial_Rome" title="Disease in Imperial Rome">disease</a>. When one individual in a large group gets sick with a <a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">communicable disease</a>, it spreads to others very quickly. This premise remains true even today in the modern military. The Romans recognized the difference between disease and wounds, each requiring separate treatment.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Drainage of excess water and waste were common practices in camps as well as the permanent medical structures, which come at a later date. As the medical corps grew in size there was also specialization evolving. Physicians surfaced that specialized in disease, <a href="/wiki/Surgery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Surgery in ancient Rome">surgery</a>, wound dressing and even veterinary medicine.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Veterinary physicians were there to tend to livestock for agricultural purposes as well as combat purposes. The <a href="/wiki/Roman_cavalry" title="Roman cavalry">Roman cavalry</a> was known for their use of horses in combat and scouting purposes.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of the type of injuries that would have been commonly seen, surgery was a somewhat common occurrence. Tools such as scissors, knives and <a href="/wiki/Spoon_of_Diocles" title="Spoon of Diocles">arrow extractors</a> have been found in remains.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In fact, Roman surgery was quite intuitive, in contrast to common thought of ancient surgery. The Roman military surgeons used a cocktail of plants, which created a sedative similar to modern <a href="/wiki/Anesthesia" title="Anesthesia">anesthesia</a>. Written documentation also showed surgeons used oxidation from a metal such as copper and scrape it into wounds, which provided an antibacterial effect; however, this method was most likely more toxic than providing an actual benefit.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Doctors had the knowledge to clean their surgical instruments with hot water after each use. Wounds were dressed, and dead tissue was removed when bandages were changed. Honey and cobwebs were items used to cover wounds, and have even been shown today to increase healing.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of the wide array of cases, it was not uncommon for surgeons to begin their careers in the army to learn their trade. Physicians such as Galen and <a href="/wiki/Pedanius_Dioscorides" title="Pedanius Dioscorides">Dioscorides</a> served in the military. Most major advancements in knowledge and technique came from the military rather than civil practice.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diet">Diet</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_of_ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Diet"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Diet was an issue that is often discussed through this time, as an aspect of medical care. Since our idea of modern technology did not exist, the diet was a simple way for Romans to attain a healthy life. This remains true in the Roman military as the soldiers required appropriate nutrition in order to function at high activity levels.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of the number of the people requiring food, there were unique circumstances in the acquisition of food. During a campaign, the soldiers would often <a href="/wiki/Foraging" title="Foraging">forage</a> food from their enemy's land. In fact, as part of the standard kit, Roman soldiers would carry a <a href="/wiki/Sickle" title="Sickle">sickle</a>, which would be used to forage food. They would carry a three-day ration of food in case they were in a situation where foraging was not available.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This would largely consist of items such as wheat and barley.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>During a time of peace, the Roman army would have had a typical diet consisting of bacon, cheese, vegetables, and beer to drink. Corn is mentioned in their works as well, however; this was a common term that was applied to their use of grain. The Roman use of the term corn is not to be confused with maize, which did not come to Europe until the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a>. Items such as poultry and fish were also likely part of the standard diet. The soldier was given a ration, which was taken from his pay.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This shows that the soldiers were well-fed in times of peace. If the soldiers were well fed, they were healthier and able to maintain a high level of physical activity, as well as to stave off disease. The disease is easier to prevent rather than treat. This idea holds in the event a fort was under <a href="/wiki/Siege" title="Siege">siege</a>; certain food items were rationed such as poultry. The reasoning behind this was that poultry was very inexpensive to maintain and in the event of a siege. It was also noted that poultry had benefits for those who were sick. This demonstrates the idea was present that the army needed to maintain the health of its members regardless of circumstances.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_39-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These discoveries were made while looking at the remains of Roman military sites. By excavating these sites and looking at <a href="/wiki/Feces" title="Feces">fecal matter</a> found, scientists were able to determine what was eaten.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is a simple fact that poor diet negatively affects a military's <a href="/wiki/Combat_readiness" title="Combat readiness">combat readiness</a>. The variety of food found shows the Romans were not focused on just caloric intake, as they knew a variety of food was important to health.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scale">Scale</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_of_ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Scale"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By the time of <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 98–117</span>), the medical corps was well on the way to being an organized machine. At this time, physicians were attached to nearly every army and navy unit in all the Roman military. By this time the army was massive, consisting of twenty-five to thirty legions, each of which contained nearly 6,000 men. Each one included both soldiers and physicians.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_37-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite these large numbers there was still no formal requirements for being a physician.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At this point all physicians were either self-taught or learned their trade through an apprenticeship. Despite this, there was an attempt at organization, as the army did have a medical manual that was passed out to its physicians. The <i>medici</i> were used on both the front line as emergency care providers and in the rear as the main physicians. The <i>capsarii''</i> were mainly used as the front line care providers and bandages, but also assisted the <i>medici</i> behind the lines.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_37-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Source_of_knowledge">Source of knowledge</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_of_ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Source of knowledge"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Romans received their medical knowledge largely from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_medicine" title="Ancient Greek medicine">ancient Greeks</a>. As Rome started to expand, it slowly embraced the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greek</a> culture, causing an influx of medicinal information in Roman society.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of this influx, it allowed this knowledge to become the foundation of all Western medical tradition. The Greek theories were kept alive and their practices continued well into the future.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This knowledge was also the foundation used in military medicine since it contained the overarching ideas of their medical knowledge. As time progressed these medical texts would be translated into Arabic and then back into Latin as the flow of information changed. Based on this, one can presume that some of the information in these texts has been lost in translation. Despite this, scholars are still able to establish a clear picture of what military medicine was like during the reign of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_of_ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/32px-SPQRomani.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/48px-SPQRomani.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/64px-SPQRomani.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="931" data-file-height="548" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Rome" title="Portal:Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military history of ancient Rome">Military history of ancient Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Political history of the Roman military">Political history of the Roman military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veteran_(Roman_history)" title="Veteran (Roman history)">Veteran (Roman history)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Auxilia" title="Auxilia">Auxilia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legionary" title="Legionary">Legionary</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_of_ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_of_ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">’’History of Rome’’, Book 1.4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williamson, G. (tr.), Josephus, <i>The Jewish War</i>, 1959, p. 378</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Estimates range wildly because census data was imprecise and there is some disagreement over how many federated tribes had settled permanently in Roman lands during the mid to late empire.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gibbon65-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gibbon65_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gibbon65_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Gibbon E., <i>The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i>, Penguin, 1985, para. 65</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESantosuosso2001188-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESantosuosso2001188_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSantosuosso2001">Santosuosso 2001</a>, p. 188.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Heather,_P._2005,_p._6-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Heather,_P._2005,_p._6_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Heather,_P._2005,_p._6_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Heather, P., <i>The Fall of the Roman Empire</i>, Macmillan, 2005, p. 6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMattingly2008" class="citation book cs1">Mattingly, David (2008). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/imperialpossessi0000matt"><i>AN Imperial Possession: Britain in the Roman Empire, 54 BC – AD 409</i></a></span>. Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1101160404" title="Special:BookSources/978-1101160404"><bdi>978-1101160404</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=AN+Imperial+Possession%3A+Britain+in+the+Roman+Empire%2C+54+BC+%E2%80%93+AD+409&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1101160404&rft.aulast=Mattingly&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fimperialpossessi0000matt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMilitary+of+ancient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Heather,_P._2005,_p._64-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Heather,_P._2005,_p._64_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Heather,_P._2005,_p._64_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Heather, P., <i>The Fall of the Roman Empire</i>, Macmillan, 2005, p. 64</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Caesar is said to have spent "huge portions of the wealth he accumulated in his victorious wars... on celebrating Triumphs... [and] on erecting magnificent buildings". Grant, p. 194</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rosenstein (2016), pp. 121–126</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gibbon, p. 199</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESantosuosso2001214-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESantosuosso2001214_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESantosuosso2001214_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESantosuosso2001214_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSantosuosso2001">Santosuosso 2001</a>, p. 214.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jones, p. 1041</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Heather, p. 297</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hadas, M, et al., <i>Imperial Rome</i>, in <i>Great Ages of Man: A History of the World's Cultures</i>, New York, Time-Life Books, 1965</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jones, AHM, <i>The Later Roman Empire 284–602</i>, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1964, p. 1035</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Including the millions of citizens of Rome</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Edward Gibbon</a> relates that "the fertile... province of Campania...was [w]ithin sixty years of the death of Constantine... granted [an exemption from tax amounting to] three hundred and fifty thousand... acres of desert and uncultivated land" – Gibbon, p. 376</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grant, M., <i>The History of Rome</i>, Fabre and Faber, 1993, p. 287</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Heather, P., <i>The Fall of the Roman Empire</i>, Macmillan, 2005, p. 29</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Luttwak, p. 80</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-reference-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-reference_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Grand Byzantine Strategy</i>, Edward Luttwak</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Luttwak notes that Roman troops could march roughly 15 miles per day over long distances, while ships could carry them far more economically and at speeds of 27–81 miles per day. Luttwak, p. 81</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDevereaux2023" class="citation book cs1">Devereaux, Bret C. (2023). "Chapter 12 Organization of the Military Food Supply: Rome". In Donahue, John; Brice, Lee L. (eds.). <i>Brill's Companion to Diet and Logistics in Greek and Roman Warfare</i>. Leiden: Brill. pp. 311–338. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004687189_014">10.1163/9789004687189_014</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+12+Organization+of+the+Military+Food+Supply%3A+Rome&rft.btitle=Brill%27s+Companion+to+Diet+and+Logistics+in+Greek+and+Roman+Warfare&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=311-338&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789004687189_014&rft.aulast=Devereaux&rft.aufirst=Bret+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMilitary+of+ancient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Heather, P., <i>The Fall of the Roman Empire</i>, Macmillan, 2005, p. 55</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Heather, P., <i>The Fall of the Roman Empire</i>, Macmillan, 2005, p. 7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fan Ye, <i>Xiyu Chuan</i> ("Chapter on the Western Regions"), in <i>Hou Han Shu</i> (Official history of the Later Han Dynasty), ch. 88.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Luttwak, p. 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarrison1921" class="citation book cs1">Garrison, F. H. (1921). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zwMUAwAAQBAJ"><i>Notes on the history of military medicine</i></a>. Рипол Классик, Ch. 3 Rome. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-5882286582" title="Special:BookSources/978-5882286582"><bdi>978-5882286582</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Notes+on+the+history+of+military+medicine&rft.pub=%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB+%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BA%2C+Ch.+3+Rome&rft.date=1921&rft.isbn=978-5882286582&rft.aulast=Garrison&rft.aufirst=F.+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzwMUAwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMilitary+of+ancient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_30-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_30-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_30-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_30-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVivian1993" class="citation journal cs1">Vivian, Nutton (1993). "Roman Medicine: Tradition, Confrontation, Assimilation". <i>Rise and Decline of the Roman World</i>: 49–51.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Rise+and+Decline+of+the+Roman+World&rft.atitle=Roman+Medicine%3A+Tradition%2C+Confrontation%2C+Assimilation&rft.pages=49-51&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Vivian&rft.aufirst=Nutton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMilitary+of+ancient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_31-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFByrne1910" class="citation journal cs1">Byrne, Eugene (1910). "Medicine in the Roman Army". <i>The Classical Journal</i>: 267–272.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Classical+Journal&rft.atitle=Medicine+in+the+Roman+Army&rft.pages=267-272&rft.date=1910&rft.aulast=Byrne&rft.aufirst=Eugene&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMilitary+of+ancient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrioreschi1998" class="citation book cs1">Prioreschi, Plinio (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H3ZaIYAaOSQC"><i>A History of Medicine: Roman medicine</i></a>. Edwin Mellen Press. pp. 542, 550. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1888456035" title="Special:BookSources/978-1888456035"><bdi>978-1888456035</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Medicine%3A+Roman+medicine&rft.pages=542%2C+550&rft.pub=Edwin+Mellen+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-1888456035&rft.aulast=Prioreschi&rft.aufirst=Plinio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DH3ZaIYAaOSQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMilitary+of+ancient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_33-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNutton1969" class="citation journal cs1">Nutton, Vivian (1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1033953">"Medicine and the Roman Army: A Further Reconsideration"</a>. <i>Medical History</i>. <b>13</b> (3): 267–270. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025727300014526">10.1017/S0025727300014526</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1033953">1033953</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4893625">4893625</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medical+History&rft.atitle=Medicine+and+the+Roman+Army%3A+A+Further+Reconsideration&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=267-270&rft.date=1969&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1033953%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F4893625&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0025727300014526&rft.aulast=Nutton&rft.aufirst=Vivian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1033953&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMilitary+of+ancient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn1968" class="citation journal cs1">John, Scarborough (1968). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1033827">"Roman Medicine and the Legions: A Reconsideration"</a>. <i>Medical History</i>. <b>12</b> (3): 254–261. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025727300013296">10.1017/S0025727300013296</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1033827">1033827</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4875612">4875612</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medical+History&rft.atitle=Roman+Medicine+and+the+Legions%3A+A+Reconsideration&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=254-261&rft.date=1968&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1033827%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F4875612&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0025727300013296&rft.aulast=John&rft.aufirst=Scarborough&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1033827&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMilitary+of+ancient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldsworthy1998" class="citation book cs1">Goldsworthy, Adrian Keith (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=55KE-nNtTRUC"><i>The Roman Army at War: 100 BC–AD 200</i></a>. Clarendon Press. p. 16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0198150909" title="Special:BookSources/978-0198150909"><bdi>978-0198150909</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Army+at+War%3A+100+BC%E2%80%93AD+200&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0198150909&rft.aulast=Goldsworthy&rft.aufirst=Adrian+Keith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D55KE-nNtTRUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMilitary+of+ancient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMilne1907" class="citation book cs1">Milne, John Stewart (1907). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/surgicalinstrum00milngoog"><i>Surgical instruments in Greek and Roman times</i></a>. At the Clarendon Press. p. 207.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Surgical+instruments+in+Greek+and+Roman+times&rft.pages=207&rft.pub=At+the+Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1907&rft.aulast=Milne&rft.aufirst=John+Stewart&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsurgicalinstrum00milngoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMilitary+of+ancient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_37-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_37-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_37-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCallum2008" class="citation book cs1">McCallum, Jack Edward (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5BXB9QtUfFQC"><i>Military Medicine: From Ancient Times to the 21st Century</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. pp. 271–272. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1851096930" title="Special:BookSources/978-1851096930"><bdi>978-1851096930</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Military+Medicine%3A+From+Ancient+Times+to+the+21st+Century&rft.pages=271-272&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1851096930&rft.aulast=McCallum&rft.aufirst=Jack+Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5BXB9QtUfFQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMilitary+of+ancient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRothRoth1999" class="citation book cs1">Roth, Jonathan; Roth, Jonathan P. 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J and H. (1992). "Diet of a Roman Centurion at Alphen Aan Den Rijn, The Netherlands, in the First Century AD". <i>Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology</i>. <b>73</b> (1–4): 200. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0034-6667%2892%2990057-n">10.1016/0034-6667(92)90057-n</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Review+of+Palaeobotany+and+Palynology&rft.atitle=Diet+of+a+Roman+Centurion+at+Alphen+Aan+Den+Rijn%2C+The+Netherlands%2C+in+the+First+Century+AD&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=1%E2%80%934&rft.pages=200&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0034-6667%2892%2990057-n&rft.aulast=Kuijper+and+Turner&rft.aufirst=W.+J+and+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMilitary+of+ancient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:8-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:8_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNutton2004" class="citation journal cs1">Nutton, Vivian (2004). "Rome and the Transplantation of Greek Medicine". <i>Ancient Medicine</i>: 160.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ancient+Medicine&rft.atitle=Rome+and+the+Transplantation+of+Greek+Medicine&rft.pages=160&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Nutton&rft.aufirst=Vivian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMilitary+of+ancient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <hr /> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Military of ancient Rome</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Military+of+ancient+Rome&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Military+of+ancient+Rome">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Military+of+ancient+Rome&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_of_ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_of_ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Primary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a>, <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/From_the_Founding_of_the_City" class="extiw" title="s:From the Founding of the City">From the Founding of the City</a> on <a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> (print: <i>Book 1 as The Rise of Rome, <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, 1998, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-282296-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-282296-9">0-19-282296-9</a></i>).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Polybius/home.html">The Rise of the Roman Empire</a> at <a href="/wiki/LacusCurtius" title="LacusCurtius">LacusCurtius</a> (print: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>, 1927. (Translation by W. R. Paton).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a>: <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Annals_(Tacitus)" class="extiw" title="s:The Annals (Tacitus)">The Annals</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Secondary_sources">Secondary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_of_ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Secondary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Edward Gibbon</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/731">The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</a> (print: <i><a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books" title="Penguin Books">Penguin Books</a>, 1985 [1776–1788], <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-043189-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-043189-6">0-14-043189-6</a></i>).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Connolly" title="Peter Connolly">Peter Connolly</a>, <i>Greece and Rome at War</i>, Greenhill Books, 1998, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85367-303-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85367-303-0">978-1-85367-303-0</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrian_Goldsworthy" title="Adrian Goldsworthy">Adrian Goldsworthy</a>, <i>In the Name of Rome: The Men Who Won the Roman Empire</i>, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2003, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-297-84666-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-297-84666-3">0-297-84666-3</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Grant_(author)" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Grant (author)">Michael Grant</a>, <i>The History of Rome</i>, <a href="/wiki/Faber_and_Faber" class="mw-redirect" title="Faber and Faber">Faber and Faber</a>, 1993, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-571-11461-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-571-11461-X">0-571-11461-X</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Heather" title="Peter Heather">Peter Heather</a>, <i>The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History</i>, <a href="/wiki/Macmillan_Publishers" title="Macmillan Publishers">Macmillan Publishers</a>, 2005, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-330-49136-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-330-49136-9">0-330-49136-9</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Hugh_Martin_Jones" class="mw-redirect" title="Arnold Hugh Martin Jones">Arnold Hugh Martin Jones</a>, <i>The Later Roman Empire</i>, <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University_Press" title="Johns Hopkins University Press">Johns Hopkins University Press</a>, 1964, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8018-3285-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8018-3285-3">0-8018-3285-3</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robin_Lane_Fox" title="Robin Lane Fox">Robin Lane Fox</a>, <i>The Classical World</i>, <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books" title="Penguin Books">Penguin Books</a>, 2005, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-102141-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-102141-1">0-14-102141-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Luttwak" title="Edward Luttwak">Edward Luttwak</a> (2009), <i>The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire</i>, <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University_Press" title="Johns Hopkins University Press">Johns Hopkins University Press</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8018-2158-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8018-2158-4">0-8018-2158-4</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Matyszak" title="Philip Matyszak">Philip Matyszak</a>, <i>The Enemies of Rome</i>, <a href="/wiki/Thames_and_Hudson" class="mw-redirect" title="Thames and Hudson">Thames and Hudson</a>, 2004, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-500-25124-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-500-25124-X">0-500-25124-X</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSantosuosso2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Santosuosso" title="Antonio Santosuosso">Santosuosso, Antonio</a> (2001). <i>Storming the Heavens: Soldiers, Emperors and Civilians in the Roman Empire</i>. Westview Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8133-3523-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8133-3523-X"><bdi>0-8133-3523-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Storming+the+Heavens%3A+Soldiers%2C+Emperors+and+Civilians+in+the+Roman+Empire&rft.pub=Westview+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-8133-3523-X&rft.aulast=Santosuosso&rft.aufirst=Antonio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMilitary+of+ancient+Rome" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_of_ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link 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class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overthrow_of_the_Roman_monarchy" title="Overthrow of the Roman monarchy">overthrow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Empire" 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Empire">Later Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Later_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Later Roman Empire">History</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Constitution" title="Roman Constitution">Constitution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Constitution" title="History of the Roman Constitution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Kingdom" title="Constitution of the Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Constitution of the Roman Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Constitution of the Roman Empire">Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Late_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the Late Roman Empire">Late Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_assemblies" title="Roman assemblies">Legislative assemblies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curiate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Curiate Assembly">Curiate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centuriate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Centuriate Assembly">Centuriate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Tribal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeian_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebeian Council">Plebeian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Executive magistrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SPQR" title="SPQR">SPQR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tables" title="Twelve Tables">Twelve Tables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mos_maiorum" title="Mos maiorum">Mos maiorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auctoritas" title="Auctoritas">Auctoritas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">Imperium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_in_Roman_legal_system" title="Status in Roman legal system">Status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_litigation" title="Roman litigation">Litigation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curia" title="Curia">Curia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_(Roman)" title="Forum (Roman)">Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursus_honorum" title="Cursus honorum">Cursus honorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collegiality#In_the_Roman_Republic" title="Collegiality">Collegiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus">Legatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dux" title="Dux">Dux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Officium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Officium (ancient Rome)">Officium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praefectus" title="Praefectus">Praefectus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicarius" title="Vicarius">Vicarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vigintisexviri" title="Vigintisexviri">Vigintisexviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lictor" title="Lictor">Lictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_militum" title="Magister militum">Magister militum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">Imperator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeps_senatus" title="Princeps senatus">Princeps senatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus">Pontifex maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimates_and_populares" title="Optimates and populares">Optimates and populares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Province</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Magistrates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Ordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">Consul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">Censor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">Praetor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">Tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune_of_the_plebs" title="Tribune of the plebs">Tribune of the plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_tribune" title="Military tribune">Military tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaestor" title="Quaestor">Quaestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aedile" title="Aedile">Aedile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promagistrate" title="Promagistrate">Promagistrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_governor" title="Roman governor">Governor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Extraordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Rome" title="King of Rome">Rex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrex" title="Interrex">Interrex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">Dictator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_equitum" title="Magister equitum">Magister equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decemviri" title="Decemviri">Decemviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribuni_militum_consulari_potestate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribuni militum consulari potestate">Consular tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triumvirate_(ancient_Rome)" title="Triumvirate (ancient Rome)">Triumvir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military history of ancient Rome">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Borders of the Roman Empire">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_establishment_of_the_Roman_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Military establishment of the Roman Republic">Establishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Structural history of the Roman military">Structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Political history of the Roman military">Political control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategy_of_the_Roman_military" title="Strategy of the Roman military">Strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_engineering" title="Roman military engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_frontiers_and_fortifications" title="Roman military frontiers and fortifications">Frontiers and fortifications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castra" title="Castra">castra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Technological history of the Roman military">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Legion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_infantry_tactics" title="Roman infantry tactics">Infantry tactics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_personal_equipment" title="Roman military personal equipment">Personal equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_siege_engines" title="Roman siege engines">Siege engines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_(Roman_history)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege (Roman history)">Siege in Ancient Rome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxilia" title="Auxilia">Auxiliaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_decorations_and_punishments" title="Roman military decorations and punishments">Decorations and punishments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippika_gymnasia" title="Hippika gymnasia">Hippika gymnasia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_economy" title="Roman economy">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Rome" title="Agriculture in ancient Rome">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_during_the_Roman_period" title="Deforestation during the Roman period">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce" title="Roman commerce">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_finance" title="Roman finance">Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_currency" title="Roman currency">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republican_currency" title="Roman Republican currency">Republican currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Imperial_currency" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Imperial currency">Imperial currency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rome" title="Culture of ancient Rome">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture" title="Ancient Roman architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_bathing" title="Ancient Roman bathing">Bathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_calendar" title="Roman calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Rome" title="Clothing in ancient Rome">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_in_ancient_Rome" title="Cosmetics in ancient Rome">Cosmetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_cuisine" title="Ancient Roman cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_ancient_Rome" title="Education in ancient Rome">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_folklore" title="Roman folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_hairstyles" title="Roman hairstyles">Hairstyles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Rome" title="Music of ancient Rome">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_deities" title="List of Roman deities">Deities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_people" title="Roman people">Romans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sexuality in ancient Rome">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectacles_in_ancient_Rome" title="Spectacles in ancient Rome">Spectacles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Rome" title="Theatre of ancient Rome">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toys_and_games_in_ancient_Rome" title="Toys and games in ancient Rome">Toys and games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome_and_wine" title="Ancient Rome and wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_ancient_Rome" title="Social class in ancient Rome">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">Patricians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeians" title="Plebeians">Plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_the_Orders" title="Conflict of the Orders">Conflict of the Orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secessio_plebis" title="Secessio plebis">Secessio plebis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equites" title="Equites">Equites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gens" title="Gens">Gens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_tribe" title="Roman tribe">Tribes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Assembly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patronage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Patronage in ancient Rome">Patronage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_naming_conventions" title="Roman naming conventions">Naming conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Demography of the Roman Empire">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_Rome" title="Women in ancient Rome">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Marriage in ancient Rome">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adoption_in_ancient_Rome" title="Adoption in ancient Rome">Adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagaudae" title="Bagaudae">Bagaudae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_technology" title="Ancient Roman technology">Technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_amphitheatre" title="Roman amphitheatre">Amphitheatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">Aqueducts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_bridge" title="Roman bridge">Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_circus" title="Roman circus">Circuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_engineering" title="Ancient Roman engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">Concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_domes" title="History of Roman and Byzantine domes">Domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_metallurgy" title="Roman metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_numerals" title="Roman numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_roads" title="Roman roads">Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sanitation in ancient Rome">Sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_of_ancient_Rome" title="Ships of ancient Rome">Ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_theatre_(structure)" title="Roman theatre (structure)">Theatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">Thermae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Latin" title="History of Latin">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Alphabet</a></li> <li>Versions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Latin" title="Renaissance Latin">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Neo-Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Latin" title="Contemporary Latin">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">Ecclesiastical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aelius_Donatus" title="Aelius Donatus">Aelius Donatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Appuleius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Asconius_Pedianus" title="Quintus Asconius Pedianus">Asconius Pedianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelius_Victor" title="Aurelius Victor">Aurelius Victor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ausonius" title="Ausonius">Ausonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boëthius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catullus" title="Catullus">Catullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassiodorus" title="Cassiodorus">Cassiodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorinus" title="Censorinus">Censorinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudian" title="Claudian">Claudian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columella" title="Columella">Columella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Nepos" title="Cornelius Nepos">Cornelius Nepos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ennius" title="Ennius">Ennius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutropius_(historian)" title="Eutropius (historian)">Eutropius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Fabius_Pictor" title="Quintus Fabius Pictor">Fabius Pictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Sextus Pompeius Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festus_(historian)" title="Festus (historian)">Rufus Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Works_attributed_to_Florus" class="mw-redirect" title="Works attributed to Florus">Florus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontinus" title="Frontinus">Frontinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Cornelius_Fronto" title="Marcus Cornelius Fronto">Fronto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabius_Planciades_Fulgentius" title="Fabius Planciades Fulgentius">Fulgentius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aulus_Gellius" title="Aulus Gellius">Gellius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydatius" title="Hydatius">Hydatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Julius_Hyginus" title="Gaius Julius Hyginus">Hyginus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanes" title="Jordanes">Jordanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Paulus" title="Julius Paulus">Julius Paulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_(historian)" title="Justin (historian)">Justin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juvenal" title="Juvenal">Juvenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucan" title="Lucan">Lucan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcellus_Empiricus" title="Marcellus Empiricus">Marcellus Empiricus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Manilius" title="Marcus Manilius">Manilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial" title="Martial">Martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_of_Damascus" title="Nicolaus of Damascus">Nicolaus Damascenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonius_Marcellus" title="Nonius Marcellus">Nonius Marcellus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Obsequens" title="Julius Obsequens">Obsequens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orosius" title="Orosius">Orosius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petronius" title="Petronius">Petronius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(fabulist)" title="Phaedrus (fabulist)">Phaedrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomponius_Mela" title="Pomponius Mela">Pomponius Mela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscian" title="Priscian">Priscian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propertius" title="Propertius">Propertius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Claudius_Quadrigarius" title="Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius">Quadrigarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Curtius_Rufus" title="Quintus Curtius Rufus">Quintus Curtius Rufus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sallust" title="Sallust">Sallust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Elder" title="Seneca the Elder">Seneca the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidonius_Apollinaris" title="Sidonius Apollinaris">Sidonius Apollinaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silius_Italicus" title="Silius Italicus">Silius Italicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statius" title="Statius">Statius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Aurelius_Symmachus" title="Quintus Aurelius Symmachus">Symmachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terence" title="Terence">Terence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibullus" title="Tibullus">Tibullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Antias" title="Valerius Antias">Valerius Antias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Maximus" title="Valerius Maximus">Valerius Maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro" title="Marcus Terentius Varro">Varro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velleius_Paterculus" title="Velleius Paterculus">Velleius Paterculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verrius_Flaccus" title="Verrius Flaccus">Verrius Flaccus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Vergil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Greek</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Claudius_Aelianus" title="Claudius Aelianus">Aelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C3%ABtius_of_Amida" title="Aëtius of Amida">Aëtius of Amida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appian" title="Appian">Appian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogenes Laërtius">Diogenes Laërtius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedanius_Dioscorides" title="Pedanius Dioscorides">Dioscorides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eusebius" title="Eusebius">Eusebius of Caesaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodian" title="Herodian">Herodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libanius" title="Libanius">Libanius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)" title="Pausanias (geographer)">Pausanias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philostratus" title="Philostratus">Philostratus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phlegon_of_Tralles" title="Phlegon of Tralles">Phlegon of Tralles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyaenus" title="Polyaenus">Polyaenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyrius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscus" title="Priscus">Priscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia" title="Simplicius of Cilicia">Simplicius of Cilicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sozomen" title="Sozomen">Sozomen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanus_of_Byzantium" title="Stephanus of Byzantium">Stephanus Byzantinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Themistius" title="Themistius">Themistius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodoret" title="Theodoret">Theodoret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joannes_Zonaras" title="Joannes Zonaras">Zonaras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zosimus_(historian)" title="Zosimus (historian)">Zosimus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquileia" title="Aquileia">Aquileia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berytus" title="Berytus">Berytus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bononia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eboracum" title="Eboracum">Eboracum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptis_Magna" title="Leptis Magna">Leptis Magna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Londinium" title="Londinium">Londinium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugdunum" title="Lugdunum">Lugdunum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutetia" title="Lutetia">Lutetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediolanum" title="Mediolanum">Mediolanum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Roma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smyrna" title="Smyrna">Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vindobona" title="Vindobona">Vindobona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volubilis" title="Volubilis">Volubilis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists <span class="nobold">and other<br />topics</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_founded_by_the_Romans" title="List of cities founded by the Romans">Cities and towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_ancient_Rome" title="Climate of ancient Rome">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_consuls" title="List of Roman consuls">Consuls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Dictators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_women" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Roman women">Distinguished women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dynasties" title="List of Roman dynasties">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_emperors" title="List of Roman emperors">Emperors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_empresses" title="List of Roman and Byzantine empresses">Empresses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiction_set_in_ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiction set in ancient Rome">Fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_set_in_ancient_Rome" title="List of films set in ancient Rome">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_generals" title="List of Roman generals">Generals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_gentes" title="List of Roman gentes">Gentes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Graeco-Roman_geographers" title="List of Graeco-Roman geographers">Geographers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_laws" title="List of Roman laws">Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_legions" title="List of Roman legions">Legions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Magistri equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_nomina" title="List of Roman nomina">Nomina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pontifices_maximi" title="List of pontifices maximi">Pontifices maximi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_praetors" title="List of Roman praetors">Praetors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_quaestors" title="List of Roman quaestors">Quaestors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_tribunes" title="List of Roman tribunes">Tribunes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Iranian_relations" title="Roman–Iranian relations">Roman–Iranian relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_external_wars_and_battles" title="List of Roman external wars and battles">External wars and battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_civil_wars_and_revolts" title="List of Roman civil wars and revolts">Civil wars and revolts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Part_of_a_series_on_the_military_of_ancient_Rome_753_BC_–_AD_476" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link 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